BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MEDICAL

LABORATORY SCIENCE:
BIOSTATISTICS AND EPIDEMIOLOGY
COURSE MODULE COURSE UNIT WEEK
1 2 1
Principles of Sampling
Data Presentation

 Read course and unit objectives

 Read study guide prior to class attendance
 Read required learning resources; refer to unit
terminologies for jargons
 Proactively participate in classroom discussions
 Participate in weekly discussion board (Canvas)
 Answer and submit course unit tasks

At the end of this unit, the students are expected to:

Cognitive:
1. Competently identify and explain the sampling techniques
2. Know the difference between population and Sample correctly
3. Compute for the sample size accurately
4. Explain and discuss data presentation in terms of purpose and importance
5. Enumerate correctly the essential components of a table
6. Discuss the meaning of graphs correctly
7. Correctly enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of graphical presentation of data
 8. Identify and appreciate effectively the graphs to use for a given data
9. Discuss the different graphs with regards to its description and function.

Affective:
1. Listen attentively during online class discussions
2. Respond tactfully and respectfully during exchange of ideas and forum discussions.
3. Courteously accept comments and feedbacks of classmates on one’s opinions and ideas.

Psychomotor:
1. Participate actively during online class discussions
2. Perform correctly and individually the assigned unit tasks and assessment tasks.

Principles of Sampling:
Course Module 1 Course Unit 2 Week 1 Study Guide: Principles of Sampling

Antony Stewart. Basic Statistics and Epidemiology. A Practical Guide. 4th ed. Presenting Data.
(pp.5-7) CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group. 2016
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1H0qRR8d6GKSBJ3BFiftxulQe31vvqRUS/view?usp=sharing

Data Presentation:
Course Module 1 Course Unit 2 Week 1 Study Guide: Data Presentation

Marcelo Pagano et. al. Principle of Biostatistics. 2nd ed. Data Presentation, Table, Graphs, Further
Applications (pp.11-20). Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. 2018
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1VX-9HCtXqmH11sQCwLoXxRJ6b5Nu4VZU/view?usp=sharing

PRINCIPLES OF SAMPLING
DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Population (N)
- Is the set of complete collection or totality of all
possible values of the variable.

• Sample (n)
- A subset or sub-collection of elements drawn from a
population.
Stages in the Selection of a Sample
 Define the Target Population
 Select a Sampling frame
 Determine if probability or non-probability sampling method will be chosen.
 Plan procedure for selecting sampling units
 Determine sample size
 Select actual sampling units
 Conduct fieldwork

DETERMINING THE SAMPLE

There is no general rule regarding the sample size. However, the higher the percentage of the
sample, the higher the validity of the study. The bigger the population, the lesser percentage of the
sample is taken. For a specific calculation of the sample for the purpose of adequate sampling, the
use of the Sloven’s Formula presented below is advised as given by Pagoso.

Simplified Formula for Proportion

N = Population
n = sample
e = margin of error or percentage of error

The sample may be calculated when the population of the study is already known
EXAMPLES:

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Probability Sampling Techniques

 Simple random sampling
o In this technique elements of the sample are selected through lottery.

 Systematic sampling
o This technique of sampling is done by taking every element in the population
assignment of number as a part of the sample.
o To select the systematic sample of n elements from a population of N element, we
divide the N element in the population in the n groups of kth element.
  Cluster sampling
o Population under this technique is being divided into sections (or cluster), randomly
select some of these cluster as the member of the sample size.

 Stratified sampling
o In this technique, the population is subdivided into at least two different sub-population
(or strata) that share the same characteristics and then the elements of the sample
are drawn from its stratum proportionately.
o We used this formula to compute for proportional stratified sampling technique

Non-Probability Sampling Techniques

 Purposive sampling
o In this technique, the elements of the sample are being selected according to the
criteria or rules set.

 Quota sampling
o In this technique, the sample size is limited on the required number or subject in the
study.

 Convenience sampling
o In this technique, the sample are being selected from a particular place at specified
time preferred.

 Snowballing sampling
o In this technique, the researcher asks respondents to give referrals to other possible
respondents
DATA PRESENTATION: Tabular and Graphical Presentation of Data

PICTURES OF DATA
Depict the nature or shape of the data distribution.

On the previous lessons, we were able to differentiate among the various types of data, on this
module we must learn how to identify the statistical techniques that are most appropriate for
describing each kind. Descriptive statistics provides as a means of organizing and summarizing
observations and provides an overview of the general features of a set of data. It can assume a
number of different forms such as the following.

METHODS OF PRESENTING DATA

 Textual
 Tabular
 Graphical

TEXT PRESENTATION

One of the main method of conveying information to present and explain the results and trends of a
specific study is by using written languages. Textual presentation is used to provide contextual
information and are fundamentally presented in paragraphs or sentences.

For instance, information about the incidence rates of Acute diarrhea

among children aged 3-7 years old in 2016–2017 can be presented with
the use of a few numbers:

“The incidence rate of Acute diarrhea among children aged

3-7 years old was 10% in 2016 and 15% in 2017; no
significant difference of incidence rates was found between
the two years.”

If quantitative information to be conveyed consists of one or two numbers such as the above
information, it would be unnecessary to present it in a graph or a table, it will only occupy an
unnecessarily large area on the page, without augmenting the readers' understanding of the data
being presented.
TABLE PRESENTATION
A table is one of the simplest means to summarize a set of observations and can be used for all
types of numerical data. It is useful in summarizing and comparing quantitative information coming
from different variables and different units and consequently be presented together.

Frequency Distribution
 A summary of the data can make things easier. It lists all classes and their frequencies
 The number of times that something occurs is known as its frequency
 For nominal and ordinal data, a frequency distribution is usually composed of a set of classes
or categories along with the numerical counts that correspond to each one.
 For discrete or continuous data, a frequency distribution, breaks down the range of values of
the observations into a series of distinct, non-overlapping intervals.
 Table 1 shows the ages and their frequencies of 25 grade school students, this is called a
frequency distribution.

Table 1. Frequency distribution of age

Age in years Number of times recorded
7 3
8 4
9 6
10 5
11 3
12 4
TOTAL 25

Relative Frequency
 The proportion of the total number of observations that appears in that interval.
 It is computed by dividing the number of values within an interval by the total number of values
in the table, multiplied by 100% to obtain the percentage of values in the interval.
 Relative frequencies are useful for comparing sets of data that contain unequal numbers of
observation.
 Table 2 displays the relative frequencies of age distribution among grade school students
depicted in Table 1.

Table 2. Relative Frequencies of age distribution among grade school students

Age in years Number of times recorded Relative Frequency (%)
7 3 12
8 4 16
9 6 24
10 5 20
11 3 12
12 4 16
TOTAL 25 100
Cumulative Relative Frequency
 Is the percentage of the total number of observations that have a value less than or equal to
the upper limit of the interval
 It is calculated by summing the relative frequencies for the specified interval and all previous
ones.
 Table 3 lists the cumulative relative frequencies of the age distribution among grade school
students in Table 2.

Table 3. Relative and cumulative relative frequencies of age distribution among grade school students
Age in Number of times Relative Frequency Cumulative Relative
years recorded (%) Frequency (%)
7 3 12 12
8 4 16 28
9 6 24 52
10 5 20 72
11 3 12 84
12 4 16 100

GRAPH PRESENTATION

Graphs simplify complex information by using images and emphasizing data patterns or trends, and
are useful for summarizing, explaining, or exploring quantitative data.
BAR CHARTS
 Popular type of graph used to display a frequency
distribution for nominal or ordinal data.
 In a bar chart, the various categories into which the
observations fall are presented along a horizontal
axis.
 A vertical bar is drawn above each category such
that the height of the bar represents either the
frequency or the relative frequency of observations
within that class.
Lifted from: Marcelo Pagano et. al. Principle of Biostatistics. 2nd ed.
Data Presentation, Table, Graphs, Further Applications (p.16). Taylor
& Francis Group, LLC. 2018

HISTOGRAMS
 A histogram depicts a frequency distribution for discrete or continuous data.
 It is a bar graph in which the horizontal scale represents classes and the vertical scale
represents frequencies.
 The horizontal axis displays the true limits of the various intervals.
 The true limits of an interval are the points that separate it from the intervals on either side

Lifted from: Marcelo Pagano et. al. Principle of Biostatistics. 2nd ed. Data Presentation, Table, Graphs, Further Applications (pp.16-17). Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. 2018
PIE CHART
 Useful for comparing individual categories with the total.

FREQUENCY POLYGONS
 It is constructed by placing a point at the
center of each interval such that the height of
the point is equal to the frequency or relative
frequency associated with that interval.
 Points are also placed on the horizontal axis
at the midpoints of the intervals immediately
preceding and immediately following the
intervals that contain observations.
 The points are then connected by straight
lines.

Lifted from: Marcelo Pagano et. al. Principle of Biostatistics. 2nd ed. Data Presentation, Table,
Graphs, Further Applications (p.18). Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. 2018

SCATTER PLOTS
One-Way Scatter Plots
 Another type of graph that can be used to summarize a set of discrete or continuous
observations.
 Uses a single horizontal axis to display the relative position of each data point in the group.

Box Plots
 Box plots are similar to one-way scatter plots in that they require a single axis; instead of
plotting every observation, however, they display only a summary of the data
 Two-Way Scatter Plots
 Used to depict the relationship between two different continuous measurements.
 Each point on the graph represents a pair of values;
 The scale for one quantity is marked on the horizontal axis, or x-axis, and the scale for the
other on the vertical axis, or y-axis.

Line Graphs
 Similar to a two-way scatter plot in that it can be
used to illustrate the relationship between
continuous quantities.
 Each point on the graph represents a pair of values.
 Adjacent points are connected by straight lines
 Useful for representing time-series data
 Useful for studying patterns and trends across data
 Also appropriate for representing not only time-
series data, but also data measured over the
progression of a continuous variable such as
distance.

OTHER PICTURES OF DATA

Dot Plot Stem-and Leaf Plot
Probability sampling- A sampling technique in which every member of a population has a known
and equal chance of being selected

Non probability sampling- A sampling technique where the odds of any member being selected
for a sample cannot be calculated

Omair, A. (2014). Sample size estimation and sampling techniques for selecting a representative
sample. Journal of Health Specialties, 2(4), 142. https://doi.org/10.4103/1658-600X.142783
from website: http://www.thejhs.org/temp/JHealthSpec24142-2130719_055507.pdf

Taherdoost, H. (2016). Sampling Methods in Research Methodology; How to Choose a Sampling

Technique for Research. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3205035
from website:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319998246_Sampling_Methods_in_Research_Me
thodology_How_to_Choose_a_Sampling_Technique_for_Research
Study Questions
A. Principles of Sampling
 What is the difference between population and sample?
 A sample has to be drawn from 5 different sections composed of 300 students as shown in
the table below. How will you draw the sample using stratified sampling method, using 5%
margin of error?
Section No of students Solution Sample per section
BSMD 1Y1-1 66
BSMD 1Y1-2 52
BSMD 1Y1-3 75
BSMD 1Y1-4 59
BSMD 1Y1-5 48
TOTAL 300

B. Data Presentation
 When you construct a table, when might it be beneficial to use relative rather than
absolute frequencies?
 What types of graphs can be used to display nominal or ordinal observations? Discrete or
continuous observations?
 The reported numbers of live births in the Philippines for each month in the period January
1995 to December 1996 are listed below:

MONTH 1995 NUMBER (THOUSANDS) MONTH 1996 NUMBER (THOUSANDS)

January 325 January 334
February 312 February 304
March 346 March 360
April 340 April 330
May 355 May 361
June 342 June 333
July 358 July 352
August 346 August 350
September 365 September 357
October 355 October 345
November 324 November 332
December 342 December 325

a. Construct a line graph displaying the reported number of live births over time.
b. Based on this two-year period, do you think the number of live births follows a seasonal
pattern in the Philippines?
Marcelo Pagano et. al. Principle of Biostatistics. 2nd ed. CRC
Press: Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. 2018

Antony Stewart. Basic Statistics and Epidemiology. A Practical

Guide. 4th ed. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group. 2016

Thomas Glover et. al. An Introduction to Biostatistics. 3rd ed.

Waveland Press Inc. 2016