In S. Vosniadou (Ed.) (2013) International Handbook of Research On Conceptual Change. Second Edition. (Pp. 269 286) New York, Routledge
In S. Vosniadou (Ed.) (2013) International Handbook of Research On Conceptual Change. Second Edition. (Pp. 269 286) New York, Routledge
S. Vosniadou (Ed.) (2013) International Handbook of Research on
Conceptual Change. Second Edition. (pp. 269‐286) New York,
1
Routledge.
Conceptual change and historical narratives about the nation. A theoretical
and empirical approach.
Mario Carretero Autonoma University, Madrid & Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias
Sociales, Argentina
Jose A. Castorina University of Buenos Aires and Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones
Científicas y Técnicas, Argentina
Leonardo Levinas University of Buenos Aires and Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones
Científicas y Técnicas, Argentina
1.INTRODUCTION
Conceptual change in historical knowledge has not been given as much empirical attention as it has
been in the natural sciences. As a matter of fact, in the previous edition of this Handbook there was only
one chapter devoted to this topic (Leinhardt & Ravi, 2008). This is clearly a consequence of the lesser
amount of cognitive studies about historical knowledge, compared to those concerning natural science.
However, research about history and students knowledge has improved much in the last years and
there is nowadays a clear interest in the topic. Insightful research projects have been going on, as it can
be seen in previous reviews (Barton, 2008; Limon, 2002; VanSledright & Limon, 2006; Voss & Wiley,
2006).
In this chapter, the following issues will be addressed. First, a general overview of the topic of
conceptual change in social and historical knowledge will be presented. In particular
1
This paper was written with the support of Projects 2008‐1217 (National
Research Agency, Argentina) and the Project EDU‐2010 (National Research
Agency, Spain), both of them coordinated by the first author. We would like
expres our gratitude for that support. The first author would like also to thank
to the Stanford University Humanities Center for the Bliss Carnochan Visitor
Fellowship, 2011.
establishing a relation to the specific problems and features of the latter. An important distinction will
be presented concerning two different goals of history as subject matter. The so called Romantic and
the Enlightened objectives, mostly related to identity construction and to critical and disciplinary
analysis of the past respectively. Conceptual change processes in history will be considered from this
point of view, generally expecting that identity contents hinder conceptual change in history. The
emphasis will be on the study of the concept of “nation”, because of its pivotal role in historical
accounts in numerous countries. Furthermore it is a very influential notion both in the way academic
history is elaborated and the way students and adults understand historical contents in and outside
school. People´s concepts of their own nation will be analyzed in the context of their historical
narratives. A six features model about the processes of production‐consumption of master narratives
will be presented. This model is based on a comparative analysis of school historical narratives of
different countries and it will be used as a framework to discuss our empirical data.
Both basic and applied educational research about conceptual change on history are still in their very
first stage and much more research will be necessary. This chapter tries to present a number of
theoretical and empirical findings that are interesting to elaborate in this area in the future. In
particular to explore the issue of capturing the process of conceptual change itself. This is to say, the
specific relations and tensions between prior and new knowledge. This has been one of the central
problems in the study of conceptual change in general for the last decades. In this chapter we will pay
attention to some differences between natural sciences contents and historical ones in relation to how
prior and new knowledge are related, emphasizing the analysis of specific difficulties of prior historical
knowledge to be changed.
2.CONCEPTUAL AND PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE IN HISTORY
VanSledright and Limón (2006; see also Limon, 2002) have presented a detailed analysis of the distinct
types of historical knowledge. These authors distinguished between conceptual and procedural
knowledge, and included two categories within the former: first and second order conceptual
knowledge. First order conceptual knowledge consists of conceptual and narrative knowledge that
answers the “who”, “what”, “where”, “when”, and “how” of history. Examples of first order knowledge
include concepts such as “names”, “dates”, “democracy”, “socialism”, and others.
Second order conceptual knowledge, involves the knowledge of concepts and ideas that investigators
impose onto the past in order to interpret it and thus give meaning to it. This knowledge makes
reference to metaconcepts, related to the epistemological conceptualizations of history. Hence,
concepts such as “cause”, “progress”, “decadence”, “proof”, “primary and secondary sources”,
“historical context”, “author perspective”, and “source reliability” constitute second order conceptual
knowledge. Second order knowledge also acts as the intersection between first order conceptual
knowledge and procedural knowledge. Concerning basically first order concepts Barton (2008)
provided a very exhaustive and detailed review of the research of the last decades. He analyzed the
contribution of more than 200 papers related to students prior ideas in history.
Procedural knowledge refers to the comprehension and application of specific practices (e.g., reasoning
or solving historical problems) that researchers activate when they investigate the past and construct
interpretations that result in first order conceptual knowledge. Some examples of procedural
knowledge are source evaluation, construction of cognitive maps and models, interpretation of an
event within its historical context, argument elaboration, research, and document elaboration. Voss
and Wiley (2006) elaborated a list of ten cognitive activities, basically related to procedural knowledge,
that a history expert must apply. These activities are divided into three larger categories: evaluation of
evidence in information gathering, analysis and construction of narratives, and reasoning and problem
solving.
Evidence evaluation is critical because it determines whether the “proof” in favor of one position or
another, given a particular historic problem, is adequate and whether it suggests one conclusion or
another. The process of evidence evaluation in history begins with data, which are frequently
incomplete and even contradictory, followed by attempts to reconstruct (after the fact) the goals and
causes of these data.
Studies conducted by Limón and Carretero (1999; 2000) attempted to shed light on the reasoning
processes that are produced when dealing with historical problems, and how this reasoning process
could eventually have an effect on conceptual change. More specifically, these authors analyzed, among
other issues, selection processes, evidence evaluation, and hypothesis formulation. It was concluded
that consideration of the temporal dimension and the historical contextualization of concepts
constitute important skills involved in historical reasoning and problem solving. Partly, this conclusion
led us to pay more detailed attention to the changing nature of historical concepts and their use. In
other words, to the need to study how historical concepts have different meanings in different contexts
and times. Precisely related to this question, is the insightful and promising work of Koselleck (1975;
2004).
3. THE CHANGING NATURE OF HISTORICAL CONCEPTS
Previous research on conceptual change in history has been fruitful and clarified the different elements
of cognitive processes related to historical knowledge and expertise. However, it has been based on a
rather static view of historical concepts. Most of previous authors have not taken into account that
historical concepts have an intrinsically changing nature. We think this is in itself of great importance
and also has theoretical and applied implications. It’s particularly insightful to take into account the
theoretical contributions of historians themselves, as Topolski (2000) indicated. We will be
considering the history of ideas elaborated by Koselleck, an essential contribution to understanding
conceptual change in history.
As many history teachers know, any historical concept, for example “democracy”, did not mean the
same in classical Greece as it did in the French Revolution, or as it currently does. Yet underneath this
very well known instructional issue, lies a much more profound theoretical problem with historical
concepts.
Koselleck assumes that political ideas and concepts have been decisive for the
origin of modern society. Concepts may be understood as “pivots around which
all arguments turn” (Koselleck, 2004, p. 65). They form a part of a discourse, a
normative vocabulary that legitimizes political behavior (Iggers, 1993). Thus,
historical concepts posess many diverse meanings. Not only because of the
passing of time, but also in the same historical moment concepts can be used in
different ways, according to different groups and interests. “The history of
concepts may be reconstructed through studying the reception, or, more
radically, the translation of concepts first used in the past but then pressed into
service by last generations. Therefore, the historical uniqueness of speech‐acts,
which might appear to make any history of concepts impossible, in fact creates
the necessity to recycle past conceptualizations. The record of how their uses
were subsequently maintained, altered, or transformed may properly be called
the history of concepts” (Koselleck, 1996, 62‐63).
Koselleck emphasizes that the change in the concept of history itself is very important. The complex
relationship between history ‐understood as a series of facts belonging to the past‐, and history ‐
considered as a study of the past‐ is a historical process in itself. The convergence of these two
meanings took place towards the 18th century. The concept “history” became a fundamental concept of
society, particularly of sociability, as a fundamental concept of the social and political language. Thus
becoming a regulative principle of all experience and all expectations possible (Koselleck, 1975).
Koselleck’s position is close to Gadamer (2004) concerning the importance of language. This implies an
enormous influence of the verbal labels of historical concepts, but he insists that language does not
fully explain historical events. Every historical event has elements that have nothing to do with
language.
He argues that a concept is not just the index that captures relations, is also one of its factors. Each
concept opens some horizons of possible experiences, and closes others. Hence the history of concepts
leads to discoveries that are not due solely to the empirical work. As “indexes” articulate social
experiences, they also form discursive networks that transcend immediate social experiences. They are
indicative of structural changes as well and reveal the socio political and historical prospective. This
means that the historical concepts are factors of social change, but also set limits on the experience
possible and theory conceivable. The concepts provide social actors with the tools to make sense of
their actions. They make the raw experience become lived experience. In other words, changing
concepts, even very old ones, come to acquire new meaning. Thus, when the term "citizen" replaces the
term "establishment", these changes are anticipated and intervention takes place. The social struggle is
also a fight for the concept, a sort of semantic civil war (1975).
In parallel history was given a new character, as a discipline geared towards studying the
processes that led to the establishment of modern nations, that is to say national history. The history of
societies became intimately related to and even confused with political history. The concept “history”
becoming a fundamental concept of society and of the description of each particular society, emerged
from the French Revolution, which gave rise to the age of the modern states and the corresponding
national histories.
4.THE DYNAMIC NATURE OF HISTORICAL CONCEPTS AND THE DIFFERENT GOALS OF THE
SCHOOL HISTORY CURRICULUM
According to Koselleck, the changes in historical concepts reflect the changes in historical processes.
This is extremely important not only from a theoretical point of view but also when it comes to
teaching history, where complex concepts ‐such as independence, emancipation, liberty, people, nation,
state, patriotism, citizenship‐ need to be introduced. All concepts have a dynamic in time and a
different connotation for each individual actor, or protagonist group. Therefore, history teaching
should take into account how students use certain historical concepts (such as nation or territory,
presented below), and how the individual and the class could represent different features of the same
concept, generating different meanings according to their prior knowledge and cultural experience. In
the last part of this chapter, this specific contribution of Koselleck will be analyzed in terms of its
relevance for both capturing the change process of historical concepts and its educational implications.
Before we go more deeply into present research on the topic, let us consider an essential issue in
relation to historical concepts and their teaching, which has not been taken into account by cognitive
approaches. We are referring to the goals of the history curriculum. What should we teach history for?
As we will see below, the answer to this question can affect in a serious way the meaning of historical
concepts adopted by students.
Different researchers have considered the existence of competing objectives of school history (Barton,
2008; Wineburg, 2001). Carretero (2011) has redefined those objectives as “romantic” and
“enlightened” because their features and functions stem from their respective intellectual roots in
Romanticism and the Enlightenment. In other words, we claim that history is taught in any national
school system attending to two different goals: to make students “love their country” (Nussbaum and
Cohen, 2002) and to make them “understand their past” (Seixas, 2004).
In a romantic vein history education is one but fundamental strategy used to achieve: a) A positive
assessment of the past, present and future of one’s own social group, both local and national; b) A
positive assessment of the country’s political history; c) Identification with past’s events, characters
and national heroes.
Why should these goals of history education be considered “romantic”? There are at least two
important reasons. First, because the emergence of the nation‐states cannot be fully understood
without the romantic ideas and their intellectual context (Hobsbawm, 1997). The idea of the nation as
a specific ethnic group that is under a process of awakening, finally constituting itself as a destined
community, cannot be conceived of entirely without the romantic ideal, as will be seen in the research
presented later in the chapter. In an enlightened vein there has been the goal of fostering critical
citizens capable of informed and effective participation in the historical changes of both the nation and
the rest of the world. This includes possible criticism on the own local or national community, or even
larger political units. In their most current manifestation in several countries, enlightened goals
translate into the following disciplinary and cognitive objectives: a) To understand the past in a
complex manner, according to age and educational level, which usually implies mastering the
discipline’s conceptual categories; b) To distinguish different historical periods, through the
appropriate comprehension of historical time; c) To understand the complex historical multi‐causality,
in which individual and collective motivations interact with causal factors in a complex and
sophisticated manner; d) To relate the past with the present and the future, this entails an important
link with other Social Sciences and also with Civic Education; and e) To approach the methodology
used by historians, which allows the student to learn history in an intellectually active way and to
understand historical knowledge as a depository of problems that can be solved with objectification.
These romantic and enlightened goals of history education coexisted from the very beginning of the
school history teaching and developed over time. The romantic goals were the most important in many
countries until approximately 1960. After that, the disciplinary goals started having an increasing
importance (Carretero, 2011). When enlightened goals were included as part of the historical contents,
they were considered perfectly compatible with the romantic ones. However, several studies
(Carretero, Asensio & Rodriguez Moneo, 2012; Hammack, 2011) have indicated the tension this might
generate in student´s minds. This chapter tries to clarify how this tension is seriously affecting the
understanding of historical contents and how the romantic goals of history instruction could hinder
conceptual change of historical concepts. Based on this distinction, we think it would be possible to
have a better understanding of the irreducible tension that exists between the identity‐formation
function and the critical function played by historical knowledge in the construction of historical
narratives and concepts. But, can these two goals be simultaneously achieved? Can people love their
own country, and at the same time develop a critical understanding of its functioning? Serious conflicts
between these two goals are expected, particularly in relation to conceptual change issues. This is
because, as it is very well known, the most important goal of any nation is to maintain, and not to
change, the national identity of its inhabitants. In contrast, to understand the historical past of any
nation in a disciplinary way, would certainly imply numerous and dramatic conceptual changes. This is
precisely the essence of a historian´s expertise (Voss & Wiley, 2006): to produce better causal
explanations, based on more advanced and complex theoretical interpretations suitably connected to
empirical evidence.
5.THE NATION AS A POLITICAL AND HISTORICAL CHANGING CONCEPT
There are two main reasons for focusing on the concept of nation. On the one hand, most school history
is precisely national history, instead of history of Europe, America or other regions and parts of the
world. On the other hand, because logically most of these school national histories are based on the
concept of “nation”. Studying how nation is represented and its possible process of change would
contribute to a better understanding not only of the concept by itself but of most the historical
concepts that are taught in and out of the school. In a similar vein, most of the history museums are
precisely national museums (Asensio & Pol, 2012 and González Oleaga, 2012), and their narratives
main motives are based on national categories. Also, most of the historical films and TV shows are
based on main national historical characters.
Now, “nation” is not only a historical but also a political concept. Its political meaning has an influence
on the way it is used in history. Let us examine this issue briefly, starting with a real and meaningful
anecdote about what occurred recently at a Spanish school. Like other southern European countries,
Spain has received millions of immigrants in a very short period of time. In an educational context this
intense immigration process is creating not only educational but also social and political problems of
adjustment. This very representative social interaction in a public school near Barcelona was described
recently in the Spanish newspaper El Pais (Sep, 14, 2011) : 2
The vast majority of families repeat the enrollment of [of their children from] one course to another, but
some just leave [the school]. "Here are many Moors," […] a mother justified to the director last year
[unsubscribing her child]. "But you are Moroccan," he said. "Yeah, but I've been here 25 years and they just
arrived." A story very similar to that of two kids from China, which last year were fighting on the
playground using Chinese language. When a teacher separated them and asked for explanations , [one kid
said:] "Because she called me Chinese," […]. "But is that what you are," [the teacher] said. "Yes, but I was
born here and she did not" she replied.
The above are fascinating examples of ways of using and making meaning of the concept of nationality.
In one case, we have a change from Marroccan to Spanish, and in the other case, from Chinese to
Spanish. But what it is more interesting is that particularly in the second case, there is a complex
relationship between internal and external features of the concept. As it has been indicated by the
newspaper report, the Chinese student considers that her external features and the language she is
speaking, identical to those of her classmate, are not the adequate to define her national identity. We
consider this as identity change or transition because she is defending the application of different
features to define herself. Those features, apparently, are related to the place where she was born:
Spain. And in the case of the Moroccan mother those features have to do with the amount of years
living in that country. In both cases, there’s referred to internal instead of external features. In other
words, the protagonists are referring to symbolic or conceptual features to define their national
identity, instead of physical and immediately perceptible features, such as the color of the skin and the
shape of the eyes.
It could be assumed that besides the amount of years living in a country, other
internal features could be also added to the ones necessary to define a new
nationality, which implies a new concept of the nation. Thus, the previous
example could be explained in terms of well known research about categories
and concepts (Keil, 1992). But, one of the peculiarities of the social and historical
prior knowledge is their cultural and political origin. Thus, these prior ideas
come very often from social representations of national historical identities,
through school contents, media, etc. On the contrary, many natural scientific
ideas could also have a cultural support but their origin is much more related to
pure cognitive constraints.
2
http://politica.elpais.com/politica/2011/09/14/actualidad/1315986423_8007
68.html (retrieved, Dec, 21, 2011).
The above illustrates what Koselleck indicates as the simultaneous use of different meanings of a
political and historical concept, either at the same historical moment by different persons or
institutions. The kid does not accept “Chinese” as the definition of his/her identity, because – among
other causes‐ she considers “Spanish‐Catalan” as a national concept higher in hierarchy. With the
previous example, and its analysis, the political meaning of the concept of nation was examined. Let us
further explore the historical dimension of this key concept.
6. ROMANTIC VERSUS DISCIPLINARY HISTORICAL CONCEPTIONS OF NATION
Even though it is not easy to reach an agreement on the unquestionable features of nation as a concept,
it is very common to find references to a common past, but also to a shared present and future. For
Anthony Smith (2002b), a nation is “a named human population occupying an historic territory, and
sharing myths, memories, a single public culture and common rights and duties for all members” (p.
65). A distinct definition is proposed by Connor (2004): “The nation is the largest group that shares a
sense of common ancestry. Corollary: The nation is the largest group that can be
influenced/aroused/motivated/mobilized by appeals to common kinship.”
In historiography, we find two main approaches applied to the concept of nation. We refer to them as
‘romantic’ and ‘disciplinary’. Table 1 organizes the main characteristics of each approach. The romantic
approach, also known as perennialist, is characteristic of historiography during the 18th and 19th
centuries. In this approach, the nation is understood as a natural reality and national sentiment is
spontaneous and innate. It is also supposed that national identities are permanent, with roots in the
most remote past (Smith, 2002b). In the romantic approach, nations can be found to have existed
“forever”, as some of the students we interviewed tended to say (Carretero & Kriger, 2011; Lopez,
Carretero & Rodriguez‐Moneo, 2012).
In the mid 20th century, another approach was developed, known as the disciplinary or
instrumentalist approach. National identities came to be seen as artificial inventions, directed by
political interests (Gellner, 1978).
PLEASE, INSERT TABLE 1 ABOUT HERE
The disciplinary approach to the nation has become dominant in current
historiography. There are very few historians who doubt that the nation is a
modern construct, a product of the new conditions that arose after the
Enlightenment and following the American and the French Revolutions (Alvarez
Junco, 2011; Hobsbawm, 1997; Smith, 2002b).
As these authors suggest, the romantic approach creates a dual illusion, essential for any analysis of the
conceptual change process of historical concepts. Despite that the fact that practically no current
historian doubts the constructed character of the nation and national sentiment, people still feel
passionately about nations and continue to anchor their identity to the nation, expecting to somehow
transcend their own brief existence. This illusion would be the source of what Billig (1995) has
considered “banal nationalism”. As it becomes clear in the analysis of the narratives generated about
the concept of the nation presented below, this banal nationalism could have the effect of preventing
conceptual change in the field of history.
Within the current historiography, the nation is viewed as a modern social construct, culturally created
and with an abstract and multidimensional character; it is formed by various elements whose relative
importance is negotiable. However, the national narratives that are present in the teaching of history
frequently reflect a romantic and essentialist conception of the nation, thus nationalizing both the
events and the protagonists of the past (Carretero & López, 2010a). Both political theorists (Balibar,
1991) and historians (Braudel, 1998) consider that history has been traditionally presented in the
form of a tale that creates a national continuity that begins in the remote past. This has also been
affirmed by the analysis of educational researchers (Halldén, 1998).
7. CONCEPTIONS OF NATION IN THE CONTEXT OF HISTORICAL NARRATIVES
Most of cognitive analysis of historical thinking and expertise agrees that historical concepts are used
by both experts and novices in the contexts of historical narratives (Limon & VanSledright, 2006;
Wertsch, 2002; Voss & Wiley, 2006). As is well known, there has been a long and broad epistemological
debate among historians and philosophers of history about the implications of narrativist approaches
in historical research (Ricoeur, 1990; White, 1987). The present paper will not debate this issue,
however fascinating. There is no doubt that most of causal explanations of the students about historical
problems are of a narrative nature, whether they use abstract concepts (Halldén, 2000; Rivière, Nuñez,
Barquero & Fontela, 1998) or concrete ones (Carretero, Lopez Manjon & Jacott, 1997). Historical
narratives have also been studied as to their contributing role in the construction process of national
and cultural identities (Hammack, 2011; Wertsch, 2010). This research has shown how most of these
narratives could be seriously criticized from the point of view of present disciplinary historical studies
about the process of nations formation (Berger, 2012; Foster, 2010). Even though most of these master
narratives are common school historical contents, they present nations more often from a romantic
point of view that from the disciplinary point of view. In this sense, master narratives, particularly in
textbooks, nowadays present ‐nations not as imagined communities (Anderson, 1983) but as real
entities (see Table 1).
Elsewhere (Carretero, 2011; Carretero & Bermudez, 2012) we have presented a theoretical analysis of
the interactive processes of production‐consumption of school historical narratives. Usually
production processes are related to the way cultural artifacts, as history textbooks in this case, include
specific historical narratives. Consumption processes have to do with the way students and people in
general make sense of and appropriate those produced contents. While produced and consumed
historical narratives do not share exactly the same features and elements, some kind of significant
interaction is expected. Based on previous work about students´ historical master narratives and its
cultural and educational significance (Wertsch and Rozin, 2000) and also in our comparative analysis
of history textbooks of different nations, most of them from Latin America (Carretero, Jacott and Lopez
Manjon, 2002; Carretero and Gonzalez, 2010), we have tried to establish a detailed analysis of the
features of historical master narratives and the way they are related to the features of nation as a
concept (see Table 1). In our view this could be fruitful in order to have a better understanding of the
conceptual change in history. Our proposal distinguishes six common features of master historical
narratives:
1.Exclusion‐inclusion as a logical operation contributing to establish the historical subject. Historical
narratives are always presented in terms a national “we”, as opposed to “they”. This logical operation is
performed in such a way that any positive aspect will be almost always assigned to the national “we”,
and any critical or negative aspect will be assigned to “the others” (Todorov, 1990). This logical
operation is very critical as it determines both the main voice and the logical actions for that national
subject.
2.Identification processes as a cognitive but also as an affective anchor. Interestingly enough,
developmental evidence (Barrett & Buchanan‐Barrow, 2005) showed that the national distinction “we‐
they” is already mastered by children between 6 and 8 years of age. Yet at that age children have no
precise concept of what a nation is, particularly compared to other political units as regions or cities. It
is very probable that this emotional feature will facilitate at a very early age the formation of the nation
as a concept, through a strong identification process, instead of a cognitive rational understanding. For
certain, in numerous countries patriotic rituals and their historical contents play an important role in
this process (Carretero, 2011: chapter 4).
3.Frequent presence of mythical and heroic characters and motives. Traditionally, one of the main
differences between historical and mythical explanation is precisely the absence of time in the case of
the latter (Carretero, Asensio & Pozo, 1991; Egan, 1999). Thus, myths and mythical figures and
narratives are usually beyond time restrictions. When time and its constraints are introduced history,
as a discipline, is making its appearance.
4.Search of freedom or territory as a main and common narrative theme. A number of authors (Barton
and Levstik, 2004, chapter 9) has studied how students consider the process of independence of their
own nation as a historical master narrative, with the main topic of the search of freedom as the starting
point of a new community. This understanding consists of very concrete and personalistic historical
concepts (Halldén, 1998). Thus, it is based almost uniquely on the intention of a group of persons to be
free from some domination and trying to obtain a specific territory. Usually, the territory is presented
as having no differences with the present one.
5.Historical school narratives contain basic moral orientations. The moral dimension
of historical master narratives is quite obvious, providing tautological legitimization for the nation ´s
main acts. Of particular importance is the right to the mentioned specific territory, what logically
includes the various violent acts and political decisions devoted to achieve it.
6.Romantic and essentialist concept of both the nation and the nationals. This feature implies the view
of the nation and the nationals as pre‐existing political entities, having a kind of eternal and
“ontological” nature. As it can be seen, this feature has a strong relation to the previous five, according
to the general coherence of the narrative.
The main objectives of our empirical research in the last years have been to analyze 12 to 18 year old
students´ and adults’ concept of nation (Carretero & Castorina, 2011; Carretero & Kriger, 2011). More
specifically we were interested in analyzing if their conceptions change as a result of both cognitive
development and school history learning. Our theoretical objectives were also related to examining
whether both Romantic and Enlightened goals of History teaching were having an influence of
students’ and adults’ conceptions. As stated above, our expectation was that traditional teaching of
national History hinders conceptual change in historical contents instead of favoring it (Carretero,
2011).
Most of the tasks used in our investigations have to do with national foundational or national historical
themes and concepts, particularly in relation to the past of both Spain and Argentina. Yet these
research topics have clear similarities in other parts of the world. We will present some of our main
findings as to how participants were employing the concept of nation in their narrative. Some of their
uses will be related to the six narratives features previously mentioned. We will not be presenting a
detailed analysis of every feature, as it can be found elsewhere (Carretero & Gonzalez, 2012; Carretero
& Kriger, 2011; Carretero, Lopez & Rodriguez‐Moneo, 2012; Lopez, Carretero & Rodriguez‐Moneo,
2012).
8. TWO DIFFERENT CONCEPTIONS OF THE “SPANISH RECONQUEST”
We conducted individual semi‐structured interviews on the Spanish "Reconquista". This historical
process refers to a period of almost 800 years during which several Christian kingdoms engaged in a
series of fights on the Iberian Peninsula. Arabs dominated the Iberian Peninsula from their arrival in
711 and their victory over the then ruling Visigoths. The socalled "Reconquista" begins in the year 718
and finally culminates in 1492 with the expulsion of the Arabs from the peninsula. Besides common
sensically considering that 800 years is too long a time for any territory recovery, as a matter of fact,
Spain as a nation did not exist until 17th century, and Spain as a modern Nation‐State did not exist until
the 19th century (Alvarez Junco, 2011). However, this process was re‐interpreted by historians over
the centuries and was converted into a national endeavor, by which the monarchy was legitimized and
on which the Spanish national identity was built (Ríos Saloma, 2005). It is important to mention that in
terms
of school history, the concept of “Reconquista” disappeared from Spanish textbooks 30 years ago. Yet
this notion has had, and still has, a frequent and intense presence in everyday culture. Present
historical research considers it as part of very complex developments of Christian kingdoms in
medieval Iberia peninsula.
We were interested in discovering to what extent participants understood the process of the
“Reconquista”. We investigated whether participants used the romantic national terms proper to 19th
century historiography ‐which interpreted the process as a Reconquest of the national territory‐ or
whether, in contrast, they de‐nationalized the event by avoiding connotations of "Reconquista" or
recovery and speaking simply of conquests (see for details Carretero, Lopez and Rodriguez‐Moneo,
2012; Lopez, Carretero and Rodriguez‐Moneo, 2012).
With respect to narrative feature 6, related to an essentialist concept of the nation and the nationals,
the following example is very clear. It’s representative of about 70 % of our participants. As was
mentioned before, it should be taken into account that neither Spain nor the Spaniards existed before,
at least, the 16 century.
th
As I think about it, the Arabs arrived to the peninsula from the south... they began ascending all the way
up and the Spanish started retreating (...) and then Spain, gained strength... and well, the typical story of
El Cid... (Pedro, 21 years).
The use of this essentialist concept of both the nation and the nationals is clearly and coherently
supported by most of the participants who display an explicit identification with the protagonist group
of the "Reconquista" using first person plural pronouns (narrative features 1 and 2). Importantly, this
identification is of a romantic and essentialist nature, as it recognizes a common nationality between
the protagonists in the historical events and the interviewed participants. A direct linkage is thereby
produced between past and present, in this case founded on a supposed, a‐temporal national identity.
Also, the heroic character of the endeavor (feature 3) can be seen in the following example. Ramón
makes no use of any historical time category.
“Well, it ended in 92, didn’t it? 1492 is when we pushed them out off Granada, of that I am quite certain...
(...) The Battle of Las Navas De Tolosa was a battle of vast importance where we triumphed over them.
They kept giving ground and in the end they only conserved Granada, where in the end we expelled them
from in 1492”. (Ramón, 21 years old)
Also, the vast majority of participants interpreted the process of the Muslim and the subsequent
Christian conquests in the Iberian Peninsula as a process of loss and recovery of the national territory
(narrative feature 4). The results indicate that this romantic vision of the process, is still in force and
remains as the master narrative used by those trying to provide meaning to the analyzed historical
event. For example:
“The Arabs invade a territory that is not theirs. During more than seven centuries they keep trying to
conquer what is the entire Spanish territory and, the Spanish, when it in fact was in essence their territory
before the Arabs came in, they reconquered it again to make it once again their own”. (Juan, 25 years)
9. THE CONCEPT OF NATION IN THE PROCESS OF INDEPENDENCE
In Argentina, the interviews consisted of asking participants to tell about the process of independence.
A picture was presented about the Independence Revolution of May 1810. It depicts the first act of
political autonomy, which took place in Buenos Aires in 1810 when it was still a Spanish territory.
(This event is similar to the Boston Tea Party in the United States history narrative). It’s an image very
common in history textbooks, museums and other cultural spaces devoted to collective memory.
The interview was based on asking for a narrative about the independence process from Spain that
happened, after a bourgeois revolution, by early the 19 century. Specifically, participants
th
were asked if the people present in the pictures were Argentineans, if they were Argentineans just as
present Argentineans, and if they felt Argentineans in the same way present Argentineans feel. These
three questions were necessary for exploring in detail feature 6 above presented. This is to say, a
romantic and essentialist concept of both the nation and the nationals (see for details Carretero &
González, 2008; 2012).
As a matter of fact, the people present in the picture were not Argentineans, but Spanish colonists.
Argentina did not exist yet ‐the official independence took place 6 years later‐ and the territory
becoming independent from Spain was a very different political unit. Argentina as a nation‐state,
similar to the present one but having a significantly smaller territory, did not come into existence until
approximately 50 years later.
In this investigation, participants were 12, 14, 16 and 18 years old. Also a group of adults was included.
All of them were middle class, lived in a medium size city and (had) attended public schools.
Interestingly enough about two thirds of our participants considered the people depicted in the image
as Argentineans.
The narrative that appears when the subjects have to justify the “Argentineness” of the people is
strongly essentialist. Our participants considered the colonists to definitely be Argentineans because,
as some of them expressed, Argentina and the Argentineans “always existed”. It can be concluded that
the historical process of becoming member of the nation‐state tends to be seen as something that is
already predetermined, and not as a result of different political, social and economic influences (see
Table 1).
As Nehuen, 12 years old explains,
“If they were born here, it was because they were Argentine, they were born in Argentine territory,
not in Spain… it was here, it was owned by the Spanish, but it was an Argentine place”.
Thus, it is clear that this participant is considering Argentina as a preexisting nation, even
before its existance. On the contray, some interviews demonstrate that some subjects believe that the
people depicted are not Argentine, indicanting a nation´s conception closer to the disciplinary view.
For example,
“Can it be said that the people in this image are Argentine? No, most of them are Spanish (doubt) the
majority were Argentine because the majority were people that… (He doubts again and repeats with
confidence). At this moment they were not Argentine. In this moment they were not Argentine because
obviously, it was not Argentine, how is it possible to be American if the United States do not exist yet. What
was said was quite contradictory. (So, what do you think? Were they or were they not Argentine?) And…
they were not Argentine if Argentina did not exist. It was just a project at that moment.” (Juan, 12 years
old).
Interestingly enough, also, some hybrid explanations were found, as 16 year old
Santiago explains. [Some people argued that they were not Argentine because they were from the
Spanish territory and Argentina did not exist yet, what do you think?]
Even though Argentina did not exist at that moment, I think that they were Argentine because from the
beginning, they rebelled against the established power… and they confronted it to become independent
and to be Argentine; and they wanted to become Argentine… and if they wanted to be Argentine more
than to be Spanish… they were Argentine in their blood.
It can be seen, that this participant is taking care of not taking for granted the preexistance of
Argentina, but at the same time there is an essentialist use of the nation´s conception. Thus, his concept
is hybrid in the sense of containing a mixture of disciplinary and essentialist elements, without any
awareness of their contradiction.
In the participants’ answers to the three different questions asked, there were hardly any
statistically significant differences. This shows that two thirds of them considered the present
Argentineans the same as the people who appeared in the picture. Let us keep in mind here that the
second question asked explicitly about this possible equivalence and the third question was about a
possible self‐consciousness of that equivalence. In our opinion, this result indicated the extent to which
the participants have an essentialist concept of both the nation and the nationals. They show a clear
misunderstanding of the historical process behind any nation formation process. Their essentialist
concept of the present Argentineans prevents them to understand that they are a result of a set of
historical, political, economical and cultural factors (see Table 1). Finally, the results showed almost
no statistically significant differences across groups, except in the case of the adults who demonstrated
some better results. Thus, two thirds of 12, 14, 16 and 18 year olds manifested essentialist historical
concepts of the nation, showing no progress in their narratives and other features associated to them.
This means that there is no conceptual change across both age and school learning experience. A
surprising result, because there are six years of difference between the youngest and the oldest of our
participants. Yet, as a matter of fact, if a comparison is made with research in natural sciences concepts,
the result would not be surprising but confirming of the stability of many concepts in subjects’ minds.
Some questions can be raised about the possible reasons of such lack of change. In our opinion,
common and very passive practices of history education would be very much related to this result, but
this issue will be analyzed below.
10. CONCLUDING REMARKS
According to our studies it looks like the historical concept of nation is not understood in a proper
historical manner. Students have a rather essentialist idea of the nation, closer to a romantic than to a
disciplinary idea. This conception has essentialist features, such as an eternal territory legitimized in a
tautological way. Present nations appear in the mind of citizens as immutable political objects whose
historical origin is misunderstood, as if they existed “since always”. The stability of these conceptions
appear very clearly: no differences were found across different age groups of 12, 14, 16, 18 year olds
and adults. Also, taking into account how strong and persistent these conceptions appear, it could be
assumed that they present a clear resistance to change, even though we have no data on this matter
yet.
It could be maintained that the conceptual change process of the concept of nation has a number of
similarities with the process taking place in a number of natural sciences concepts, as studied by
numerous authors (Vosniadou, 2008). As indicated, the most striking similarity concerns the inability
of both adolescents and adults to incorporate disciplinary changes of their concept of nation, which is
persistently naïve, intuitive and probably socially shared and implicit. Another similarity concerns the
existence of students’ hybrid mental models in both natural sciences and historical concepts. In section
9, we have presented a case of such hybrid model about the historical knowledge about the nation. We
think it can be really compared to the classical example found by Vosniadou and Brewer (1992) about
the shape of the Earth where the students integrate astronomical conceptual elements with everyday
ones. In our case, the student also integrates disciplinaty elements with essentialist ones, which belong
to his everyday and social experience.
On the other hand, we think there are also be some differences between conceptual change processes
in historical and natural sciences concepts. These differences have to do with the epistemological
nature of historical knowledge (Limon, 2002; Wineburg, 2001). They cannot be considered fully in this
paper, due to space restrictions, but some of them will be mentioned. Firstly, there is an essential
feature of historical knowledge in relation to time (Carretero et al, 1994) which is very different in the
case of natural science concepts.
There is no way to make sense of the possible future without establishing a meaningful relation and
dialog among past, present and future (Carretero & Solcoff, 2012). In other words, historical
understanding implies social and political comprehension, but it adds a unique temporal dimension.
This dimension has been characterized in a very insightful manner by Koselleck (2004), emphasizing
the changing nature of historical concepts (consider precisely the title of one of his books, Future past).
For certain, the cognitive study of conceptual change in history could benefit from his contribution
about epistemology of history , as it has benefitted from the contribution of Kuhn´s ideas about
philosophy of science.
It is commonplace to state that only understanding the past the present can be understood. However, it
is the present, understood as an effect of the past, that in fact orients historical studies. History as
investigation of the past – to many historians the construction of the past – employing the tools of the
present, is what really allows understanding. Historical concepts are defined and restructured in the
course of time, and those are the very theoretical tools available to historians for analyzing the past.
Therefore, the study of the changes endured by fundamental historical concepts is decisive. For
example, determining the conceptual changes operating over time in the notion of ‘nation’, tell us about
the ‘national present’ in each historical moment. Moreover, it constitutes the principal device for
determining how the past has led to the actual concept of nation. In this sense, the constant changes in
political maps have oriented investigating the past to figure out how new national realities were
achieved.
Yet another difference exist between how change is produced in history and in the natural sciences,
intimately related to the possibility for the natural sciences to design and interpret experiences. The
latter is not possible in history, as its object of study is the past: something that cannot be experienced
in the present. Experience, and to a great extent the controlled experiment, are the main devices
through which individuals modify their theories in kuhnian terms (Levinas & Carretero, 2010). This is
not the case in history. The difference with history research, is that the authority of the so‐called
crucial experiments is replaced by the authority of the historical fact under the form of source,
document and testimony (see section 3 on the importance of procedural knowledge in History, which
is necessary to reason about those sources; Wineburg, 2001).
Finally, last but not least, we think there is also another important difference related to the way
narratives and concepts are certainly having a very strong relation we still need to know in a more
detailed way. This relation looks very different in the case of natural sciences knowledge, where there
are no intentions, agents, motives and other substantial elements of narrative knowledge. In sections 6
and 7, a theoretical proposal for analyzing school historical narratives has been presented. One of its
elements had to do precisely with the dichotomy of essentialist versus disciplinary concept present in
the narrative. But we still need to know how the different proposed features of the narratives interact
with each other. For example, we do not know yet if having a disciplinary concept included in the
student´s narrative would affect the whole meaning of narrative, independently of the rest of the
elements. In any case, we are totally persuaded that the way the concept of nation is represented by
students is of central importance on the study of historical knowledge, as it has been analyzed in
sections 5, 6, 7 and 8. So, it might be highly probable that other historical concepts representations
would depend very much on how nation is represented.
The teaching of history in many schools across the world still is something that should be seriously
improved. A number of significant contributors to history education have been trying to develop new
proposals. Most of them are in the line with developing disciplinary historical thinking in the schools
and Peter Lee (2004) has pointed out how, on numerous occasions, learning to think historically
(Levesque, 2010) entails navigating counterintuitive ideas.
Historical thinking is even described as an "unnatural process" (Wineburg, 2001), needed of a
epistemological switch (Gottlieb & Wineburg, 2012). This historical thinking is based on acquiring a set
of skills that are characteristic of historical experts (Carretero & López, 2010b; Voss and Wiley, 2006).
Some of these skills include the development of critical thinking, the understanding of historical time
and change, historical causality and source evaluation (Lee, 2005; Monte‐Sano, 2010). We would like to
insist also in the educational importance of a specific work on students concepts understanding and
conceptual change, in the line of the research presented in this paper (Camilloni & Levinas, 2002).
Disciplinary history delves into the past in search of new questions and answers and not with the goal
of celebrating or justifying a glorious national past. In this way, it would be possible to develop in our
students not only better historical concepts but a better historical consciousness (Seixas, 2004).
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