(R18A0206) ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT ANALYSIS Lecture Notes Unit 1 : Transient Analysis

UNIT-1

TRANSIENT ANALYSIS (FIRST AND SECOND ORDER CIRCUITS)

 Introduction
 Transient Response of RL, RC series and RLC circuits for DC
excitations
 Initial conditions
 Solution using Differential equations approach
 Solution using Laplace transformation
 Summary of Important formulae and Equations
 Illustrative examples

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Introduction:

In this chapter we shall study transient response of the RL, RC series and RLC circuits with external DC
excitations. Transients are generated in Electrical circuits due to abrupt changes in the operating
conditions when energy storage elements like Inductors or capacitors are present. Transient response is
the dynamic response during the initial phase before the steady state response is achieved when such
abrupt changes are applied. To obtain the transient response of such circuits we have to solve the
differential equations which are the governing equations representing the electrical behavior of the
circuit. A circuit having a single energy storage element i.e. either a capacitor or an Inductor is called a
Single order circuit and it’s governing equation is called a First order Differential Equation. A circuit
having both Inductor and a Capacitor is called a Second order Circuit and it’s governing equation is called
a Second order Differential Equation.The variables in theseDifferential Equations are currents and
voltages in the circuitas a function of time.

A solution is said to be obtained to these equations when we have found an expression for the
dependent variable that satisfies both the differential equation and the prescribed initial conditions. The
solution of the differential equation represents the Response of the circuit. Now we will find out the
response of the basic RL and RC circuits with DC Excitation.

RL CIRCUIT with external DC excitation:

Let us take a simple RL networksubjected to external DC excitation as shown in the figure. The circuit
consists of a battery whose voltage is V in serieswith a switch, a resistor R, and an inductor L. The switch
is closed att = 0.

Fig: RL Circuit with external DC excitation

When the switch is closed current tries to change in the inductor and hence a voltage VL(t) is induced
across the terminals of the Inductor in opposition to the applied voltage. The rate of change of current
decreases with time which allows current to build up to it’s maximum value.

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It is evident that the currenti(t) is zero before t = 0.and we have to find out current i(t)for time t >0. We
will find i(t)for time t >0 by writing the appropriate circuit equationand then solving it by separation of
the variables and integration.
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the above circuit we get :
V = vR(t)+ vL(t)
i (t) = 0 fort <0and
Using the standard relationships of Voltage and Current for the Resistors and Inductors we can rewrite
the above equations as
V = Ri + Ldi/dt for t >0

One direct method of solving such a differential equation consists of writing the equation in such a way
that the variables are separated, and then integrating each side of the equation. The variables in the
above equation are iand t. Thisequation is multiplied by dtandarranged with the variables separated as
shown below:

Ri. dt + Ldi = V. dt

i.e Ldi= (V – Ri)dt

i.e Ldi / (V – Ri) = dt

Next each side is integrated directly to get :

− (L/R ) ln(V− Ri) =t + k

Where k is the integration constant. In order to evaluate k, an initial condition must be invoked. Prior to
t = 0, i (t)is zero, and thus i (0−) = 0. Since the current in an inductorcannot change by a finite amount in
zero time without being associated withan infinite voltage, we have i (0+) = 0. Setting i = 0 att = 0,in the
above equation we obtain
− (L/R ) ln(V) =k
and, hence,
− L/R[ln(V− Ri) − ln V]= t
Rearranging we get
ln[ (V− Ri) /V] = − (R/L)t
Taking antilogarithm on both sides we get
(V–Ri)/V= e−Rt/L
From which we can see that
i(t) = (V/R)–(V/R)e−Rt/L for t >0

Thus, an expression for the response valid for all time twould be

i(t) = V/R [1− e−Rt/L ]

This is normally written as:

i(t) = V/R [1− e−t./τ ]

where ‘τ’ is called thetime constantof the circuitand it’s unit is seconds.

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The voltage across the resistance and the Inductorfor t >0can be written as :

vR(t) =i(t).R = V [1− e−t./τ ]

vL(t) = V −vR(t) = V −V [1− e−t./τ ] = V (e−t./τ)

A plot of the currenti(t) and the voltages vR(t) & vL(t) is shown in the figure below.

Fig: Transient current and voltages in the Series RL circuit.

At t = ‘τ’ the voltage across the inductor will be

vL(τ) = V (e−τ /τ) = V/e = 0.36788 V

and the voltage across the Resistor will be vR(τ) = V [1− e−τ./τ ] = 0.63212 V

The plots of currenti(t) and the voltage across the ResistorvR(t) are called exponential growth curves
and the voltage across the inductorvL(t)is called exponential decay curve.

RCCIRCUIT with external DC excitation:

A series RC circuit with external DC excitationV volts connected through a switch is shown in the figure
below. If the capacitor is not charged initially i.e. it’s voltage is zero ,then after the switch S is closed at
time t=0, the capacitor voltage builds up gradually and reaches it’s steady state value of V volts after a
finite time. The charging current will be maximum initially (since initially capacitor voltage is zero and
voltage acrossa capacitor cannot change instantaneously) and then it will gradually comedown as the
capacitor voltagestarts building up. The current and the voltage during such charging periods are called
Transient Current and Transient Voltage.

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Fig: RC Circuit with external DC excitation

Applying KVL around the loop in the above circuit we can write

V = vR(t) + vC(t)

Using the standard relationships of voltage and current for an Ideal Capacitor we get

vC(t) = (1/C )∫ 𝒊(𝒕)𝒅𝒕 or i(t) = C.[dvC(t)/dt]

and using this relation, vR(t) can be written asvR(t) = Ri(t) = R. C.[dvC(t)/dt]

Using the above two expressions for vR(t) and vC(t)the above expression for V can be rewritten as :

V = R. C.[dvC(t)/dt] + vC(t)

Or finallydvC(t)/dt + (1/RC). vC(t) = V/RC

The inverse coefficient of vC(t) is known as the time constant of the circuit τand is given by τ = RC and it’s
units are seconds.

The above equation is a first order differential equation and can be solved by using the same method of
separation of variablesas we adopted for the LC circuit.

Multiplying the above equationdvC(t)/dt + (1/RC). vC(t) = V/RC

both sides by ‘dt’ and rearranging the terms so as to separate the variables vC(t) and t we get:

dvC(t)+ (1/RC). vC(t) . dt = (V/RC).dt

dvC(t) = [(V/RC)−(1/RC). vC(t)]. dt

dvC(t) / [(V/RC)−(1/RC). vC(t)] = dt

R. C . dvC(t) / [(V−vC(t)] = dt
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Now integrating both sides w.r.t their variables i.e. ‘vC(t)’ on the LHS and‘t’ on the RHS we get

−RC ln [V − vC(t)] = t+ k

where ‘k‘is the constant of integration.In order to evaluate k, an initial condition must be invoked. Prior
to t = 0, vC(t)is zero, and thus vC(t)(0−) = 0. Since the voltage across a capacitor cannot change by a finite
amount in zero time, we have vC(t)(0+) = 0. Setting vC(t)= 0 att = 0, in the above equation we obtain:
−RC ln [V] = k

and substituting this value of k = −RC ln [V] in the above simplified equation−RC ln [V − vC(t)] = t+ k
we get :
−RC ln [V − vC(t)] = t−RC ln [V]

i.e. −RC ln [V − vC(t)] + RC ln [V] = t i.e. −RC [ln {V − vC(t)}− ln (V)]= t

i.e. [ln {V − vC(t)}] − ln [V]} = −t/RC

i.e. ln [{V − vC(t)}/(V)] = −t/RC

Taking anti logarithm we get[{V − vC(t)}/(V)] = e −t/RC

i.e vC(t) = V(1− e −t/RC )

which is the voltage across the capacitor as a function of time .

The voltage across the Resistor is given by :vR(t) = V−vC(t) = V−V(1 − e −t/RC ) = V.e −t/RC

And the current through the circuit is given by: i(t) = C.[dvC(t)/dt] = (CV/CR )e −t/RC=(V/R )e −t/RC

Or the othe other way: i(t) = vR(t) /R = ( V.e −t/RC ) /R = (V/R )e −t/RC

In terms of the time constant τthe expressions for vC(t) , vR(t)and i(t) are given by :

vC(t) = V(1 − e −t/RC )

vR(t) = V.e −t/RC

i(t) = (V/R )e −t/RC

The plots of currenti(t) and the voltages across the resistor vR(t)and capacitor vC(t)are shown in the
figure below.

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Fig : Transient current and voltages in RC circuit with DC excitation.

At t = ‘τ’ the voltage across the capacitor will be:

vC(τ) = V [1− e−τ/τ ] = 0.63212 V

the voltage across the Resistor will be:

vR(τ) = V (e−τ /τ) = V/e = 0.36788 V

and the current through the circuit will be:

i(τ) = (V/R) (e−τ /τ) = V/R. e = 0.36788 (V/R)

Thus it can be seen that after one time constant the charging current has decayed to approximately
36.8% of it’s value at t=0 . At t= 5 τcharging current will be

i(5τ) = (V/R) (e−5τ /τ) = V/R. e5 = 0.0067(V/R)

This value is very small compared to the maximum value of (V/R) at t=0 .Thus it can be assumed that the
capacitor is fully charged after 5 time constants.
The following similarities may be noted between the equations for the transients in the LC and RC
circuits:
 The transient voltage across the Inductor in a LC circuit and the transient current in the RC
circuit have the same form k.(e−t /τ)
 The transient current in a LC circuit and the transient voltage across the capacitor in the RC
circuit have the same form k.(1−e−t /τ)

But the main difference between the RC and RL circuits is the effect of resistance on the duration of the
transients.
 In a RL circuit a large resistance shortens the transient since the time constant τ =L/R
becomessmall.
 Where as in a RC circuit a large resistance prolongs the transient since the time constant τ = RC
becomes large.

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Discharge transients: Consider the circuit shown in the figure below where the switch allows
both charging and discharging the capacitor. When the switch is position 1 the capacitor gets
charged to the applied voltage V. When the switch is brought to position 2, the current
discharges from the positive terminal of the capacitor to the negative terminal through the
resistor R as shown in the figure (b). The circuit in position 2 is also called source free circuit
since there is no any applied voltage.

Fig: RC circuit (a) During Charging (b) During Discharging

The current i1 flow is in opposite direction as compared to the flow of the original charging
current i. This process is called the discharging of the capacitor.The decaying voltage and the
current are called the discharge transients.The resistor ,during the discharge will oppose the
flow of current with the polarity of voltage as shown. Since there is no any external voltage
source ,the algebraic sum of the voltages across the Resistance and the capacitor will be zero
(applying KVL) .The resulting loop equation during the discharge can be written as

vR(t)+vC(t) = 0 or vR(t) = - vC(t)

We know that vR(t) = R.i(t) = R. C.dv C(t) /dt. Substituting this in the first loop equation we
get R. C.dvC(t)/dt + vC(t) = 0

The solution for this equation is given by v C(t) = Ke-t/τ where K is a constant decided by the
initial conditions and τ =RC is the time constant of the RC circuit

The value of K is found out by invoking the initial condition v C(t) = V @t = 0

Then we get K = V and hence vC(t) = Ve-t/τ ; vR(t) = -Ve-t/τ and i(t) = vR(t)/R = (-V/R)e-t/τ

The plots of the voltages across the Resistor and the Capacitor are shown in the figure below.

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Fig: Plot of Discharge transients in RC circuit

Decay transients: Consider the circuit shown in the figure below where the switch allows both
growing and decaying of current through the Inductance . When the switch is position 1 the
current through the Inductance builds up to the steady state value of V/R. When the switch is
brought to position 2, the current decays gradually from V/R to zero. The circuit in position 2 is
also called a source free circuitsince there is no any applied voltage.

Fig: Decay Transient In RL circuit

The current flow during decay is in the same direction as compared to the flow of the original
growing /build up current. The decaying voltage across the Resistor and the current are called
the decay transients.. Since there is no any external voltage source ,the algebraic sum of the
voltages across the Resistance and the Inductor will be zero (applying KVL) .The resulting loop
equation during the discharge can be written as

vR(t)+vL(t) = R.i(t) + L.di(t)/dt = 0 and vR(t) = - vL(t)

The solution for this equation is given by i(t) = Ke-t/τ where K is a constant decided by the
initial conditions and τ =L/R is the time constant of the RL circuit.

The value of the constant K is found out by invoking the initial condition i(t) = V/R @t = 0

Then we get K = V/R and hence i(t) = (V/R) . e-t/τ ; vR(t) = R.i(t)= Ve-t/τ and vL(t) = - Ve-t/τ
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The plots of the voltages across the Resistor and the Inductor and the decaying current through
the circuit are shown in the figure below.

Fig: Plot of Decay transients in RL circuit

The Concept of Natural Response and forced response:

The RL and RC circuits we have studied are with external DC excitation. These circuits without the
external DC excitation are called source free circuits and their Response obtained by solving the
corresponding differential equations is known by many names. Since this response depends on the
general nature of the circuit (type of elements, their size, their interconnection method etc.,) it is often
called a Natural response. However any real circuit we construct cannot store energy forever. The
resistances intrinsically associated with Inductances and Capacitors will eventually dissipate the stored
energy into heat. The response eventually dies down,. Hence it is also called Transient response. As per
the mathematician’s nomenclature the solution of such a homogeneous linear differential equation is
called Complementary function.
When we consider independent sources acting on a circuit, part of the response will resemble the
nature of the particular source. (Or forcing function) This part of the response is called particular
solution. , the steady state response or forced response. This will be complemented by the
complementary function produced in the source free circuit. The complete response of the circuit is
given by the sum of the complementary function and the particular solution. In other words:

TheComplete response = Natural response + Forced response

There is also an excellent mathematical reason for considering the complete response to be composed
of two parts—the forced response and the natural response. The reason is based on the fact that the
solution of any linear differential equation may be expressed as the sum of two parts: the
complementarysolution(natural response) and the particular solution(forced response).

Determination of the Complete Response:

Let us use the same RLseries circuit with external DC excitation to illustrate how to determine the
complete response by the addition of the natural and forced responses. The circuit shown in the figure

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Fig: RL circuit with external DC excitation

was analyzed earlier, but by a different method. The desired response is the current i (t), and now we
first express this current as the sum of the natural and the forced current,
i = in+ i f
The functional form of the natural response must be the same as that obtainedwithout any sources. We
therefore replace the step-voltage source by a short circuit and call it the RL source free series loop.
And in can be shown to be :
in= Ae−Rt/L

where the amplitude Ais yet to be determined; since the initial conditionapplies to thecomplete
response, we cannot simply assume A = i (0).We next consider the forced response. In this particular
problem theforced response is constant, because the source is a constant Vfor allpositive values of
time. After the natural response has died out, there can beno voltage across the inductor; hence the all
ythe applied voltage V appears across R, and theforced response is simply
i f = V/R

Note that the forced response is determined completely. There is no unknown amplitude. We next
combine the two responses to obtain :
i = Ae−Rt/L+ V/R
And now we have to apply the initial condition to evaluate A. The current is zero prior to t = 0,and it
cannot change value instantaneously since it is the current flowing through an inductor. Thus, the
current is zero immediately after t = 0, and
A + V/R = 0
So that
A= −V/R

And i = (V/R )(1 − e−Rt/L)

Note carefully that A is not the initial value of i, since A = −V/R, while i (0) = 0.

But In source-free circuits, A would be the initial value of the response given by in= I0e−Rt/L ( where I0
=A is the current at time t=0 ). When forcing functions are present, however,we must first find the
initial value of the complete response and then substitute this in the equation for the complete
response to find A.Then this value of A is substituted in the expression for the total response i

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Amoregeneral solutionapproach:

The method of solving the differential equation by separating the variables or by evaluating the
complete response as explained above may not be possible always. In such cases we will rely on a
verypowerful method, the success of which will depend upon our intuition or experience. We simply
guess or assume a form for the solution and then test our assumptions, first by substitution in the
differential equation, and then by applying the given initial conditions. Since we cannot be expected to
guess the exact numerical expression for the solution, we will assume a solution containing several
unknown constants and select the values for these constants in order to satisfy the differential equation
and the initial conditions.
Many of the differential equations encountered in circuit analysis have a solution which may be
represented by the exponential function or by the sum of several exponential functions.Hence Let us
assume a solution for the following equation corresponding to a source free RL circuit

[ di/dt+ (R i /L)] = 0
in exponential form as
i (t) = A.es1t
where A ands1 are constants to be determined. Now substituting this assumed solution in the original
governing equation we have:
A . s1 . es1t+ A .es1t . R/L = 0
Or
(s1 + R/L). A.es1t= 0

In order to satisfy this equation for all values of time, it is necessary thatA = 0, or s1 = −∞, or s1 = −R/L.
But if A = 0 or s1 = −∞, then everyresponse is zero; neither can be a solution to our problem. Therefore,
wemust choose
s1 = −R/L
And our assumed solution takes on the form:
i (t) = A.e−Rt/L

The remaining constant must be evaluated by applying the initial conditioni (0) = I0. Thus,A = I0, and the
final form of the assumed solution is(again):
i (t) = I0.e−Rt/L

A Direct Route: The Characteristic Equation:

In fact, there is a more direct route that we can take. To obtain the solution for the first order DEwe
solveds1 + R/L= 0 which is known as the characteristic equationand then substituting this value of s1=-
R/Lin the assumed solutioni (t) = A.es1t which is same in this direct method also. We can obtain the
characteristic equation directly from the differential equation, without the need for substitution of our
trial solution. Consider the general first-order differential equation:

a(d f/dt) + bf = 0

where a andbare constants. We substitute s for the differentiation operator d/dt in the original
differential equation resulting in

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a(d f/dt) + bf = (as + b) f = 0

From this we may directly obtain the characteristic equation:as + b = 0

which has the single root s = −b/a.Hence the solution to our differential equationis then given by :

f = A.e−bt/a

This basic procedure can be easily extended to second-order differential equations which we will
encounter for RLC circuits and we will find it useful since adopting the variable separation method is
quite complex for solving second order differential equations.

RLC CIRCUITS:

Earlier, we studied circuits which contained only one energy storage element, combined with a passive
network which partly determined how long it took either the capacitor or the inductor to
charge/discharge. The differential equations which resulted from analysis were always first-order. In this
chapter, we consider more complex circuits which contain both an inductor and acapacitor. The result is
a second-order differential equation for any voltage or current of interest. What we learned earlier is
easily extended to the study of these so-called RLC circuits, although now we need two initial conditions
to solve each differential equation. There are two types of RLC circuits: Parallel RLC circuits and Series
circuits .Such circuits occur routinely in a wide variety of applications and are very important and hence
we will study both these circuits.

Parallel RLC circuit:

Let us first consider the simple parallel RLC circuit with DC excitation as shown in the figure below.

Fig:Parallel RLC circuit with DC excitation.

For the sake of simplifying the process of finding the response we shall also assume that the initial
current in the inductor and the voltage across the capacitor are zero. Then applying theKirchhoff’s
current law (KCL)( i = iC +iL )to the common node we get the following integrodifferential equation:

𝐭
(V−v)/R = 1/L∫𝐭𝐨 𝐯𝐝𝐭’ + C.dv/dt

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𝐭
V/R = v/R+1/L∫𝐭𝐨 𝐯𝐝𝐭’ + C.dv/dt

Where v = vC(t) = vL(t) is the variable whose value is to be obtained .

When we differentiate both sides of the above equation once with respect to time we get thestandard
Linear second-order homogeneous differential equation

C.(d2v/dt2)+ (1/R).(dv/dt)+ (1/L).v = 0

(d2v/dt2)+ (1/RC).(dv/dt)+ (1/LC).v = 0

whose solution v(t) is the desired response.

This can be written in the form:

[s2 + (1/RC)s + (1/LC)].v(t) = 0

where ‘s’ is an operator equivalent to (d/dt) and the corresponding characteristic equation(as explained
earlier as a direct route to obtain the solution) is then given by :

[s2 + (1/RC)s + (1/LC)] = 0

This equation is usually called the auxiliary equationor the characteristicequation, as we discussed
earlier .If it can be satisfied, then our assumedsolution is correct. This is a quadratic equation and the
roots s1 and s2are given as :

s1= − 1/2RC+√[(1/2RC)2− 1/LC]

s2= − 1/2RC−√[ (1/2RC)2− 1/LC ]

And we have the general form of the response as :

v(t) = A1es1t+ A2es2t

where s1 and s2 are given by the above equations and A1 and A2 are two arbitrary constants which are
to be selected to satisfy the two specified initial conditions.

Definition of Frequency Terms:

The form of the natural response as given above givesvery little insight intothe nature of the curve we
might obtain if v(t)were plotted as a functionof time. The relative amplitudes of A1 and A2, for example,
will certainly beimportant in determining the shape of the response curve. Furthertheconstants s1 and
s2 can be real numbers or conjugate complex numbers,depending upon the values of R, L, andCin the
given network. These twocases will produce fundamentally different response forms. Therefore, it
willbe helpful to make some simplifying substitutions in the equations for s1 and s2.Since the exponents
s1tand s2t must be dimensionless, s1 and s2 musthave the unit of some dimensionless quantity “per
second.” Hence in the equations for s1 and s2 we see that the units of 1/2RC and 1/√LCmust also be
s−1(i.e., seconds−1). Units of this type are called frequencies.
Now two new terms are defined as below :
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ω0 = 1/√LC
which is termed as resonant frequencyand
α = 1/2RC
which is termed asthe exponential damping coefficient

α the exponential damping coefficientis a measure of howrapidly the natural response decays or damps
out to its steady, final value(usually zero). And s, s1, and s2, are called complex frequencies.
We should note that s1, s2, α, and ω0 are merely symbols used to simplifythe discussion of RLC circuits.
They are not mysterious new parameters of any kind. It is easier, for example, to say “alpha” than it is
to say “the reciprocalof 2RC.”

Now we can summarize these results.

The response of the parallel RLCcircuit is given by :

v(t) = A1es1t+ A2es2t…….. [1]

where
s1= −α +√α2–ω02…….. [2]

s2= −α −√α2– ω02…….. [3]

α = 1/2RC …….. [4]

and
ω0 = 1/ √LC…….. [5]
A1 and A2must be found by applying the given initial conditions.
We note three basic scenarios possible with the equations for s1 and s2 depending on the relative
values of αand ω0 (which are in turn dictated by the values of R, L, and C).

CaseA:

α > ω0,i.e when (1/2RC)2>1/LCs1 and s2 will both be negative real numbers, leading to what is referred
to as an over damped responsegiven by :
v(t) = A1es1t+ A2es2t

Sinces1 and s2are both negative real numbersthis is the (algebraic) sumof two decreasing exponential
terms. Sinces2 is a larger negative number it decays faster and then the response is dictated by the first
term A1es1t.

CaseB :

α = ω0, ,i.e when (1/2RC)2=1/LC , s1 and s2are equal which leads to what is called a critically damped
responsegiven by :
v(t) = e−αt(A1t + A2)

Case C :

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α < ω0,i.e when (1/2RC)2<1/LCboth s1 and s2 will have nonzero imaginary components, leading to what
is known as an under damped responsegiven by :

v(t) = e−αt(A1 cosωd t + A2 sinωd t)

whereωdis called natural resonant frequency and is given given by:

ωd = √ω02– α2

We should also note that the general response given bythe above equations [1] through [5] describe
not only the voltage but all three branch currents in the parallel RLC circuit; the constants A1 and A2
will be different for each, of course.

Transient response of a series RLC circuit:

Fig: Series RLC circuit with external DC Excitation

Applying KVL to the series RLC circuit shown in the figure above at t= 0 gives the following basic
relation :
V = vR(t) + vC(t ) + vL(t)

Representing the above voltages in terms of the current iin the circuit we get the following
integrodifferentialequation:

Ri + 1/C∫ 𝒊𝒅𝒕 + L. (di/dt)= V

To convert it into a differential equation it is differentiated on both sides with respect to time and we
get

L(d2i/dt2)+ R(di/dt)+ (1/C)i = 0

This can be written in the form

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[S2 + (R/L)s + (1/LC)].i = 0 where ‘s’ is an operator equivalent to (d/dt)

And the corresponding characteristic equation is then given by

[s2 + (R/L)s + (1/LC)] = 0

This is in the standard quadratic equation form and the rootss1ands2are given by

s1,s2 =− R/2L±√[(R/2L)2− (1/LC)]= −α ±√(α2– ω02)

Where α is known as the same exponential damping coefficientand ω0is known as the sameResonant
frequencyas explained in the case of Parallel RLC circuit and are given by :
α = R/2L and ω0= 1/ √LC

and A1 and A2must be found by applying the given initial conditions.

Here also we note three basic scenarios with the equations for s1 and s2 depending on the relative sizes
of αand ω0 (dictated by the values of R, L, and C).

CaseA:
α > ω0,i.e when (R/2L)2>1/LC , s1 and s2 will both be negative real numbers, leading to what is referred
to as an over damped responsegiven by :
i (t) = A1es1t+ A2es2t
Sinces1 and s2are both be negative real numbersthis is the (algebraic) sumof two decreasing exponential
terms.Sinc s2 is a larger negative number it decays faster and then the response is dictated by the first
term A1es1t.

Case B :
α = ω0, ,i.e when (R/2L)2=1/LCs1 and s2are equal which leads to what is called a critically damped
responsegiven by :
i (t) = e−αt(A1t + A2)
Case C :
α < ω0,i.e when (R/2L)2<1/LCboth s1 and s2 will have nonzero imaginary components, leading to what is
known as an under damped responsegiven by :

i (t) = e−αt(A1 cosωd t + A2 sinωd t)

whereωdis called natural resonant frequency and is given given by:

ωd = √ω02– α2

Here the constants A1 and A2 have to be calculated out based on the initial conditions case by case.

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Summary of the Solution Process:

In summary, then, whenever we wish to determine the transient behavior of asimple three-element
RLCcircuit, we must first decide whether it is a series or a parallel circuit, so that we may use the correct
relationshipfor α. The two equations are
α = 1/2RC (parallel RLC)
α = R/2L (series RLC)

Our second decision is made after comparing αwith ω0, which is given foreither circuit by
ω0= 1 /√LC

 Ifα > ω0, the circuit is over damped, and the natural response has the form

fn(t) = A1es1t+ A2es2t

where
s1, 2= −α ±√(α2–ω02)

 If α = ω0, then the circuit is critically dampedand

fn(t) = e−αt(A1t + A2)

 And finally, ifα < ω0, then we are faced with the underdampedresponse,

fn(t) = e−αt(A1 cosωd t + A2 sinωd t)

where
ωd=√(ω02− α2)

Solution using Laplace transformation method:

In this topic we will study Laplace transformation method of finding solution for the differential
equations that govern the circuit behavior. This method involves three steps:
 First the given Differential equation is converted into “s” domain by taking it’s Laplace transform
and an algebraic expression is obtained for the desired variable
 The transformed equation is split into separate terms by using the method of Partial fraction
expansion
 Inverse Laplace transform is taken for all the individual terms using the standard inverse
transforms.
The expression we get for the variable in time domain is the required solution.

For the ease of reference a table of important transform pairs we use frequently is given below.

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Table of Important Transform pairs

This method is relatively simpler compared to Solving the Differential equations especially for higher
order differential equations since we need to handle only algebraic equations in ‘s’ domain.
This method is illustrated below for the series RL,RC and RLC circuits.

Series RL circuit with DC excitation:

Let us take the series RL circuit with external DC excitation shown in the figure below.

Fig: RL Circuit with external DC excitation

The governing equation is same as what we obtained earlier.

V = Ri + Ldi/dt for t >0

Taking Laplace transform of the above equation using the standard transform functions we get

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V/s = R.I(s)+ L[sI(s) –i(0)]

It may be noted here that i(0)is the initial value of the current at t=0 and since in our case at t=0 just
when the switch is closed it is zero , the above equation becomes:

V/s = R.I(s)+ L[sI(s)] = I(s)[R+ L.s]

𝑽
( 𝑳) 𝑨 𝑩
Or I(s) = [ 𝑹 ]= + 𝑹 (Expressing in the form of Partial fractions)
𝒔{𝒔+ } 𝒔 [𝒔+ 𝑳 ]
𝑳

𝑽 𝑽
( ) ( )
Where A = [{𝒔+𝑹}]s=0
𝑳
= V/R and B = [ 𝒔 ]s=− (R/L)
𝑳
= − V/R
𝑳
𝑨 𝑩
Now substituting these values of A and B in the expression for I(s) = + 𝑹 we get
𝒔 [𝒔+ 𝑳 ]
𝐕/𝐑 𝐕/𝐑
I(s) = − 𝑹
𝒔 [𝒔+ 𝑳 ]
Taking inverse transform of the above expression for I(s)using the standard transform pairs we get the
solution for i(t) as

i(t) = (V/R) − (V/R).e - (R/L)t = (V/R)(1−e - (R/L)t )

Which is the same as what we got earlier by solving the governing differential equation directly.

RC Circuit with external DC excitation:

Let us now take the series RC circuit with external DC excitation shown in the figure below.

Fig: RC Circuit with external DC excitation

The governing equation is same as what we obtained earlier and is worked out again for easy
understanding :

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Applying KVL around the loop in the above circuit we can write:

V = vR(t) + vC(t)

Using the standard relationships of voltage and current for an Ideal Capacitor we get

vC(t) = (1/C )∫ 𝒊(𝒕)𝒅𝒕 or i(t) = C.[dvC(t)/dt]

(Assuming that the initial voltage across the capacitor vc(0) = 0 )

and using this relation, vR(t) can be written asvR(t) = Ri(t) = R. C.[d vC(t)/dt]

Using the above two expressions for vR(t) and vC(t)the above expression for V can be rewritten as :

V = R. C.[d vC(t)/dt] + vC(t)

Now we will take Laplace transform of the above equation using the standard Transform pairs and rules:

V/s = R.C.s.vC(s) + vC(s)

V/s = vC(s) ( R.C.s.+ 1 )

vC(s) = (V/s )/ ( R.C.s + 1 )

vC(s) = (V/RC )/ [s. (s + 1/RC )]

Now expanding this equation into partial fractions we get

vC(s) = (V/RC )/ [s. (s + 1/RC )] = A/s + B/(s + 1/RC ) ----(1)

Where A =(V/RC )/ ( 1/RC )] = V and B = (V/RC )/ − ( 1/RC )] = −V

Substituting these values of A and B into the above equation (1) forvC(s)we get

vC(s) = (V/s) –[V /(s + 1/RC )] = V [(1/s) –{1 /(s + 1/RC )}]

And now taking the inverse Laplace transform of the above equation we get

vC(t) = V(1 − e −t/RC )

which is the voltage across the capacitor as a function of time and is the same as what we obtained
earlier by directly solving the differential equation.

And the voltage across the Resistor is given by vR(t) = V−vC(t) = V−V(1 − e −t/RC ) = V.e −t/RC

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And the current through the circuit is given by i(t) = C.[dvC(t)/dt] = (CV/RC )e −t/RC =(V/R )e −t/RC

Series RLC circuit with DC excitation:

Fig: Series RLC circuit with DC excitation

The current through the circuit in the Laplace domain is given by :

(𝐕/𝐬)
I(s) =
(𝐑 + 𝐋𝐬 + 𝟏/𝐂𝐬)

[since L [V ] = V/sand the Laplace equivalent of the series circuit is given by Z(s) = (R + Ls + 1/Cs) ]

( 𝐕/𝐋 )
= V/ ( Rs + Ls2 + 1/C ) = ( V/L ) / [ s2 + (R/L) s + 1/LC ] =
(𝐬+𝐚)(𝐬+𝐛)

Where the roots ‘a’ and ‘b’ are given by

a = −R/2L +√ (R/2L)2– 1/LC and

b = −R/2L – √ (R/2L)2– 1/LC

It may be noted that there are three possible solutions for for I(s) and we will consider them.

Case A: Both aand b are real and not equal i.e. (R/2L) > 1/√ LC

( 𝐕/𝐋 ) 𝐊𝟏 𝐊𝟐
Then I(s) can be expressed as I(s) = = +
(𝐬+𝐚)(𝐬+𝐛) (𝐬+𝐚) (𝐬+𝐛)

( 𝐕/𝐋 ) ( 𝐕/𝐋 )
WhereK1 = [ ] s= – a =
(𝐬+𝐛) (𝐛– 𝐚)

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( 𝐕/𝐋 ) ( 𝐕/𝐋 )
Where K2 = [ ] s= – b =
(𝐬+𝐚) (𝐚– 𝐛)

Substituting these values of K1 and K2 in the expression for I(s) we get :

( 𝐕/𝐋 ) ( 𝐕/𝐋 ) 𝟏 ( 𝐕/𝐋 ) 𝟏

I(s) = = + and
(𝐬+𝐚)(𝐬+𝐛) (𝐛– 𝐚) (𝐬+𝐚) (𝐚– 𝐛) (𝐬+𝐛)

( 𝐕/𝐋 ) ( 𝐕/𝐋 ) –bt

i(t) = e–at+ e
(𝐛– 𝐚) (𝐚– 𝐛)

Case B : Both a and b are real and equal i.e. ( a=b=c ) i.e. (R/2L) = 1/√ LC

I(s) =(V/L)/ (s+c)2when a = b = c and

i(t) = (V/L). t. e–ct

Case C : Both a and b are complexconjugates i.e.a = b* when (R/2L) < 1/√ LC

Adopting our standard definitions of α = R/2L ω0 = 1 /√LCand ω d= √(ω02− α2)

The roots a and b are given by a = α + jωdand b = α–jωd

( 𝐕/𝐋 ) 𝐊𝟑 𝐊𝟑∗
Then I(s) can be expressed as I(s) = = +
(𝐬+𝛂 –𝐣 𝛚𝐝) (𝐬+𝛂 + 𝐣 𝛚𝐝) (𝐬+𝛂 –𝐣 𝛚𝐝) (𝐬+𝛂 +𝐣 𝛚𝐝)

( 𝐕/𝐋 ) ( 𝐕/𝐋 )
HereK3 =(𝐬 + 𝛂 – 𝐣 𝛚𝐝). I(s)│ s =– 𝛂 + 𝐣 𝛚𝐝 = │ 𝐬 =– 𝛂 + 𝐣 𝛚𝐝 =
(𝐬+𝛂 + 𝐣 𝛚𝐝) 𝟐 𝐣 𝛚𝐝

( 𝐕/𝐋 ) ( 𝐕/𝐋 )
Therefore: K3 = and K3* = –
𝟐 𝐣 𝛚𝐝 𝟐 𝐣 𝛚𝐝

Now substituting these values K3 and K3* in the above expanded equation for I(s) we get

( 𝐕/𝐋 ) 𝟏 ( 𝐕/𝐋 ) 𝟏
I(s) = –
𝟐𝐣𝛚𝐝 (𝐬+𝛂–𝐣𝛚𝐝) 𝟐𝐣𝛚𝐝 (𝐬+𝛂+ 𝐣𝛚𝐝)

And now taking inverse transform of I(s) we get

( 𝐕/𝐋 ) ( 𝐕/𝐋 )
i(t) = e–αt. ejωd t– e–αt. e –jωd t
𝟐𝐣𝛚𝐝 𝟐𝐣𝛚𝐝

( 𝐕/𝐋 )
i(t) = e–αt [ (ejωd t–e –jωd t)/2j]
𝛚𝐝

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( 𝐕/𝐋 )
i(t) = e–αt Sin ωdt
𝛚𝐝

Summary of important formulae and equations:

RL circuit with external DC excitation ( Charging Transient ) :

 i(t) = V/R [1− e−t./τ ]

 vL(t) = V (e−t./τ)

 vR(t) = i(t).R = V [1− e−t./τ ]

Source free RL circuit ( Decay Transients) :

 i(t) = (V/R) . e-t/τ ; vR(t) = R.i(t)= Ve-t/τ and vL(t) = - Ve-t/τ

RC circuit with external DC excitation ( Discharge Transients ):

 vC(t) = V(1 − e −t/RC )

 vR(t) = V. e −t/RC

 i(t) = (V/R ) e −t/RC

Source free RC circuit ( Discharge transients) :

 vC(t) = Ve-t/τ ; vR(t) = -Ve-t/τ and i(t) = vR(t)/R = (-V/R)e-t/τ

Series RLC circuit: For this circuit three solutions are possible :

1. α > ω0, i.e when (R/2L)2 >1/ LC , s1 and s2 will both be negative real numbers, leading to what is
referred to as an over damped responsegiven by :
i (t) = A1es1t+ A2es2t

2. α = ω0, , i.e when (R/2L)2 =1/ LC s1 and s2 are equal which leads to what is called a critically
damped responsegiven by :
i (t) = e−αt(A1t + A2)
2
3. α < ω0, i.e when (R/2L) <1/ LC both s1 and s2 will have nonzero imaginary components, leading
to what is known as an under damped responsegiven by :

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i (t) = e−αt(A1 cosωd t + A2 sinωd t)

where :

 α = (R/2L) and is called the exponential damping coefficient

 ω0 = 1/ √LCand is called the resonant frequency
 ωd = √ω02– α2and is called the natural resonant frequency

Illustrative Examples:

Example 1:Find the current in a series RL circuit having R =2Ω and L = 10H when a DC voltage V
of 100V is applied. Find the value of the current 5 secs. after the application of the DC voltage.

Solution: This is a straightforward problem which can be solved by applying the formula.
First let us find out the Time constant τ of the series LR circuit which is given by τ = L/R secs.

∴ τ = 10/2 = 5 secs
The current in a series LR circuit after the sudden application of a DC voltage is given by :
i(t) = V/R ( 1 – e –t/τ )
∴ i(t)at 5 secs = 100/2 ( 1 – e –5/5 ) = 5 (1 –e –1 ) = 50 ( 1 – 1/ e ) = 31.48

∴ 𝐢(𝐭)𝐚𝐭 𝟓 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐬 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟒𝟖 𝐀𝐦𝐩𝐬

Example 2: A series RL circuit has R= 25 Ω and L = 5 Henry. A dc voltage V of 100 V is applied to

this circuit at t = 0 secs. Find :
(a) The equations for the charging current , and voltage across R & L
(b) The current in the circuit 0.5 secs after the voltage is applied.
(c) The time at which the drops across R and L are equal.

Solution: The solutions for (a) and (b) are straightforward as in the earlier problem.
(a)Time constant τ of the series LR circuit which is given by τ = L/R secs
∴ τ = 5/25 = 1/5 secs
 The charging current is given by i(t) = V/R ( 1 – e –t/τ )

It is also given by i(t) = I ( 1 – e – t/τ ) where I is the final steady state current and is
equal to V/R

= 100/25 (1 – e –t/(1/5)) = 4 ( 1 – e – 5t) Amps

i(t) = 4 ( 1 – e – 5t ) Amps
 The voltage across R is given by vR =i(t).R = V/R ( 1 – e –t/τ ).R = V ( 1 – e –t/τ )
vR= 100 (1—e—5t )
 The voltage drop across L can be found in two ways.
1. Voltage across Inductor vL = L di/dt

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2. Voltage across Inductor vL = V –vR

But it is easier to find using the second method. ∴ vL = 100 -- 100 (1—e—5t )
vL = 100. e—5t

(b) At time t= 0.5 secsi(t) = 4 (1–e5 t ) = 4 (1 – e – 2.5 ) = 3.67 Amps

(c) To find out the time at which the voltages across the Inductor and the Resistor are equal we
can equate the expressions for vR = 100 (1—e—5t ) and vL = 100.e—5t and solve for t. But the
simpler method is, we know that since the applied voltage is 100 V the condition v R =vLwill also
be satisfiedwhenvR =vL = 50 V. i.e vR = 100 (1—e—5t ) = 50 volts and vL= 100.e—5t = 50 V. We
will solve the second equation [ vL = 100. e—5t = 50 V ] to get t which is easier.

e—5t = 50/100 = 0.5 .

Taking natural logarithm on both sides we get:
--5t .ln(e) = ln 0.5 i.e --5t .1 = -0.693 i.e t = 0.693/5 = 0.139 secs

∴ The voltages across the resistance and the Inductance are equal at time t = 0.139 secs

Example 3: In the figure shown below after the steady state condition is reached , at time t=0
the switch K is suddenly opened. Find the value of the current through the inductor at time t =
0.5 seconds.

Solution: The current in the path acdb ( through the resistance of 40 Ω alone) is 100/40 =
2.5Amps.( Both steady state and transient are same )
The steady state current through the path aefb (through the resistance of 40 Ω and inductance
of 4H ) is also = 100/40 = 2.5 Amps.

Now when the switch K is suddenly opened, the current through the path acdb( through the
resistance of 40 Ω alone) immediately becomes zero because this path contains only resistance.
But the current through the inductor decays gradually but now through the different path efdce
The decay current through a closed RL circuit is given by I.e – t / τ where I is the earlier steady
state current of 2.5 amps through L and τ = L/R of the decay circuit. It is to be noted carefully
here that in the decay path both resistors are there and hence R =40+40 = 80Ω
Hence τ= L/R = 4/80 = 0.05 secs

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Hence the current through the inductor at time 0.5 secs is given by i(t) @0.5secs =2.5.e – 0.5 / 0.05
i.e i(t) @0.5secs = 2.5.e – 10

i.e i(t) @0.5secs= 1.14x10 – 4 Amps

Example 4: In the circuit shown below the switch is closed to position 1 at time t = 0 secs. Then
at time t = 0.5 secs the switch is moved to position 2. Find the expressions for the current
through the circuit from 0 to 0. 5 msecs and beyond 0. 5 msecs.

Solution:The time constant τof the circuit in both the conditions is same and is given by τ = L/R
= 0.5/50 = 0.01 secs

1. During the time t=0 to 0.5 msecs. i(t) is given by the standard expression for growing
current through a L R circuit: i(t)during 0 to 0.5 msecs = V/R ( 1—e –t / τ )
i(t)during 0 to 0.5 msecs = V/R ( 1—e –t / 0.01 ) Amps
And the current i(t) @ t= 0.5 msecs = 10/50 ( 1-- e – 0.5x10-3 / 0.01 ) = 0.2 (1 – e—0.05 ) = 9.75 mA
i(t) @ t = 0.5 msecs = 9.75 mA and this would be the initial current when the switch is moved to
position 2

2. During the time beyond 0.5 msecs ( switch is in position 2): The initial current is 9.75 mA .
The standard expression for the growing currenti(t) = V/R ( 1—e –t / τ ) is not applicable now
since it has been derived with initial condition of i(t) =0 at t=0 where as the initial condition for
the current i(t) now in position 2 is 9.75 mA . Now an expression for i(t) in position 2 is to be
derived from first principles taking fresh t=0 and initial current i(0) as 9.75mA.
The governing equation in position 2 is given by :
50i+0.5di/dt = 5
We will use the same separation of variables method to solve this differential equation. Dividing
the above equation by 0.5, then multiplying by dt and separating the terms containing the two
variables i and t we get:
100i + di/dt = 10 i.e 100i.dt +di = 10.dt i.e di = dt ( 10 – 100i ) i.e di/ ( 10 – 100i ) = dt
Now integrating on both sides we get

--1/100 ln ( 10 -- 100i ) = t + K ----------- (1)

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The constant K is now to be evaluated by invoking the new initial condition i(t) = 9.75 mAat t =0

--1/100 ln ( 10 – 100x9.75X10--3 ) = K = --1/100 ln ( 10 – 0.975 ) = --1/100 ln (9.025)

Substituting this value of K in the above equation (1) we get

--1/100 ln ( 10 -- 100i ) = t --1/100 ln (9.025)
--1/100 ln ( 10 -- 100i ) + 1/100 ln (9.025) = t
--1/100 [ln ( 10 -- 100i ) -- ln (9.025)] = t
--1/100 . ln [ ( 10 -- 100i ) / (9.025)] = t
ln [( 10 -- 100i ) / (9.025)] = --100t
Taking antilogarithm to base e on both sides we get:
( 10 -- 100i ) / (9.025)] = e--100t
( 10 -- 100i ) = 9.025 x e--100t
( 10 --9.025 x e--100t ) = 100i
i = ( 10 --9.025 x e--100t )/ 100 = 10/100 -- 9.025 x e--100t /100

And finally i = 0.1 –0.09. e--100t

The currents during the periods t = o to 0.5 mses and beyond t = 0.5msec are shown in the
figure below. Had the switch been in position 1 all through, the current would have reached the
steady state value of 0.2 amps corresponding to source voltage of 10 volts as shown in the top
curve. But since the switchis changed to position 2 the current changed it’s path towards the
new steady state current of 0.1 Amps corresponding the new source voltage of 5 Volts from 0.5
msecs onwards.

Example 5: In the circuit shown below the switch is kept in position 1 upto 250 μsecs and then
moved to position 2. Find
(a) The current and voltage across the resistor at t = 100 μsecs
(b) The current and voltage across the resistor at t = 350 μsecs

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Solution : The time constant τ of the circuit is given by τ = L/R = 200mH/8KΩ = 25 μsec and is
same in both the switch positions.

(a)The current in the circuit upto 250 μsec ( till switch is in position 1 ) is given by :
i(t) growing = V/R (1 – e –t / τ ) = (16/8)X10--3 (1 – e –t / 25 x10--6 ) = 2x(1 – e –t / 25 x10 –6) mA

 The current in the circuit @100μsec is given by

i(t) @100 μsec = 2x (1 – e –100 μsec / 25 μsec) mA = 2x(1 – e –4) mA = 1.9633 mA

i(t) @100 μsec = 1.9633 m

 The Voltage across the resistoris given by vR@100 μsec = R x i(t) @100 μsec
vR@100 μsec = 8 KΩ x1.9633 mA = 15.707 V

vR@100 μsec = 15.707 V

(b)

 The current in the circuit @350 μsec is the decaying current and is given by:

i(t)Decaying= I(0).e – t / τ where I(0) is the initial current and in this case it is the growing current
@250μsec. ( Since the switch is changed @250μsec ) The time t is to be reckoned from this time
of 250 μsec. Hence t = (350—250) = 100μsec. So we have to calculate first i(t)growing(@250
μsec)which is given by:
i(t) growing(@250 μsec) = V/R (1 – e –t / τ ) = (16/8)X10--3 (1 – e –t / 25 μsec) = 2x(1 – e –250/ 25 μsec) mA
=2x(1 – e –10) mA = 1.999 mA
i(t)growing(@250 μsec)= 1.999 mA = I(0)

Hence i(t)@350 μsec =I(0).e – t / τ = 1.99x e – 100 μsec /25 μsecmA = 1.99x e – 4mA = 0.03663 mA

i(t)@350 μsec = 0.03663 mA

 The voltage across the resistor vR @350 μsec = Rxi(t@350 μsec) = 8KΩx0.03663 mA
vR @350 μsec= 0.293V
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Example 6: In the circuit shown below the switch is kept in position 1 up to 100 μ secs and then
it is moved to position 2 . Supply voltage is 5V DC . Find

a) The current and voltage across the capacitor at t = 40 μ secs

b) The current and voltage across the resistor at t = 150 μ secs

Solution:The time constant τ of the circuit is same in both conditions and is given by τ = RC =
40x103x200x10x-12 = 8 μsec

a) The time t = 40 μsec corresponds to the switch in position 1 and in that condition the
current i(t) is given by the standard expression for charging current

i(t) = (V/R) [e-t/τ ]

i(t) @40 μsec = 5v/40KΩ [e-40/8 ] Amps = 0.125x[ e-5 ] mA = 0.84224 μA

i(t) @40 μsec = 0.84224 μA

The voltage across the capacitor during the charging period is given by V [1- e-t/τ ].

vC(t) @40 μsec = 5[1 -- e-40/8 ] = 5[1 -- e-5 ] = 4.9663 Volts

vC(t) @40 μsec = 4.9663 Volts

b) The time t = 150 μsec corresponds to the switch in position 2 and the current i(t) is
given by the discharge voltage expression i(t) = [vC(t)0/R]. e-t/τ

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Where vC(t)0 is the initial capacitor voltage when the switch was changed to position 2
and it is the voltage that has built up by 100 μsec during the charging time (switch in
position 1 ) and hence is given by
vC(t)@100μsec = 5[1- e-100/8 ] volts = 5x[1- e-12.5 ] Volts = 4.999 Volts
And now t=150 μsec from beginning is equal to t = (150-100) = 50 μsec from the time
switch is changed to position 2.
Therefore the current through the resistor at 150 μsec from the beginning = i(t)150μsec=
(4.999/40KΩ). e-t/τ
i(t)150μsec = 0.1249 x e-50/8 = 0.241 μA
i(t)150μsec = 0.241 μA
And the voltage across the resistor = R x i(t) = 40KΩ x 0.241 μA = 0.00964v

Example 7: In the circuit shown below find out the expressions for the current i 1 and i2 when
the switch is closed at time t= 0

Solution: It is to be noted that in this circuit there are two current loops 1 and 2 . Current i1
alone flows through the resistor 15 Ω and the current i2 alone flows through the inductance0.5
H where as both currents i1 and i2 flow through the resistor 20 Ω. Applying KVL to the two
loops taking care of this point we get

20(i1 + i2 ) + 15 i1 = 100 i.e 35 i1 + 20 i2 = 100 ------ (1)

and 20(i1 + i2 ) + 0.5 di2/dt = 100 ; 20 i1+ 20 i2 +0.5 di2/dt = 100 ------- (2)

Substituting the value of i1 = [100/35 – (20/35) i2] = 2.86 – 0.57 i2 obtained from the above
equation (1) into equation (2) we get :

20 [2.86 – 0.57 i2] +20i2 + 0.5 (di2/dt) = 100

57.14 – 11.4 i2 +20i2 + 0.5 (di2/dt) = 100

(di2/dt) i2 +17.14 i2 = 85.72

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The solution for this equation is given by i2(t) = K. e – 17.14t + 85.72/17.14 and the constant K
can be evaluated by invoking the initial condition. The initial current through the inductor = 0
at time t = 0 .

Hence K = -- 85.72/17.14 = -- 5

Therefore i2(t) = 5 ( 1-- e – 17.14t ) Amps

And current i1(t) = 2.86 – 0.57 i2 = 2.86 – 0.57 [5 ( 1-- e – 17.14t ) ] = 0.01 + 2.85 e – 17.14t Amps

And current i1(t) = 0.01 + 2.85 e – 17.14t Amps

Example 8 : In the circuit shown below find an expression for the current i(t) when the switch is
changed from position 1 to 2 at time t= 0 .

Solution: The following points are to be noted with reference to this circuit:

 When the switch is changed to position 2 the circuit is equivalent to a normal source
free circuit but with a current dependent voltage source given as 10i.
 The initial current in position 2 is same as the current when the switch was in position 1
( for a long time ) and is given by I0 = 500/(40+60) = 5 Amps

The loop equation in position 2 is given by : 60i + 0.4 di/dt = 10i i.e ( 50/0.4 )i + di/dt = 0

Writing the equation in the ‘s’notation where ‘s’ is the operator equivalent to (d/dt) we get

( s+ 125 ) i = 0 and the characteristic equation will be ( s+ 125 ) = 0

Hence the solution i(t) is given by i(t) = K . e --125t. The constant K can be evaluated by invoking
the initial condition that i(t) @ t=0 is equal to I0 = 5 amps .Then the above equation becomes:

5 = K . e—125X0 i.e K = 5 and hence the current in the circuit when the switch is changed to
position 2 becomes: i(t) = 5. e--125t Amps

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Example 9 : In the circuit shown below find an expression for the current i(t) when the switch is
opened at time t= 0

Solution: The following points may be noted with reference to this circuit:

 When the switch is opened the circuit is equivalent to a normal source free circuit but
with a current dependent voltage source given as 5i.
 The initial current I0 when the switch is opened is same as the current when the switch
was closed for a long time and is given by I0 = 100/(10+10) = 5 Amps

The loop equation when the switch is opened is given by :

(1/4x10—6)∫idt + 10i = 5i
(1/4x10—6)∫idt + 5i = 0

Differentiating the above equation we get :

5.(di/dt) + (1/4x10—6)i = 0 i.e. = (di/dt) + (1/20 x 10—6)i = 0

Writing the above equation in the ‘s’notation where ‘s’ is the operator equivalent to (d/dt) we
get

( s+ 1/20 x 10—6 ) i = 0 and the characteristic equation will be ( s+ 1/20 x 10—6 ) = 0

The solution i(t) is given by i(t) = K . e–t/20 x 10—6. The constant K can be evaluated by invoking
the initial condition that i(t) @ t=0is equal to I0 = 5 amps .Then the above equation becomes:

5 = K . e –t/20 x 10—6 i.e K = 5 and hence the current in the circuit when the switch is opened
becomes: i(t) = 5. e –t/20 x 10—6 Amps

Example 10: A series RLC circuit as shown in the figure below has R = 5Ω,L= 2H and C =
0.5F.The supply voltage is 10 V DC . Find

a) The current in the circuit when there is no initial charge on the capacitor.
b) The current in the circuit when the capacitor has initial voltage of 5V
c) Repeat question (a) when the resistance is changed to 4 Ω

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d) Repeat question (a) when the resistance is changed to 1 Ω

Solution: The basic governing equation of this series circuit is given by :

Ri + 1/C∫ 𝒊𝒅𝒕 + L. (di/dt)= V
On differentiation we get the same equation in the standard differential equation form
L(d2i/dt2)+ R(di/dt)+ (1/C)i = 0

By dividing the equation by L and using the operator ‘s’ for d/dt we get theequation in the
form of characteristic equation as :
[s2 + (R/L)s + (1/LC)] = 0

Whose roots are given by:

s1,s2 =− R/2L±√[(R/2L)2− (1/LC)]= −α ±√(α2– ω02)

and three types of solutions are possible.

1. α > ω0, i.e when LC > (2L/R)2 s1 and s2 will both be negative real numbers, leading to what is
referred to as an over damped responsegiven by :
i (t) = A1es1t+ A2es2t
2. α = ω0, , i.e when LC = (2L/R)2 s1 and s2 are equal which leads to what is called a critically
damped responsegiven by :
i (t) = e−αt(A1t + A2)
2
3. α < ω0, i.e when LC < (2L/R) both s1 and s2 will have nonzero imaginary components, leading to
what is known as an under damped responsegiven by :

i (t) = e−αt(A1 cosωd t + A2 sinωd t)

whereωdis called natural resonant frequency and is given given by:
ωd = √ω02– α2

The procedure to evaluate the complete solution consists of the following steps for each part of the
question:
1. We have to first calculate the roots for each part of the question and depending on to which
case the roots belong we have to take the appropriate solution .
2. Then by invoking the first initial condition i.e i = 0 at t=0 obtain the first relation between A1
and A2or one of its values.
3. If one constant value is obtained directly substitute it into the above solution and take its first
derivative. Or else directly take the first derivative of the above solution

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4. Now obtain the value di/dt @ t= 0from the basic RLC circuit equation by invoking the initial
conditions of vC@ t=0 and i(t) @ t=0 . Now equate this to the differential of the solution for i(t) to
get the second relation between A1 and A2( or the second constant . Now using these two
equations we can solve for A1 and A2 and subsititute in the solution for i(t) to get the final
solution.

(a) s1,s2 = − R/2L±√[(R/2L)2− (1/LC)] = (-5/2x2)±√[(5/2x2)2 – (1/2x0.5)] = -1.25 ± 0.75.

i.e. s1 = --0.5 and s2 = --2

In this case the roots are negative real numbers and the solution is given by :
i (t) = A1es1t+ A2es2t= A1e-0.5t+ A2e-2t ------- (1)
Now we will apply the first initial condition i.e i(t) = 0 at t=0 .Then we get
0 = A1e-0.5x0+ A2e-2x0 i.e. A1+ A2 = 0

The basic equation for voltage in the series RLC circuit is given as :

V = R.i(t) + vC(t) + L.(di/dt) i.e di/dt = 1/L [ V -R.i(t) - vC(t)

At time t=0 we get
(di/dt)@ t=0 = 1/L [ V -R.i(t=0) - vC(t=0) ] ----------- (2)
But we know that the voltage across the capacitor and current are zero at time t=0 .
Therefore (di/dt)@ t=0 = V/L = 10/2 = 5 --------- (3)

Now the equation for i(t) at equation (1) is differentiated to get

(di/dt) = -0.5A1e-0.5t-2A2e-2t
and the above value of (di/dt)@ t=0 = 5 is substituted in that to get the second equation with A1 and A2
(di/dt)@ t=0 = 5 = -0.5A1e-0.5x0-2A2e-2x0 = -0.5A1--2A2
Now we can solve the two equations for A1 and A2

A1+ A2 = 0 and -0.5A1--2A2 = 5 to get A1 = 10/3 and A2 = --10/3

And the final solution for i(t) is : (10/3)[e-0.5t– e-2t ] Amps

(b) At time t=0 the voltage across the capacitor = 5V ie. vC(t=0) = 5V . But i(t=0) is still =0.using these
values in the equation (2) above we get
(di/dt)@ t=0 = ½ (10-5 ) = 2-5
Then the two equations in A1 and A2 are A1+ A2 = 0 and -0.5A1--2A2 =2.5
Solving these two equations we get A1 = 5/3 and A2 = -5/3
And the final solution for i(t) is : (5/3)[e-0.5t– e-2t ] Amps

(c) The roots of the characteristic equation when the Resistance is changed to 4
s1,s2 = − R/2L±√[(R/2L)2− (1/LC)] = (-4/2x2) ±√[(4/2x2)2 – (1/2x0.5)] = -1.0
i.e the roots are real and equal and the solution is given by
i (t) = e−αt(A1t + A2) = e−1t(A1t + A2) -------- (4)
Now using the initial condition i(t) = 0 at time t=0 we get A 2 = 0

We have already found in equation (3) for the basic series RLC circuit (di/dt)@ t=0 = 5
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Now we will find di(t)/dt of equation (4) and equate it to the above value.
di /dt = -e−1t(A1t + A2) + e−1t (A1) = e−1t [A1 – A1t –A2] and
(di /dt) @t=0= e−1x0 [A1 – A1x0 –A2] i.e A1 – A2 = 5
Therefore A1 =5 and A2 = 0
And the final solution for i(t) is i(t) = 5te−1tAmps

(d) Roots of the characteristic equation when the resistance is changed to 1 Ω are :

s1,s2 = − R/2L±√[(R/2L)2− (1/LC)] = (-1/2x2) ±√[(1/4)2 – (1/2x0.5)] = --0.25 ±j0.94

The roots are complex and so the solution is then given by : i (t) = e−αt(A1 cosωd t + A2 sinωd t)
Where α = 0.25 and ωd= 0.9465
Now we will apply the initial conditions to find out the constants A1 and A2
First initial condition is i(t)@t=0 = 0 applying this into the equation : i (t) = e−αt(A1 cosωd t + A2 sinωd t)
we get A1 = 0 and using this value of A1 in the abve equation for i(t) we get
i (t) = e−αt(A2 sinωd t)
We have already obtained the second initial condition as di (t) /dt@t=0= 5 from the basic equation of the
series RLC circuit. Now let us differentiate above equation for current i.e :i (t) = e−αt(A2 sinωd t) and
equate it to 5 to get the second constant A2
di (t) /dt = e−αt(A2 ωd cos ωd t) + (A2 sinωd t) . –α. e−αt
di (t) /dt @t=0 =A2. ωd= 5
i.e A2 = 5 / ωd = 5/0.94 = 5.3
Now using this value of A2 and the values of α = 0.25 and ωd = 0.94in the above expression for the
current we finally get :
i (t) = e−0.25t(2.569 sin 1.9465t)

The currents in all the three different cases (a), (c) and (d) are shown below :

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