Vel Tech Multi Tech Dr.

Rangarajan
Dr.Sakunthala Engineering College
(Autonomous)

Electron Devices and Circuits

R.Balakrishnan
AP/RAE
 Objectives
 To understand the concept of semiconductor diode
 To learn the operation and characteristics of BJT and FET
transistors.
 To study various types of display and power devices
 To learn positive and negative feedback circuits
 Syllabus
 Semiconductor Diodes
 Ideal diode-Current-voltage characteristics, Terminal
characteristics of junction diode - Zener diode and
applications –Diode logic gates-Clipping and Clamping
circuits-Voltage doubler-Schottky-Barrier diode-Varactor –
Photo diode-Tunnel diode.
 Transistor amplifier
 BJT- Structure, Operation – Three modes of configuration
–Currents in Transistor – Relation between α ,β & γ – load
line – Transistor as an amplifier (CE)- h parameter – Av and
Ap
 Syllabus
 Field Effect Transistor
 JFET-Structure, Operation of N Channel and P Channel -
Drain and Transfer characteristics-Applications of JFET-
MOSFET types- Characteristics of Enhancement and
depletion mode-Comparison of JFET and MOSFET.
 Power Devices and Display Devices
 SCR, DIAC, TRIAC, Power BJT, Power MOSFET, IGBT Heat
sinks and junction temperature, LED, LCD, Photo
transistor, Opto Coupler, Solar cell, CCD.
 Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators
 Advantages of negative feedback - Voltage/current,
series/shunt feedback.Positive feedback – Barkhausen
criterion for oscillation - Phase shift - Wein Bridge –
Hartley – Colpitts and crystal oscillators.
 Text Books
 1.Sedra and Smith, “Micro Electronic Circuits”; Sixth
Edition, Oxford University Press, 2011.
 2.Donald A Neaman, “Semiconductor Physics and
Devices”, Third Edition, Tata Mc GrawHill Inc. 2007.
 Reference Books
 1. Robert L.Boylestad and Louis Nasheresky,
―Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory‖, 10th
Edition, Pearson Education / PHI, 2008
 2. Malvino, Electronic Devices and Circuits, PHI, 2007.
 3. David A. Bell, ―Electronic Devices and Circuits,
Fifth Edition, Oxford UniversityPress, 2008.
 UNIT - I

Semiconductor Diodes
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Ideal diode-Current-voltage characteristics,
 Terminal characteristics of junction diode
 Zener diode and applications
 Diode logic gates
 Clipping and Clamping circuits
 Voltage doubler
 Schottky
 Barrier diode
 Varactor
 Photo diode
 Tunnel diode.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
Common Applications of Diodes
 Rectifier
 Clipper Circuits
 Clamping Circuits
 Reverse Current Protection Circuits
 In Logic Gates
 Voltage Multipliers
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 What is a Diode?
 A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts
electricity primarily in one direction. It has high resistance on
one end and low resistance on the other end.
 Diodes are used to protect circuits by limiting the voltage and
to also transform AC into DC.
 Semiconductors like silicon and germanium are used to make
the most of the diodes.
 Even though they transmit current in a single direction, the way
with which they transmit differs. There are different kinds of
diodes and each type has its own applications.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Diode Construction
 Diodes can be made of either of the two semiconductor
materials, silicon and germanium.
 When the anode voltage is more positive than the cathode
voltage, the diode is said to be forward-biased, and it conducts
readily with a relatively low-voltage drop. Likewise, when the
cathode voltage is more positive than the anode, the diode is
said to be reverse-biased.
 The arrow in the diode symbol represents the direction of
conventional current flow when the diode conducts.
UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Types of Diodes
1. Light Emitting Diode
2. Laser diode
3. Avalanche diode
4. Zener diode
5. Schottky diode
6. Photodiode
7. PN junction diode
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
 When an electric current between the electrodes passes through this diode,
light is produced. In other words, light is generated when a sufficient
amount of forwarding current passes through it. In many diodes, this light
generated is not visible as they are frequency levels that do not allow
visibility.
 LEDs are available in different colours.
 There are tricolour LEDs that can emit three colours at a time. Light colour
depends on the energy gap of the semiconductor used.
 Laser Diode
 It is a different type of diode as it produces coherent light.
 It is highly used in CD drives, DVDs and laser devices. These are costly
when compared to LEDs and are cheaper when compared to other laser
generators. Limited life is the only drawback of these diodes.
 Avalanche Diode
 This diode belongs to a reverse bias type and operates using the avalanche
effect. When voltage drop is constant and is independent of current, the
breakdown of avalanche takes place. They exhibit high levels of sensitivity
and hence are used for photo detection.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Zener Diode
 It is the most useful type of diode as it can provide a stable reference
voltage. These are operated in reverse bias and break down on the arrival of
a certain voltage. If current passing through the resistor is limited, a stable
voltage is generated. Zener diodes are widely used in power supplies to
provide a reference voltage.
 Schottky Diode
 It has a lower forward voltage than other silicon PN junction diodes. The
drop will be seen where there is low current and at that stage, voltage ranges
between 0.15 and 0.4 volts. These are constructed differently in order to
obtain that performance. Schottky Diode are highly used in rectifier
applications.
 Photodiode
 A photo-diode can identify even a small amount of current
flow resulting from the light. These are very helpful in the detection of the
light. This is a reverse bias diode and used in solar cells and photometers.
They are even used to generate electricity.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 P-N Junction Diode
 The P-N junction diode is also known as rectifier diodes. These diodes are
used for the rectification process and are made up of semiconductor
material. P-N junction diode includes two layers of semiconductors. One
layer of the semiconductor material is doped with P-type material and the
other layer with N-type material. The combination of these both P and N-
type layers form a junction known as the P-N junction. Hence, the name P-
N junction diode.
 P-N junction diode allows the current to flow in the forward direction and
blocks the flow of current in the reverse direction.
UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Ideal diode
 A semiconductor device with two terminals, typically
allowing the flow of current in one direction only.
 A diode is a specialized electronic component with two
electrodes called the anode and the cathode. They are
made with semiconductor materials such as silicon,
germanium, or selenium.
 The fundamental property of a
diode is its tendency to conduct electric current in only
one direction.
 A Diode is an electronic device that allows current to flow
in one direction only.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 An ideal diode is a diode that acts like a perfect conductor when
voltage is applied forward biased and like a perfect insulator when
voltage is applied reverse biased.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Ideal Diode The ideal diode is a simple switch.
 When the diode is forward-biased, it acts like a closed (on)
switch.
 When the diode is reverse-biased. it acts like an open (off)
switch.
 The barrier potential, the forward dynamic resistance, and the
reverse current are all neglected.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Construction of Diode
 There are two types of semiconductor material;
(i) Intrinsic and
(ii) Extrinsic semiconductor.
 An intrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor in which hole and
electrons are available in equal numbers at room temperature.
 In an extrinsic semiconductor, impurities are added to increase the number
of holes or the number of electrons.
 These impurities are tri-valent (boron, indium, aluminum) or pentavalent
(phosphorous, Arsenic, Antimony).
 A semiconductor diode has two layers.
 P-type semiconductor layer
 N-type semiconductor layer.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 If we add trivalent impurities in silicon or germanium, a greater number of
holes are present and it is a positive charge. Hence, this layer is known as
the P-type layer.
 If we add pentavalent impurities in silicon or germanium, a greater number
of electrons are present and it is a negative change. Hence, this layer is
known as the N-type layer.
 The diode is formed by joining both N-type and P-type semiconductors
together. This device is a combination of P-type and N-type semiconductor
material hence it is also known as PN Junction.
 A diode has two terminals;
 One terminal is taken from the P-type layer and it is known as Anode.
 The second terminal is taken from the N-type material and it is known as
Cathode.
UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Working of Diode
 In the N-type region, electrons are the majority charge carriers and holes are
minority charge carriers.
 In the P-type region, the holes are majority charge carrier and the electrons
are negative charge carriers.
 Because of the concentration difference, majority charge carriers diffuse
and recombine with the opposite charge. It makes a positive or negative
ion. These ions are collected at the junction. And this region is known as the
depletion region.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Anode terminal is connected with a positive terminal and cathode is
connected with the negative terminal of the battery, the diode is said to be
connected in forward bias.
 Anode terminal of diode is connected with a negative terminal and cathode
is connected with the positive terminal of a battery, the diode is said to be
connected in reverse bias.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Ideal Diode Current-voltage characteristics
 The diode receives forward voltage, it instantly conducts an infinite amount
of current which it can supply to a circuit.
 When reverse voltage is fed to the diode, it conducts no current at all, no
matter how great this reverse voltage is.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
Threshold Voltage
Ideal diodes do not have a threshold voltage. Once any forward voltage is
applied across the diode, it will conduct current instantly across its junctions.
Forward Current
Ideal diodes have infinite forward current when any forward voltage is applied
across their terminals. This is because in the ideal condition, the internal
resistance of the diode would be 0. The diode would have no internal
resistance at all. Since current, I=V/R, an infinite amount of current would be
conducted and supplied to a circuit with an ideal diode.
Breakdown Voltage
Ideal diodes do not have a breakdown voltage. This is because ideal diodes
have infinite resistance to reverse voltage. It will not conduct any current at all
when voltage is applied in reverse, no matter how great the voltage is.
Reverse (Leakage) Current
Since an ideal diode does not have a breakdown point, it never conducts
any reverse current, called leakage current. It is a perfect insulator when
voltage is applied in reverse.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Ideal Diode Current-voltage characteristics
 The current-voltage characteristic is the most important relationship for
the diode.
 That defines how the current flows through the component and how the
voltage is measured across it. The i-v arc of an ideal diode is entirely non-
linear.
 The characteristic is divided into two parts (for Conventional )
 Forward Bias
 Reverse Bias
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Ideal Diode Current-voltage characteristics

P
o
A

B
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Forward Bias
 When the P-type material or anode is connected with the positive terminal of the
battery and N-type material or cathode is connected with a negative terminal of
a battery, then the diode is connected in forward bias.
 The applied voltage is controlled by the variable resistor. The applied voltage is
gradually increased. The current will not flow until the voltage increases
forward break over voltage.
 Because in this condition, the voltage is not sufficient to move charge carrier
from one layer to another.
 For silicon, break over voltage is 0.7V and for germanium, this voltage is 0.3V.
 Once the voltage is increased above this level, the voltage is sufficient to move
charge carrier from one carrier to another carrier. And due to the flow of charge,
current can flow through the diode.
 As shown in characteristics, part OP is the non-linear part. That shows the
starting period where voltage is below forward break over voltage. Here, the
current is very small.
 The part PQ shows when the voltage is more than the forward break over
voltage. And in this condition, the current increases linearly.
 In this condition, the diode behaves as a close switch as it allows the current
to flow.
 For the ideal diode, the on-state resistance is zero and It behaves as a pure
conductor.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Reverse Bias
 In reverse bias, the N-type material or cathode is connected with a
negative terminal of the battery. This type of connection is known as
a reverse bias connection.
 In this condition, the voltage is gradually increased with the help of a
variable resistor. But this voltage is not sufficient to cause the flow
of current.
 Because the junction created between P-type and N-type layer is in
reverse bias and the depletion width is large in this condition.
Therefore, the rated voltage is not sufficient to create a movement
of charge carrier.
 Hence, the current will not flow through the diode. The curve
obtains in this mode is OA. As shown in the graph, a very small
amount of current will flow due to the minority charge carrier,
this current is not sufficient to turn ON the diode.
 When the applied voltage is more than the reverse breakdown
voltage, a large current will flow due to the avalanche
breakdown. This part is shown as AB in the graph.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Threshold Voltage
 Conventional diodes do have a threshold voltage. This is the voltage
which must be supplied to the diode for it to conduct any considerable
forward current.
 For silicon diodes, the threshold voltage is approximately 0.7V. For
germanium diodes, it is approximately 0.3V.
 This voltage is needed so that the electrons of the n junction can have
enough push to break the barrier in between and cross over into the p
junction.
 This is how current flows in a diode. Any voltage below the threshold
voltage will not be sufficient to push the electrons through from one
barrier to the next. You can see this marked on the diode characteristics
curve. Before the threshold point, very little current flows across the diode.
However, after the diode receives a voltage above this, it produces
considerable current flow.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Forward Current
 Conventional diodes conduct a large current when forward voltage above its
threshold voltage is supplied to the diode, but it is still a finite amount of
current.
 Conventional diodes, even though small, still have internal resistance. It is
impossible to create any physical component that does not have some
internal resistance. The resistance ensures that the current will be finite in
nature and cannot be infinite.
 Breakdown Voltage
 Conventional diodes do have a breakdown voltage. This is the reverse
voltage that when applied to the diode will cause the diode junctions to
break down and conduct a large amount of current, even though the voltage
is applied with incorrect polarity.
 A diode should not conduct current when voltage is applied the wrong way.
However, after a certain point, called the breakdown point, it will give way
and conduct.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Reverse (Leakage) Current
 A conventional diode will conduct some leakage current even when reverse
voltage is applied, even when the reverse voltage hasn't reach the
breakdown point. After the breakdown voltage is reached, it will conduct a
large amount of current, called avalanche current, in reverse. This is
because a conventional diode can never be a perfect insulator and will give
way if enough reverse voltage is supplied to it.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Advantages of Diodes
 Small in size
 less space required
 low in weight
 Most Reliable in operation
 Consume low power
 Better life span and efficiency
 Low internal resistance
 Easy Installation and maintenance
 Simple construction and strong
 low cost and easy availability
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Applications of Diodes
 Rectifier
 Voltage multiplier circuit
 Over-voltage limiter
 Clipper and clamper circuit
 Reverse current protection circuit
 Digital logic gate
 It is used in solar panels to avoid the flow of current in a reverse
direction and used to bypass the solar plate.
 It is also used to modulate and demodulate communication signals
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Ideal Diode and Real Diode Comparison
 A diode is said to be an Ideal Diode when it is forward biased and
acts as a perfect conductor, with zero voltage across it. Similarly,
when the diode is reversed biased, it acts as a perfect insulator with
zero current through it.
 An Ideal diode also acts as a switch. When the diode is forward
biased it acts like a closed switch as shown in the figure below.


 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Whereas, if the diode is reversed biased, it acts as an open switch as shown in
the figure below:

Real Diode
 A Real diode contains barrier potential V0 (0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for
Germanium) and a forward resistance RF of about 25 ohms.
 When a diode is forward biased and conducts a forward current IF flows
through it which causes a voltage drop IFRF in the forward resistance.
 Hence, the forward voltage VF applied across the real diode for conduction,
has to overcome the following.
 Potential barrier
 Drop in forward resistance
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes

 For Silicon diode, the equation becomes as shown below

 For Silicon diode the equation becomes

 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Terminal characteristics of junction diode
 One of the most common applications of the diode is the pn
junction.
 This pn junction can be used to operate and implement the
functions of a diode because it can conduct considerable
current in the forward direction and roughly no current in the
reverse direction.
 The characteristic curve consist of three separate regions:
(a) The forward bias region, find out by v >0 (Forward region)
(b) The reverse bias region find out by v<0 (Reverse region )
(c) The breakdown region find out by v< -VZK (Breakdown
region)
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 The forward bias region, find out by v >0
 The positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side and the
negative terminal of battery is connected to the N side of the diode.
 Diode will conduct in forward biasing because the forward biasing
will decrease the depletion region width and overcome the
barrier potential.
 In order to conduct, the forward biasing voltage should be greater
than the barrier potential.
 During forward biasing the diode acts like a closed switch with a
potential drop of nearly 0.3 V across it for a germanium diode.
The forward and reverse bias characteristics of a germanium diode.
 From the graph, you may notice that the diode starts conducting
when the forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.3 volts
(for Ge diode). This voltage is called cut-in voltage.
UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Reverse biasing
 The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side and
the negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side of a
diode.
 In reverse biasing, the diode does not conduct electricity, since
reverse biasing leads to an increase in the depletion region
width; hence current carrier charges find it more difficult to
overcome the barrier potential.
 The diode will act like an open switch and there is no current
flow.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Breakdown Region
 This region is entered only when the magnitude of the reverse
voltage surpasses a threshold value that is pertinent to the
particular diode itself, known as the breakdown voltage.
 As we look at the detailed figure illustrating the current-voltage
characteristics, we see that the reverse current increases
drastically in the breakdown region, while the voltage drop is
rather small.
 A diode breakdown is typically not destructive, granted that the
power that is dissipated within the diode is restricted by an
external circuit at a safe level. This level is usually specified on
the device or in the device's manual. Thus, it is necessary to
restrict the reverse current in this breakdown region to a
specific value that is consistent with the allowed power
dissipation. Zener diode and applications
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
depletion region
 When the p-type and the n-type materials are kept in contact
with each other, the junction between them behaves differently
from either side of the material alone.
 The electrons and holes are close to each other at the junction.
According to coulomb’s law, there is a force between the
negative electrons and the positive holes.
 When the p-n junction is formed a few electrons from the n-
type diffuse through the junction and combines with the holes
in the p-side to form negative ions and leaves behind positive
ions in the n-side.
 This results in the formation of the depletion layer, which acts
as the barrier and does not allow any further flow of electrons
from the n region to the p region.
UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Zener diode and applications
 A Zener diode not only allows current to flow from anode to
cathode but also, in the reverse direction on reaching the
Zener voltage.
 Zener diode is basically like an ordinary PN junction diode but
normally operated in reverse biased condition.
 But ordinary PN junction diode connected in reverse biased
condition is not used as Zener diode practically.
 A Zener diode is a specially designed, highly doped PN
junction diode.
 Zener Diode Definition
 A Zener diode is a heavily doped semiconductor device that is
designed to operate in the reverse direction.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Zener Diode
 A Zener Diode, also known as a breakdown diode, is a heavily
doped semiconductor device that is designed to operate in the
reverse direction.
 When the voltage across the terminals of a Zener diode is
reversed and the potential reaches the Zener Voltage (knee
voltage), the junction breaks down and the current flows in the
reverse direction. This effect is known as the Zener Effect.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 There are two types of breakdowns for a Zener Diode:
 Avalanche Breakdown
 Zener Breakdown
 Avalanche Breakdown
 Avalanche breakdown occurs both in normal diode and Zener Diode
at high reverse voltage.
 When a high value of reverse voltage is applied to the PN junction, the
free electrons gain sufficient energy and accelerate at high
velocities. These free electrons moving at high velocity collides other
atoms and knocks off more electrons.
 Due to this continuous collision, a large number of free electrons are
generated as a result of electric current in the diode rapidly increases.
 This sudden increase in electric current may permanently destroy the
normal diode, however, a Zener diode is designed to operate under
avalanche breakdown and can sustain the sudden spike of current.
 Avalanche breakdown occurs in Zener diodes with Zener voltage (Vz)
greater than 6V.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Zener Breakdown in Zener Diode
 When the applied reverse bias voltage reaches closer to the
Zener voltage, the electric field in the depletion region gets
strong enough to pull electrons from their valence band.
 The valence electrons that gain sufficient energy from the
strong electric field of the depletion region break free from the
parent atom.
 At the Zener breakdown region, a small increase in the voltage
results in the rapid increase of the electric current.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Avalanche Breakdown vs Zener Breakdown
 The Zener effect is dominant in voltages up to 5.6 volts and
the avalanche effect takes over above that.
 They are both similar effects, the difference being that the
Zener effect is a quantum phenomenon and the avalanche
effect is the movement of electrons in the valence band like in
any electric current.
 Avalanche effect also allows a larger current through the diode
than what a Zener breakdown would allow.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 The V-I characteristics of a Zener diode can be divided into two
parts as follows:
(i) Forward Characteristics
(ii) Reverse Characteristics
 Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode
 The first quadrant in the graph represents the forward characteristics
of a Zener diode. From the graph, we understand that it is almost
identical to the forward characteristics of any other P-N junction
diode.
 Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode
 When a reverse voltage is applied to a Zener voltage, initially a small
reverse saturation current (Io) flows across the diode.
 This current is due to thermally generated minority carriers. As the
reverse voltage is increased, at a certain value of reverse voltage, the
reverse current increases drastically and sharply. This is an indication
that the breakdown has occurred. We call this voltage breakdown
voltage or Zener voltage and it is denoted by (Vz).
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Zener Diode Specifications
 Zener/Breakdown Voltage – The Zener or the reverse breakdown
voltage ranges from 2.4 V to 200 V, sometimes it can go up to 1 kV
while the maximum for the surface-mounted device is 47 V.
 Current Iz (max) – It is the maximum current at the rated Zener
Voltage (Vz – 200μA to 200 A)
 Current Iz (min) – It is the minimum value of current required for
the diode to breakdown.
 Power Rating – It denotes the maximum power the Zener diode can
dissipate. It is given by the product of the voltage of the diode and
the current flowing through it.
 Temperature Stability – Diodes around 5 V have the best stability
 Voltage Tolerance – It is typically ±5%
 Zener Resistance (Rz) – It is the resistance to the Zener diode
exhibits.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Application of Zener Diode
 Zener diodes find wide applications commercially and industrially.
Some of the important applications of a Zener Diodes are as a
 Voltage Regulator or Stabilizer
 Meter Protector
 Wave-Shaper.
 Zener diode in clipping circuits
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Voltage Regulator or Stabilizer
 The major application of a Zener diode in the electronic circuit is as a
Voltage Regulator. It provides a constant voltage to the load from a
source whose voltage may vary over a sufficient range.
 Meter Protection
 Zener diodes are generally employed in multimeters to protect the meter
movement against the damage from the accidental overloads. The Zener
diode is connected in parallel with the meter from the safety point of
view.
 Wave Shaping
 The Zener diode is used for converting the sine wave into the square
wave.This can be done by placing the two Zener Diodes in series with
the resistance. The diode is connected back to back and in the opposite
direction.
 Zener diode in clipping circuits:
 Zener diode is used for modifying AC waveform clipping circuits by
limiting the parts of either one or both the half cycles of an AC
waveform..
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Zener Breakdown vs Avalanche Breakdown
 The main difference between Zener breakdown and avalanche
breakdown is their mechanism of occurrence.
 Zener breakdown occurs because of the high electric field whereas,
the avalanche breakdown occurs because of the collision of free
electrons with atoms. Both these breakdowns can occur
simultaneously.
Zener Breakdown Avalanche Breakdown
The process in which the electrons move The process of applying high voltage and
across the barrier from the valence band of increasing the free electrons or electric
p-type material to the conduction band of current in semiconductors and insulating
n-type material is known as Zener materials is called an avalanche
breakdown. breakdown.
This is observed in Zener diodes having a This is observed in Zener diode having a
Zener breakdown voltage Zener breakdown voltage Vz greater than
Vz of 5 to 8 volts. 8 volts
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
Zener Breakdown Avalanche Breakdown
The valence electrons are pulled into The valence electrons are pushed to
conduction due to the high electric field in conduction due to the energy imparted by
the narrow depletion region. accelerated electrons, which gain their
velocity due to their collision with other
atoms.
The increase in temperature decreases the The increase in temperature increases the
breakdown voltage. breakdown voltage.
The VI characteristics of a Zener The VI characteristic curve of the avalanche
breakdown has a sharp curve. breakdown is not as sharp as the Zener
breakdown.
It occurs in diodes that are highly doped. It occurs in diodes that are lightly doped.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
Basis For
PN Junction Diode Zener Diode
Comparison
Definition It is a semiconductor diode The diode which allows the
which conducts only in one current to flow in both the
direction, i.e., in forward direction i.e., forward and
direction. reverse, such type of diode is
known as the Zener diode.
Symbol

Reverse Current Damage the junction. Do not damage the junction.

Effect
Doping Level Low High
Breakdown Occurs in higher voltage. Occur in lower voltage.

Ohms Law Obey Do not obey.

Applications For rectification Voltage stabilizer, motor
protection and wave shaping.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
Diode logic gates
 The diode logic uses diodes and resistors to implement Boolean
functions.
 Diodes function as a switch that conducts only during the
forward biasing condition. The simplicity in the circuits is the main
advantage of diode logic but it lacks amplification of the input
signal.
 This limits the application of diode logic. The diode logic can
implement only logic OR and logic AND operations that are non-
inverting.
 All other logic operations cannot be implemented using diode
logic.
 The diodes and resistors are either connected in parallel or series
that function as electronic switches controlled by input logical
variables.
 When the diode is forward biased the switch is closed and when the
diode is reverse biased the switch is open.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Diode logic gates
 Diode Logic - OR Gate
 Diode Logic - AND Gate
 Diode Logic - OR Gate:
 The diode OR gate has two inputs and an one output.
 The output is high only if at least one input is high and is low when
both the inputs are low.
 The OR logic gate is implemented in the diode logic by connecting
the diodes parallel. The diodes are normally open switches.
 It is clear from the circuit that the input is applied to the anode of
the diode and the output is taken at the cathode of the diode
across the resistor R1 to the ground.
 The +5 volts always represent logic 1 or ON, and ground, or zero
volts a logic 0 is represented as in figure below
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Diode Logic - OR Gate:

 Inputs at logic 1: In the circuit, if both the inputs are connected to

+5 V or logic high input logical 1 then the diodes are forward biased and
are closed.
 The current passes across the diode and causes high voltage drop across
the resistor R1. The output is at high or logic 1. If one input is high and
the other input is low, then the diode connected to the high input acts as
closed switch and the output is still high.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Diode Logic - OR Gate:
 Inputs at logic 0: When both the inputs are connected to zero volts or
ground, then the inputs are at logic 0.
 Both the diodes are reverse biased and switches are open and do not
conduct. Therefore, the output across the resistor will also be zero
volts.
 Thus, the diode logic implements the OR functions. Assume that the
diode induces error in the circuit.
 The silicon diode introduces a voltage drop of 0.65 V–0.7 V therefore
even when the voltage is not exactly +5 V but +4.35 V at the output still
the diodes are said to be conducting.
 We consider the noise margin in this case. Thus, any voltage above +3.5
volts is considered to be logic 1, any voltage below +1.5 volts shall be
logic 0. Output voltages between +1.5 and +3.5 volts fall under the
undefined voltage region.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Diode Logic AND Gate:
 The Diode Logic (DL)-AND gate is implemented by connecting
open switches in series.
 Since diodes are two terminal devices, they cannot be driven by
grounded input voltage sources when connected in series. Thus to
overcome this problem, the diodes are connected in parallel as in the
case of OR diode gates with modification.
 To obtain AND logic instead of OR function the input and output
logical variables are inverted or reversed. The circuit of DL AND
gate is shown in figure below.
 In a diode AND gate, if both the input voltages are high then the
output voltage is high. If both the inputs are low and one is low then
the output voltage is low.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Diode Logic AND Gate:

 Consider the circuit for AND logic gate, the input to the diodes is
connected in opposite direction. The input voltage flows across the
resistor thus creating the current to flow across the anode of the diodes
and then to its cathode. The output is taken across the resistor R and
ground terminal. This gives the complementary voltage drop.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Diode Logic AND Gate:
 Inputs at logic 1:
 When both the inputs A and B are at high, then the diodes are
neutralized. There is no voltage drop across the diodes and the diode
switches are open.
 Since no current flows across the resistor and no voltage drop, the
output is high. Thus, the operation of diode logic AND is the reverse of
diode logic OR gate since the diodes are reversed.
 Inputs at logic 0:
 When both the inputs are at low, the biasing voltage (+5 V) flows
through the resistor and reaches the diodes and finally the input source.
 This causes the diodes to be forward biased and the diode switch is
closed. Thus, the output voltage drop across the diode is logic 0.
 If one of the inputs is high and the other is maintained at low, then the
diode connected to high input voltages or logic 1 is reverse biased and
its input voltage is disconnected from the output. The output is again 0.
Thus, this circuit performs the logical AND functions.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Disadvantages of Diode Logic
 Diode logic only permits the OR and AND functions.
 Diode logic suffers from voltage drop from one stage to the next. Unlike the
active logic gates that can be integrated to larger components, the diode
logic cannot be cascaded as they face few problems.
 The diodes possess a voltage drop of 0.65 V during the forward bias
condition. When the identical diodes are cascaded, this voltage is either
added to or subtracted from the input of every gate. Thus, this voltage
accumulates at each stage. For an OR gate, the voltage drop decreases
the high voltage level (logic 1) while in an AND gate, it increases the
low voltage level (logic 0).
 The second problem the diodes face during cascading is that of the
voltage divider. The input voltage sources possess an internal resistance
that joins the gate resistor to produce a voltage divider action on the
voltage levels. The source resistance decreases logic 1 level in an OR
gate. In an AND gate, the gate resistance increases logic 0 level.
 Diode logic is used extensively to produce simple logic functions but not in
integrated circuits.
 These issues restrict the usage of diode logic and have made them obsolete.
UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
Clipping and Clamping circuits
Clipping circuits
 The Diode Clipper, also known as a Diode Limiter, is a wave
shaping circuit that takes an input waveform and clips or cuts
off its top half, bottom half or both halves together.
 These are also known as clippers, clipping circuits, limiters,
slicers.
 Clippers are basically wave shaping circuits that control the
shape of an output waveform.
 It consists of linear and non-linear elements but does not contain
energy storing elements.
 The basic operation of a diode clipping circuits is such that, in
forward biased condition, the diode allows current to pass through
it, clamping the voltage.
 But in reverse biased condition, no any current flows through the
diode, and thus voltage remains unaffected across its terminals.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
Clipping circuits
 Clipper circuits are basically termed as protection devices.
As electronic devices are voltage sensitive and voltage of large
amplitude can permanently destroy the device.
 So, in order to protect the device clipper circuits are used.
 Usually, clippers employ resistor – diode combination in its
circuitry.
 But Diode Clipping Circuits can be used a variety of
applications to modify an input waveform using signal and
Schottky diodes or to provide over-voltage protection using
zener diodes to ensure that the output voltage never exceeds a
certain level protecting the circuit from high voltage spikes.
 Then diode clipping circuits can be used in voltage limiting
applications.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Classification of Clipper circuits
 Clippers are basically classified in the following categories:
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Series positive Clipper circuit
 Here, the diode is connected in series with the output thus it is named so.
 The positive half of the input waveform reverse biases the diode. Thus it
acts as an open switch and all the applied input voltage drops across the
diode.
 Resultantly providing no output voltage for positive half of the input
waveform.
 For the negative half of the input waveform, the diode is in the forward
biased state. Thus it acts as a closed switch causing no any voltage drop at
the diode. Hence input voltage will appear across the resistor, ultimately at
the output of the circuit.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Series negative clipper circuit
 The circuit below shows the figure of a series negative clipping circuit

 Here, during the positive half cycle of input waveform,

the diode becomes forward biased, thus ensuring a closed
circuit. Due to which current appears across the resistor of
the circuit.
 For negative half of the input waveform, the diode now
becomes reverse biased acting as an open switch. This
causes no current to flow through the circuit. Resultantly
providing no output for negative half of the input waveform.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes

 Series positive clipper circuit with bias

1. The case of a Positively biased circuit

2. The case of a Negatively biased circuit
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
The case of a Positively biased circuit
 Here in the circuit shown, we can see that the diode is in forward
bias condition concerning the battery. But positive half of the input
waveform puts the diode in reverse biased condition.
 The diode will conduct until the supply voltage is less than the battery
potential. As battery potential dominates the supply voltage, the signal
appears at the positive half of output waveform. But as the supply voltage
exceeds the battery potential, the diode is now reverse biased. Resultantly
no further current will flow through the diode. the negative half cycle of the
input waveform, the diode is forward biased concerning both supply voltage
and battery potential. Hence, we achieve a complete negative half cycle at
the output waveform.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 The case of a Negatively biased circuit
 As we can see in the circuit shown, the diode is reverse bias due to both
supply voltage and battery potential. This cuts off the complete positive half
of the input waveform.
 But during the negative half cycle of the input waveform, the diode is in
forward biased condition due to supply voltage but is reverse biased by
the battery potential.
 Here also initially when battery dominates the supply voltage, the diode is
in reverse biased condition. But, as the supply voltage becomes greater than
the battery potential, the diode will automatically come in forward biased
condition. Thus, the signal starts to appear at the output.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 The case of a Negatively biased circuit
 Whenever there is a need to clip or remove a certain portion of
the negative half of the input waveform, then series negative
clipper circuits with biasing is needed.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Shunt positive Clipper circuits
 Here, the diode is connected in parallel with the load. Hence its
working principle is exactly opposite to that of the shunt clippers.
In shunt positive clippers, the output signal is observed only when
the diode is reverse biased.
 During the positive half of the input signal, the diode gets forward
biased due to which the current flows through the diode.
 Hence, due to the parallel combination of diode and load, no
current is observed at the load. Resultantly no output waveform for
the positive half is achieved.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes

 During the negative half of the input signal, the diode gets reverse biased.
Thus no current flows through it, and the output current is observed at the
load. So, for the negative half of input, the entire negative half appears at
the output.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Shunt negative Clippers circuits
 Negative shunt clippers, during the positive half of input, the diode
gets reverse biased.
 Thus no current flows through it, and the output current is observed
at the load. Hence output signal is achieved for positive half of the
input signal.
 During the negative half of the input signal, the diode gets forward
biased and hence no load current is achieved. Ultimately no output is
observed for negative half of the input signal.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Dual clipper circuits
 Whenever there is a need to remove a certain portion of both
positive and negative half of the signal, then dual clipper
circuits are used.

 During positive half of the input cycle, diode D1 gets forward

biased due to supply voltage but is in reverse bias state due to
battery potential VB1. At the same time, diode D2 is in reverse
bias due to both supply voltage and battery potential VB2.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes

 Until battery voltage exceeds the supply voltage D1 will be in

reverse-biased state and D2 is already in reverse bias condition.
Hence signal is achieved at the output. But as the supply voltage
exceeds the battery potential, it causes diode D1 to be forward biased.
Hence, no any further signal for the positive half is achieved in this
case.
 During the negative half of the input cycle, diode D1 will be reverse
biased due to both supply voltage and battery potential.
 Conversely, diode D2 will be forward biased by the supply
voltage but is reverse biased by the battery potential VB2.
 Until the supply voltage is less than the battery potential, D2 will be
in reverse-biased state and signal appears at the output in this
condition. But, as the supply voltage exceeds the battery potential,
D2 will be forward biased. Hence no any signal is obtained at the
output.
 UNIT – I -Semiconductor Diodes
 Applications of Clipper circuits
 They are frequently used for the separation of synchronizing signals
from the composite picture signals.
 The excessive noise spikes above a certain level can be limited or
clipped in FM transmitters by using the series clippers.
 For the generation of new waveforms or shaping the existing
waveform, clippers are used.
 The typical application of a diode clipper is for the protection of
transistors from transients, as a freewheeling diode connected in
parallel across the inductive load.
 A frequently used half wave rectifier in power supply kits is a typical
example of a clipper. It clips either positive or negative half-wave of
the input.
 Clippers can be used as voltage limiters and amplitude selectors