ME220 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

MODULE 1
 MODULE 1

CASTING PROCESS
Steps:
- Making mould cavity
- Material is first liquefied by properly heating it in a suitable furnace.
- Liquid is poured into a prepared mould cavity - allowed to solidify
- product is taken out of the mould cavity, trimmed and made to shape
 Important casting terms
1. FLASK – Cope, drag and Cheek
2. PATTERN
3. PARTING LINE
4. MOULDING SAND
5. FACING SAND
6. CORE
7. POURING BASIN
8. SPRUE
9. RUNNER
10.GATE
11.CHAPLETS
12.RISER
13.VENT
 Typical sand mould

Mould Section and casting nomenclature

Pattern attached with gating and risering system
 Steps in making sand castings

Six basic steps in making sand castings are,

(i) Pattern making,
(ii) Core making,
(iii) Moulding,
(iv) Melting and pouring,
(v) Cleaning
 MAKING A SIMPLE SAND MOULD

1) The drag flask is placed on the board

2) Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board

3) Drag half of the pattern is located on the mould board. Dry facing sand will
provide a non-sticky layer.

4) Molding sand is then poured in to cover the pattern with the fingers and then
the drag is filled completely
5) Sand is then tightly packed in the drag by means of hand rammers. Peen
hammers (used first close to drag pattern) and butt hammers (used for
surface ramming) are used.

6) The ramming must be proper i.e. it must neither be too hard or soft. Too
soft ramming will generate weak mould and imprint of the pattern will not
be good. Too hard ramming will not allow gases/air to escape and hence
bubbles are created in casting resulting in defects called ‘blows’.
Moreover, the making of runners and gates will be difficult.

7) After the ramming is finished, the excess sand is leveled/removed with

a straight bar known as strike rod.
8) Vent holes are made in the drag to the full depth of the flask as well as
to the pattern to facilitate the removal of gases during pouring and
solidification. Done by vent rod.

9) The finished drag flask is now made upside down exposing the pattern.

10) Cope half of the pattern is then placed on the drag pattern using
locating pins. The cope flask is also located with the help of pins. The dry
parting sand is sprinkled all over the drag surface and on the pattern.
11) A sprue pin for making the sprue passage is located at some
distance from the pattern edge. Riser pin is placed at an appropriate
place.

12) Filling, ramming and venting of the cope is done in the same
manner.
13) The sprue and riser are removed and a pouring basin is made at the top to
pour the liquid metal.

14) Pattern from the cope and drag is removed.

15) Runners and gates are made by cutting the parting surface with a gate cutter.
A gate cutter is a piece of sheet metal bent to the desired radius.

16) The core for making a central hole is now placed into the mould cavity in the
drag. Rests in core prints.

17) Mould is now assembled and ready for pouring.

GATING SYSTEM & RISERING SYSTEM
GATING SYSTEM
Casting yield

𝑊𝑐
𝐶𝑦 = ×100%
𝑊𝑐 + 𝑊𝑔
TYPES OF POURING BASINS
POURING BASIN DESIGN
SPRUE
 TYPES OF GATES

• Down gates or sprue

• Cross gates or runners

• Ingates or gates
Depending upon the
position of ingate(s)
Depending upon the orientation of the parting plane
Depending on the ratio of total cross sectional area of sprue exit,
runner and ingate

1. Pressurized gating system

2. Un-pressurized gating system

Pressurized Gating System
1. The total cross sectional area decreases towards the mold cavity
2. Back pressure is maintained by the restrictions in the metal flow
3. Flow of liquid (volume) is almost equal from all gates
4. Back pressure helps in reducing the aspiration as the sprue always runs
full
5. Because of the restrictions the metal flows at high velocity leading to
more turbulence and chances of mold erosion
Pressurized
Un-Pressurized Gating System

1. The total cross sectional area increases towards the mold cavity

2. Restriction only at the bottom of sprue

3. Flow of liquid (volume) is different from all gates

4. aspiration in the gating system as the system never runs full

5. Less turbulence
The goals for the gating system are

1. To minimize turbulence to avoid trapping gasses into the mold

2. To get enough metal into the mold cavity before the metal starts to
solidify
3. To avoid shrinkage
4. Establish the best possible temperature gradient in the solidifying
casting so that the shrinkage if occurs must be in the gating system not
in the required cast part.
5. Incorporates a system for trapping the non-metallic inclusions
TEST METHOD FOR TESTING
FLUIDITY

FLUIDITY INDEX – Length of

solidified metal in the spiral
passage. Greater the length of the
solidified metal, greater is its
fluidity
Hydraulic Principles used
in the Gating System
 Reynold’s No.,

Reynold's Number
Nature of flow in the gating system can be established by calculating
Reynold's number
V = Mean Velocity of flow
D = diameter of tubular flow
μ = Kinematics Viscosity = Dynamic viscosity / Density
ρ = Fluid density
1. Inclusion of dross or slag
2. Air aspiration into the mold
3. Erosion of the mold walls
Bernoulli's Equation
h = height of liquid
P = Static Pressure
n = metal velocity
g = Acceleration due to gravity
r = Fluid density
DESIGN OF SPRUE
POURING TIME
Functions of Risers
1. Provide extra metal to compensate for the volumetric shrinkage
2. Allow mold gases to escape
3. Provide extra metal pressure on the solidifying mold to reproduce
mold details more exact
Design Requirements of Risers

1. Riser size: For a sound casting riser must be last to freeze. The ratio of
(volume / surface area)2 of the riser must be greater than that of the
casting.

When this condition does not meet the metal in the riser can be kept in
liquid state by heating it externally or using exothermic materials in the
risers.

2. Riser placement: the spacing of risers in the casting must be considered

by effectively calculating the feeding distance of the risers.

3. Riser shape: cylindrical risers are recommended for most of the castings
as spherical risers.

To increase volume/surface area ratio the bottom of the riser can be

shaped as hemisphere.
DESIGN FOR RUNNER AND GATES
PATTERN AND PATTERN ALLOWANCES
PATTERN – REPLICA OF THE PRODUCT
Functions of the Pattern
• Prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of making a casting.

• May contain projections known as core prints if the casting

requires a core and need to be made hollow.

• Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten metal in the mold
cavity may form a part of the pattern.

• Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth surfaces

reduce casting defects.

• Properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall cost of the

castings.
 Pattern material should be:

• Easily worked, shaped and joined

• Light in weight
• Strong, hard and durable
• Resistant to wear and abrasion
• Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions
• Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature
and humidity
• Available at low cost
 Types of patterns

a. Single piece pattern

b. multipiece pattern
c. Matchplate pattern
d. Cope and drag pattern
Loose piece pattern
Gated pattern
Sweep Pattern
Allowances
• Shrinkage allowance

• Machining allowance

• Draft allowance

• Shake allowance

• Distortion allowance
• Liquid Shrinkage

• Solid shrinkage
TAPER ALLOWANCE
TYPES OF CORES
Overhanging core

Balancing core
USE OF CHAPLET FOR CORE SUPPORT
 CASTING PROCESS

1. EXPENDABLE-MOLD PERMANENT-PATTERN CASTING PROCESSES

2. EXPENDABLE-MOLD EXPENDABLE-PATTERN CASTING PROCESSES

3. PERMANENT MOLD CASTING PROCESSES

4. COMPOSITE MOLD CASTING PROCESSES

SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS FOR SAND CASTING
A mounted pattern made of a ferrous metal or aluminum is
(a) heated to a range of 175° to 370°C,
(b) coated with a parting agent (such as silicone)
(c) clamped to a box or chamber.

Box contains fine sand, mixed with 2.5 to 4% of a

thermosetting resin binder (such as phenol-formaldehyde)
that coats the sand particles
SHELL MOULDING
INVESTMENT CASTING
INVESTMENT
CASTING
VACCUM CASTING
VACCUM DIE CASTING
PERMANENT MOULD CASTING
DIE CASTING
DIE CASTING IS THE PROCESS OF FORCING MOLTEN METAL
UNDER HIGH PRESSURE (10-210 Mpa OR 1450-30500 PSI) INTO
THE CAVITIES OF REUSABLE STEEL MOLDS
HOT CHAMBER DIE CASTING
COLD CHAMBER DIE CASTING
CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
SLUSH CASTING
CONTINOUS CASTING
CO2 CASTING = SODIUM SILICATE PROCESS
Strength increases due to gassing
Ceramic Mold Casting

Ceramic mold casting is a casting process in which materials are combined to

make a mold which has rubber like consistency. Ceramic mold casting can be used
for simple home foundry casting and also complicated, intricately designed
industrial castings. This casting provides attractive looks for kitchen wares.

The Process: Ceramic mold casting, is an expendable process in which reusable

and cheap patterns made of wood, metals, plastic or rubber are used..
 In ceramic mold casting, there are two different types of slurries
used which are known as the true ceramic molding and shaw process.
Patterns are kept is a flask and aggregate is poured over the pattern.
Molding material sets in a rubber like consistency around the pattern.
The rubber like consistency makes it easy for the pattern to be stripped
out of the mold.
The mold which is made in cope and drag form, is heated to make it
harden.
The strong mold is useful for high temperature pours, which can be
done when the mold is still hot.
SOLIDIFICATION
 2
1

3
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
V/A Ratio
Ratio stands for volume to surface area or mathematically
(volume/surface area).
V/A ratios is critical in avoiding premature solidification of the
casting and the formation of vacancies.
 Heat Masses

Avoid large heat masses in locations distant to risers.

Do not feed a heavy section through a lighter one.
JUNCTIONS…

hot spots are circled in red

Prevent Planes of Weakness
Reduce Turbulence
USAGE OF CHILLS

• regulation of thermal gradients

CASTING QUALITY
MOULDING SAND TESTING
MOISTURE CONTENT TEST

Moisture content of the molding sand mixture may determine by drying

a weighed amount of 20 to 50 grams of molding sand to a constant
temperature up to 100°C in a oven for about one hour.

Then cooled to a room temperature and then reweighing the molding

sand. The moisture content in molding sand is thus evaporated.

Loss in weight of molding sand due to loss of moisture, gives the amount
of moisture which can be expressed as a percentage of the original sand
sample.
Percentage of moisture content in the molding sand can also be
determined in fact more speedily by an instrument known as a speedy
moisture teller.

Instrument is based on the principle that when water and calcium

carbide react, they form acetylene gas which can be measured and this
will be directly proportional to the moisture content.

Instrument is provided with a pressure gauge calibrated to read directly

the percentage of moisture present in the molding sand.
 Clay Content Test

Amount of clay is determined by carrying out the clay content

test in which clay in molding sand of 50 grams is defined as
particles which when suspended in water, fail to settle at the rate
of one inch per min.

Clay consists of particles less than 20 micron, per 0.0008 inch

in dia.
Grain Fineness Test

AFS Grain Fineness Number (AFS-GFN) is one means of measuring the

grain fineness of a sand system.

GFN is a measure of the average size of the particles (or grains) in a sand
sample. Grain fineness of molding sand is measured using a test called
sieve analysis.

Test is carried out

in power-driven shaker
consisting of number of sieves
fitted one over the other.
TENSILE, COMPRESSIVE, SHEAR TESTS
Permeability Test
Permeability is determined by measuring the rate of flow of air through a
compacted specimen under standard conditions.

A cylinder sand sample is prepared by using rammer and die. This

specimen (usually 2 inch dia & 2 inch height) is used for testing the
permeability or porosity of molding and the core sand.

Test is performed in a permeability meter consisting of the balanced

tank, water tank, nozzle, adjusting lever, nose piece for fixing sand
specimen and a manometer. The permeability is directly measured.
Permeability number P is volume of air (in cm3) passing through a sand
specimen of 1 cm2 cross-sectional area and 1 cm height, at a pressure
difference of 1 gm/cm2 in one minute.

P = Vh /atp
Where, P = permeability
v = volume of air passing through the specimen in c.c.
h = height of specimen in cm
p = pressure of air in gm/cm2
a = cross-sectional area of the specimen in cm2
t = time in minutes.
Refractoriness Test

The refractoriness of the molding sand is judged by heating the A.F.S

standard sand specimen to very high temperatures ranges depending
upon the type of sand.

The heated sand test pieces are cooled to room temperature and
examined under a microscope for surface characteristics or by scratching
it with a steel needle.

If the silica sand grains remain sharply defined and easily give way to the
needle.
In the actual experiment the sand specimen in a porcelain boat is placed into an
electric furnace. It is usual practice to start the test from l000°C and raise the
temperature in steps of 100°C to 1300°C and in steps of 50° above 1300°C till
sintering of the silica sand grains
takes place.

At each temperature level, it is kept for at least three minutes and then taken out
from the oven for examination under a microscope for evaluating surface
characteristics or by scratching it with a steel needle.
CUPOLA FURNACE
 Direct Fuel-Fired Furnaces
Small open-hearth in which charge is heated by natural gas fuel burners
located on side of furnace
• Furnace roof assists heating action by reflecting flame down against
charge
• At bottom of hearth is a tap hole to release molten metal
• Generally used for nonferrous metals such as copper-base alloys and
aluminum
 Crucible Furnaces
Metal is melted without direct contact with burning fuel mixture
• Sometimes called indirect fuel-fired furnaces
• Container (crucible) is made of refractory material or
high-temperature steel alloy
• Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze, brass, and alloys
of zinc and aluminum
• Three types used in foundries:
(a) lift-out type, (b) stationary, (c) tilting
Three types of crucible furnaces:
(a) lift-out crucible,
(b) stationary pot, from which molten metal must be ladled, and
(c) tilting-pot furnace
 Electric-Arc Furnaces
Charge is melted by heat generated from an electric arc

• High power consumption, but electric-arc furnaces can be designed for

high melting capacity

• Used primarily for melting steel

Electric arc furnace for steelmaking
 Induction Furnaces
Uses alternating current passing through a coil to develop magnetic field in metal

• Induced current causes rapid heating and melting

• Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing action in liquid metal

• Since metal does not contact heating elements, the environment can be closely
controlled, which results in molten metals of high quality and purity

• Melting steel, cast iron, and aluminum alloys are common applications in
foundry work
Induction furnace
Additional Steps After Solidification
• Trimming
• Removing the core
• Surface cleaning
• Inspection
• Repair, if required
• Heat treatment
GATING SYSTEM & RISERING SYSTEM
TEST METHOD FOR TESTING
FLUIDITY

FLUIDITY INDEX – Length of

solidified metal in the spiral
passage. Greater the length of the
solidified metal, greater is its
fluidity
Casting yield

𝑊𝑐
𝐶𝑦 = ×100%
𝑊𝑐 + 𝑊𝑔
GATING SYSTEM
TYPES OF POURING BASINS
POURING BASIN DESIGN
SPRUE
GATING SYSTEM
 TYPES OF GATES

• Down gates or sprue

• Cross gates or runners

• Ingates or gates
Depending upon the
position of ingate(s)
Depending upon the orientation of the parting plane
Depending on the ratio of total cross sectional area of sprue exit,
runner and ingate

1. Pressurized gating system

2. Un-pressurized gating system

Pressurized Gating System
1. The total cross sectional area decreases towards the mold cavity
2. Back pressure is maintained by the restrictions in the metal flow
3. Flow of liquid (volume) is almost equal from all gates
4. Back pressure helps in reducing the aspiration as the sprue always runs
full
5. Because of the restrictions the metal flows at high velocity leading to
more turbulence and chances of mold erosion
Pressurized
Un-Pressurized Gating System

1. The total cross sectional area increases towards the mold cavity

2. Restriction only at the bottom of sprue

3. Flow of liquid (volume) is different from all gates

4. aspiration in the gating system as the system never runs full

5. Less turbulence
The goals for the gating system are

1. To minimize turbulence to avoid trapping gasses into the mold

2. To get enough metal into the mold cavity before the metal starts to
solidify
3. To avoid shrinkage
4. Establish the best possible temperature gradient in the solidifying
casting so that the shrinkage if occurs must be in the gating system not
in the required cast part.
5. Incorporates a system for trapping the non-metallic inclusions
Hydraulic Principles used
in the Gating System
 Reynold’s No.,

Reynold's Number
Nature of flow in the gating system can be established by calculating
Reynold's number
V = Mean Velocity of flow
D = diameter of tubular flow
m = Kinematics Viscosity = Dynamic viscosity / Density
r = Fluid density
1. Inclusion of dross or slag
2. Air aspiration into the mold
3. Erosion of the mold walls
Bernoulli's Equation

h = height of liquid
P = Static Pressure
n = metal velocity
g = Acceleration due to gravity
r = Fluid density
DESIGN OF SPRUE
 K

POURING TIME
Functions of Risers
1. Provide extra metal to compensate for the volumetric shrinkage
2. Allow mold gases to escape
3. Provide extra metal pressure on the solidifying mold to reproduce
mold details more exact
Design Requirements of Risers

1. Riser size: For a sound casting riser must be last to freeze. The ratio of
(volume / surface area)2 of the riser must be greater than that of the
casting.

When this condition does not meet the metal in the riser can be kept in
liquid state by heating it externally or using exothermic materials in the
risers.

2. Riser placement: the spacing of risers in the casting must be considered

by effectively calculating the feeding distance of the risers.

3. Riser shape: cylindrical risers are recommended for most of the castings
as spherical risers.

To increase volume/surface area ratio the bottom of the riser can be

shaped as hemisphere.
DESIGN FOR RUNNER AND GATES
SOLIDIFICATION
 2
1

3
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
V/A Ratio
Ratio stands for volume to surface area or mathematically
(volume/surface area).
V/A ratios is critical in avoiding premature solidification of the
casting and the formation of vacancies.
 Heat Masses

Avoid large heat masses in locations distant to risers.

Do not feed a heavy section through a lighter one.
JUNCTIONS…

hot spots are circled in red

Prevent Planes of Weakness
Reduce Turbulence
USAGE OF CHILLS

• regulation of thermal gradients

CASTING QUALITY
PROPERTIES OF MOULDING
SAND
MOISTURE CONTENT TEST

Moisture content of the molding sand mixture may determine by

drying a weighed amount of 20 to 50 grams of molding sand to a
constant temperature up to 100°C in a oven for about one hour.

Then cooled to a room temperature and then reweighing the molding

sand. The moisture content in molding sand is thus evaporated.

Loss in weight of molding sand due to loss of moisture, gives the

amount of moisture which can be expressed as a percentage of the
original sand sample.
Percentage of moisture content in the molding sand can also be
determined in fact more speedily by an instrument known as a
speedy moisture teller.

Instrument is based on the principle that when water and calcium

carbide react, they form acetylene gas which can be measured and
this will be directly proportional to the moisture content.

Instrument is provided with a pressure gauge calibrated to read

directly the percentage of moisture present in the molding sand.
 Clay Content Test

Amount of clay is determined by carrying out the clay content test in

which clay in molding sand of 50 grams is defined as particles which
when suspended in water, fail to settle at the rate of one inch per min.

Clay consists of particles less than 20 micron, per 0.0008 inch in dia.
Grain Fineness Test

AFS Grain Fineness Number (AFS-GFN) is one means of

measuring the grain fineness of a sand system.

GFN is a measure of the average size of the particles (or grains) in

a sand sample. Grain fineness of molding sand is measured using a
test called sieve analysis.

Test is carried out in power-driven shaker consisting of number of

sieves fitted one over the other.
Permeability Test

Permeability is determined by measuring the rate of flow of air

through a compacted specimen under standard conditions.

A cylinder sand sample is prepared by using rammer and die. This

specimen (usually 2 inch dia & 2 inch height) is used for testing the
permeability or porosity of molding and the core sand.

Test is performed in a permeability meter consisting of

the balanced tank, water tank, nozzle, adjusting lever, nose piece for
fixing sand specimen and a manometer. The permeability is directly
measured.
Permeability number P is volume of air (in cm3) passing through a
sand specimen of 1 cm2 cross-sectional area and 1 cm height, at a
pressure difference of 1 gm/cm2 in one minute.

P = Vh /atp

Where, P = permeability
v = volume of air passing through the specimen in c.c.
h = height of specimen in cm
p = pressure of air in gm/cm2
a = cross-sectional area of the specimen in cm2
t = time in minutes.
Refractoriness Test

The refractoriness of the molding sand is judged by heating the A.F.S

standard sand specimen to very high temperatures ranges depending upon
the type of sand.

The heated sand test pieces are cooled to room temperature and examined
under a microscope for surface characteristics or by scratching it with a
steel needle.

If the silica sand grains remain sharply defined and easily give way to the
needle.
In the actual experiment the sand specimen in a porcelain boat is
placed into an electric furnace. It is usual practice to start the test from
l000°C and raise the temperature in steps of 100°C to 1300°C and in
steps of 50° above 1300°C till sintering of the silica sand grains
takes place.

At each temperature level, it is kept for at least three minutes and then
taken out from the oven for examination under a microscope for
evaluating surface characteristics or by scratching it with a steel
needle.
CUPOLA FURNACE
 Direct Fuel-Fired Furnaces
Small open-hearth in which charge is heated by natural gas fuel burners
located on side of furnace
• Furnace roof assists heating action by reflecting flame down against
charge
• At bottom of hearth is a tap hole to release molten metal
• Generally used for nonferrous metals such as copper-base alloys and
aluminum
Crucible Furnaces
Metal is melted without direct contact with burning fuel mixture
• Sometimes called indirect fuel-fired furnaces
• Container (crucible) is made of refractory material or
high-temperature steel alloy
• Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze, brass, and alloys of zinc
and aluminum
• Three types used in foundries:
(a) lift-out type, (b) stationary, (c) tilting
Three types of crucible furnaces:
(a) lift-out crucible,
(b) stationary pot, from which molten metal must be ladled, and
(c) tilting-pot furnace
Electric-Arc Furnaces
Charge is melted by heat generated from an electric arc

• High power consumption, but electric-arc furnaces can be designed for

high melting capacity

• Used primarily for melting steel

Electric arc furnace for steelmaking
Induction Furnaces
Uses alternating current passing through a coil to develop magnetic field in metal

• Induced current causes rapid heating and melting

• Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing action in liquid metal

• Since metal does not contact heating elements, the environment can be closely
controlled, which results in molten metals of high quality and purity

• Melting steel, cast iron, and aluminum alloys are common applications in foundry
work
Induction furnace
Additional Steps After Solidification
• Trimming
• Removing the core
• Surface cleaning
• Inspection
• Repair, if required
• Heat treatment