A special case of the above result which you might encounter more often is

the following:
n
c = cn.
i=1

Telescoping Sum
n

[f (i + 1) − f (i)] = f (n + 1) − f (m)
i=m

Proof.
n
 !
f (i + 1) − f (i)
i=m
= [f (m + 1) − f (m)] + [f (m + 2) − f (m + 1)]
+ [f (m + 3) − f (m + 2)] + · · · + [f (n + 1) − f (n)]

Note that the terms, f (m + 1), f (m + 2), . . . , f (n), all cancel out. Hence, we have
n

[f (i + 1) − f (i)] = f (n + 1) − f (m). 
i=m

30

Example 2.2.3. Evaluate: (4i − 5).
i=1

Solution.
30
 30
 30

(4i − 5) = 4i − 5
i=1 i=1 i=1
30 30
=4 i− 5
i=1 i=1
(30)(31)
=4 − 5(30)
2
= 1710 

Example 2.2.4. Evaluate:

1 1 1 1
+ + + ··· + .
1·2 2·3 3·4 99 · 100

95
Solution.
1 1 1 1
+ + + ··· +
1·2 2·3 3·4 99 · 100
99
 1
=
i=1
i(i + 1)
99
 i+1−i
=
i=1
i(i + 1)
99 " #
 i+1 i
= −
i=1
i(i + 1) i(i + 1)
99 $ %
 1 1
= −
i=1
i i+1
99 $ %
 1 1
=− −
i=1
i + 1 i

1
Using f (i) = and the telescoping-sum property, we get
i
99 $ %
 1 1 1 99
=− − = . 
i=1
i(i + 1) 100 1 100
n

Example 2.2.5. Derive a formula for i2 using a telescoping sum with terms
i=1
f (i) = i3 .

Solution. The telescoping sum property implies that

n
 !
i3 − (i − 1)3 = n3 − 03 = n3 .
i=1

On the other hand, using expansion and the other properties of summation,
we have
n
 n

3 3
!
i − (i − 1) = (i3 − i3 + 3i2 − 3i + 1)
i=1 i=1
n n
 n

2
=3 i −3 i+ 1
i=1 i=1 i=1
n
 n(n + 1)
=3 i2 − 3 · + n.
i=1
2

96
 Equating the two results above, we obtain

n
 3n(n + 1)
3 i2 − + n = n3
i=1
2
n

6 i2 − 3n(n + 1) + 2n = 2n3
i=1

n

6 i2 = 2n3 − 2n + 3n(n + 1)
i=1
= 2n(n2 − 1) + 3n(n + 1)
= 2n(n − 1)(n + 1) + 3n(n + 1)
= n(n + 1)[2(n − 1) + 3]
= n(n + 1)(2n + 1).

Finally, after dividing both sides of the equation by 6, we obtain the desired
formula n
 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
i2 = . 
i=1
6

Seatwork/Homework 2.2.2

1. Use the properties of sigma notation to evaluate the following summations.

50

(a) (2 − 3k) Answer: −3725
k=1
n

(b) (1 + 2j) Answer: 2n + n2
j=1
99
 1
(c) √ √ Answer: 9
j=1
i+1+ i
Solution:
99 99 √ √
 1  1 i+1− i
√ √ = √ √ ·√ √
j=1
i+1+ i j=1
i+1+ i i+1− i
99 &
 √ √'
= i+1− i
j=1
√ √
= 99 + 1 − 1
=9

97
 n

2. If (i + 1)2 = an3 + bn2 + cn + d, what is a + b + c + d? Answer: 4
i=1

Exercises 2.2

1. Expand each sum.

9
 i 1 2 3 4 5
(a) Answer: + + + +
i=5
x+i x+1 x+2 x+3 x+4 x+5
6
 √
3
√
3
√
3
√
3
√
3
√
3
(b) 2i Answer: 0 + 2+ 4+ 6+2+ 10 + 12
i=0
3

(c) 3−i Answer: 9 + 3 + 1 + 1/3 + 1/9 + 1/27
i=−2

2. Write each expression in sigma notation.

12

2 3 4
(a) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + · · · + 12 12
Answer: ii
i=1
Teaching Notes
(b) (x − 5) + (x − 3) + (x − 1) + (x + 1) + (x + 3) + · · · + (x + 15) Another possible
7 answer for (b) is
 11
Answer: [x + (2i + 1)] [x + (2i − 7)].


i=1
i=−3
9

(c) a1 + a4 + a9 + a16 + · · · + a81 Answer: ai2
i=1

3. Evaluate each sum.

120

(a) (4i − 15) Answer: 27240
i=1
50

(b) [(5i − 2)(i + 3)] Answer: 230900
i=1
n
 6n3 + 3n2 − 3n + 2
(c) (3i − 1)2 Answer:
i=1
2

30 30 30
   3g(i) − f (i) + 7
4. If f (i) = 70 and g(i) = 50, what is the value of ?
i=1 i=1 i=1
2
Answer: 145

98
 100
 200

5. If s = i, express i in terms of s. Answer: 2s + 100000
i=1 i=1
n n

6. If s = ai , does it follow that a2i = s2 ?
i=1 i=1
2
 n

Answer: No. If s = ai = a1 + a2 , then a2i = a21 + a22 , while s2 =
i=1 i=1
a21 + 2a1 a2 + a22 .
n

7. Derive a formula for i3 by using a telescoping sum with terms f (i) = i4 .
i=1

n2 (n + 1)2
Answer:
4

Lesson 2.3. Mathematical Induction

Time Frame: 3 one-hour sessions

Learning Outcomes of the Lesson

At the end of the lesson, the student is able to:
(1) illustrate the Principle of Mathematical Induction; and
(2) apply mathematical induction in proving identities.

Lesson Outline
(1) State the principle of mathematical induction
(2) Prove summation identities using mathematical induction
(3) Prove divisibility statements using mathematical induction
(4) Prove inequalities using mathematical induction

Introduction
We have derived and used formulas for the terms of arithmetic and geometric
sequences and series. These formulas and many other theorems involving positive
integers can be proven with the use of a technique called mathematical induction.

99
2.3.1. Proving Summation Identities

There are many mathematical results that can be proven using mathematical
induction. In this lesson, we will focus on three main categories: summation
identities, divisibility statements, and inequalities.
We first state the Principle of Mathematical Induction, and see how the prin-
ciple works in general sense.

The Principle of Mathematical Induction

Let P (n) be a property or statement about an integer n. Suppose
that the following conditions can be proven:
(1) P (n0 ) is true (that is, the statement is true when n = n0 ).
(2) If P (k) is true for some integer k ≥ n0 , then P (k + 1) is true
(that is, if the statement is true for n = k, then it is also true for
n = k + 1).
Then the statement P (n) is true for all integers n ≥ n0 .

The Principle of Mathematical Induction is often compared to climbing an

infinite staircase. First, you need to be able to climb up to the first step. Second,
if you are on any step (n = k), you must be able to climb up to the next step
(n = k + 1). If you can do these two things, then you will be able to climb up
the infinite staircase.

Part 1 Part 2

Another analogy of the Principle of Mathematical Induction that is used is

toppling an infinite line of standing dominoes. You need to give the first domino
a push so that it falls down. Also, the dominoes must be arranged so that if the
kth domino falls down, the next domino will also fall down. These two conditions
will ensure that the entire line of dominoes will fall down.

100
 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wallpaper kartu domino.png
By Nara Cute (Own work)
[CC BY-SA 4.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)],
via Wikimedia Commons

We now consider some examples on the use of mathematical induction in

proving summation identities.
Example 2.3.1. Using mathematical induction, prove that
n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n =
2
for all positive integers n.

Solution. We need to establish the two conditions stated in the Principle of Math-
ematical Induction.

Part 1. Prove that the identity is true for n = 1.

The left-hand side of the equation consists of one term equal to 1. The right-
hand side becomes
1(1 + 1) 2
= = 1.
2 2
Hence, the formula is true for n = 1.

Part 2. Assume that the formula is true for n = k ≥ 1:

k(k + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + k = .
2
101
We want to show that the formula is true for n = k + 1; that is,
(k + 1)(k + 1 + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + k + (k + 1) = .
2

Using the formula for n = k and adding k + 1 to both sides of the equation,
we get
k(k + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + k + (k + 1) = + (k + 1)
2
k(k + 1) + 2(k + 1)
=
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
=
2
(k + 1) [(k + 1) + 1]
=
2

We have proven the two conditions required by the Principle of Mathematical

Induction. Therefore, the formula is true for all positive integers n. 
Example 2.3.2. Use mathematical induction to prove the formula for the sum
of a geometric series with n terms:
a1 (1 − rn )
Sn = , r "= 1.
1−r

Solution. Let an be the nth term of a geometric series. From Lesson 2.1, we know
that an = a1 rn−1 . Teaching Notes
The fact that
an = a1 r n−1 can
Part 1. Prove that the formula is true for n = 1. also be proven by
mathematical
a1 (1 − r1 ) induction. Here,
= a1 = S1 however, we simply
1−r recall a formula in
Lesson 2.1 because
The formula is true for n = 1. our focus in this
example is the
proof of the sum.
a1 (1 − rk )
Part 2. Assume that the formula is true for n = k ≥ 1: Sk = . We
1−r
want to prove that it is also true for n = k + 1; that is,

a1 (1 − rk+1 )
Sk+1 = .
1−r
We know that

Sk+1 = a1 + a2 + · · · + ak +ak+1
( )* +
Sk

= Sk + ak+1

102
 , -
a1 1 − rk
= + a1 r k
,1 − r -
a1 1 − rk + a1 rk (1 − r)
=
, 1−r -
a1 1 − r + rk − rk+1
k
=
, 1 −-r
k+1
a1 1 − r
=
1−r
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, we have proven that
a1 (1 − rn )
Sn =
1−r
for all positive integers n. 

Example 2.3.3. Using mathematical induction, prove that

n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
12 + 2 2 + 3 2 + · · · + n2 =
6
for all positive integers n.

Solution. We again establish the two conditions stated in the Principle of Math-
ematical Induction.

Part 1
1(1 + 1)(2 · 1 + 1) 1·2·3
= = 1 = 12
6 6
The formula is true for n = 1.

Part 2
k(k + 1)(2k + 1)
Assume: 12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + k 2 = .
6
Prove: 12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + k 2 + (k + 1)2
(k + 1)(k + 2) [2(k + 1) + 1]
=
6
(k + 1)(k + 2)(2k + 3)
= .
6

12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + k 2 + (k + 1)2
k(k + 1)(2k + 1)
= + (k + 1)2
6
k(k + 1)(2k + 1) + 6(k + 1)2
=
6
103
 (k + 1) [k(2k + 1) + 6(k + 1)]
=
6
2
(k + 1) (2k + 7k + 6)
=
6
(k + 1)(k + 2)(2k + 3)
=
6

Therefore, by the Principle of Mathematical Induction,

n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
1 2 + 2 2 + 3 2 + · · · + n2 =
6
for all positive integers n. 

Seatwork/Homework 2.3.1

Using mathematical induction, prove that

n(n + 1)(2n + 7)
1 · 3 + 2 · 4 + 3 · 5 + · · · + n(n + 2) = .
6

Answer:

Part 1
1(1 + 1)[2(1) + 7] 2·9
= =3=1·3
6 6
The formula is true for n = 1.

Part 2
k(k + 1)(2k + 7)
Assume: 1 · 3 + 2 · 4 + 3 · 5 + · · · + k(k + 2) =
6
To show: 1 · 3 + 2 · 4 + · · · + k(k + 2) + (k + 1)(k + 3)
(k + 1)(k + 2) [2(k + 1) + 7]
=
6
(k + 1)(k + 2)(2k + 9)
=
6

1 · 3 + 2 · 4 + · · · + k(k + 2) + (k + 1)(k + 3)
k(k + 1)(2k + 7)
= + (k + 1)(k + 3)
6
(k + 1)
= [k(2k + 7) + 6(k + 3)]
6
(k + 1) !
= 2k 2 + 13k + 18
6
104
 (k + 1)(k + 2)(2k + 9)
=
6

Therefore, by the Principle of Math Induction, the formula is true for all positive
Teaching Notes integers n.
Recall the
definition of
divisibility: an
integer n is 2.3.2. Proving Divisibility Statements
divisible by an
integer k if n = kr
for some integer r. We now prove some divisibility statements using mathematical induction.

Example 2.3.4. Use mathematical induction to prove that, for every positive
integer n, 7n − 1 is divisible by 6.

Solution. Similar to what we did in the previous session, we establish the two
conditions stated in the Principle of Mathematical Induction.

Part 1
71 − 1 = 6 = 6 · 1
71 − 1 is divisible by 6.

Part 2
Assume: 7k − 1 is divisible by 6.
To show: 7k+1 − 1 is divisible by 6.
7k+1 − 1 = 7 · 7k − 1 = 6 · 7k + 7k − 1 = 6 · 7k + (7k − 1)
By definition of divisibility, 6 · 7k is divisible by 6. Also, by the hypothesis
(assumption), 7k − 1 is divisible by 6. Hence, their sum (which is equal to
7k+1 − 1) is also divisible by 6.
Therefore, by the Principle of Math Induction, 7n − 1 is divisible by 6 for all
positive integers n. 

Note that 70 − 1 = 1 − 1 = 0 = 6 · 0 is also divisible by 6. Hence, a stronger

and more precise result in the preceding example is: 7n − 1 is divisible by 6 for
every nonnegative integer n. It does not make sense to substitute negative values
of n since this will result in non-integer values for 7n − 1.

Example 2.3.5. Use mathematical induction to prove that, for every nonnega-
tive integer n, n3 − n + 3 is divisible by 3.

Solution. We again establish the two conditions in the Principle of Mathematical

Induction.

105
Part 1. Note that claim of the statement is that it is true for every nonnegative
integer n. This means that Part 1 should prove that the statement is true for
n = 0.
03 − 0 + 3 = 3 = 3(1)
03 − 0 + 3 is divisible by 3.

Part 2. We assume that k 3 − k + 3 is divisible by 3. By definition of divisibility,

we can write k 3 − k + 3 = 3a for some integer a.

To show: (k + 1)3 − (k + 1) + 3 is divisible by 3.

(k + 1)3 − (k + 1) + 3 = k 3 + 3k 2 + 2k + 3
= (k 3 − k + 3) + 3k 2 + 3k
= 3a + 3k 2 + 3k
= 3(a + k 2 + k)

Since a + k 2 + k is also an integer, by definition of divisibility, (k + 1)3 − (k + 1) + 3

is divisible by 3.
Therefore, by the Principle of Math Induction, n3 − n + 3 is divisible by 3 for
all positive integers n. 

Seatwork/Homework 2.3.1

Use mathematical induction to prove each divisibility statement for all nonnega-
tive integers n.
(1) 72n − 3 · 5n + 2 is divisible by 12.
Answer:

Part 1
72(0) − 3 · 50 + 2 = 1 − 3(1) + 2 = 0 = 12(0)
72(0) − 3 · 50 + 2 is divisible by 12

Part 2
Assume: 72k − 3 · 5k + 2 is divisible by 12
To show: 72(k+1) − 3 · 5(k+1) + 2 is divisible by 12

72(k+1) − 3 · 5(k+1) + 2
= 72 72k − 3 · 5 · 5k + 2

106
 = 49 · 72k − 15 · 5k + 2
= 72k + 48 · 72k − 3 · 5k − 12 · 5k + 2
, -
= 72k − 3 · 5k + 2 + 48 · 72k − 12 · 5k
, - , -
= 72k − 3 · 5k + 2 + 12 4 · 72k − 5k

By, the hypothesis,

- 72k − 3 · 5k + 2 is divisible by 12. The second term,
12 4 · 72k − 5k , is divisible by 12 because 4 · 72k − 5k is an integer. Hence
their sum, which is equal to 72(k+1) − 3 · 5(k+1) + 2, is divisible by 12.
Therefore, by the Principle of Math Induction, 72n − 3 · 5n + 2 is divisible by
12 for every nonnegative integer n.
(2) n3 + 3n2 + 2n is divisible by 3.
Answer:

Part 1
03 + 3 · 02 + 2(0) = 0 = 3(0)
Thus, 03 + 3 · 02 + 2(0) is divisible by 3.

Part 2
Assume: k 3 + 3k 2 + 2k is divisible by 3.
=⇒ k 3 + 3k 2 + 2k = 3a, a integer

To show: (k + 1)3 + 3(k + 1)2 + 2(k + 1) is divisible by 3.

(k + 1)3 + 3(k + 1)2 + 2(k + 1)

= k 3 + 6k 2 + 11k + 6
= (k 3 + 3k 2 + 2k) + 3k 2 + 9k + 6
= 3a + 3k 2 + 9k + 6
= 3(a + k 2 + 3k + 2)

Since a + k 2 + 3k + 2 is also an integer, by definition of divisibility, (k + 1)3 +

3(k + 1)2 + 2(k + 1) is divisible by 3.
Therefore, by the Principle of Math Induction, n3 + 3n2 + 2n is divisible by
3 for all positive integers n.
 2.3.3. Proving Inequalities

Finally, we now apply the Principle of Mathematical Induction in proving some

inequalities involving integers.

Example 2.3.6. Use mathematical induction to prove that 2n > 2n for every
integer n ≥ 3.

107
Solution. Just like the previous example, we establish the two conditions in the
Principle of Mathematical Induction.

Part 1
23 = 8 > 6 = 2(3)
This confirms that 23 > 2(3).

Part 2
Assume: 2k > 2k, where k is an integer with k ≥ 3
To show: 2k+1 > 2(k + 1) = 2k + 2
We compare the components of the assumption and the inequality we need to
prove. On the left-hand side, the expression is doubled. On the right-hand side,
the expression is increased by 2. We choose which operation we want to apply to
both sides of the assumed inequality.

Alternative 1. We double both sides.

Since 2k > 2k, by the multiplication property of inequality, we have 2 · 2k >
2 · 2k.
2k+1 > 2(2k) = 2k + 2k > 2k + 2 if k ≥ 3.
Hence, 2k+1 > 2(k + 1).

Alternative 2. We increase both sides by 2.

Since 2k > 2k, by the addition property of inequality, we have 2k + 2 > 2k + 2.
2(k + 1) = 2k + 2 < 2k + 2 < 2k + 2k if k ≥ 3.
, -
The right-most expression above, 2k + 2k , is equal to 2 2k = 2k+1 .
Hence, 2(k + 1) < 2k+1 .
Therefore, by the Principle of Math Induction, 2n > 2n for every integer
n ≥ 3. 

We test the above inequality for integers less than 3.

20 = 1 > 0 = 2(0) True
21 = 2 = 2(1) False
22 = 4 = 2(2) False
The inequality is not always true for nonnegative integers less than 3. This
illustrates the necessity of Part 1 of the proof to establish the result. However,
the result above can be modified to: 2n ≥ 2n for all nonnegative integers n.
Before we discuss the next example, we review the factorial notation. Recall

108
that 0! = 1 and, for every positive integer n, n! = 1 · 2 · 3 · · · n. The factorial also
satisfies the property that (n + 1)! = (n + 1) · n!.

Example 2.3.7. Use mathematical induction to prove that 3n < (n + 2)! for
every positive integer n. Can you refine or improve the result?

Solution. We proceed with the usual two-part proof.

Part 1
31 = 3 < 6 = 3! = (1 + 2)! =⇒ 31 < (1 + 2)!
Thus, the desired inequality is true for n = 1.

Part 2
Assume: 3k < (k + 2)!
To show: 3k+1 < (k + 3)!
Given that 3k < (k + 2)!, we multiply both sides of the inequality by 3 and
obtain , -
3 3k < 3 [(k + 2)!] .

This implies that

, -
3 3k < 3 [(k + 2)!] < (k + 3) [(k + 2)!] , since k > 0,

and so
3k+1 < (k + 3)!.

Therefore, by the Principle of Math Induction, we conclude that 3n < (n + 2)!

for every positive integer n.
The left-hand side of the inequality is defined for any integer n. The right-
hand side makes sense only if n + 2 ≥ 0, or n ≥ −2.
1
When n = −2: 3−2 = < 1 = 0! = (−2 + 2)!
9
1
When n = −1: 3−1 = < 1 = 1! = (−1 + 2)!
3
0
When n = 0: 3 = 1 < 2 = 2! = (0 + 2)!
Therefore, 3n < (n + 2)! for any integer n ≥ −2. 

Seatwork/Homework 2.3.3

Use mathematical induction to prove that 2n + 3 < 2n for n ≥ 4.

109
Answer:

Part 1
2(4) + 3 = 11 < 16 = 24
Thus, 2(4) + 3 <= 24 .

Part 2
Assume: 2k + 3 < 2k , k ≥ 4
To show: 2(k + 1) + 3 < 2k+1

2(k + 1) + 3 = 2k + 5 = (2k + 3) + 2
< 2k + 2 < 2k + 2k = 2k+1

Therefore, by the Principle of Math Induction, 2n + 3 < 2n for n ≥ 4.

Exercises 2.3

Prove the following statements by mathematical induction.

n
 3n2 + n
(1) (3i − 1) =
i=1
2
1 1 1 1 n
(2) + + + ··· + =
1·2 2·3 3·4 n(n + 1) n+1
n

(3) 2 · 3i−1 = 3n − 1
i=1
k+1
 k

Hint: 2·3i−1 = 2·3i−1 +2·3( k+1)−1 = 3k −1+2·3k = 3·3k −1 = 3k+1 −1
i=1 i=1
n
 n2 (n + 1)2
(4) i3 =
i=1
4

n [2a1 + (n − 1)d]
(5) a1 + (a1 + d) + (a1 + 2d) + · · · + [a1 + (n − 1)d] =
2
(6) 1 (1!) + 2 (2!) + · · · + n (n!) = (n + 1)! − 1
k+1
 k

Hint: i · i! = i · i! + (k + 1)(k + 1)! = (k + 1)! − 1 + (k + 1)(k + 1)! =
i=1 i=1
(k + 1)!(1 + k + 1) − 1 = (k + 2)! − 1
(7) 7n − 4n is divisible by 3
Hint: 7k+1 − 4k+1 = 7 · 7k − 4 · 4k = (3 + 4)7k − 4 · 4k = 3 · 7k + (7k − 4k )

110
 (8) 10n + 3 · 4n+2 + 5 is divisible by 9
Hint: 10k+1 +3·4k+3 +5 = 10·10k +3·4·4k+2 +5 = (9+1)10k +(9+3)4k+2 +5 =
9(10k + 4k+2 ) + 10k + 3 · 4k+2 + 5
(9) 11n+2 + 122n+1 is divisible by 133
Hint: 11k+3 +122k+3 = 11·11k+2 +122 ·122k+1 = 11·11k+2 +(133+11)122k+1 =
11(11k+2 + 122k+1 ) + 133 · 122k+1
(10) xn − y n is divisible by x − y for any positive integer n
Hint: xk+1 − y k+1 = x · xk − y · xk + y · xk − y · y k = (x − y)xk + y(xk − y k )
(11) xn + y n is divisible by x + y for any odd positive integer n
Hint: xk+2 + y k+2 = x2 xk + y 2 y k = x2 xk + x2 y k − x2 y k + y 2 y k = x2 (xk + y k ) −
y k (x − y)(x + y)
(12) If 0 < a < 1, then 0 < an < 1 for any positive integer n
Hint: 0 < ak < 1 =⇒ 0 · a < ak · a < 1 · a =⇒ 0 < ak+1 < a < 1
(13) (1 + a)n > 1 + na for a > −1, a "= 0 and n an integer greater than 1
Hint: (1 + a)k+1 > (1 + ka)(1 + a) = 1 + (k + 1)a + ka2 > 1 + (k + 1)a
(14) 2n > n2 for every integer n > 4
Hint: 2k+1 = 2 · 2k > 2k 2 = k 2 + k 2 > k 2 + 2k + 1 = (k + 1)2 . The last
inequality follows from (k − 1)2 > 2 for k > 4, which implies that k 2 > 2k + 1.
For k > 4, (k − 1)2 > 2
(15) 2n < n! for every integer n > 3
Hint: 2k+1 = 2 · 2k = 2k! < (k + 1)k! = (k + 1)!

Lesson 2.4. The Binomial Theorem

Time Frame: 4 one-hour sessions

Learning Outcomes of the Lesson

At the end of the lesson, the student is able to:
(1) illustrate Pascal’s Triangle in the expansion of (x + y)n for small positive
integral values of n;
(2) prove the Binomial Theorem;

111
(3) determine any term in (x + y)n , where n is a positive integer, without ex-
panding; and
(4) solve problems using mathematical induction and the Binomial Theorem.

Lesson Outline
(1) Expand (x + y)n for small values of n using Pascal’s Triangle
(2) Review the definition of and formula for combination Teaching Notes
The concept of
(3) State and prove the Binomial Theorem combination was
introduced in
(4) Compute all or specified terms of a binomial expansion Grade 10. In
particular, the
(5) Prove some combination identities using the Binomial Theorem concept was
discussed with
Introduction competency codes
from M10SP-IIIc-1
to M10SP-IIId-e-1.
In this lesson, we study two ways to expand (a + b)n , where n is a positive
integer. The first, which uses Pascal’s Triangle, is applicable if n is not too big,
and if we want to determine all the terms in the expansion. The second method
gives a general formula for the expansion of (a + b)n for any positive integer n.
This formula is useful especially when n is large because it avoids the process of
going through all the coefficients for lower values of n obtained through Pascal’s
Triangle. Moreover, if only a specific term is required, it can be computed directly Teaching Notes
using a simple formula. Lastly, the theorem can be used to derive and prove some Calculations with
big numbers are
useful and interesting results about sums of combinations. required in many
of the examples
and exercises in
this section. The
2.4.1. Pascal’s Triangle and the Concept of Combination use of scientific
calculators is
desirable.
Consider the following powers of a + b: Teaching Notes
You may ask the
(a + b)1 = a + b students to expand
these powers using
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 long multiplication.
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3
(a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3 b + 6a2 b2 + 4ab3 + b4
(a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4 b + 10a3 b2 + 10a2 b3 + 5ab4 + b5

We list down the coefficients of each expansion in a triangular array as follows:

n=1: 1 1
n=2: 1 2 1
n=3: 1 3 3 1
n=4: 1 4 6 4 1
n=5: 1 5 10 10 5 1

112
 The preceding triangular array of numbers is part of what is called the Pascal’s
Triangle. Named after the French mathematician Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), some
properties of the Triangle are the following:

(1) Each row begins and ends with 1.

(2) Each row has n + 1 numbers.

(3) The second and second to the last number of each row correspond to the
row number.

(4) There is symmetry of the numbers in each row.

(5) The number of entries in a row is one more than the row number (or one
more than the number of entries in the preceding row).

(6) Every middle number after first row is the sum of the two numbers above
it.

It is the last statement which is useful in constructing the succeeding rows of the
triangle.
Example 2.4.1. Use Pascal’s Triangle to expand the expression (2x − 3y)5 .

Solution. We use the coefficients in the fifth row of the Pascal’s Triangle.
(2x − 3y)5 = (2x)5 + 5(2x)4 (−3y) + 10(2x)3 (−3y)2
+ 10(2x)2 (−3y)3 + 5(2x)(−3y)4
+ (−3y)5
= 32x5 − 240x4 y + 720x3 y 2 − 1080x2 y 3
+ 810xy 4 − 243y 5 
Example 2.4.2. Use Pascal’s Triangle to expand (a + b)8 .

Solution. We start with the sixth row (or any row of the Pascal’s Triangle that
we remember).

n=6: 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
n=7: 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
n=8: 1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
Therefore, we get
(a + b)8 = a8 + 8a7 b + 28a6 b2 + 56a5 b3
+ 70a4 b4 + 56a3 b5 + 28a2 b6
+ 8ab7 + b8 

113
 We observe that, for each n, the expansion of (a + b)n starts with an
and the exponent of a in the succeeding terms decreases by 1, while
the exponent of b increases by 1. This observation will be shown to
be true in general.

, -
Let us review the concept of combination. Recall that C(n, k) or nk counts
the number of ways of choosing k objects from a set of n objects. It is also useful
to know some properties of C(n, k):

(1) C(n, 0) = C(n, n) = 1,

(2) C(n, 1) = C(n, n − 1) = n, and

(3) C(n, k) = C(n, n − k).

These properties can explain some of the observations we made on the num-
bers in the Pascal’s Triangle. Recall also the general formula for the number of
combinations of n objects taken k at a time:
$ %
n n!
C(n, k) = = ,
k k!(n − k)!

where 0! = 1 and, for every positive integer n, n! = 1 · 2 · 3 · · · n.

$ % $ %
5 8
Example 2.4.3. Compute and .
3 5

Solution. $ %
5 5! 5!
= = = 10
3 (5 − 3)!3! 2!3!
$ %
8 8! 10!
= = = 56 
5 (8 − 5)!5! 3!5!
,-
You may observe that the value of 53 and the fourth coefficient
, 8- in the fifth
row of Pascal’s Triangle are the same. In the same manner, 5 is equal to the
sixth coefficient in the expansion of (a + b)8 (see Example 2.4.2). These observed
equalities are not coincidental, and they are, in fact, the essence embodied in the
Binomial Theorem, as you will see in the succeeding sessions.

Seatwork/Homework 2.4.1

1. Use Pascal’s Triangle to expand each expression.

(a) (x − 2y)4 Answer: x4 − 8x3 y + 24x2 y 2 − 32xy 3 + 16y 4

114
 (b) (2a − b2 )3 Answer: 8a3 − 12a2 b2 + 6ab4 − b6
(c) (a + b)9
Answer: a9 +9a8 b+36a7 b2 +84a6 b3 +126a5 b4 +126a4 b5 +84a3 b6 +36a2 b7 +
9ab8 + b9

2. Compute.
$ %
5
(a) Answer: 10
2
$ %
9
(b) Answer: 36
7
$ %
12
(c) Answer: 66
10
$ %
20
(d) Answer: 15504
5
$ %
n n(n − 1)
3. Prove: = .
2 2
Answer: $ %
n n! n(n − 1)(n − 2)! n(n − 1)
= = =
2 (n − 2)!2! (n − 2)!2! 2

2.4.2. The Binomial Theorem

As the power n gets larger, the more laborious it would be to use Pascal’s Triangle
(and impractical to use long multiplication) to expand (a + b)n . For example,
using Pascal’s Triangle, we need to compute row by row up to the thirtieth row
to know the coefficients of (a + b)30 . It is, therefore, delightful to know that it is
possible to compute the terms of a binomial expansion of degree n without going
through the expansion of all the powers less than n.
We now explain how the concept of combination is used in the expansion of
(a + b)n .
(a + b)n = (a + b)(a + b)(a + b) · · · (a + b)
( )* +
n factors
When the distributive law is applied, the expansion of (a + b)n consists of
terms of the form am bi , where 0 ≤ m, i ≤ n. This term is obtained by choosing
a for m of the factors and b for the rest of the factors. Hence, m + i = n, or
m = n − i. This means that the number of times the term an−i bi will appear
in the expansion of (a + b)n equals the number of ways of choosing (n − i) or i

115
factors from the n factors, which is exactly C(n, i). Therefore, we have
n $ %
n
 n n−i i
(a + b) = a b.
i=0
i

To explain the reasoning above, consider the case n = 3.

(a + b)3 = (a + b)(a + b)(a + b)
= aaa + aab + aba + abb + baa + bab + bba + bbb
= a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3
That is, each term in the expansion is obtained by choosing either a or b in each
factor. The term a3 is obtained when a is chosen each time, while a2 b is obtained
when a is selected 2 times, or equivalently, b is selected exactly once.
We will give another proof of this result using mathematical induction. But
first, we need to prove a result about combinations.

Pascal’s Identity
If n and k are positive integers with k ≤ n, then
$ % $ % $ %
n+1 n n
= + .
k k k−1

Proof. The result follows from the combination formula. Teaching Notes
The formula can
$ % $ % also be proved
n n n! n! using the fact that
+ = + n!
is the number
k k−1 k!(n − k)! (k − 1)!(n − k + 1)! k
of ways to choose k
n!(n − k + 1) + n!(k) from n distinct
= objects. Suppose a
k!(n − k + 1)! is one of the n
objects. Then, in
n!(n − k + 1 + k) selecting k objects,
= either a is selected
k!(n + 1 − k)! or not. If a is
n!(n + 1) included in the k
= objects, then there
k!(n + 1 − k)! are k−1 n !
ways to
(n + 1)! complete the
= selection of the k
k!(n + 1 − k)! objects; if a is not
$ % included, then
n+1 there are n
!
ways.
=  k
k

Pascal’s identity explains the method of constructing Pascal’s Triangle, in

which an entry is obtained by adding the two numbers above it. This identity
is also an essential part of the second proof of the Binomial Theorem, which we
now state.

116
 The Binomial Theorem
For any positive integer n,
n $ %
n
 n
(a + b) = an−i bi .
i=0
i

Proof. We use mathematical induction.

Part 1
1 $ % $ % $ %
 1 1−i i 1 1 0 1 0 1
a b = ab + a b =a+b
i=0
i 0 1
Hence, the formula is true for n = 1.

Part 2. Assume that

k $ %
k
 k
(a + b) = ak−i bi .
i=0
i
We want to show that
k+1 $ %
k+1
 k+1
(a + b) = ak+1−i bi .
i=0
i

(a + b)k+1 = (a + b)(a + b)k

k $ %
 k k−i i
= (a + b) a b
i=0
i
k
 k% $ k $ %
 k k−i i
=a ak−i bi + b a b
i=0
i i=0
i
k $ % k $ %
 k k−i+1 i  k k−i i+1
= a b + a b
i=0
i i=0
i
$ % k $ % $ % $ %
k k+1 0  k k+1−i i k k 1 k k−1 2
= a b + a b + a b + a b
0 i=1
i 0 1
$ % $ % $ %
k k−2 3 k 1 k k 0 k+1
+ a b + ··· + ab + ab
2 k−1 k
k $ % k $ %
k+1
 k k+1−i i  k
=a + a b + ak+1−i bi + bk+1
i=1
i i=1
i − 1
$ % k "$ % $ %# $ %
k + 1 k+1 0  k k k + 1
= a b + + ak+1−i bi + a0 bk+1
0 i=1
i i − 1 k + 1

117
 k+1 $ %
 k+1
= ak+1−i bi
i=0
i

The last expression above follows from Pascal’s Identity.

Therefore, by the Principle of Mathematical Induction,
n $ %
n
 n n−i i
(a + b) = a b
i=1
i

for any positive integer n. 

2.4.3. Terms of a Binomial Expansion

We now apply the Binomial Theorem in different examples.

Example 2.4.4. Use the Binomial Theorem to expand (x + y)6 .

Solution.
6 $ %
6
 6
(x + y) = x6−k y k
k=0
k
$ % $ % $ %
6 6 0 6 5 1 6 4 2
= xy + xy + xy
0 1 2
$ % $ % $ %
6 3 3 6 2 4 6 1 5
+ xy + xy + xy
3 4 5
$ %
6 0 6
+ xy
6
= x6 + 6x5 y + 15x4 y 2 + 20x3 y 3
+ 15x2 y 2 + 6xy 5 + y 6 

Since the expansion of (a + b)n begins with k = 0 and ends ,with - k = n, the
n n n
expansion has n, +- 1 terms. The first term in the expansion is 0 ,a = - an−1
, the
n n−1 n=1 n
second term is 1 a b = na b, the second to the last term is n−1 ab =
n−1
,n - n n
nab , and the last term is n b = b .
, n - n−k+1 k−1
The kth term of the expansion is k−1 a b . If n is even, there is a
,n -
middle term,
, n+1which
- is the
, n+1 2 +-1 th term. If n is odd, there are two middle
terms, the 2 th and 2 + 1 th terms.
, -
The general term is often represented by nk an−k bk . Notice
,n-that, in any term,
the sum of the exponents of a and b is n. The combination k is the coefficient
of the term involving bk . This allows us to compute any particular term without
needing to expand (a + b)n and without listing all the other terms.

118
 , √ -20
Teaching Notes Example 2.4.5. Find the fifth term in the expansion of 2x − y .
To find a specific
term in the
expansion of Solution. The fifth term in the expansion of a fifth power corresponds to k = 4.
(a + b)n , it is
important to find $ %
20 √ , -
the value of k. (2x)20−4 (− y)4 = 4845 65536x16 y 2
4
= 317521920x16 y 2 
&x '6
Example 2.4.6. Find the middle term in the expansion of + 3y .
2

Solution. Since there are seven terms in the expansion, the middle term is the
fourth term (k = 3), which is
$ %& ' $ 3%
6 x 3 3 x , 3 - 135x3 y 3
(3y) = 20 27y = . 
3 2 8 2

Example 2.4.7. Find the term involving x (with exponent 1) in the expansion
$ %8
2y
of x2 − .
x

Solution. The general term in the expansion is

$ % $ %k $ %
8 , 2 -8−k 2y 8 16−2k (−2)k y k
x − = x ·
k x k xk
$ %
8
= (−2)k x16−2k−k y k
k
$ %
8
= (−2)k x16−3k y k .
k

The term involves x if the exponent of x is 1, which means 16 − 3k = 1, or

k = 5. Hence, the term is
$ %
8
(−2)5 xy 5 = −1792xy 5 . 
5

Seatwork/Homework 2.4.3
5
1. Use the Binomial Theorem to expand (2a − b2 ) .
Answer:
$ % $ %
, -
2 5 5 5 5
2a − b = (2a) + (2a)4 b2
0 1

119
 $ % $ %
5 3
, 2 -2 5 , -3
+ (2a) b + (2a)2 b2
2 3
$ % $ %
5 , -4 5 , 2 -5
+ (2a) b2 + b
4 5
= 32a5 − 80a4 b2 + 80a3 b4 − 40a2 b6
+ 10ab8 − b10

$ %11
2
1/3
2. Find the two middle terms in the expansion of x + .
y
Answer: There are 12 terms in the expansion, so the two middle terms are the
6th (corresponding to k = 5) and the 7th (corresponding to k = 6) terms.
$ % $ %5 $ %
11 , 1/3 -11−5 2 2 32 14784x2
x = 462x =
5 y y5 y5
$ % $ %6 $ %
11 , 1/3 -11−6 2 5/3 64 29568x5/3
x = 462x =
6 y y6 y6
$ %10
x3 3
3. Find the constant term in the expansion of + 2 .
2 x
Answer: The general term is
$ % $ 3 %10−k $ %k $ % $ 30−3k % $ k %
10 x 3 10 x 3
2
= 10−k
k 2 x k 2 x2k
$ % k
10 3
= 10−k
x30−5k
k 2

The constant term contains x0 , which means 30 − 5k = 0, or k = 6.

$ % 6
10 3 0 76545
x =
6 24 8

 2.4.4. Approximation and Combination Identities

We continue applying the Binomial Theorem.

 Example 2.4.8. (1) Approximate (0.8)8 by using the first three terms in the
expansion of (1 − 0.2)8 . Compare your answer with the calculator value.

(2) Use 5 terms in the binomial expansion to approximate (0.8)8 . Is there an

improvement in the approximation?

120
Solution.
8 $ %
8 8
 8
(0.8) = (1 − 0.2) = (1)8−k (−0.2)k
k=0
k
8 $ %
 8
= (−0.2)k
k=0
k

2 $ % $ % $ % $ %
 8 k 8 8 8
(1) (−0.2) = + (−0.2) + (−0.2)2
k=0
k 0 1 2
= 1 − 1.6 + 1.12 = 0.52
The calculator value is 0.16777216, so the error is 0.35222784.
4 $ % $ % $ % $ %
 8 k 8 8 8
(2) (−0.2) = + (−0.2) + (−0.2)2
k=0
k 0 1 2
$ % $ %
8 8
+ (−0.2)3 + (−0.2)4
3 4
= 0.52 − 0.448 + 0.112 = 0.184
The error is 0.01622784, which is an improvement on the previous estimate.

Example 2.4.9. Use the Binomial Theorem to prove that, for any positive in-
teger n,
n $ %
 n
= 2n .
k=0
k

Solution. Set a = b = 1 in the expansion of (a + b)n . Then

n $ % n $ %
n n
 n n−k k
 n
2 = (1 + 1) = (1) (1) = . 
k=0
k k=0
k

Example 2.4.10. Use the Binomial Theorem to prove that

$ % $ % $ % $ %
100 100 100 100
+ + + ··· +
0 2 4 100
$ % $ % $ % $ %
100 100 100 100
= + + + ··· +
1 3 5 99

Solution. Let a = 1 and b = −1 in the expansion of (a + b)100 . Then

100 $ %
!100  100
1 + (−1) = (1)100−k (−1)k .
k=0
k

121
 $% $ % $ % $ %
100 100 100 2 100
0= + (−1) + (−1) + (−1)3
0 1 2 3
$ % $ %
100 99 100
+ ··· + (−1) + (−1)100
99 100

If k is even, then (−1)k = 1. If k is odd, then (−1)k = −1. Hence, we have

$ % $ % $ % $ %
100 100 100 100
0= − + −
0 1 2 3
$ % $ %
100 100
+ ··· − +
99 100

Therefore, after transposing the negative terms to other side of the equation, we
obtain
$ % $ % $ % $ %
100 100 100 100
+ + + ··· +
0 2 4 100
$ % $ % $ % $ %
100 100 100 100
= + + + ··· + 
1 3 5 99

Seatwork/Homework 2.4.4
 1. Approximate (1.9)10 using the first three terms in the expansion of
(2 − 0.1)10 , and find its error compared to the calculator value.
Answer:
2 $ %
10 10
 10
(1.9) = (2 − 0.1) ≈ 210−k (−0.1)k
k=0
k
= 2 − 10 · 29 · 0.1 + 45 · 28 · 0.12
10

= 627.2

Calculator value = 613.1066258

Error from the calculator value = 14.09337422
2. Prove that, for any positive integer n,
n $ %
 n
3 k = 4n .
k=0
k

n $ % n $ %
 n n−k k
 n
n
Answer: 4 = (1 + 3) = n
1 3 = 3k
k=0
k k=0
k

122
 Exercises 2.4
1. Use the Binomial Theorem to expand each expression.

(a) (x − 2)5 Answer: x5 − 10x4 + 40x3 − 80x2 + 80x − 32

$ %7
1
(b) x +
y
7x6 21x5 35x4 35x3 21x2 7x 1
Answer: x7 + + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7
y y y y y y y
$ %4 $ % $ %
1 1 1 1 377
(c) 3− Answer: 81 − 3(27) + 3(9) − =
2 2 4 8 8
2. Without expanding completely, compute the indicated term(s) in the expan-
sion of the given expression.
$ %15
3 1 45 15x41 105x37
(a) x + , first 3 terms Answer: x + +
2x 2 4
(b) (4 − 3x)6 , last 3 terms Answer: 19440x4 − 5832x5 + 729x6
$ %12
3 3247695 4
(c) x + , 9th term Answer: x
2 256
$ %25
√ 1 53130x10
(d) x− , 6th term Answer: −
y y5
$ %18
1 1 12155p9
(e) p+ , middle term Answer:
2 q 128q 9
$ %11
2 a2 9856 4 4928 7
(f) + , two middle terms Answer: a + a
a 3 81 243
,√ -9
(g) y + x , term involving y 3 Answer: 84x3 y 3
$ %16
1 366080
(h) − 2x , constant term Answer:
x3 729
21
(i) (xy − 2y −2 ) , term that does not contain y Answer: −14883840x14
$√ %18
x y
(j) − , term in which the exponents of x and y are equal
y2 x
43758
Answer: 6 6
xy
 3. Approximate (1.1)10 by using the first 4 terms in the expansion of
(1 + 0.1)10 . Compare your answer with the calculator result.
Answer: 2.57, with an error of 0.0237424601 from the calculator value of
2.59374246

123
4. Use the Binomial Theorem to prove that
n $ %
 n
2 k = 3n .
k=0
k

Hint: Expand (1 + 2)n .

5. Use the Binomial Theorem to prove that
50 $ %
 50
(−2)k = 1.
k=0
k

Hint: Expand (1 − 2)50 .

124
Unit 3

Trigonometry

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AUnderground River.jpg
By Giovanni G. Navata (Own work)
[CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)],
via Wikimedia Commons

Named as one of the New Seven Wonders of Nature in 2012, the Puerto
Princesa Subterranean River National Park is world-famous for its limestone
karst mountain landscape with an underground river. The Park was also listed
as UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1999. The underground river stretches about
8.2 km long, making it one of the world’s longest rivers of its kind.

125
Lesson 3.1. Angles in a Unit Circle

Time Frame: 3 one-hour sessions

Learning Outcomes of the Lesson

At the end of the lesson, the student is able to:
(1) illustrate the unit circle and the relationship between the linear and angular
measures of arcs in a unit circle.
(2) convert degree measure to radian measure, and vice versa.
(3) illustrate angles in standard position and coterminal angles.

Lesson Outline
(1) Linear and angular measure of arcs
(2) Conversion of degree to radian, and vice versa
(3) Arc length and area of the sector
(4) Angle in standard position and coterminal angles

Introduction
There are many problems involving angles in several fields like engineering,
medical imaging, electronics, astronomy, geography and many more. Survey-
ors, pilots, landscapers, designers, soldiers, and people in many other professions
heavily use angles and trigonometry to accomplish a variety of practical tasks.
In this lesson, we will deal with the basics of angle measures together with arc
length and sectors.

3.1.1. Angle Measure

An angle is formed by rotating a ray about its endpoint. In the figure shown Teaching Notes
below, the initial side of ∠AOB is OA, while its terminal side is OB. An angle Angles in
trigonometry differ
is said to be positive if the ray rotates in a counterclockwise direction, and the from angles in
Euclidean
angle is negative if it rotates in a clockwise direction. geometry in the
sense of motion.
An angle in
geometry is defined
as a union of rays
(that is, static)
and has measure
between 0◦ and
180◦ . An angle in
trigonometry is a
rotation of a ray,
and, therefore, has
no limit. It has
positive and
negative directions
and measures.
126
 An angle is in standard position if it is drawn in the xy-plane with its vertex
at the origin and its initial side on the positive x-axis. The angles α, β, and θ in
the following figure are angles in standard position.

To measure angles, we use degrees, minutes, seconds, and radians.

A central angle of a circle measures one degree, written 1◦ , if it inter-

1
cepts 360 of the circumference of the circle. One minute, written 1! , is
1 1
60
of 1 , while one second, written 1!! , is 60
◦
of 1! .

For example, in degrees, minutes, and seconds,

$ %!
◦ ! !! ◦ 18
10 30 18 = 10 30 +
60
◦ !
= 10 30.3
$ %◦
30.3
= 10 +
60
◦
= 10.505

and

79.251◦ = 79◦ (0.251 × 60)!

= 79◦ 15.06!
= 79◦ 15! (0.06 × 60)!!
= 79◦ 15! 3.6!! .

Recall that the unit circle is the circle with center at the origin and radius 1
unit.

127
 A central angle of the unit circle that intercepts an arc of the circle
with length 1 unit is said to have a measure of one radian, written 1
rad. See Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1

In trigonometry, as it was studied in Grade 9, the degree measure is often used.

On the other hand, in some fields of mathematics like calculus, radian measure of
angles is preferred. Radian measure allows us to treat the trigonometric functions
as functions with the set of real numbers as domains, rather than angles.
Example 3.1.1. In the following figure, identify the terminal side of an angle in
standard position with given measure.

(1) degree measure: 135◦ , −135◦ , −90◦ , 405◦

(2) radian measure: π
4
rad, − 3π
4
rad, 3π
2
rad, − π2 rad

128
 −→ −−→ −−→ −−→
Solution. (1) 135◦ : OC; −135◦ : OD; −90◦ : OE; and 405◦ : OB
−−→ −−→ −−→
(2) radian measure: π
4
rad: OB; − 3π
4
rad: OD; 3π
2
rad: OE; and − π2 rad:
−−→
OE 

Since a unit circle has circumference 2π, a central angle that measures 360◦
has measure equivalent to 2π radians. Thus, we obtain the following conversion
rules.

Converting degree to radian, and vice versa

π
1. To convert a degree measure to radian, multiply it by 180
.
180
2. To convert a radian measure to degree, multiply it by π
.

Figure 3.2 shows some special angles in standard position with the indicated
terminal sides. The degree and radian measures are also given.

Figure 3.2

129
Example 3.1.2. Express 75◦ and 240◦ in radians.

Solution. & π ' 5π 5π

75 = =⇒ 75◦ = rad
180 12 12
& π ' 4π 4π
240 = =⇒ 240◦ = rad 
180 3 3
π 11π
Example 3.1.3. Express 8
rad and 6
rad in degrees.

Solution. $ %
π 180 π
= 22.5 =⇒ rad = 22.5◦
8 π 8
$ %
11π 180 11π
= 330 =⇒ rad = 330◦ 
6 π 6

Seatwork/Homework 3.1.1

1. Convert the following degree measures to radian measure.

π
(a) 60◦ Answer: 3
rad
(b) 90 ◦
Answer: π2 rad
(c) 150◦ Answer: 5π
6
rad

2. Convert the following radian measures to degree measure.

π
(a) 9
rad Answer: 20◦
3π
(b) 4
rad Answer: 135◦

3.1.2. Coterminal Angles

Two angles in standard position that have a common terminal side are called
coterminal angles. Observe that the degree measures of coterminal angles differ
by multiples of 360◦ .

Two angles are coterminal if and only if their degree measures differ
by 360k, where k ∈ Z.
Similarly, two angles are coterminal if and only if their radian mea-
sures differ by 2πk, where k ∈ Z.

130
 As a quick illustration, to find one coterminal angle with an angle that mea-
sures 410◦ , just subtract 360◦ , resulting in 50◦ . See Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3

Example 3.1.4. Find the angle coterminal with −380◦ that has measure

(1) between 0◦ and 360◦ , and

(2) between −360◦ and 0◦ .

Solution. A negative angle moves in a clockwise direction, and the angle −380◦
lies in Quadrant IV.

(1) −380◦ + 2 · 360◦ = 340◦

(2) −380◦ + 360◦ = −20◦ 

Seatwork/Homework 3.1.2

1. Find the angle between 0◦ and 360◦ (if in degrees) or between 0 rad and 2π rad
(if in radians) that is coterminal with the given angle.
(a) 736◦ Answer: 16◦
(b) −28◦ 48! 65!! Answer: 331◦ 10! 55!!
13π π
(c) 2
rad Answer: 2
rad
 (d) 10 rad Answer: 3.72 rad
2. Find the angle between −360◦ and 0◦ (if in degrees) or between −2π rad and
0 rad (if in radians) that is coterminal with the given angle.

131
 (a) 142◦ Answer: −218◦
(b) −400◦ 1! 23!! Answer: −40◦ 1! 23!!
(c) π
6
rad Answer: − 11π
6
rad
 (d) −20 rad Answer: −1.15 rad

3.1.3. Arc Length and Area of a Sector

In a circle, a central angle whose radian measure is θ subtends an arc that is the
θ
fraction 2π of the circumference of the circle. Thus, in a circle of radius r (see Teaching Notes
Review how arcs
Figure 3.4), the length s of an arc that subtends the angle θ is were measured in
Grade 10. What
θ θ unit of measure
s= × circumference of circle = (2πr) = rθ. was used? For two
2π 2π circles with
different radii, do
equal central
angles intercept
arcs of the same
measure?
Conclude that
previous notion of
arc measure is not
the same as length.
Arcs are now
measured in terms
of length and
measure changes
with the radius of
the circle.

Figure 3.4

In a circle of radius r, the length s of an arc intercepted by a central

angle with measure θ radians is given by

s = rθ.

Example 3.1.5. Find the length of an arc of a circle with radius 10 m that
subtends a central angle of 30◦ .

Solution. Since the given central angle is in degrees, we have to convert it into
radian measure. Then apply the formula for an arc length.
& π ' π
30 = rad
180 6
& π ' 5π
s = 10 = m 
6 3
132
Example 3.1.6. A central angle θ in a circle of radius 4 m is subtended by an
arc of length 6 m. Find the measure of θ in radians.

Solution.
s 6 3
θ= = = rad 
r 4 2
A sector of a circle is the portion of the interior of a circle bounded by the
initial and terminal sides of a central angle and its intercepted arc. It is like a
“slice of pizza.” Note that an angle with measure 2π radians will define a sector
that corresponds to the whole “pizza.” Therefore, if a central angle of a sector
θ
has measure θ radians, then the sector makes up the fraction 2π of a complete
circle. See Figure 3.5. Since the area of a complete circle with radius r is πr2 , we
have
θ 1
Area of a sector = (πr2 ) = θr2 .
2π 2

Figure 3.5

In a circle of radius r, the area A of a sector with a central angle

measuring θ radians is
1
A = r2 θ.
2

Example 3.1.7. Find the area of a sector of a circle with central angle 60◦ if
the radius of the circle is 3 m.

Solution. First, we have to convert 60◦ into radians. Then apply the formula for
computing the area of a sector.
& π ' π
60 = rad
180 3
1 π 3π 2
A = (32 ) = m 
2 3 2
133
Example 3.1.8. A sprinkler on a golf course fairway is set to spray water over
a distance of 70 feet and rotates through an angle of 120◦ . Find the area of the
fairway watered by the sprinkler.

Solution. & π ' 2π

120 = rad
180 3
1 2π 4900π
A = (702 ) = ≈ 5131 ft2 
2 3 3

Seatwork/Homework 3.1.3

1. In a circle of radius 7 feet, find the length of the arc that subtends a central
angle of 5 radians. Answer: 35 ft
2. A central angle θ in a circle of radius 20 m is subtended by an arc of length
15π m. Find the measure of θ in degrees. Answer: 135◦
3. Find the area of a sector of a circle with central angle that measures 75◦ if the
radius of the circle is 6 m. Answer: 7.5 m2

Exercises 3.1

1. Give the degree/radian measure of the following special angles.

134
2. Convert each degree measure to radians. Leave answers in terms of π.
11π
(a) 330◦ Answer: 6
rad
8π
(b) 480◦ Answer: 3 rad
π
(c) 15◦ Answer: 12 rad
(d) 105◦ Answer: 7π
12
rad
53π
(e) 265◦ Answer: 36 rad
(f) −120◦ Answer: − 2π
3
rad
7π
(g) −315◦ Answer: − 4 rad

3. Convert each radian measure to degree-minute-second measure (approximate

if necessary).
5π
(a) 6
rad Answer: 150◦
8π
(b) 3
rad Answer: 480◦
15π
(c) 4
rad Answer: 675◦
(d) − π6 rad Answer: −30◦
(e) − 7π20
rad Answer: −63◦
 (f) 20 rad Answer: 1145◦ 54! 56.12!!
 (g) −35 rad Answer: −2005◦ 21! 8.22!!
 (h) −5 rad Answer: −286◦ 28! 44.03!!

4. Find the angle between 0◦ and 360◦ (if in degrees) or between 0 rad and 2π rad
(if in radians) that is coterminal with the given angle.

(a) 685◦ Answer: 325◦

(b) 451◦ Answer: 91◦
(c) −1400◦ Answer: 40◦
(d) 960◦ 45! 34!! Answer: 240◦ 45! 34!!
(e) −728◦ 15! 43!! Answer: 352◦ 15! 43!!
29π 5π
(f) 6
rad Answer: 6
rad
(g) − 3π
2
rad Answer: π2 rad
 (h) 16 rad Answer: 3.43 rad
 (i) −20 rad Answer: 5.13 rad

5. Find the angle between −360◦ and 0◦ (if in degrees) or between −2π rad and
0 rad (if in radians) that is coterminal with the given angle.

135
 (a) 685◦ Answer: −35◦
(b) 451◦ Answer: −269◦
(c) −1400◦ Answer: −320◦
(d) 960◦ 45! 34!! Answer: −120◦ 45! 34!!
(e) −728◦ 15! 43!! Answer: −8◦ 15! 43!!
29π
(f) 6
rad Answer: − 7π
6
rad
(g) − 3π
2
rad Answer: − 3π
2
rad
 (h) 16 rad Answer: ≈ −2.850 rad
 (i) −20 rad Answer: ≈ −1.150 rad

6. Find the length of an arc of a circle with radius 21 m that subtends a central
angle of 15◦ . Answer: 7π
4
m
7. A central angle θ in a circle of radius 9 m is subtended by an arc of length 12
m. Find the measure of θ in radians. Answer: 43 rad
π
8. Find the radius of a circle in which a central angle of 6
rad determines a sector
of area 64 m2 . Answer: 16 m
9. If the radius of a circle is doubled, how is the length of the arc intercepted by
a fixed central angle changed? Answer: The length is doubled.
10. Radian measure simplifies many formulas, such as the formula for arc length,
s = rθ. Give the corresponding formula when θ is measured in degrees instead
of radians. Answer: s = πrθ
180
 11. As shown below, find the radius of the pulley if a rotation of 51.6◦ raises the
weight by 11.4 cm. Answer: 12.7 cm

 12. How many inches will the weight rise if the pulley whose radius is 9.27 inches
is rotated through an angle of 71◦ 50! ? Answer: 11.6 in

136
 13. Continuing with the previous item, through what angle (to the nearest minute)
must the pulley be rotated to raise the weight 6 in? Answer: 37◦ 5!
 14. Given a circle of radius 3 in, find the measure (in radians) of the central angle
of a sector of area 16 in2 . Answer: 3.6 rad
 15. An automatic lawn sprinkler sprays up to a distance of 20 feet while rotating
30◦ . What is the area of the sector the sprinkler covers? Answer: 104.72 ft2
 16. A jeepney has a windshield wiper on the driver’s side that has total arm and
blade 10 inches long and rotates back and forth through an angle of 95◦ . The
shaded region in the figure is the portion of the windshield cleaned by the
7-inch wiper blade. What is the area of the region cleaned? Answer: 75.4 in2

17. If the radius of a circle is doubled and the central angle of a sector is unchanged,
how is the area of the sector changed? Answer: The area is quadrupled.
18. Give the corresponding formula for the area of a sector when the angle is
2θ
measured in degrees. Answer: A = πr
360
 19. A frequent problem in surveying city lots and rural lands adjacent to curves
of highways and railways is that of finding the area when one or more of the
boundary lines is the arc of a circle. Approximate the total area of the lot
shown in the figure. Answer: 1909.0 m2

137
20. Two gears of radii 2.5 cm and 4.8 cm are adjusted so that the smaller gear
drives the larger one, as shown. If the smaller gear rotates counterclockwise
through 225◦ , through how many degrees will the larger gear rotate?
Answer: 117◦

Lesson 3.2. Circular Functions

Time Frame: 2 one-hour sessions

Learning Outcomes of the Lesson

At the end of the lesson, the student is able to:
(1) illustrate the different circular functions; and
(2) use reference angles to find exact values of circular functions.

Lesson Outline
(1) Circular functions
(2) Reference angles

Introduction
We define the six trigonometric function in such a way that the domain of Teaching Notes
each function is the set of angles in standard position. The angles are measured The teacher can
give a review of
either in degrees or radians. In this lesson, we will modify these trigonometric trigonometric
ratios as discussed
functions so that the domain will be real numbers rather than set of angles. in Grade 9.

138
 3.2.1. Circular Functions on Real Numbers

Recall that the sine and cosine functions (and four others: tangent, cosecant,
secant, and cotangent) of angles measuring between 0◦ and 90◦ were defined in
the last quarter of Grade 9 as ratios of sides of a right triangle. It can be verified
that these definitions are special cases of the following definition.

Let θ be an angle in standard position and P (θ) = P (x, y) the point

on its terminal side on the unit circle. Define
1
sin θ = y csc θ = , y "= 0
y
1
cos θ = x sec θ = , x "= 0
x
y x
tan θ = , x "= 0 cot θ = , y "= 0
x y

Example 3.2.1. Find the values of cos 135◦ , tan 135◦ , sin(−60◦ ), and sec(−60◦ ).

Solution. Refer to Figure 3.6(a).

(a) (b)

Figure 3.6

Teaching Notes From properties of 45◦ -45◦ and 30◦ -60◦ right triangles (with hypotenuse 1
A 45◦ -45◦ right
triangle is isosceles. unit), we obtain the lengths of the legs as in Figure 3.6(b). Thus, the coordinates
Moreover, the of A and B are
opposite side of the . √ √ /
30◦ -angle in a
. √ /
30◦ -60◦ right
2 2 1 3
A= − , and B = ,− .
triangle is half the 2 2 2 2
length of its
hypotenuse.
139
Therefore, we get
√
◦ 2
cos 135 = − , tan 135◦ = −1,
2
√
3
sin(−60◦ ) = − , and sec(−60◦ ) = 2. 
2
From the last example, we may then also say that
&π ' √2 & π ' √
3
cos rad = , sin − rad = − ,
4 2 3 2
and so on.
From the above definitions, we define the same six functions on real numbers.
These functions are called trigonometric functions.

Let s be any real number. Suppose θ is the angle in standard position

with measure s rad. Then we define

sin s = sin θ csc s = csc θ

cos s = cos θ sec s = sec θ

tan s = tan θ cot s = cot θ

From the last example, we then have

&π ' &π ' √
◦ 2
cos = cos rad = cos 45 =
4 4 2
and √
& π' & π ' 3
sin − = sin − rad = sin(−60◦ ) = − .
3 3 2
In the same way, we have

tan 0 = tan(0 rad) = tan 0◦ = 0.

Example 3.2.2. Find the exact values of sin 3π

2
, cos 3π
2
, and tan 3π
2
.
, -
Solution. Let P 3π 2
be the point on the unit circle and on the terminal
, 3π - side of
3π
the angle in the standard position with measure 2 rad. Then P 2 = (0, −1),
and so
3π 3π
sin = −1, cos = 0,
2 2
but tan 3π
2
is undefined. 

140
Example 3.2.3. Suppose s is a real number such that sin s = − 34 and cos s > 0.
Find cos s.

Solution. We may consider s as the angle with measure s rad. Let P (s) = (x, y)
be the point on the unit circle and on the terminal side of angle s.
Since P (s) is on the unit circle, we know that x2 + y 2 = 1. Since sin s = y =
− 43 ,we get
$ %2 √
3 7 7
x2 = 1 − y 2 = 1 − − = =⇒ x=± .
4 16 4
√
7
Since cos s = x > 0, we have cos s = 4
. 

Let P (x1 , y1 ) and Q(x, y) be points on the terminal side of an angle θ in

standard position, where P is on the unit circle and Q on the circle of radius r
(not necessarily 1) with center also at the origin, as shown above. Observe that
we can use similar triangles to obtain
x1 x y1 y
cos θ = x1 = = and sin θ = y1 = = .
1 r 1 r
We may then further generalize the definitions of the six circular functions.

141
 Let θ be an angle in standard
0 position, Q(x, y) any point on the ter-
minal side of θ, and r = x + y 2 > 0. Then
2

y r
sin θ = csc θ = , y "= 0
r y
x r
cos θ = sec θ = , x "= 0
r x
y x
tan θ = , x "= 0 cot θ = , y "= 0
x y

We then have a second solution for Example 3.2.3 as follows. With sin s = − 34
and sin s = yr , we may choose y = −3 and r = 4 (which is always positive). In
this case, we can solve for x, which is positive since cos s = x4 is given to be
positive.
√
0 √ 7
2
4 = x + (−3) 2 =⇒ x = 7 =⇒ cos s =
4

Seatwork/Homework 3.2.1

1. Given θ, find the exact values of the six circular functions.

(a) θ = 30◦
√ √
3 3
Answer: sin 30◦ = 21 , cos 30◦ = 2
, tan 30◦ = 3
, csc 30◦ = 2, sec 30◦ =
√
2 3
√
3
, cot 30 ◦
= 3
(b) θ = 3π4 √
2
√
2
√
Answer: sin 3π = , cos 3π
= − , tan 3π
= −1, csc 3π
= 2, sec 3π =
√ 3π
4 2 4 2 4 4 4
− 2, cot 4 = −1
(c) θ = −150◦
√ √
Answer: sin(−150◦ ) =√ − 12 , cos(−150◦ ) = − 23 , tan(−150◦ ) = 33 , csc(−150◦ ) =
√
−2, sec(−150◦ ) = − 2 3 3 , cot(−150◦ ) = 3
(d) θ = − 4π3
4π
√
3 4π 1 4π
√
Answer:
√
sin(− 3
) = 2
, cos(− 3
) =
√
− 2
, tan(− 3
) = − 3, csc(− 4π
3
)=
2 3
3
, sec(− 4π
3
) = −2, cot(− 4π 3
) = − 33
2. Given a value of one circular function and sign of another function (or the
quadrant where the angle lies), find the value of the indicated function.
√
(a) sin θ = 12 , θ in QI; cos θ Answer: 23
(b) cos θ = 35 , θ in QIV; csc θ Answer: 45
√
3 10
(c) sin θ = − 37 , sec θ < 0; tan θ Answer: 20
√
(d) cot θ = − 29 , cos θ > 0; csc θ Answer: − 985

142
3.2.2. Reference Angle

We observe that if θ1 and θ2 are coterminal angles, the values of the six circular
or trigonometric functions at θ1 agree with the values at θ2 . Therefore, in finding
the value of a circular function at a number θ, we can always
, 14π - reduce θ to a number
14π 2π
between 0 and 2π. For example, sin 3 = sin 3 − 4π = sin 3 . Also, observe
from Figure 3.7 that sin 2π3
= sin π3 .

Figure 3.7

In general, if θ1 , θ2 , θ3 , and θ4 are as shown in Figure 3.8 with P (θ1 ) =

(x1 , y1 ), then each of the x-coordinates of P (θ2 ), P (θ3 ), and P (θ4 ) is ±x1 , while
the y-coordinate is ±y1 . The correct sign is determined by the location of the
angle. Therefore, together with the correct sign, the value of a particular circular
function at an angle θ can be determined by its value at an angle θ1 with radian
measure between 0 and π2 . The angle θ1 is called the reference angle of θ.

Figure 3.8

143
 The signs of the coordinates of P (θ) depends on the quadrant or axis where
it terminates. It is important to know the sign of each circular function in each
quadrant. See Figure 3.9. It is not necessary to memorize the table, since the
sign of each function for each quadrant is easily determined from its definition.
We note that the signs of cosecant, secant, and cotangent are the same as sine,
cosine, and tangent, respectively.

Figure 3.9

Using the fact that the unit circle is symmetric with respect to the x-axis, the
y-axis, and the origin, we can identify the coordinates of all the points using the
coordinates of corresponding points in the Quadrant I, as shown in Figure 3.10
for the special angles.

Figure 3.10

144