Feature Report

Game Winning Strateuie

SPRAY TECHNOLOGY FUNDAMENTALS & APPLICATION

Understanding
the fundamentals
will help debunk
misconceptions
and enable
better spray
applications

Charles W. Lipp
The Dow Chemical Co.
Photo:,lnniceu�·

pray technology is a powe1ful tool tions. Understanding the subtleties majority of nozzle use, therefore the
Sused to achieve higher levels of of drop size - a critical parameter in are featured here. SeveraI other type
overall process performance. Stra­ many spray applications - can result of n<Yhzles, notably rotary disk and ul
tegic decisions in selecting and in improved designs. There are many trasonic, have significant uses but ar
employing spray technology can yield pitfalls to avoid in the robust applica­ not discussed here.
dramatic wins. Understanding sprays, tion ofspray technology. The details of
drop size, and the strengths and chai, nozzle instal.fations can make the clif� Drop size considerations
acteristics of nozzle types and cor,·ectly ference between a problematic and a Misconception. Drop size is the criti­
positioning them are fundamental to trouble-free system. cal nozzle performance criteria for all
the desired process "response" or result. Bringing together a use1's process spray applications.
The selection of a nozzle is a tactical understanding and a spray nozzle Reality. For many process applica•
move that influences the outcome, and manufacturer's applications, knowl­ tions. drop size is one metric of pe r ­
is certainly more than just "choosing edge from thousands of designs can formance, especially where beat and
a spray nozzle." Misconceptions often yield excellent systems. '.rhe user mass t,·ansfer are required. Evapora•
limit how well we practice the art and needs basic knowledge of spray char­ tion, combustion and gas scrubbing are
science of engineering. Without state­ acteristics and measures to enable examples where a smaller drop size is
of-the-art knowledge of fundamentals this effective communication. An i n ­ usually an advantage. Figure 1 shows
and "rules-of-thumb," the technology depth understanding of the science a plot of specific surface area, which is
can be misapplied. The intents of this and technology improves the users' in­ inversely proportional to drop diam•
article are to debunk some miscon­ teraction with the nozzle manufactur­ cter. Large diameter drops normally
ceptions or overgeneralizations that er's technical support organization. have a negalive effect on combustion
cause unresolved design conflicts and Spray nozzles are applied in a wide and evaporation applications.
to provide the fundamentals to enable variety of process applications with a Misconception. The smaller the drop
better spray application. wide range ofcriticality. An example of size the better.
In many applications in the chemi­ a critical application is the quenching Reality. In p,·ocess applications requfr•
cal process industries (CPI}, sprays of hot gases where high performance, , ing vapor-liquid separation, smaller
determine performance. By creating a high reliability, and robustness are re­ drops can cause serious problems.
large droplet surface area, sprays are quired to handle process upsets. A less Smaller drops can be problematic even
used to generate the high rates of heat demanding usage of nozzles is manual in mass-transfer operations, such as
and mass transfer that is necessary pressure wash:ing of equipment. S i n ­ a spray towe1; because small drops
in spray drying, liquid waste incin­ gle-fluid spray nozzles and two-fluid are more easily entrained resulting
eration, and spray quenching applica- atomizing nozzles account for the vast in back mixing and increased stage
42 CHEM ICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM OCTOBER 2008
 TABLE 1.APPLICATION GUIDE FOR SPRAY DROP SIZE
Example application Descriptor Size, Dvso,
micron TABLE 2.CHARACTERISTICS OF RAIN DROPS
Size, Terminal Drop
micron velocity, m/ s volume
,,
-� ..
"Rain 2,500 6.5 91,1L
,drop§. "' ' !l!I
Mist 7 '5 0.25 0.2 nl
"¢[eµCij 15 0.Ql� 2pl

FIGURE 1. The drop size varies linearly

with the specific surface area and the
number of drops

swe forces (drag) can distort the shape

of a drop, consider for example a rain
drop shape, which is a flattened ellipse
unlike the typical artistic depiction ofa
long drop with a tail. Continuing with
the rain drop example, the maximum
size a rain drop can grow i s about 5
mm because the forces 011 the drop will
result in sufficient distortion to break
it up. This shows the complex phenom­
ena i n something as common a s rain.
These same physical processes of drop
coalescence and internal circulation
are important to many processes.
Size distribution. There are sev­
eraI methods of representing size
distributions. Figw·e 2 shows a spray
composed of equal volumes of three
!height. Spray penetration into a mov- the influence of gravity, drops larger diameters of drops, diameter D, Yu)
1 ing gas requires larger drops to retain than 3 micrometers (microns) in di­ and ¼D. It requires eight drops of½D
momentum. Therefore, if the drops are ameter will settle; even-smaller drop­ to equal the volume of one droplet of
too small, they may not cover the full lets will coalesce or be collected on diameter D, and 64 droplets of diam­
!
area of the spray tower allowing gas surfaces given sufficient time. This eter ¼D to have the same volume. The
to bypass the sprny. In a spray tower relative motion results in momentum surface area of each i s inversely pro­
there is a narrow design window - if being transferred between the phases. portional to the diameter. These rela­
he drop size is too large there will be It is he!pful to consider a spray as a tionships are simply the result of the

i
insllfficient area, if the size is too small collection of drops in motion and the geometry of spherical droplets.
t.here will be excessive entrainment . gas that sw-rounds them. The rate of For the collection of drops shown
Another area where penetration to momentum exchange between the gas in Figme 2, the number average drop
f. each a certain coverage is important is and dispersed drops depends on the size is slightly over ¼D; howeveT, tak­
pn applications where a surface is w e t ­ drop diameter and the gas density; ing the average, according to surface
fted. For example, spraying wash liqnid with smaller drops having a higher area or mass yields significantly dif­
n a mist-removal pad often requires rate of momentum transfer. ferent results. For this example a
he drops to penetrate the flowing gas Understanding the size of various number-average drop size is 0.Z877D,
o get adequate sm-face coverage of the droplets aids our engineeringjudgment. while the surface-area average drop
ad. Table 1 shows typical drop size Table 2 shows the range in sizes for size is 0.3836D the volume-average
ange used for selected applications. va1ious classes of droplets associated drop size i s 0.6575D, and the Sauter
�Jisconception. Spray nozzle "X" pro­ with precipitation. Rain drops range in mean diameter (SMD; surface-to-vol­
�uces a mono-dispersed drop size. size up to 5,000 microns. It takes 4-mil­ ume ratio) is 0.5833D, as defined in
�e<ility. Essentially all conunercial lion cloud droplets or aerosol drops to Equation (5). The choice of the type of
�pray and atomi1,iJ1g nozzles produce a coalesce ancl make a single rain drop. average results in a dramatically d i f ­
ange of ch-oplet sizes. A spray with u n i ­ '!'his raindrop takes about 5 min to fall ferent numerical value.
�orm drops is used as an "ideal spray" 2 k m from a cloud to the ground. In a common spray, the ratio of
n small-scale laboratory experiments. The motion of a drop in a gas causes largest-to-smallest drop diameter is
shear stress at the drop surface that about 30, which results in the ratio
!Fundamentals ofsprays results in internal circulation. This of drop volume of 27,000. Because of
prays arc dynamic, not a static col­ intemal circulation brings the liquid this, a wide tange of drop sizes exist
e<:tion of drops, because they are al­ from the core of the drop to the surface. in most sprays, and several measures,
Nays in motion relative to the gas Another effect of the motion is that the also referred to as moments, are used
that surrounds these drops. Under combination of shear forces and pres- to characte1ize the spray. Figure 3
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM OCTOBER 2008 43
 I-
D = D iameter
A= Area

1/2 D
2A 0 0 00
0 0 00
OOOOOOOG
00000000
00000000
00000000
1/4 D
4A

00000000
00000000
00000000
00000000
FIGURE 2. It requires eight drops of diameter FIGURE 3. Shown here is a spray drop-si.ze distribution, expressing
½D, and 64 droplets of diameter ¼D, to have the cumulative volume distribution as a function of drop diameter (Relative
same volume of one droplet of diameter D span= 1.83)

shows a spray drop-size distribution, The area mean drop size is given by: impact is a more iJnpo1-tant measure of
[ 1/2 nozzle performance and drop size is fr .
v2
expressed as a cumulative volume dis­
tribution as a function of drop diam­
eter. Fo1· example, at a diameter of 87
microns, 50% of the cumulative of total
D-,o= t m
relevant. Larger drop sizes and larger
Dv1o are preferred for some distribu­
tion applications to reduce the smaller
volume of the drops that make up the (3) fraction of the spray entrained with
spray is this size or smaller. Therefore, the surrounding gas.
this size is referred to as the Dv50 size. The volume mean drop size is given by: Misconception. The Sauter mean
Similarly the small and large por­ diameter, is the best measure of drop
tions of the spray can be represented [f o']'" size for a spray.
D:w =-'- -
by Dv 10 and Dv90, respectively. These Reality. A drop with a diameter of
measures might be important for spe­ ,n the SMD has the same surface-to­
cific spray nses. If entrainment is an (4) volume ratio as for the spray. This
issue, the Dv1o size is a significant diameter is sometiJnes used when
measure, but if complete evaporation 'l'he Sauter mean drop size is given by: mass transfer is the desired process
is required, then Dv90 is a good mea­ ,n
' result. The moment or characteris­
sure to evaluate whether the spray L,D tic diameter most frequently used
can meet the process requirements. D32 =-1
m
__ today is the Dv50. Weighing the
Another common measure of par­ I,02 (5) measure of central tendency on the
ticle size is the relative span (RS), or volume, which is equal to mass, re­
relative span factor (RSF'), defined Of these measmes of central tendency moves the bias that is created with
("average size"), the volume median
below, to express the width of the size number-based weightings. As shown
distribution normalized by the volume (not volume mean) and Sauter mean in Figure 3, the th1·ce measures of
median drop size. are the most commonly used moments. Dvs o, Dv10 and Dv90 provide a con­
The SMD W32 or Sauter mean) is the sistent set of measure of the whole
(D -DJIIO ) most frequently used of the moments drop-size distribution. 'I'he Dv90 is
RS = RSF = V90 described in Equations (2) through freque11tly used as a measure in ap­
Dvso (1) (5), however the Dvso (defined earlier) plications where the large-diameter
is more frequently used. '!'he number fraction limits the performance, for
Besides the volume-median and num­ mean, Dw, is the least used because it example where all of the drops must
ber-mean drop size, several other av­ overemphasizes the small drops. completely evaporate.' As indicated
erages are sometimes used based on Other spray characteristics are above, where ehtrainment is a design
other weightings. The number mean potentially more important for flow factor, the Dv1o is an important mea­
drop size is given by: distribution applications, for example sure or the drop size.
m
uniformity of volume flux (patterna­ Misconception. All drop-size-mea­
L,D tion). The spray angle and drop veloc- surement methods res, ult in the same
D10 = _1__ (2) ity are other critical pa1·ameters. In type and quality of data.
,n some cleaning operations, the spray Reality. Several methods are in com-
44 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM OCTOBER 2008
 FIGURE 5.
Spray-patternatlon
data provides
objective informa­
tion to compare
different
potential
nozzle choices

FIGURE 4. 1\vo different definitions

of spray angle are shown here

mon use to effectively characterize surements in the past decade have Simple models usually assume
sprays. Each method bas its strengths enabled remarkable advances in the spherical drops and drag coefficients
and ljmitations. 'l'hrce currently com­ application of spray technology, mov­ based on solids. For larger drops there
mon methods are laser diffraction, ing the standal'd of practice to a more is a significant deformation of the drop
optical imaging and phase Doppler quantitative engineering basis. resulting in increased drag. The liquid
interferometry. In laser diffraction, circulation induced in the drop may im­
the diffraction angle of the laser beam Spray pattern considerations pact the shear and, therefore, the drag.
passing through the spray is converted Misco11ceptio11. 1'he spray nozzle Computational-fluid-dynamics (CFD)
to a drop size distribution. In opti­ catalog showing sprny coverage has models are often used where the drop
cal imaging, the backlighted image is all the information needed to design density is higher and the momentum
analyzed to measure the diameter of spray coverage. transferred to the gas phase is impor­
each drop. For phase Doppler interfer­ Reality. Figure 4 shows two defini­ tant. An example where more detailed
ometry (PDl), the drop size distribu­ tions of spray angle, the initial emit• modeling may be needed is a spray
tion is derived from the interference ting angle ofthe edge of the spray just tower, where the spray causes a large
patterns created by the reflected and after emerging the nozzle, and the ef­ circulation pattern in the gas and this
refracted laser light from each drop. fective angle of the edge ofthe spray at back mixing influences the tower's per­
PDl provides the drop size and veloc­ a specified distance downstream. This formance. Normal spray tower design
ity fo1· each drop measured. downstream distance varies widely is based upon a countcrcurrent flow.
An issue common to all of these depending on the spray usage, from 10 The back mixing induced by the spray
measurements is the sampling of the mm to 10 m. $pray coverage is influ­ could mean that a back-Jllixecl vessel
spray. When spray performance is enced by the motion ofthe surrounding analysis would be more accurate than
critical, one must assure that a suffi­ gas and gravity. Drop trajectory can a countercurrcnt analysis.

l cient ni,mbcr or drops are measured,

commonly 30,000 to 100,000 drops per
measu,·ement. Because the drop size,
drop velocity and spray density vary
be modeled based upon the drag force
equations to provide insight on drop
motion, evaporation or mass transfer
and heat transfer. This one-way cou­
Mi.sconception. A solid cone spray
pattern is the most effective in pro­
cess sprays.
Reality. Selection ofthespray-pattern
across a spray, the locations chosen pling of momentum transferred to is a critical decision, in part, because
fol' measurements are critical to com­ the gas flow oft.en suffices for systems this influences the drop size. There
pare sprays. Although all these meth­ where a high degree of accuracy is not are several spray-pattern types avail­
ods ol' measurement produce reliable required or where the drop density is able, hollow cone, solid cone, Oat fan,
results, caution should be used when low. It neglects the gas phase motion tapered fan and so on. These terms
comparing results obtained from dif­ induced by the spray. A common ex­ qualitatively describe Lhe spatial dis­
fel'ent measurement 1nethods. This is ample of the effect of the gas motion tribution of the liquid flux produced
because the methods call for sampling induced by sprays occurs in a shower by the spray. A quantitative descrip­
the spray in different ways, which stall where the shower curtain, if not tion of the spray pattcm is provided
may yield different numerical values properly attached, will be pulled into by the patternation, which is the spa­
for the drop size distribution. the stall by the air circulation induced tial distribution of liquid flux in terms
Rapid and reliable drop- size mea- by the spray from the showcr. of volumetric flow per unit area. An
CHEMI CAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM OCTOBER 2008 45
 Feature Report

NOZZLE TYPES AND NOZZLE SELECTION

he types of si ngle-fluid nozzl es Inlet
Tcommonl y used ore, flat-Ion
spiral, hollow cene or pressure
swi rl, solid cone. The hydraulic char·
octeri stics of these nozzles con be re·
lated by E9uotion (6), derived from Free
passage ·.;;
..
N

the Bernoulli e9uotion. Jhis equation size

E
a.
shows that the Row depends on the
ressure drop to o pewer ranging
0
p
from 0.40 to 0.50. A nozzle con be
viewed as o narrowing of the fl ow
passage where the fluid occel er· Outlet orifi ce
ates. Therefore. the pressure drop Gas/l iquid ratio (GLR) mass
is primarily due to this inerti a effect FIGURE 6. A sing le-fluid nozzle FIGURE 7. Shown here is a typicat rel ation­
rather than frictional losses. The type with a core that may induce ship between gas-to-liquid ratio (GLR) and
of nozzle influences the exponent, a swirt the drop size
and the size of the nozzle influences
k. Nozzles with a core thot may induce a swirl, as shown in Two-fluid nozzles, usi ng a gos to atomize lhe liquid, ore often
Fi gure 6, hove o lower value of n, while o nozzle without a core used lo achieve certain process requirements. The desi gn require·
hos o value of 0.5. This flow characteristic is descri bed in the ments depend on the specifi cs of the materials bei ng atomized
e9uotions below where k is for o specific nozzl e model. The re· and the process itself. Two-fluid nozzl es hove two independent
loti onship in this eguati on con be used to descri be tabular flow degrees of freedom: gos moss Aowrote and liqui d moss flowrote.
and pressure drop information eften found in o spray rnnzle's The gos-to-liquid moss ratio (GLR} typically is in the range of
technical informati on. Pressure drop is often the independent 0.1 to 3.0. The primary means of controlling the drep sizefor o
variable because it is often determined by the suppl y system. specific noz,de is the gos-to-liquid ratio.
The dependent parameter is the nozzle size or "k' as shown in The graph presented in Figure 7 shows a typical relationship
the rearranged form in E9uotion (7). between GLR and the drop size. On the right-hand portion of
the curve, the drop size is insensitive to changes in GLR, while
F = k !>P" {6) =
I k F .fsi (7) on the left, modest changes in GLR will hove o dramatic im·
.fsi AP" poet on the drop size this nozzle produces. The some nozzle
A basic consideration for selecti ng any spray nozzl e is the con· con be operated in either mode, depending on the design
stroint of pre.sure drop or the requirement of Aow. This require· parameters chosen. Operation with o high GLR tends to result
ment seems obvieus, but the most frequent mistake mode is to in higher energy consumption due to the larger volume of
not fully consider the flow characteristic above of a single nozzle compressed gos required. Operational constraints and design
or o group of nozzles. Equati on (6) provi des o simpl e means to parameters combine to define the operating range for o spe·
relate Row and pressure drop when the flow is h.lrbulent, that is, cific nozzle. The control system limits on the minimum GLR ore
when the Reynolds number at the eri fice is above 2,300. ihis is often critical to assure o robust deslgn when o minimum drop
rarel y en issue for fluids with o water-like viscosity. size is required. 0

example ofvolume flux is a rain rate other ti mes, where coverage is not description of the spray. \Vhere the
where 3 in./h is a heavy rain. important, but small drop size is criti­ spray pattern is Cl'itical to the design,
Many applications have obvious cal, a hollow <:one may be desirable the patternationdata for the particuhu·
requirements for a particular spray to achieve a smaller drop size for a nozzle should be reviewed. �1gure 5 is
pattern. For example, a flat-fan spray given flow and pressure drop. Figure an example of spray patternation data
nozzle is a good choice for applying ma­ 5 shows common realities offeathered that provides the objective information
terial on the web of a paper machine or edges, slightly non-symmeti�cal and to compare different potential nozzle
wetting a vertical wall of a vessel. In non-uniform flux. Patternation mea­ choices. Patternation is simply a collec­
many process vessels, a solid-cone spray surements are made at a distance that tion of"rain gauges" often mounted in a
pattern is desirable. Examples include reflects the usage distance. linear array across a spray pattern.
distributing the liquid across a packed Misconception. Spray pattern clas· Examples where particular types of
bed or a mesh pad for mass transfer or sification is sufficient for selecting nozzles are used follows:
washing. However, the unifon11ity ofthe nozzles for liquid distribution. • A flat spray is often used for apply­
spray may or may not be sufficient for R.eality. In many designs, the spray ing materials to a moving web, such
the particular process application. pattern may be one of the important as on a paper machine
If uniform coverage is required, the characteristics but certainly not the • A solid-cone spray nozzle is used to
engineering data needed to make a only one. As discussed previously, distribute a liquid across an area.
nozzle selection will often be the pat­ terms such as "full cone", "hollow cone" This mriy be used to wet a surface,
ternation data described above. At and "flat spray" provide a qualitative wash a wire- mesh mist eliminator
46 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM OCTOBER 2008
 . . ,·.
..
Distorted Flattened Bag Drops and

)... 0 ·•·
drop drop llglments

Gas velocity
. ....-,. ...
•.

.....: •-...
I ••• 1

Time
FIGURE 8. Stages of drop breakup due to aerodynamic FIGURE 9.The maximum, stable drop sizes are based on the
forces are shown schematically property of water droplets in air at ambient pressure. For this
example, We = 12
or distribute Iiquid across a packing Process environment and expose the liquid to high shear rates,
In applications such as combustion or fluid issues l ,000 to 100,000 s-1. Shear-thinning
enhancement ofheat or mass transfer, Misconcepti.011. The liquid viscosity lluids atomize more easily thnn New•
a solid cone nozzle may have no ad­ is the most. important liquid physical tonian fluids with a similar low-shear
vantage. The selection should be based property required to specify a nozzle. viscosity, because at the high shear
on the drop size requirements, not on Reality. '!'his is in part true. and in rates in .the spray nozzle the effective
the type of spray nozzle. For now-dis­ part false. viscosity is lower. The rheology of the
tribution applica1ions, it is desi,-able Usually, single-fluid nozzles oper­ nuid is critical to predict nozzle per•
to have large dro;is so that a ballistic ate in t.he fully turbulent now regime formance. Of\cn, testing is req ufred to
trajectory is achieved and the small er where the hydraulic behavior, such evaluate the performance for complex
drops are readily entrained. This often as the pressure drop (Equation (6)], nuids,slurries and liquids that exhibit
results in a low design pressure drop is independent of the viscosity. The non-Newtonian characteristics. At
typically under 0.5 bar. pressure drop is controlled by the pro­ high concentrations of solid particles,
Misconception. Spray nozzles make cess of accelerating th� nuid through the atomization process is inhibited by
i,rood liquid dist.rihnt.nrs. the nozzle orifice. 'l'hc,·oforo, the fluid the solid pcu'"ticlcs, while aL luw concen­
Reality. Spray nozzles have been used density is the most important physi• tration sh1rrics nearly always behave
to distribute liquid across packeel beds cal property that influences the nozzle as the base fluid itselfbecause a dilute
in distillation to"ers and tube sheets pressure drop, for a given mass flow. slurry has litlle interaction between
in heat exchangers. However, when Process fluids can a range in viscos­ particles. Characterization ofthe fluid
uniform distributi on is critical, other ityfrom 0.1 centipoise (cps) to well over rheology is required for many highly
options are preferred if they can be 1,000 cps. In this range the spray cre­ formulated fluids whe,·e non-Newto•
practically designed. Even the spray ated is greatly aflccted by the change in niao crull"acteristics are expected.
pattern of a full-cone spray nozzle is nuid viscosity. Generally, high-viscosity Misco1lception. An air-water test
not uniform with regions of high and fluids produce larger drop sizes and a indicates the performance of a nozzle
low coverage. Overlapping spray pat­ larger relative span thnn nuids "�th operating in a vacul!Ill or high-pres­
terns also result. in areas of high liq• water-like viscosity. Although a power sure gas environment.
uid flux. The sp�ay nozzle imparts law has been used to describe the ef­ Reality. The environment surround­
momentum to t.he gas, resulting in fect of' viscosity on drop size, this is ;ng a spray nozzle impacts perfor­
gas recirculation. This can cause back not suitable for the wide range offluid mance because aerodynamic breakup
mixing in the top of a packed tower, properties encountered in process ap• is affected by the gas density. The re­
increasing the stage height. plications. Many of U1e literature cor­ gimes are often characterized by the
1f'the pressure drop tlu·o ugh the heat relations were developed for transpor• dimensionless Weber munbe, based on
exchanger is too low, the entrained tation fuels where the viscosity va,·ics gas density, 8quation (8). 'f:ic Weber
gas may induce vapor recirculat.ion only by an order ofmagnitude. number is the ratio of aenidynamic
through the tube,, which can reduce Surface tension has a significant drag force to surface tension force. A
the heat exchani;cr performance. A impact on lhe mean drop size. Larger high drop velocity in a dense gascauses
t.hird issue is that. clata on spray nozzle drop sizes are produced with higher additional breakup ofthe largestdrops
coverage are usually developed in air surface-tension liquids. In addition, in a spray as compared to the same
ut ambient condiLions. Most plant ap­ where the process involves a gas other velocity in an ambient pressure gas.
plications involve a gas other than air than ambient air, a higher gas density Conversely, in vacuum systEms aero­
at pressures other than atmospheric. will have a smaller mean drop size. dynamic breakup will not be as sig•
In these cases, the designer is relying Misco11ceptio11. All non-Newtonian nificant in reducing drop size. �or low
on judgment to adjust the coverage _fluids arc difficult to atomize viscosity water-like liquids, an aerody­
data. Despite these limitations, spray Recility. High viscosity Newtonian liq• namic Weber number above 12 results
nozzles are used in appl ications with uids are more difficult to atomize than in a drop breaking-up intc smaller
low coverage rates because other ap­ water-like liquids. Atomizing nozzles, drops. Drop deformation changes the
proaches are inadequate at low rates. both single-nuid and two-fluid nozzles drag coefficient at a Weber number
CHEMI CAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM OCTOBER2008 47
 Feature Report

greater than 2. The breakup process in of the curves arc similar, larger noz­ are dl'amatically impacted with a 50%
Figure 8 proceeds left to right, from a zles, with a larger orifice size, have a increase or decrease in flow.
distorted drop to smaller drops, on the larger drop size at a given pressure. A Process constraints such as no atom­
microsecond timescale. very smal I nozzle can easily achieve a izing gas being allowed in the process
p ov2 500-µ drop size, while a larger nozzle or as no atomizing gas being available
rel reqmres significantly greater operat­ may rule out two-fluid nozzles.
We = �
(J (8) ing pressure to achieve the same result.
The maximum initial drop velocity A larger nozzle will always produce a Operations and maintenance
can be calculated using Equalion (9), larger drop size for a given pressure Misco11ception. Equal flow from each
based on the Bernoulli equation. drop. A common scaleup mistake is to spray nozzle on a distribution headcl'

v-;;
use the same pressure drop, but the is guaranteed.
V
nwc
= fru (9) larger diameter nozzle results in a Reality. The flow distribution depends
larger particle-size distribution. Large­ on the pressure drop in the header,
The maximom drop sizes shown in scale systems ofton use a number of mortlentum 1·ccove1·y in the header
Figure 9 are based on the p1·ope1� nozzles operating at. somewhat higher and pressure drop across the spray
tics of waler droplets in air at ambi­ pressure after giving consideration to nozzles. Generally, if the pipe size is
ent pressures. This figure shows the lhe influence of drop size and velocity selected so the pressure drop through
relative velocity between the clrop­ on process performance. the spl'ay nozzle is at lea.st ten times
lels and the surrounding gas that Misconception. Asingle-fluid nozzle is the velocity head within the pipe, the
causes breakup. Very small droplets always th!' best choice of nozzle type. maldistribution will be on the order
requfre an extraordinarily high ve­ Reality. A single-fluid or hydrau­ of 5%. The velocity head of the flow
locity to cause further breakup due lic nozzle is by far the most common within the headcl' is defined by:
to aerodynamic forces, while larger nozzle used, accounting for approxi­
VH = p -
vz
droplets require significantly lower mately 90� of the applications. Many (10)
relative velocity to induce breakup times, a hydraulic nozzle provides the 2
into smaller d,·ops. The aerodynamic simplest and most reliable option. Long manifolds with a large num­
drag on drops from nozzles quickly However, there are exceptions, such ber of spray nozzles require a more
reduces the relative velocity, thus as the following: detailed header design. Maldistribu­
the break-up potential. • Operation with very low liquid tion is ral'ely an issue io headers in­
flows, less than 0.5 Umin, where stalled within vessels, if the design
Nozzle design choices the nozzle orifice size is quite small rule above is followed. Problem areas
Misconception. A single spray nozzle and plugging can be an issue in pro­ typically are those where the pressure
is better than multiple nozzles. cess service drop is limited, such as in cooling tow­
Reality. A single spray nozzle is often • Operation with a fluid containing ers, which use a very large number of
used but there are some significant some particulate that limits inter­ spray nozzles.
limitations in many process applica­ nal free-passage dimensions result­ Misco11ceptio11. Drilling out plugged
tions. Multiple spray nozzles mounted ing in plugging nozzles fully restores performance.
on a single head, a compound nozzle, • Applications where the total liquid Reality. Solids deposits inside a spray
or mounted on a header is required in flow is limited, small drop sizes a1·e nozzle often adhere to tlie exterior
many situations. If the area to be cov­ required and momentum is required surfaces and to the outlet orifice like
ered is too large, a single nozzle may to carry the spray they have been glued in place. Metal
noL provide the uniform coverage or • Requirements for drop sizes smaller drill bits distort the shape, surface
spray penetration required. For the than are achievable with n single­ condition and size. Drilling may also
same total flowrate and pressure drop, fluid nozzle damage or remove noz1.lc internals
multiplenozzles will provide a smaller • Limited pressure drop for the liquid that induce swirl in the flow. Nozzle
drop size lhan one large nozzle. phase that results in too large of a manufacturers recommend only soft
Multiple nozzle design is an effec­ drop size or insuflicient llow materials be used for cleaning nozzles.
tive strategy to consider for scaling • Operation with a wide range ofliquid Formetal nozzles, the material used to
between the experimental and plant flows that causes poor performance clean the nozzle should be no harder
scale. The technical challenge of using at either the high or low flow limit than wood. The sp1·ay pattern can be
multiple spray nozzles is to assure • Feeds with high viscosity (not wa- distorted even though the hydraulic
the appropriate amount of overlap ter-like) characteristics (flow at a specified
between spray plumes. With too much Single-fluid nozzles have a limited pressure drop) have been restored.
overlap, very dense regions of spray turndown, so at a low flowrate the drop Misco11ceptio11. My process liquid is
will be present as well as regions of size increases significantly. Figure 11 clean - nozzles will never plug
potentially inadequate drop density. shows a single-fluid nozzle operaling Reality. When solids are p1·esent, ero­
Figure 10 illustrates this issue with over a range of flowrates around the sion and plugging may, occu1·. Most
nozzle scaleup for a family ofthree sin­ design point of one. Pressure drop, streams contain some solids - per­
gle-fluid nozzles. Although the shapes drop size and surface area of the spray haps debris from piping assembly. It
48 CHEMICAL ENGI NEERING WWW.CHE.COM OCTOBER 2008
 - Relative
- 1 mm drop
-Smm size
- -10mm -Relative
surface

FIGURE 10. Shown here is a comparrison of drop si ze for FIGURE 1 1 . Mass fl ow has a large impact on the pressure
three different-sized nozzles drop, drop size and surface area of the spray (design point = 1)

is critical that the minimum free pas­ ic.� and other wear-resistanL materials Reality. A single-fluid nozzle has the
sage, which is often provided in the are sometimes more cost effective when minimal control system because Lhis
nozzle catalog or product bulletin, be compared to routine replacement. nO'tzle has only one degree of freedom
evaluated in design. The most common Corrosive environments can in the operation, pressme or now­
complaint is of a plugged nozzle in a quickly degrade many meLal nozzles ratc. Measuring both flow and pres­
"clean" process stream. Because a few with low cost metallurgy. Plastic sure drop is useful to detect changes
particles can plug a nozzle, manufac­ nozzles serve as a potential low-cost in the hydraulic characteristic of the
turers' have developed integral strain ­ alternative to high-cost metal alloys; nozzle caused by erosion or plugging.
ers to solve thedesign conllict ofa small however, the maximum allowable In contrast, a two-nuid nozzle has
outlet orifice to produce a small drop pressure drop is lower, especially at two degrees offreedom, the gas mass­
and a large opening to avoid plugging. elevated temperatures. llowrate and the liquid llowrnte.
The alternate approach is to install Deposits on the exteriorcan obstruct The gas-to-liquid mass flow ratio is
st1·ainers or filters that are accessible a spray, degrading the performance. useful as a comparative parameter.
for servicing. You should determine This scaling 01· buildup has process­ It may also be used as a control pa­
the necessitics ofdesign based on your specific root causes. This failure mode rameter in critical systems. Specify­
knowledge of the stream. Nozzles with can be either very rapid or very slow. ing a throughput of liquid, and then
small internal passages, under 5-mm For many process applications the the gas liquid ratio provides a robust
dia., deserve deliberate consideration system of spray nozzles should have means of control.
of the plugging potential. a defined replacement schedule, often The performance of a specific noz­
Misconception. Spray nozzles will after five years, to maintain process zle must be evaluated to determine
last the lifetime ofequipment. performance. The frequency depends the appropriate control settings to as­
Reality. Some nozzles have the same on the specific process; corrosive or sure effective control over the normal
performance over a span of 20 years erosive services may require a more operating range.
of operation; however, many require frequent change. The replacement Misconception. Two-fluid nozzles are
periodic replacement. The service life should be scheduled in the preventive easy to control.
of a nozzle depends on many factors, maintenance plan in conjunction with Reality. '1\vo-fluid spray nozzles in­
including the pressure drop, material other planned work. Change out is herently require two flow-metering
being sprayed, material of construc­ often preferred tosimple visual inspec­ functions. External mix nozzles are
tion, corrosion, plugging and perfor­ tion because wear of internal passages the easiest to control because there
mance expectations, see Ref: 12]. may not be obvious without removal is little interaction between ihc gas
Erosion of the nozzle orifice is a com­ of the nozzle. Viewing a spray nozzle and liquid. A change in atomizing gas
mon cause of degradation ofnozzle per­ as an expendable component i!! criti­ flow results in little change in the
formance. The process fluids sprayed cal to assure high reliability of spray back pressure on the liquid system.
vary from the cleanest of liquids to systems and the enhanced transport Control of a critical spray application
highly concentrated sluJTies. When sol­ thase systems deliver. requires the gas-to-liquid mass ratio
ids are present, erosion and plugging Upset conditions should be consid• to be controlled at least indirectly.
may occur. As a first approximation, ercd, a momentary loss ofquench flow Ideally, for critical applications the
the rate of erosion is proportion to the has melted a metal spray nozzle in a gas-to-liquid mass ratio would be di­
velocity cubed (V3). Nozzle wear that high temperature quench. The ther­ rectly controlled.
is imperceptible to the eye can cause mal radiation load on the protruding Internal mix atomizers have more­
degradation in the spray pattern and no1.zle was obviously too high. complex control issues because of the
an increase in the drop size. One sign Misconception. Spray nozzles don't interactionbetween the gas and Iiquid
of wear is an increase in flow at a con­ require any instrumentation or con­ hydraulics. As one flow changes, the
stant operating pressure drop. Ceram- trol system. back pressure created in the nozzle
CHEMI CAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM OCTOBER 2008 49
 NOMENCLATURE
Feature Report Variable Description Unit
D10 Number mean m or v

D20 Surface meon morv

impacts the other flow. Applying sim­ knowledge. The designer fre­ D30 Vol ume mean m orv
ple controls to the Oo-.v ofeach stream quently has the best knowledge D32 Souter meon or SMD m orv
without proper tuning of these con­ of mapping the process objec­ Dv10 10% of moss this size m orv
trols can result in dramatic swingi:; in tive to the spray charactoriotica or smaller
tlows and therefore the drop size. The essential to achieving the opti­ Dvso Vol ume median drop size, m orµ
control challenge is to adjust quickly mal process result. 50% of mass this size
or smaller
to changes, and yet avoid oscillatory The Institute for Liquid At­
90% of moss this size m orv
behavior. One common solution is to omization and Spray Systems Dv90 or smaller
utilize relatively long time constants (www.ilass.org), ILASS Ameri­ F Flowrote, volumetric m3/s
on the gas-to-liquid flow control to cas, conducts an annual con­ k Nozzle Aow characteristic Depends
dampen the system. ference for practitioners and on usoge
Another issue is managing startup researchers from many areas m Number of drops in a
and shutdown sequences. Ideally the of spray technology to pres­ spray sample
gas flow is introduced at some mini­ ent advances. The conference's n ?'l)Ollent -fessure drop-
mum level before the liquid on start­ foclls includes injectors for gas �ow depeo, ence
up, and this sequence is reversed on turbines, rockets, diesels, ag­ Re Reynol ds number
shutdown. Sometimes process con­ ricultural sprays, industrial 5g S ifi c ovily
strains may limit these options. Care­ sprays, fire protection, paint IJ:
ensily;r densily waler)
ful consideration is required to man­ and coat.ing applications. The VH '/elocily head Po
age these operaUons, as some process breadth of spray applications We Weber number
systems require deliberate clearing at this conference and the tlP Pressure drop Pa
of the process liquid on shutdown to technical community provides p Densily kg/ml
avoid major issues on startup. 'l'hese crnss-fcrtilization of research µ Vi scosily Pa·s
are very process-specific issues. methodologies and innovative 0 Surface Tension N/m
Misconception. Mechanical damage efforts.
of spray nozzles affecti ng process per­
formance is rare. Conclusions this article. The support of The
Reality. Although most :,pray nozzles Misconceptions and myths should be Chenical Co. to permit t.he creation o
are robust., damage can occur during put aside to allow eITective design this article is also appreciated.
installation. Nozzles with a protrud­ using sprays. The starting point for
ing component, sometimes called a good design is Lo clearly express the References
pintle, that are mounted on a header desired process objective. With this 1. Lc.Fevra, Arthur H., ..Atomization on
Spray,." Hemisphere, 1989.
or clip pipe inserted into a vessel, ai·e objective in mind, nozzle type choices
2. ·Spray Nozzle Mnint.enonce HandbookJ
easily damaged. Inspection of nozzles and parameters and constraints can S1>rnying Systems Co.. www.spray.com.
after installation is highly recom­ be brought together. Many spray noz­ 3. N8Sy. Chowm C.. other,. •industrial Spray
mended especially for critical sys­ •nd Alomizati on Design Anal\"Si.s and Appl i
zles achieve the desired results in less cation."Springer-Vcrlag. London. 2002.
tems. The old saying, "you get, what demanding applicat.ions. However, 4. SprayH urticle. ' 'l(i1· k and Otl\rner Encycl o
you inspect not what you expect" is some process applications require iliaof Chemicol ' l'ochnology." 5th ed.. 2004.
useful in this case. Consider choosing considerably more finesse in the de­ f>. ww\\•,bcte.com
sign to optimize performance and G. www.lechlerusn.oom
a nozzle t,ype without a pintle, as this
7. "St.andnrd Practice for Determining Dnta
minimizes the installation issue in minimize the negative consequences. Critcriu und Processing for Liquid Drop Si,..
many processes if the nozzle chosen Like chess pieces, nozzles types with Analysi•," E-1620 Standard Tcrminol"IP' Rt­
lating to Liquid Particles nnd Atomizl\ti on
can achieve the desired 1>erformance. different characterist.ics may be ASTM S1andards E-799-92.
placed in the same space to achieve
Resources diITerent results. Single-fluid nozzles Author
Distributors and sales representatives are like the pawn - frequently used Cluu·les Lipp is a principl
con:mltant ut Lake fnnova,
of spray nozzle manufacturers have a but with limited characteristics. 'l\vo­ lion, LLC. Unti l recentl y he
wu a technical leader in the
wealth ofavailable information on ap­ fluid nozzles are more powerful like Engineering and Proce;s
plying their nozzles to achieve many the queen, capable ofexerting greater Sciences dcpnrtment or Tbc
Dow Chcm,cnl Co. He can
process results. Theil" websites often intlueuce by virtue of her inherent be r�oched at P.O. Box 3500.
contain resources valuable to design­ power as a more complPx piece ■ l .nkP Ja.do,on, TX, Phont
979-418-1377 £mail: chuck-@
ers to assist in selecting a nozzle to Edited by Gerald Ondrey Ltlkelnnovution.com. Over
achieve a specific purpose. Several of lhc past 31; year& al Dow
Chemi e:il he has de.vl•lopcd technology for ato1 ni-
the spray nozzle companies have web­ Acknowledgements 2.11tion.. procc� mixing and COt\l s:asificat.ion.Thi�
htts re�a1led in numerous patent.& and tt.-chnica.1
based selection tools to facilitate the The author would like to thankDennis prcse1ttlt ions. He ..:clitcd the Sprays arti cle for
selection process. The designers' chal­ Jewell, 'l'horalf 13recht, Kishore Kar, l{irk-OUuno,· Encyclopedia of Chcmicul Te<h­
nology. 5th ed. He serves as u. Board or Direc­
lenge is lo bring together the pool of Leah Patterson, Doug Greminger and tors n>e-nbcr for II.ASS Americas Un•titutc for
process and application knowledge Jacob Cherian for their perspectives l. iquid Atomization ond Spray Systero.sl and is
o member ofATChE. l,ipp recoived his B.S. ChE.
with the spray nozzle companies' and 1nany suggestions on developing fi-001 Iowa St.ate Ullivcrsity.

50 CHEMI CAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM OCTOBER 2008