MODULE 3

This module is lifted mostly on the book Principles and Reactions: Chemistry for Engineering Students by William L. Masterton, Cecile N.
Hurley, James F. Petersen, Dorothy Sack and Robert E. Gabler.
Acknowledgement is in order and the assurance that no monetary gain is derived in the distribution of this module.

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CHEM 101:
CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
At the end of this course, the students must be able to:
a. discuss the application of chemistry in relation to the
generation of energy;
b. explain the chemical principles and concepts of structures
and bonding of common materials;
c. discuss the chemical processes that takes place in the
environment;
d. identify key chemistry concepts related to the specific field
of engineering

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 MODULE 3
Section 1. Introduction
Section 2. Nuclear Stability
Section 3. Radioactivity
Section 4. Rate of Radioactive Decay
Section 5. Mass-Energy Relation
Section 6. Nuclear Fission
Section 7. Nuclear Fusion

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 The “ordinary chemical reactions” discussed to this point involve changes in the outer electronic
structures of atoms or molecules. In contrast, nuclear reactions result from changes taking place within
atomic nuclei. You will recall (Chapter 2) that atomic nuclei are represented by symbols such as

The atomic number Z (number of protons in the nucleus) is shown as a left subscript. The mass
number A (number of protons 1 number of neutrons in the nucleus) appears has a left superscript.
The reactions that we discuss in this chapter will be represented by nuclear equations. An
equation of this type uses nuclear symbols such as those above; in other respects it resembles an ordinary
chemical equation. A nuclear equation must be balanced with respect to nuclear charge (atomic number)
and nuclear mass (mass number). To see what that means, consider an equation that we will have a lot
more to say about later in this chapter:

The reactants are an N-14 nucleus and a neutron; the products are a C-14 nucleus and an H-1
nucleus. The atomic numbers add to 7 on both sides:

reactants: 7 + 0 = 7 products: 6 + 1 = 7
whereas the mass numbers add to 15:
reactants: 14 + 1 = 15 products: 14 + 1 = 15

Nuclear Stability
Atomic nuclei consist of protons, which are positively charged, and neutrons, which have zero
charge. According to classical electrostatics, we should expect the protons to repel one another and the
nucleus to fly apart. It turns out, however, that at the very short distances of separation characteristic of
atomic nuclei (about 10-15 m), and there are strong attractive forces between nuclear particles. The stability
of a nucleus depends upon the balance between these forces and electrostatic repulsion.
Despite extensive research, we still do not have a clear understanding of the way in which those forces lead
to nuclear stability. All we have is a series of empirical rules for predicting which nuclei will be most stable.
The most important of these rules are listed below.
The neutron-to-proton ratio (n/p+) required for stability varies with atomic number. The 264
known stable nuclei, shown as red dots in Figure 18.1, fall within a relatively narrow belt of stability. For
light elements (Z < 20), this ratio is close to one. For example, the isotopes 6 𝐶 , 7𝑁 , 8𝑂
12 14 16
are stable. As
atomic number increases, the ratio increases; the belt of stability shifts to higher numbers of neutrons.
With very heavy isotopes such as 206
82𝑃𝑏 , the stable neutron-to-proton ratio is about 1.5.

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 (206 - 82)/82 = 1.51

 Nuclei containing more than 83 protons are unstable. Putting it another way, no element beyond
bismuth (Z = 83) has a stable isotope. All the isotopes of such elements are radioactive.
 Nuclei with an even number of nucleons, either protons or neutrons, tend to be more stable than
those with an odd number of nuclear particles.
 Certain numbers of protons and neutrons appear to be particularly stable: 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, and
126. These magic numbers were first suggested by Maria Mayer (1906–1972), who developed a
nuclear shell model similar to, but much less regular than, the electron shell model discussed in
Chapter 6. For her work, Maria Mayer won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963. The Nobel Prize in
Physics has been awarded yearly (except between 1940 and 1942) for 106 years, and the only
women to have won this prize so far are Maria Mayer and Marie Curie.

Example 3.1

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Radioactivity
Unstable isotopes decompose (decay) by a process referred to as radioactivity. A few such nuclei occur
in nature, accounting for natural radioactivity. Many more can be made (“induced”) artificially by
bombarding stable nuclei with high-energy particles. The radiation given off (Figure 18.2) may be in the
form of

beta (β) particles identical in their properties to electrons

alpha (α) particles, which are 42𝐻𝑒 nuclei, carrying a +2 charge because the two
extranuclear electrons of the helium atom are missing
gamma (γ) rays, which consist of high-energy radiation

Mode of Decay
Naturally occurring radioactive nuclei commonly decompose by

 alpha particle emission, in which an ordinary helium nucleus, 42𝐻𝑒 , is given off. Uranium-238
behaves this way:

Notice that when alpha emission occurs, the atomic number decreases by two units; the mass
number decreases by four units. Here, as in all nuclear equations, there is a balance of both atomic
number (90 + 2 = 92) and mass number (234 + 4 = 238) on both sides of the arrow.
The alpha particle is by far the most massive particle emitted by radioactive nuclei. It has the
highest ionizing power, i.e., the ability to ionize other molecules or ions. Because of their size, alpha
particles have difficulty penetrating cells. Thus they can be stopped by clothing, skin, or even a
sheet of paper. Alpha-emitting nuclei kept outside the body are relatively safe. Inhaling or
ingesting these particles is much more dangerous, because cell membranes cannot stop them.

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 beta particle emission, which produces an electron, given the symbol 0
−1𝑒 . An example of beta
emission is

Notice that the product nucleus, 234

91𝑃𝑎 , has the same mass number as the reactant,
234
90𝑇ℎ , but its atomic number is one unit larger. Putting it another way, beta emission converts a
neutron to a proton. It occurs with nuclei that contain “too many neutrons” for stability.
Beta particles are smaller and lighter than alpha particles. Thus although they can penetrate the
cell more easily, they have a lower ionizing power. A sheet of metal can stop their entry into cells,
and even when ingested or inhaled, they are less destructive than alpha particles.

 gamma radiation, which consists of high-energy photons. Because gamma emission changes
neither the mass number nor the atomic number, it is ordinarily omitted in writing nuclear
equations.
Gamma rays, because of their size, have the lowest ionizing power. However, several inches of lead
or a thick cement block is necessary to stop gamma ray penetration.
Radioactive nuclei produced “artificially” in the laboratory can show α-, β-, or γ-emission. They can
also decompose by
 positron emission. A positron is identical to an electron except that it has a charge of +1 rather
than -1. A positron has the symbol 01𝑒 .

Here, a proton in K-40 (19 p+, 21 n) is converted to a neutron in Ar-40 (18 p+, 22 n). Positron
emission is characteristic of nuclei that have too many protons for stability.
 K-electron capture, in which an electron in the innermost energy level (n = 1) “falls” into the
nucleus.

Notice that the result of K-electron capture is the same as positron emission; mass number
remains unchanged, whereas atomic number decreases by one unit. Electron capture is more
common with heavy nuclei, presumably because the n = 1 level is closer to the nucleus.

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Table 18.1 is a summary of the different modes of radioactive decay described here.

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Example 3.2

Bombardment Reactions
More than 1500 radioactive isotopes have been prepared in the laboratory. The number of such
isotopes per element ranges from 1 (hydrogen and boron) to 34 (indium). They are all prepared by
bombardment reactions in which a stable nucleus is converted to one that is radioactive, which in turn
decays to stable products. The bombarding particle may be

 a neutron, usually of rather low energy, produced in a fission reactor. A typical reaction of this type
is

The product nucleus, Al-28, is radioactive, decaying by beta emission:

 a charged particle (electron, positron, α-particle, . . .), which can be accelerated to very high
velocities in electric and/or magnetic fields. In this way, the charged particle acquires enough
energy to bring about a nuclear reaction, despite electrostatic repulsion with the components of the
atom.

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 The first radioactive isotopes to be made in the laboratory were prepared in 1934 by Irene Curie
and her husband, Frederic Joliot. They achieved this by bombarding certain stable isotopes with
high-energy alpha particles. One reaction was

The product, phosphorus-30, is radioactive, decaying by positron emission:

An interesting application of bombardment reactions is the preparation of the so-called

transuranium elements. Beginning with neptunium (Np, Z = 93) in 1940, a series of elements with atomic
numbers greater than that of uranium have been synthesized. Much of this work was done by a group at
the University of California, Berkeley, under the direction of Glenn Seaborg (1912–1999) and later Albert
Ghiorso (1915–2010). A Russian group at Dubna near Moscow, led by G. N. Flerov (1913–1999), made
significant contributions. The heavy elements (197 through 212) were prepared in the late twentieth
century by a German group at Darmstadt under the direction of Peter Armbruster (1931– ). Most of the
nuclei produced have half-lives of a few microseconds. Experiments reporting the formation of elements
113, 115, and 117 have been reported in peer-reviewed journals, but their identification is yet to be
confirmed by IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemists).
In October 2006, a research team of scientists from the Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory in California, USA, and the Joint Institute of Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia,
reported the indirect detection of Uuo-294 (Element 118). It is reported to be produced by the following
collisions.

The decay products of Uuo-294, not the atoms themselves, were observed. Some of the reactions used to
prepare transuranium elements are listed in Table 18.2. Neutron bombardment is effective for the lower
members of the series (elements 93 through 95), but the yield of product decreases sharply with increasing
atomic number. To form the heavier transuranium elements, it is necessary to bombard appropriate
targets with high-energy positive ions. By using relatively heavy bombarding particles such as carbon-12,
one can achieve a considerable increase in atomic number.

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Applications
A large number of radioactive nuclei have been used both in industry and
in many areas of basic and applied research. A few of these are discussed
below.

Medicine
Radioactive isotopes are commonly used in cancer therapy, usually to
eliminate any malignant cells left after surgery. Cobalt-60 is most often
used; γ-rays from this source are focused at small areas where cancer is
suspected (Figure 18.3).
Certain types of cancer can be treated internally with radioactive isotopes.
If a patient suffering from cancer of the thyroid drinks a solution of NaI
containing radioactive iodide ions ( 131I or 123I), the iodine moves
preferentially to the thyroid gland. There the radiation destroys malignant
cells without affecting the rest of the body.
More commonly, radioactive nuclei are used for diagnosis (Table 18.3). Positron emission tomography
(PET) is a technique used to study brain disorders. The patient is given a dose of glucose (C6H12O6) which
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has a radioactive isotope of fluorine attached to it. The fluorine isotope is a positron emitter. The brain is
then scanned to detect positron emission from the radioactive “labeled” glucose. In this way, differences in
glucose uptake and metabolism in patients with normal and abnormal brains are established. For example,
PET scans have determined that the brain of a schizophrenic metabolizes only about 20% as much glucose
as that of most people.
SPECT scans (single proton emission computer tomography) also use radioactive tracers and a scanner to
give two- or three-dimensional images. The scans give information about blood flow to tissues and
chemical reactions (metabolism) in the body.

Chemistry
Radioactive nuclei are used extensively in chemical analysis. One technique of particular importance is
neutron activation analysis. This procedure depends on the phenomenon of induced radioactivity. A sample
is bombarded by neutrons, bringing about such reactions as

Ordinarily the element retains its chemical identity, but the isotope formed is radioactive, decaying by
gamma emission. The magnitude of the energy change and hence the wavelength of the gamma ray vary
from one element to another and so can serve for the qualitative analysis of the sample. The intensity of
the radiation depends on the amount of the element present in the sample; this permits quantitative
analysis of the sample. Neutron activation analysis can be used to analyze for 50 different elements in
amounts as small as one pictogram (10-12 g).

One application of neutron activation analysis is in the field of archaeology. By measuring the amount of
strontium in the bones of prehistoric humans, it is possible to get some idea of their diet. Plants contain
considerably more strontium than animals do, so a high strontium content suggests a largely vegetarian
diet. Strontium analyses of bones taken from ancient farming communities consistently show a difference

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by sex; women have higher strontium levels than men. Apparently, in those days, women did most of the
farming; men spent a lot of time away from home hunting and eating their kill.

Commercial Applications
Most smoke alarms (Figure 18.4) use a radioactive species, typically americium-241. A tiny amount
of this isotope is placed in a small ionization chamber; decay of Am-241 ionizes air molecules within the
chamber. Under the influence of a potential applied by a battery, these ions move across the chamber,
producing an electric current. If smoke particles get into the chamber, the flow of ions is impeded and the
current drops. This is detected by electronic circuitry, and an alarm sounds. The alarm also goes off if the
battery voltage drops, indicating that it needs to be replaced.
Another potential application of radioactive species is in food preservation. It is well known that gamma
rays can kill insects, larvae, and parasites such as trichina that cause trichinosis in pork. Radiation can also
inhibit the sprouting of onions and potatoes. Perhaps most important from a commercial standpoint, it can
extend the shelf lives of many foods for weeks or even months. Many chemicals used to preserve foods
have later been shown to have adverse health effects, so irradiation is an attractive alternative. Finally,
irradiation can destroy microorganisms such as E. coli (which explains its use in treating beef) and anthrax
(which explains its use in “sterilizing” suspected mail).

Rate of Radioactive Decay

Radioactive decay is a first-order process. This means that the following equations, apply:

where k is the first-order rate constant, t1/2 is the half-life, X is the amount of radioactive species present
at time t, and Xo is the amount at t = 0.
Because of the way in which rate of decay is measured (Figure 18.6), it is often described by the activity
(A) of the sample, which expresses the number of atoms decaying in unit time. The first equation above
can be written

A = kN (18.1)
where A is the activity, k the first-order rate constant, and N the number of radioactive nuclei present.
Activity can be expressed in terms of the number of atoms decaying per second, or becquerels (Bq).
1 Bq = 1 atoms/s
Alternatively, activity may be cited in disintegrations per minute or, perhaps most commonly, in curies
(Ci).
1 Ci = 3.700 × 1010 atoms/s

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Example 3.3.

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Age of Organic Material
During the 1950s, Professor W. F. Libby (1908–1980) of the University of Chicago and others worked out
a method for determining the age of organic material. It is based on the decay rate of carbon-14. The
method can be applied to objects from a few hundred up to 50,000 years old. It has been used to determine
the authenticity of canvases of Renaissance painters and to check the ages of relics left by prehistoric cave
dwellers.
Carbon-14 is produced in the atmosphere by the interaction of neutrons from cosmic radiation with
ordinary nitrogen atoms:

The carbon-14 formed by this nuclear reaction is eventually incorporated into the carbon dioxide of the
air. A steady-state concentration, amounting to about one atom of carbon-14 for every 1012 atoms of
carbon-12, is established in atmospheric
CO2. More specifically, the concentration of C-14 is such that a sample containing one gram of carbon has
an activity of 15.3 atoms/min. A living plant, taking in carbon dioxide, has this same activity, as do plant-
eating animals or human beings.
When a plant or animal dies, the intake of radioactive carbon stops. Consequently, the radioactive decay of
carbon-14

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takes over, and the C-14 activity drops. The activity of a sample is directly proportional to the amount of C-
14, so we can write:

where Ao is the original activity, assumed to be 15.3 atoms/min, and A is the measured activity today; t is
the age of the sample.

Example 3.4.

Mass-Energy Relations
The energy change accompanying a nuclear reaction can be calculated from the relation

In a spontaneous nuclear reaction, the products weigh less than the reactants (Δm negative). In this case,
the energy of the products is less than that of the reactants (ΔE negative) and energy is evolved to the
surroundings.
In an “ordinary chemical reaction,” Δm is immeasurably small. In a nuclear reaction, on the other hand, Δm
is appreciable, amounting to 0.002% or more of the mass of reactants. The change in mass can readily be
calculated from a table of nuclear masses (Table 18.4).
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To obtain a more useful form of the equation ΔE = c2Δm, we substitute for c its value in meters per second.

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This equation can be used to calculate the energy change in joules, if you know Δm in kilograms. Ordinarily,
Δm is expressed in grams; ΔE is calculated in kilojoules. The relationship between ΔE and Δm in these units
can be found by using conversion factors:

Example 3.5.

Nuclear Binding Energy

It is always true that a nucleus weighs less than the individual protons and neutrons of which it is
composed. Consider, for example, the 63𝐿𝑖 nucleus, which contains three protons and three neutrons.
According to Table 18.4, one mole of Li-6 nuclei weighs 6.01348 g. In contrast, the total mass of three
moles of neutrons and three moles of protons is

Clearly, one mole of Li-6 weighs less than the corresponding protons and neutrons. For the process

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The quantity just calculated is referred to as the mass defect. The corresponding energy difference is

This energy is referred to as the binding energy. It follows that 3.09 × 109 kJ of energy would have to be
absorbed to decompose one mole of Li-6 nuclei into protons and neutrons.

Example 3.6.

The binding energy of a nucleus is, in a sense, a measure of its stability. The greater the binding energy, the
more difficult it would be to decompose the nucleus into protons and neutrons. As you might expect, the
binding energy as calculated above increases steadily as the nucleus gets heavier, containing more protons
and neutrons. A better measure of the relative stabilities of different nuclei is the binding energy per mole
of nuclear particles (nucleons). This quantity is calculated by dividing the binding energy per mole of
nuclei by the number of particles per nucleus. Thus

Figure 18.8 shows a plot of this quantity, binding energy/mole of nucleons, versus mass number. Notice
that the curve has a broad maximum in the vicinity of mass numbers 50 to 80. Consider what would happen
if a heavy nucleus such as 235
92𝑈

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were to split into smaller nuclei with mass numbers near the maximum. This process, referred to as nuclear
fission, should result in an evolution of energy. The same result is obtained if very light nuclei such as 21𝐻𝑒
combine with one another to form a heavier nucleus. Indeed, this process, called nuclear fusion, should
evolve even more energy, because the binding energy per nucleon increases very sharply at the beginning
of the curve.

Nuclear Fission

The process of nuclear fission was discovered in Germany more than half a century ago in 1938 by Lise
Meitner (1878–1968) and Otto Hahn (1879–1968). With the outbreak of World War II a year later, interest
focused on the enormous amount of energy released in the process (Figure 18.9). At Los Alamos, in the
mountains of
New Mexico, a group of scientists led by J. Robert Oppenheimer (1904–1967) worked feverishly to produce
the fission, or “atomic,” bomb. Many of the members of this group were exiles from Nazi Germany. They
were spurred on by the fear that Hitler would obtain the bomb first. Their work led to the explosion of the
first atomic bomb in the New Mexico desert at 5:30 a.m. on July 16, 1945. Less than a month later (August
6, 1945), the world learned of this new weapon when another bomb was exploded over Hiroshima. This
bomb killed 70,000 people and completely devastated an area of 10 square kilometers. Three days later,
Nagasaki and its inhabitants met a similar fate. On August 14, Japan surrendered, and World War II was
over.

The Fission Process (𝟐𝟑𝟓

𝟗𝟐𝑼 )

Several isotopes of the heavy elements undergo fission if bombarded by neutrons of high enough energy.
In practice, attention has centered on two particular isotopes, 235
92𝑈 and 239
94𝑃𝑢 . Both of these can be split

into fragments by relatively low energy neutrons.

Our discussion concentrates on the uranium-235 isotope. It makes up only about 0.7% of naturally
occurring uranium. The more abundant isotope, uranium-238, does not undergo fission. The first process

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used to separate these isotopes, and until recently the only one available, was that of gaseous effusion. The
volatile compound uranium hexafluoride, UF6, which sublimes at 56°C, is used for this purpose.
When a uranium-235 atom undergoes fission, it splits into two unequal fragments and a number of
neutrons and beta particles. The fission process is complicated by the fact that different uranium-235
atoms split up in many different ways. For example, while one atom of, 235
92𝑈 is splitting to give isotopes of

rubidium (Z = 37) and cesium (Z = 55), another may break up to give isotopes of bromine (Z = 35) and
lanthanum (Z = 57), while still another atom yields isotopes of zinc (Z = 30) and samarium (Z = 62):

More than 200 isotopes of 35 different elements have been identified among the fission products of
uranium-235.
The stable neutron-to-proton ratio near the middle of the periodic table, where the fission products are
located, is considerably smaller (~1.2) than that of uranium-235 (1.6). Hence the immediate products of
the fission process contain too many neutrons for stability; they decompose by beta emission. In the case
of rubidium-90, three steps are required to reach a stable nucleus:

The radiation hazard associated with fallout from nuclear weapons testing arises from radioactive
isotopes such as these. One of the most dangerous is strontium-90. In the form of strontium carbonate,
SrCO3, it is incorporated into the bones of animals and human beings, where it remains for a lifetime.
Notice from the fission equations above that two to four neutrons are produced by fission for every one
consumed. Once a few atoms of uranium-235 split, the neutrons produced can bring about the fission of
many more uranium-235 atoms. This creates the possibility of a chain reaction, whose rate increases
exponentially with time. This is precisely what happens in the atomic bomb. The energy evolved in
successive fissions escalates to give a tremendous explosion within a few seconds.
For nuclear fission to result in a chain reaction, the sample must be large enough so that most of the
neutrons are captured internally. If the sample is too small, most of the neutrons escape, breaking the chain.
The critical mass of uranium-235 required to maintain a chain reaction in a bomb appears to be about 1 to
10 kg. In the bomb dropped on Hiroshima, the critical mass was achieved by using a conventional explosive
to fire one piece of uranium-235 into another.
The evolution of energy in nuclear fission is directly related to the decrease in mass that takes place.
About 80,000,000 kJ of energy is given off for every gram of 235
92𝑈 that reacts. This is about 40 times as
great as the energy change for simple nuclear reactions such as radioactive decay. The heat of combustion
of coal is only about 30 kJ/g; the energy given off when TNT explodes is still smaller, about 2.8 kJ/g. Putting
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it another way, the fission of one gram of 235
92𝑈 produces as much energy as the combustion of 2700 kg of
coal or the explosion of 30 metric tons (3 × 104 kg) of TNT.

Nuclear Reactors
About 20% of the electricity generated in the United States come from nuclear reactors, which use
the fission of U-235 to generate heat. That heat boils water and turns a turbine. A light-water reactor is
shown schematically in Figure 18.10. The fuel rods contain cylindrical pellets of uranium dioxide (UO2) in
zirconium alloy tubes. The uranium in these reactors is “enriched” so that it contains about 3% U-235, the
fissionable isotope. Natural uranium is less than 1% U-235. The control rods are cylinders that contain
substances such as boron and cadmium, which absorb neutrons. By varying the depth to which these are
inserted into the reactor core, the speed of the chain reactions can be controlled. In a pressurized water
reactor, water at 140 atm absorbs the heat released by the chain reaction and is heated to about 320°C.
This heated water passes through the steam generators, which also contain water under pressure. The
water turns to steam at 270°C and drives a turbo generator that produces electricity.
In a light water reactor, the circulating water in the core serves a purpose beyond cooling. It slows
down, or moderates, the neutrons produced in the fission reactions. This is necessary if the chain reaction
is to continue. Fast neutrons, unmoderated, are not readily absorbed by the U-235 nuclei. Reactors
designed in Canada use heavy water, D2O, which has had an important advantage over ordinary water. Its
moderating properties are such that naturally occurring uranium can be used as a fuel. Energy-intensive
enrichment has not been necessary. The next generation of Canadian reactors, called Advanced CANDU,
include the use of lightly enriched uranium, just as light water reactors do.
By the 1970s it was generally supposed that nuclear fission would replace fossil fuels (oil, natural gas,
coal) as an energy source. That hasn’t happened. The most evident reasons are

 Nuclear accidents at Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania, in 1979 and Chernobyl, Ukraine, in 1986
had a devastating effect on public opinion in the United States and, to a smaller degree, elsewhere
in the world. At Three Mile Island only about 50 curies of radiation were released to the
environment and there were no casualties. The explosion at Chernobyl was a very different story.
About 100 million curies were released, leading to at least 31 fatalities. Moreover, 135,000 people
were permanently evacuated from the region surrounding the reactor. Since then, all the other
reactors at Chernobyl—three, in addition to the one that exploded—have been permanently shut
down.
 Disposal of radioactive wastes from nuclear reactors has proved to be a serious political issue.
The NIMBY (not in my backyard) attitude applies here. The U.S. government has spent billions of
dollars to develop a permanent nuclear waste storage repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, as
the site for burying some 70,000 metric tons of nuclear waste. Current plans (mostly as a result of
political pressure), however, include closing the Yucca Mountain repository permanently,
precluding waste storage there. The problem of radioactive waste disposal is not a uniquely
American problem. Other nations have struggled with the disposal of wastes as well.

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 Currently, nuclear energy is being reevaluated in light of its carbon neutrality. That is, nuclear reactors
do not directly contribute the gases, believed by many scientists to contribute to global warming, that the
combustion of carbon-based fuels do. Furthermore, reactor designs now under construction or on the
drawing boards (called Generation III+ reactors) are addressing some of the safety and cost issues that
have plagued past designs. Generation III+ reactors are now under construction in China, Finland, Korea,
and Japan, and one U.S. utility has made a firm commitment to construct one such reactor (the
Westinghouse AP1000), adding two additional units to a pair of currently operating reactors in the state
of Georgia. These will be the first new reactors constructed since the 1970s. Older designs are also being
revived. The last reactor to go online in the United States, at Watts Bar in Tennessee, opened in 1996.
Construction of what was to be a two unit plant began in 1973. The second unit was never completed. Now,
the Tennessee Valley Authority is actively working to restart construction on the unfinished reactor,
expecting to have it online by December of 2015.

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Nuclear Fusion
Recall (Figure 18.8) that very light nuclei, such as those of hydrogen, are unstable with respect to fusion
into heavier isotopes. Indeed, the energy available from nuclear fusion is considerably greater than that
given off in the fission of an equal mass of a heavy element (Example 18.7).

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