Topic  Measurement

1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define physical quantity;
2. Describe base and derived quantities and their respective SI units;
3. Determine the appropriate measurement tools for measuring different
physical quantities;
4. Discuss the precision, accuracy and sensitivity of measuring tools;
and
5. Use the graph technique to analyse measurements and data.

 INTRODUCTION
We apply measurements in almost everything we do. For example, how much
time does it take to bake a cake? Or how far away is the school from your house?
Or what is your weight? Each of these quantities needs to be measured using
different measuring tools. You need to be able to determine the proper measuring
tool for each measurement that you make so that you can get the best results from
the activities that you do.

1.1 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND SI UNITS

All measurements in physics are related to fundamental quantities such length,
mass and time. In the earlier times, until about the year 1800, workers in various
countries used different systems of units. Thus, while the English used inches to
measure length, a scientist from another country would measure lengths in
centimetres. This made it difficult for people from different countries to compare

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the measurements that they have made. Fortunately, this situation has now been
changed by the efforts of various international committees of scientists who have
met for discussion regularly over many years.

In 1960, the General Conference of Weights and Measures in France

recommended the use of a metric system of measurement called the International
System of Units or Le Systeme International (SI). The SI units are derived from
the earlier MKS system, so called because its first three basic units are the metre
(m), the kilogram (kg), and the second (s). Most countries including Malaysia
have adopted this system.

A physical quantity is a quantity that can be measured. Examples of physical

quantities are length, mass, time, weight, electric current, force, velocity and
energy. Non-physical quantities are quantities that cannot be measured such as
colour, feelings or beauty.

To describe a physical quantity, two things need to be specified. The first is its
numerical value and the second is its unit. For example, the distance between
your house and school is five kilometres. The distance has a numerical value of
five and the unit is kilometre (km).

On the other hand, colour, feelings and beauty cannot be stated in numerical
form and do not have units. Thus these quantities are subjective, as in the famous
saying, „beauty is in the eye of the beholder‰.

1.1.1 Base and Derived Quantity

Now let us get to know base and derived quantities.

(a) Base Quantity

There are two types of physical quantities; the base quantity and the
derived quantity.

A base quantity is a physical quantity that cannot be defined in terms

of any other physical quantity.

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Table 1.1 shows five base quantities and their respective SI units.

Table 1.1: Base Quantities and Their Respective Base Units

Base Quantity Base Unit (SI Unit) Symbol of Unit

Length, l Metre m
Mass, m Kilogram kg
Time, t Second s
Temperature, T Kelvin K
Current, I Ampere A

Scientific investigations usually involve quantities with values either very

big or very small. For example, the height of Mount Everest is 8,848m or the
diameter of a cell is 0.000002m. Quantities written this way take up much
space and are difficult to use in calculations. Thus we can write them as
numbers which are base of 10s to make them simpler to use.

M  10n where 1  M  10 and n is an integer

By using the above multiplication factor, the height of Mount Everest is

written as 8.848  103m and the diameter of a cell is 2.0  10 6m. The
magnitudes of physical quantities are usually rounded up to three or four
significant figures. The list of prefixes and multiplication factors is shown in
Table 1.2.
Table 1.2: Prefixes and Multiplication Factors

Prefix Symbol Multiplication Factor

Tera T  1012
Giga G  109
Mega M  106
Kilo k  103
Deci d  10 1

Centi c  10 2

Milli m  10 3

Micro ø  10 6

Nano η  10 9

Pico p  10 12

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Prefixes in the SI unit represent the multiplication factors. For example, the
multiplication 103 is represented by the prefix, kilo.

Similarly, 1,000m can be stated as 1km. 1cm can be stated as 0.01m or

1  10 2m.

When we want to change a prefix to the base unit, we need to use suitable
multiplication factors. The example below shows the conversion of units.

Example 1.1:
6.78mm = __________________ km

Solution:
6.78mm = 6.78  10 3m
= 6.78  10 3  10 3km
= 6.78  10 6km

ACTIVITY 1.1

1. Search the values of the following constants in prefixes and convert

them to real numbers:

(a) Speed of light in vacuum;

(b) Mass of an electron; and

(c) Distance from Earth to the Sun.

2. Convert the following numbers using suitable prefixes.

(a) 23,000,000kg; and

(b) 7,500nm.

(b) Derived Quantity

What does derived quantity mean?

A derived quantity is a physical quantity that is produced from a

combination of base quantities through some operation such as
multiplication, division or both.

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Physical quantities are related to one another by mathematical equations.

These quantities can be expressed and derived from base quantities.

For example,

Displacement
Velocity 
Time

Table 1.3 shows some derived quantities, their units and how their units are
derived from base units.

Table 1.3: Derived Quantities

Derived Relationship with Base Relationship with

Derived Unit
Quantity Quantities Base Units
Area, A Length  Breadth mm m2
Volume, V Length  Breadth  Height mmm m3
Mass kg
Density,  Kgm 3
Volume m3
Length m 1
Velocity, v ms
Time s

Velocity m s 1 2
Acceleration, a ms
Time s
kgm2 s 2 or
Work, W Force  Displacement kgm s 2  m
Nm or J
kgm2 s 1 or
Work kgm 2 s 2 Nm s 1 or
Power, P
Time s Js 1

Example 1.2:
Based on the formula given, derive the SI units of the following quantities.

(a) Force = Mass  Acceleration

Force
(b) Pressure =
Area

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Solution:

(a) Force = Mass  Acceleration

Unit of (Force) = Unit of (mass)  Unit of (acceleration)

= kg  ms 2

= kgms 2

Force
(b) Pressure =
Area

Unit of (Force)
Unit of (Pressure) =
Unit of (Area)

kgms 2
=
m2
= kgm 1s 2

1.1.2 Length
Length is a measure of displacement between two points within a single
dimension. Different terms are used for measurement in two other perpendicular
dimensions: width and height. You have learnt that length is measured using the
SI unit, metre. It is defined as:

Metre is the length of path travelled by light in vacuum during an interval of

1/299,792,458 of a second.

Other than the metre or its prefixes (centimetre, kilometre etc), the US customary
units, English or Imperial System of units uses other units for the measurement
of length such as inch, foot, yard or mile.

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1.1.3 Area
Area is defined as the amount of the two-dimensional space within a boundary.

For a square or a rectangle,

Area = Length  Width

Thus, the SI unit for area is m2.

If symbols are used to represent quantities as in table 1.1 (where l = length), and
let A = Area; and b = width or breadth, we obtain the following equation for area
of a square or a rectangle:

A=lb

If length and width are measured in cm as in Figure 1.1, area is measured in cm2.

Figure 1.1: A square of 1cm  1cm

1cm2 = 1cm  1cm

= 0.01m  0.01m
= 0.0001m2 or 1  10 4m2

You must try out similar problems to improve your problem solving skills.

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The area for various shapes can be determined by using the formulae for area.
Some examples are shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: Area of some regular shapes

You can also measure the area of an object by placing uniform objects such as a
stamp over the object. In order to measure the area using uniform objects, you
must count the number of uniform objects covering the surface area.

For example, if you want to measure the area of a textbook, you should fill as
many stamps as possible on the surface of the book. The number of stamps
covering the surface of the book is the area of the book. Look at the diagram in
Figure 1.3. The area of the book is covered by 12 stamps.

Figure 1.3: Stamps cover book surface

Although the stamps can be used to measure the area of the book, this method is
considered as a non-standard method. Again, there is a need to use a
standardised unit in order to make the method a standard one.

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A simple method to measure the area of a rectangular or square is by using

graph paper. The advantage of using graph paper is that it has uniform squares
printed on it. To measure the area of a rectangular or square object, place the
graph paper on the surface of the object. One square on the graph paper is 1cm2.
Thus, the number of squares on the graph papers can be counted to measure the
area of the objects being covered. By using the previous example, let us replace
the stamps covered on the book with the graph paper (as shown in Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4: Graph squares cover book surface

The area of the book is 48 squares. Since the area of each square is 1cm2, the area
of the book is 48 cm2.

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To find the area of a non-regular shape, you can trace the shape on centimetre
grid paper (see Figure 1.5).

Figure 1.5: A non-regular shape

Then, count the number of full centimetre squares inside the shape. Then, piece
together the remaining parts (for example, halves) into full squares. This method
will give you a good estimate of the shapeÊs area.

SELF-CHECK 1.1

We have learned how to use graph paper to measure an area of a

rectangular and a square object. Imagine, if the area you want to
measure is big, like a badminton court or a football field. Is it practical
to use graph paper as a tool to measure those big areas? There are other
alternatives we can use to measure such big areas. The area of a square
or a rectangle is measured by using the formula: A = l  b.

Calculate the area of your classroom by using the given formula.

ACTIVITY 1.2

As a teacher, you can ask your students to do this activity:

They have already learned that a graph paper can be used as a tool to
measure the area of a rectangular and a square object. Now, ask them to
measure the area of their own books by using graph paper.

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1.1.4 Volume
Think about this situation. You need to estimate the amount of petrol that you
need to drive your car from Ipoh to Malacca. You already know the distance
between Ipoh and Malacca, but now you need to estimate how much petrol you
need to reach Malacca. The further the distance you drive, the larger the volume
of petrol that you need for the journey. This indirect relationship can be
explained in a simple manner by referring to the following situation shown in
Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6: Comparing a big and a small bowl for volume

When you compare bowl A and bowl B, which bowl has a bigger space to be
filled by a liquid? Why can one bowl be filled with more volume of the liquid
compared with the other bowl? These two questions can be answered when we
understand the definition of volume. The volume of an object is the total amount
of space occupied by the object. Thus, a bigger object has a
bigger volume.

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Volume is a three-dimensional space occupied by an object. The units for volume

reflect its three-dimensional form such as cubic metres, cubic feet or cubic miles.
The volume of a regular shape or geometric shape can be determined by using
the mathematical formulae shown in Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7: Volume of some geometric shaped objects

Volume of Cuboid
The volume of a cuboid can also be determined experimentally by filling the box
completely with cubes of equal sizes. This is because the cubes can completely fill
the box. In order to measure the volume of an empty cuboid with cubes, we need
cubes with sides of 1cm and volume of 1cm3. We can measure the volume of an
empty box by filling it up completely with cubes with a volume of 1cm3 each.
The number of cubes which fill the box completely is the volume of that
particular box. If 36 cubes fill up the box completely, that means the volume of
the box is 36cm3.

The second method to measure a volume of cuboid is by using a mathematical

formula. First of all, we need to understand the basic characteristics of a cuboid.
The length, width and height of a cuboid are different. Even so, we can still
calculate the volume by using the following formula shown in Figure 1.8.

Figure 1.8: Formula to calculate the volume of a cuboid

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Example 1.3:
Given the length of the cuboid is 5cm, its width is 4cm and its height is 2cm, its
volume can be calculated by using the formula:

Volume = Length  Width  Height

= 5cm  4cm  2cm
= 40cm3

For irregular shaped objects, the volume cannot be determined using formula, we
can use the displacement of liquid as a way to determine its volume. When an
object is placed into a measuring cylinder, the level of water will rise. The
difference in the volume of water is the volume of the object, Vobject.

Vobject = Vobject + water Vwater

The water in the first cylinder in Figure 1.9 has a volume of 200cm3.

Figure 1.9: Measuring the volume of a liquid

The level of the water rises to 260cm3 when the object is placed in it. Thus the
volume of the object is:

Vobject = 260cm3 200cm3

= 60cm3

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1.1.5 Time
Time is a non-spatial continuum measure of existence and events. The unit of
time, second (s), was defined originally as the fraction 1/86 400 of the mean solar
day. However, the irregularities of the rotation of the Earth do not allow accuracy
to be achieved for the measurement of a second. The second was redefined in the
year 1967 to take advantage of the high precision attainable with an atomic clock,
which uses the characteristic frequency of the light emitted from the cesium-133
atom as its „reference clock.‰

The second is defined as the time required for 9,192,631.770 periods of

radiation of caesium atoms as they pass between two particular states.

1.1.6 Mass
When you walk around in a supermarket, you will see many things sold in
packets. If you read the packets carefully, you will notice the amount of mass
printed on the packets, such as 1kg, 5kg, 10kg etc. We use the concept of mass in
daily life situations. Can you give examples of daily situations related to mass?

All objects have mass. Mass is the quantity of matter present in the object. An
object which has larger quantity of matter in it has larger mass. The mass of an
object is the same even though it is measured at different places. This is because
the mass of an object depends on the amount of matter present in the object.
Thus, a 50 cent coin has a bigger mass than a 20 cent coin.

The standard unit for mass is kilogram (kg). The standard mass is an
international prototype of mass 1 kilogram kept at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures near Paris.

A kilogram is equal to the mass of the International Prototype Kilogram

(IPK), a platinum-iridium cylinder kept by the BIPM at Sèvres, France.

Metric Units
1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams (g)
1 gram (g) = 1000 milligrams (mg)

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1.1.7 Temperature
You are probably familiar with the weather report aired in the news which
predicts the weather for the next day. You may have noticed that some numbers
appear on the screen which indicate how hot or cold the day would be. The
numbers may be relatively higher or lower in some places. These are called
temperatures.

Temperature is used to indicate how hot or cold an object is. Usually, a hot object
is indicated by having a high temperature. In contrast, a cold object has a low
temperature. You cannot measure temperature of boiling or cold water
accurately by dipping your fingers into it. You may only be able to estimate the
temperature of the water. A thermometer is used to measure temperature
accurately.

Temperature is a physical property of matter which quantitatively expresses the

common notion of hot or cold. If the temperature of an object is low, the object is
cold; various degrees of higher temperatures are referred to as warm or hot.

Temperature can be measured using various kinds of thermometers. The basic

unit of temperature in the International System of Units (SI) is Kelvin and has the
symbol K. It is named after the British physicist, Lord Kelvin.

The Kelvin is defined as the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic

temperature of the triple point of water.

On the scale commonly used in laboratories, the number 0 is assigned to the

temperature at which water freezes and the number 100 as the temperature at
which water boils. The space between is divided into 100 equal parts called
degrees, hence, a thermometer so calibrated is called a centigrade thermometer
(from centi, „hundredth‰, and gradus, „degrees‰). It is now called a Celsius
thermometer in honour of the man who first suggested the scale, Swedish
astronomer Anders Celsius (1710 1744). This unit is used by many countries.

Tc = Tk 273.15

The United States uses a different unit do measure temperature. In the United
States, the number 32 is assigned to the temperature when water freezes. Boiling
water is assigned to number 212. This scale is known as the Fahrenheit scale.

TF = 1.8 Tc + 32F

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ABSOLUTE ZERO TEMPERATURE

The absolute zero temperature, OK (corresponds to 273.15C on the Celcius

temperature scale and 459.67F on the Fahrenheit temperature scale) is the
temperature at which a thermodynamic system has the lowest energy.

ACTIVITY 1.3

Riddles related to temperature.

1. Why should someone wear a hat on a cold day?

2. Why can you warm your hands by blowing them gently, and cool
them by blowing hard?

3. Air and water, both at 25C, do not feel the same. You notice this
temperature difference upon jumping from 25C air into a
swimming pool of 25C water. Why are there differences?

4. Can an ice cube be so hot that your fingers will burn when in
contact?
(Source: Jargodzki & Potter, 2001)

1.2 MEASUREMENT TOOLS

In the following subtopics we are going to look at some of the tools that we
commonly use scientifically to measure. When we make measurements, there are
certain things that we need to know about the measuring tools that we use so
that we can get the best results for our measurements, which are precision,
accuracy and sensitivity.

1.2.1 Precision, Accuracy and Sensitivity

In everyday life, no measurement is exactly accurate. All of the physical
quantities are only estimates. For example, 500g of sugar bought from a mini
market may be 500.2g or 499.8g. There will always be a slight difference between
the observed value and the real value of the quantity. The difference between the

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real value and the observed value (Observed value Real value, ) is known as
the error of uncertainty.

There are many reasons for errors of measurement, such as:

(a) Using unsuitable measuring instruments;

(b) Personal error when reading the scale; and

(c) The measuring process itself.

The three important aspects of a measurement are explained in Table 1.4.

Table 1.4: Three Important Aspects of Measurement

Aspect Description
Precision Ability of the instrument to give consistent readings when the same
physical quantity is measured more than once. In other words, there is
no or little deviation among the measurements taken.
Accuracy How close is the measured value compared with the actual value?
Sensitivity The ability of detecting small changes in the measured quantity.
Sensitive instruments can detect and react fast to small changes in the
quantities.

Now let us learn more on these three aspects.

(a) Precision
Let us look at two examples to understand precision.

Example 1.4: Precision

Table 1.5 shows two sets of readings taken by using two different
measuring instruments; A and B:

Table 1.5: Example for Precision

Instrument A Instrument B
6.5 7.2
6.4 6.6
6.5 5.9
6.6 5.2
6.5 7.9

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From the readings in Table 1.5, the values taken by instrument A are closer
to one other compared with instrument B. The readings taken by
instrument B are scattered, where the five values are quite far from one
another. Thus, when comparing instruments A to B, the readings taken by
instrument A are more precise than instrument B.

Consistency in the form of deviation

Relative deviation = Average deviation/Average reading  100%

Example 1.5
The readings taken by an instrument G are shown below. Find the relative
deviation of the readings.

2.2m, 2.3m, 2.5m, 2.1m and 2.2m

Solution:

(i) Find the average reading.

Average reading = (2.2 + 2.3 + 2.5 + 2.1 + 2.2)/5 = 2.26m

(ii) Construct a table as shown in Table 1.6:

Table 1.6: Sample Table

No. Readings Taken by Instrument G, (m) Deviation (m)

1 2.2 2.2 2.26 = 0.06
2 2.3 2.3 2.26 = 0.04
3 2.5 2.5 2.26 = 0.24
4 2.1 2.1 2.26 = 0.16
5 2.2 2.2 2.26 = 0.06
Total 11 0.56
Average 11.3/5 = 2.26 0.56/5 = 0.11

(iii) Find the total deviation using the formula as shown below:

Deviation = Reading Average reading

(iv) Find the average deviation using the formula:

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Average deviation = Total deviation/Number of readings

= 0.56/5
= 0.11m

(v) Find the relative deviation using the formula given:

Relative deviation = Average deviation/Average reading  100%

= 0.11/2.26  100%
= 4.86%

If we use a 100% consistent measuring instrument to measure one of

the physical quantities, then the relative deviation of a reading taken
will be zero. This situation happens as there is no deviation in every
reading taken. On the other hand, if we use a measuring instrument
which is not 100% precise, we will get different readings for the
measurement of the physical quantities.

(b) Accuracy
Let us look at an example to show the concept of accuracy.

Example 1.6:
A teacher asks two students, Afiq and Syazwan, to measure the height of a
chair in the physics laboratory. The actual height of the chair is 35.4cm. The
following data table shows the obtained data:

Afiq 35.2cm 35.6cm 35.4cm 35.7cm 35.3cm

Syazwan 36.2cm 36.1cm 36.2cm 36.1cm 36.2cm

For Afiq:

(i) Since the readings taken are very close to the actual reading, his
readings can be considered as accurate.

(ii) But, there are variations between the readings, so his readings can be
considered as not precise (consistent).

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For Syazwan:

(i) Since the readings taken are far from the actual reading, his readings
can be considered as less accurate.

(ii) But, his readings are more precise compared with Afiq because the
readings are concentrated on two values, 36.1cm and 36.2cm only.

(c) Sensitivity
If we look at a ruler, we will observe that there are two scales the
centimetre (cm) and millimetre (mm) scales. We can state that the
millimetre (mm) scale is more sensitive than the centimetre scale as
instruments with smaller divisions on the scale are more sensitive.

The sensitivity of a measuring instrument can be compared between

different measuring instruments.

Some examples:

(i) A ruler can measure to a smallest value of 0.1cm, a vernier caliper to a

smallest value of 0.01cm and a micrometer screw gauge to a smallest
value of 0.001cm. So when we measure the diameter of a glass rod,
we will possibly get 0.8cm from a ruler, 0.82cm from a vernier caliper
and 0.823cm form a micrometer screw gauge. Thus, the micrometer
screw gauge is more sensitive than a vernier caliper which is more
sensitive than a ruler.

(ii) A millimetre is more sensitive than an ammeter as it has a scale

which can measure currents accurately to a smallest value of
1 milliampere. An ammeter can only measure currents to a smallest
value of 1 Ampere only.

(iii) An electronic balance has a smallest value of 0.0001g, while the

weighing balance has a smallest value of 100g. Thus, the electronic
balance is more sensitive than a weighing balance.

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ACTIVITY 1.4

Is the diamond yours?

A friend asks to borrow your diamond for a day to show her family. You
are a bit worried, so you carefully have your diamond weighted on a
scale which reads 8.17 grams. The scale accuracy is claimed to be μ0.05
grams. The next day, you weigh the returned diamond again, getting 8.09
grams. Is this your diamond?
Source: Giancolli (1998)

1.2.2 Tools to Measure Length, Mass, Time, Electric

and Temperature
Now let us look at the tools that we can use to measure length, mass, time,
electric and temperature.

(a) Tools for Measuring Length

There are several methods we can use to measure length. A long time ago,
people used parts of their body to measure length. For example, they used
their legs, arms or fingers to measure the length of certain things.

Basically, there are five units of length when using parts of the body as a
measurement: a span, a foot, a cubit, an arm span and a stride (refer to
Figure 1.10).

Figure 1.10: Area of some regular shapes

Source: http://www.ilmoamal.org

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Each has its own unique description. For example, the span is the distance
from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the index finger, whereas a foot is the
length of a human foot. Other than that, a cubit is the distance from the
elbow to the tip of the middle finger. In addition, an arm span is the
distance between an adult manÊs hands when the arms are outstretched.
Last but not least, a stride is the distance covered by one long step. Our
ancestors also used terms like a hail (sepelaung) or a boil of rice (setanak
nasi) to describe a distance travelled.

Various tools have been designed so that we can measure length accurately
as the Laser Distance Meter which is designed to measure length up to 100
metres using laser rays. Another common tool to measure length is the
measuring tape. It measures lengths in millimetres (mm), centimetres (cm)
and metres (m). It is often used to measure larger objects (more than 1 m).

In this topic we will discuss three measuring instruments for length which
are the metre rule, the vernier caliper and the micrometer screw gauge.

(i) Metre Rule

A meter rule is used to measure length of an object in the laboratory.
It can give reading to 0.1 centimetre (cm) or 1 millimetre (mm)
depending on its type.

(ii) Vernier Caliper

A vernier caliper is a measuring tool which can measure the length of
small objects between 0 and 10cm. It has an accuracy of up to
0.01cm. Figure 1.11 shows a vernier caliper.

Figure 1.11: Vernier caliper

Source: www.tutorvista.com

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There are two scales in the vernier caliper:

 Main scale Main scale is in cm where 1cm is divided into 10

equal parts, and 1 part is equivalent to 0.1cm (or 1mm).

 Vernier scale Vernier scale is a short scale of 0.9cm long divided

into 10 equal parts, where 1 part is equivalent to 0.09cm. Thus, the
difference in length between vernier divisions on the main scale is
0.1cm 0.09cm = 0.01cm.

A vernier caliper can be used to measure the external and internal

diameter of an object. When we want to measure the outer diameter
of a container, we may use the outside jaws, while we use the inner
jaws to measure the inner diameter of a container or tube.

Steps in reading the vernier caliper:

(i) Determine the zero mark „0‰ on the vernier scale. Check that
there is no zero error;

(ii) Between the jaws, place the object that you want to measure.
Then, rotate the screw until the jaw is gripping the object, do
make sure that it does not squeeze the object;

(iii) Next, start taking the reading, write down the value shown
on the main scale before or exactly touching the „0‰ mark on
the vernier scale, for example, 2.1cm;
(iv) Then, observe the mark on the vernier scale which coincides
with a mark on the main scale. For example, if the mark is at
6, then the value will be 0.06cm; and

(v) Finally, add up the reading from the main scale with the
reading on the vernier scale to obtain the exact reading.

Total reading
= Reading on the main scale + Reading on the vernier scale
= 2.1cm + 0.06cm
= 2.16cm

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If the vernier caliper has a zero error, then the readings need to be
corrected through the following formula:

To find out whether there is zero error or not, we must first close the
jaws. If the zero mark on the vernier scale coincides with the zero
mark on the main scale, then the vernier caliper does not have a zero
error (Figure 1.12).

Figure 1.12: A vernier caliper with no zero error

(iii) Micrometer Screw Gauge

If we want to measure the thickness or diameter of a small object, we
may use the micrometer screw gauge. It has an accuracy of up to
0.01mm or 0.001cm.

There are a few structures in a micrometer screw gauge the anvil,

spindle, sleeve, thimble and ratchet. See Figure 1.13.

 Anvil and Spindle Used to grip the object that we want to

measure.

 Sleeve Used to determine the reading on the sleeve by referring

to the scale on the thimble.

 Thimble Thimble is actually connected to the graduated sleeve.

It can be rotated in order to tighten the anvil and spindle. One
revolution of the thimble will give 0.5mm gap between the anvil
and spindle. The scale on the thimble has 50 equal divisions and
every division is 0.5/50mm or 0.01mm as we turn the thimble.

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 Ratchet We rotate the ratchet for fines adjustment so as to exert

the correct amount of pressure on the object that we want to
measure.

Procedure in using the micrometer screw gauge:

(i) Between the anvil and spindle, place the object that you
want to measure;

(ii) Grip the object gently with the anvil and spindle by rotating
the thimble; and

(iii) We may rotate the ratchet, but as soon as the first „click‰
sound is heard we should stop. This is because the „click‰
sound tells us that the anvil and spindle are gripping the
object gently without applying any pressure on it.

If the micrometer screw gauge has a zero error, then the readings
need to be corrected through the following formula:

Figure 1.13:
Source: http://www.cyberphysics.co.uk/practical/skills/micrometer.htm

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SELF-CHECK 1.2

Both ruler and measuring tape are useful for measuring length or
distance. However, sometimes, one tool is more suitable than the other
depending on what kind of objects we want to measure. Based on this
assumption, fill in the following table.

Length Measured Tool Unit

Examples Examples Examples
Length of paper clip Ruler mm
Length and height of a refrigerator m
Length and width of a badminton court Measuring tape
Height of a classmate
Circumference of a ball
Height of a cat
Length of a necktie
Circumference of a marble
Height of a rambutan tree

(b) Tools for Measuring Mass

Imagine that you are now at the fish market. You see many different kinds
of fish sold at the stalls. Some are big and some are small. Each kind of fish
is sold at different prices. Some are cheaper while others are more
expensive. The price of the fish is not based only on its type but also on its
mass. As we have discussed in the previous section, the higher the mass of
the fish, the higher the price. The fishmonger will usually use a specific tool
to measure the mass of the fish. It is called a balance.

In general, the mass of an object can be measured using a balance. There

are several types of balance as shown in Figure 1.14, Figure 1.15 and
Figure 1.16.

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Figure 1.14: Electronic balance

Source: www.lehmanscientific.com

Figure 1.15: Lever balance

Source: www.psawcatalogue.com

Figure 1.16: Compression balance

Source: www.narangindustries.com

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In a formal setting like in the laboratory, a lever balance is used to measure

an objectÊs mass. Besides the above mentioned balances, there is also
another type of balance called triple-beam balance which is used to find the
mass of various objects (see Figure 1.17) in a laboratory.

Figure 1.17: Triple-beam balance

Source: http://www.southwestscales.com

When we use triple-beam balance, the objects are placed on the scale and
then we move the weights on the beams until we get the lines on the right-
side of the scale to match up. Once we have balanced the scale, we have to
add up the amounts on each beam to find the total mass.

Steps in using triple-beam balance to measure mass:

(i) Place the objects on the scale;

(ii) Slide the large weight to the right until the arm drops below the
line. Move the rider back one groove. Make sure it „locks‰ into
place;

(iii) Repeat this process with the top weight. When the arm moves
below the line, back it up one groove;

(iv) Slide the small weight on the front beam until the lines match up;
and

(v) Add the amounts on each beam to find the total mass to the
nearest tenth of a gram.

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SELF-CHECK 1.3

Based on the reading in Figure 1.18, what would be the mass of the
object measured in the picture?
_______ + ______ + _______ = ________ g
 

 
Figure 1.18: Reading in a triple-beam balance
Source: www.regentsprep.org

ACTIVITY 1.5
There are many types of balances, such as lever, compression and
electronic. Search the Internet to find out more about these. You may
search for more information on their:
(a) Attributes;
(b) Functions and usefulnesses; and
(c) Advantages and disadvantages.

(c) Tool for Measuring Time

Stopwatch
We can use a stopwatch to measure a short period of time. Hence, a
stopwatch is usually used in a sports event or in a laboratory. On the
middle upper part of an analogue stopwatch, there is a knob. We press the
knob when we want to start the stopwatch. We need to press the knob a
second time in order to stop the watch. In order to restart again, we press
the knob for the third time. Alternatively, we can use digital stopwatch
which often have more features.

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(d) Tools for Measuring Electric Current

There are two tools that can be used to measure electric current . They are:

(i) Ammeter
An ammeter is used to measure the quantity of electric current. The
SI unit of electrical current is amperes (A). There are more sensitive
types of ammeter, which are the milliamperes (mA) and the
microamperes (μA).

In order to measure the current, we need to connect the ammeter in

series. We have to make sure that the positive terminal of the battery
is connected to the positive terminal of the ammeter and vice versa in
order to measure the electric current. The deflection of the ammeter
pointer shows the value of the current flowing through the circuit.
The pointer of the ammeter will deflect slightly below the zero mark
if the connection of the circuit is wrong.

1 ampere = 1,000 milliamperes (mA)

1 milliampere (mA) = 1,000 micoramperes (μA)

(ii) Voltmeter
We use a voltmeter to measure the potential difference (voltage),
which is known as the difference in electrical charges between two
points in electric circuit. The SI unit of voltage is volt (V). Note that in
connecting a voltmeter, we should connect parallel across the battery
or other electrical components in a circuit. For example, let us refer to
Figure 1.19.

Figure 1.19: An electric circuit

The deflection of the voltmeter pointer shows the value of the voltage
across the bulb.
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(e) Tool for Measuring Temperature

Thermometer
We use a thermometer to measure temperatures accurately. Usually we use
mercury thermometers to measure temperatures. A thermometer has its
own special sealed tube which contains either mercury or alcohol. Both
liquids are sensitive and will expand when they are heated and contract
when they are cooled. Usually, a dye is added to the alcohol to make it easy
to read the scales.

Temperature is proportional to the average kinetic energy of molecular

motion in a substance. Thus, when a thermometer is in contact with the
object whose temperature we wish to find, energy will flow between the
two media until their temperatures are equal and thermal equilibrium is
established. By reading the scales on the thermometer, we will know the
temperature of an object. A thermometer should be small enough and must
not alter the temperature of the object we are measuring.

There are many types of thermometers. The most commonly used

thermometers are:

(i) Laboratory Thermometer

This thermometer is used specifically in the laboratory. It is used to
measure temperature when an experiment is being done in the
science laboratory (see Figure 1.20). The normal reading scale is from
100C to 1100C.

Figure 1.20: Laboratory thermometer

Source: http://www.northernbrewer.com

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(ii) Clinical Thermometer

This thermometer is used by medical doctors to measure the
temperature of people. A healthy person should have a body
temperature of 37C. This thermometer is designed to have a narrow
constriction in the tube to prevent the mercury from returning to the
bulb after it is taken out from the mouth. A sharp jerk is required to
make the mercury go back to the bulb.

Measuring Temperature and the Correct Technique of using a Thermometer

In order to measure temperature using a thermometer in the correct
manner, hold the thermometer vertically. The eyes should be at the same
level as the curved surface of the mercury in the capillary tube of the
thermometer.

By getting accurate information about the temperature of an object, it will

tell us how cold or hot the object is. In everyday life, we often deal with
things related to temperature. For instance, if we want to eat instant
noodles, we need to boil water until it reaches a certain degree. Do you
know what temperature indicates the heated water has reached its boiling
point? The next activity will deal with measuring the temperature of water
when it is heated.

ACTIVITY 1.6

Measuring Temperature of Water When It is Heated

Materials:
Bunsen burner, thermometer, beaker, retort stand, tripod stand,
stopwatch, wire gauze, distilled water.

Steps:
Place a wire gauze on a tripod stand and a beaker containing 100ml of
water on the wire gauze. Heat the water slowly with the Bunsen burner.
Read the temperature of the water every 30 seconds. Continue heating
until the water boils. Record the readings in the table below.

Time (Seconds) 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240

Temperature (C)

Draw a graph on a piece of paper to show the relationship between the

time and temperature of water.

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ACTIVITY 1.7
Measuring the Water When It is Cooled

Steps
After the water has been boiled, remove the water from the Bunsen
burner. Let the water cool naturally to room temperature. Record the
temperature of the water every thirty seconds. Record the readings in the
table below.

Time (Seconds) 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240

Temperature (C)

Based on the information, draw a graph on a piece of paper to show the

relationship between the time and the temperature of the water.

1.3 GRAPH TECHNIQUE

In this subtopic, we will discuss on how to present data in a table, draw graph
and analyse graph.

1.3.1 Table of Data

Data is arranged so that it can be presented systematically. In order to ensure the
tidiness of the data, we may present the data in a table as shown in Table 1.7:

Table 1.7: How We Can Present Data in a Table

Name of the Responding Variable

Name of the Manipulated (Symbol, Unit)
Variable (Symbol, Unit) 1st 2nd Average Reading,
Reading, A Reading, B (A+B)/2
At least five sets of readings for 20 Avoid
each table, decimal places inconsistent
22.9
according to the sensitivity of the decimal
instrument. 19.66 places
Readings must be consistent in
decimal places.

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For example,

Length of the Time Taken for 20 Complete Circulations, t (s)

Thread, l (cm) t1 t2 taverage
10 20.2 20.4 20.3
20 19.9 19.9 19.9
30 19.7 19.8 19.8
40 19.0 19.0 19.0
50 20.0 20.1 20.1
60 19.5 19.5 19.5

1.3.2 Drawing Graph

In order to analyse the results of an experiment, we may use a graphical method.
The relationship between two physical quantities is shown through a graph, such
as the graph of time against length shows the relationship between the length of
a pendulum and the period of oscillation.

A Step-by-step Guide to Draw a Graph

(a) Determine the Axes (see Figure 1.21).

Figure 1.21: Determining the axes in a graph

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(b) Determine the Scale of the Graph

We use scale to fit our data into the graph, and we may use the unit of
representation such as:

1cm represents 2 units (1cm: 2 units),

2cm: 5 units, or
2cm: multiplication of 10 units.

But, avoid using odd scales like 1cm: 3 units and 1cm: 9 units. This will lead
to some difficulties when we want to take readings from the graph.

(c) Plot the Readings

Plotting the readings is a process where we transfer the data into the graph.
It is best to use a sharp pencil when drawing. A cross (X) is used to
represent the point of a graph. A graph should contain at least five points.

(d) Join the Points

In a straight line graph, one should try to join the points with the following
criteria. If possible, the line should:

(i) Pass through as many points and any one of the axis;
(ii) If the points cannot fit into the line, the number of the points above
and below the line should be approximately the same; and
(iii) Be smooth.

A good example of graph is shown in Figure 1.22.

Figure 1.22: Example of a good graph

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(e) Determine the Title of the Graph

A good graph will always contain the title of the graph which is written on
top of the graph by the following form:

A graph of responding variable against manipulated variable

For example: A graph of time against length

1.3.3 Analysis of Graphs

We can analyse a graph by finding its gradient.

The gradient of the graph can be determined by the following steps:

Pick two points that are far apart. Draw a right-angled triangle as shown in
Figure 1.23.

Figure 1.23: A right-angled triangle

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Calculate the value of ’y (difference in the y-coordinates) and x (difference in

the x-coordinates).

y  y 2  y 1 , and
x  x 2  x 1

y
Gradient 
x
y2  y1

x 2  x1

For example, if the two selected points are (s, 4) and (20, 24), then

27  4
The Gradient 
20  5
23

15
 1.53

1.4 PRACTICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN PRIMARY

SCIENCE CURRICULUM
In the primary science, measurements are taught at the Year 3 level. Pupils were
required to measure various physical properties such as length, area, volume,
mass and time using non-standard and standard measurements.

1.4.1 Measurement of Length

In the measurement of length, students were required to suggest and do
activities on different ways that they can measure length using non-standard
measuring tools such as using their hands or parts of their body. Other than
using parts of the human body, we can use other tools for measurement such as a
book, pen or box. These things are more uniform.

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For example, take your own eraser and use it to measure this book. The diagram
below shows how an eraser can be used to measure the length of a book (see
Figure 1.24).

Figure 1.24: Measuring length of a book using an eraser

Based on Figure 1.24, we can measure the length of the book by counting how
many erasers cover the length of the book. This diagram shows that the length of
the book is approximately equal to three times the length of the eraser.

Pupils were then required to measure length using standard measuring tools
such as measuring tape. The measuring tape will have standard units like
millimetres (mm), centimetres (cm) and metres (m). Another example is a ruler,
which measures lengths in millimetres (mm) and centimetres (cm). The
measurements will be recorded in a graphic organiser.

1.4.2 Measurement of Area

Knowing length, pupils need to apply the information to calculate area. They will
be given activities that will lead them to understand the concept area. For
example, a few 1cm  1cm squares will be used to produce a 4cm  4cm square
and 8cm  8cm square, and make comparisons between the numbers of 1cm 
1cm squares that can make up the two bigger squares. Pupils were then required
to calculate the area using standard units in the metric system and use formulae
like area = length  width.

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1.4.3 Measurements of Volume

Objects in the solid and liquid form are considered for the measurements of
volume. For solids, the suggested activity is to arrange a 1cm3 cubes into a bigger
cube for example, a 4cm3 cube or a 2cm  4cm  8cm cuboid. Students compare
the total number of cubes that can fill up the bigger cube/cuboid to discuss
volume, or use the formula, volume = length  breadth  height to calculate
volume and state their answers in standard units.

Both the non-standard ways to measure volume such as using cups, cap of a
bottle and standard ways such as using beakers, measuring cylinders are used to
give pupils the idea on volume. Pupils make measurements of liquids given by
using different standard measuring tools and give their answers in the standard
metric units.

1.4.4 Measurement of Mass

Various tools for measuring mass are introduced in this topic such as lever
balance. Non-standard measurements can be used by comparing the mass of the
object measured with the mass of a book, glass or any available objects. Pupils
need to know the standard units for mass in the metric system such as mg, g and
kg. They will take measurements using the correct technique and record the
findings in the form of graphic organisers.

1.4.5 Measurements of Time

Non-standard ways to measure time will be discussed. Some examples are the
swinging pendulum, water dripping or the pulse. Pupils are required to measure
the time taken for an action using this non-standard time measurement
technique. They also need to know that they can only use things that repeat
uniformly to measure time.

The pupils are then required to choose appropriate standard tools to measure
time by using a stopwatch etc. They need to state the measurements in the
standard units for time such as seconds, minute or hour.

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 A physical quantity is a quantity that can be measured.

 A base quantity is a physical quantity that cannot be defined in terms of other

physical quantities.

 Derived quantities are produced from the combination of base quantities

through some operation such as multiplication, division or both.

 Some derived quantities are area (m2), volume (m3), density (kg/m3) and
velocity (m s 1).

 When we make measurements, there are certain things that we need to know
about the measuring tools that we use so that we can get the best results for
our measurements.

 The three important aspects of a measurement are precision, accuracy and

sensitivity.

 Precision is the ability of the instrument to give consistent readings when the
same physical quantity is measured more than once.

 Accuracy refers to how close is the measured value compared with the actual
value.

 Sensitivity is the ability of detecting small changes in the measured quantity.

 In order to measure the length of a small object between 0 and 10cm, we may
use the vernier caliper, as it has an accuracy of up to 0.01cm.

 If we want to measure the thickness or diameter of a small object, we may use

the micrometer screw gauge.

 The mass of an object can be measured using a balance.

 Stopwatch is used to measure a short period of time.

 Voltmeter is used to measure the potential difference (voltage), which is

known as the difference in electrical charges between two points in an electric
circuit.

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 Thermometer is used to measure temperatures.

 Graphical method is used to analyse the result of an experiment.

 A graph is analysed by finding its gradient.

Accuracy Precision
Base quantity SI unit
Derived quantity Sensitivity
Graph technique Tools

Beyer, B. K. (1997). Improving student thinking: A comprehensive approach.

Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Giancoli, D. C. (1998). Physics: Principles with applications. Upper Saddle River,

NJ: Prentice Hall.

Hartman, H. J. (2002). Tips for the science teacher. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin
Press.

Hewitt, P. G. (1998). Conceptual physics (8th ed.). Reading, UK: Addison-Wesley.

Jargodski, C. P. & Potter, F. (2001). Mad about physics: Braintwisters paradoxes,

and curiosities. New York, NY: Wiley.

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