UNIVERSITY OF CALOOCAN CITY

COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND ACCOUNTANCY

COLLECTION & PRESENTATION of DATA

Parameter refers to the numerical characteristic of the population like the population mean, population
standard deviation, population variance, and many more. It is usually unknown and estimated only by a
corresponding statistic computed from the sample data.

Types of Data:
1. Qualitative data – are categorical data which take the form of categories or attributes such as sex,
course, year level, race, religion, etc.
2. Quantitative data – are numerical data which are obtained from measurements like heights,
weights, ages, scores, temperature, IQ and other measurable quantities.

Measurement Scales
Qualitative data can be converted to quantitative data through a process called measurements. By
measurements, numbers are utilized to code objects in order that they can be treated statistically. There are 4
types of measurements.

1. Nominal measurements – are used only for identification or classification purposes. For example,
a group of students under investigation are classified according to courses such as:
1- engineering, 2-education, 3-commerce and 4-secretarial. There is no meaning attached
to the magnitudes of number assigned to the course of the respondents.
2. Ordinal measurements – do not only classify items. They also give the order or ranks of classes,
items, or objects. Examples are the ranks given to winners in contest such as oratorical,
beauty and essay writing contest etc.
3. Interval measurements – numbers are assigned to the items or objects. These are used to identify
and ranks the objects. They also measure the degree of differences between any two classes.
Examples are the weights, heights, temperatures, IQ, achievement grades, test scores, etc.
4. Ratio measurements – the ratio of the numbers assigned in the measurement shows the ratio in
the amount of property being measured.

Sampling Techniques - are utilized to test the validity of conclusions or inferences from the sample to
the population. A representative sample of 100 is generally preferable to an
unrepresentative sample of 1,000.

Random Sample refers to a limited number of individuals chosen from the population. Every individual
has an equal chance of being selected in the sample before the selection is done.

1. Simple Random Sampling – the simplest method of random sampling is through lottery.
2. Stratified Random Sampling – is done through dividing the population into categories or strata and
getting the members at random proportionate to each stratum or sub-group.
3. Systematic Random Sampling – refers to a process of selecting every nth element in the population
until the desired sample size is acquired.
4. Cluster Sampling – is the advantageous procedure when the population is spread out over a wide
geographical area. It also means as a practical sampling technique used if the complete list
of the members of the population is not available. A cluster refers to an intact group which
has common characteristics.
5. Multi-stage Sampling – a more complex sampling technique, which includes the following steps:
a) Divide the population into strata.
b) Divide each stratum into clusters.
c) Draw sample from each cluster using the simple random sampling technique.

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Mr. PORFERIO I. ROLAN

Asst. Prof. IV
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6. Other Sampling Technique – another method of sampling technique is to find the number of the value
size n with respect to the population size N by applying the formula:

n= where: n is the sample size

N is population size
e is the margin of error
Example:
1. Find the sample size the researcher wants to include in her study if the population size of her respondents is
475 at 95% accuracy.
Solution:
Since 95% accuracy is to be evaluated, thus the corresponding percentage of error is 5% or 0.05,
applying the formula we have;
n=

n=
n=
n= (rounded to the nearest whole number)
Hence, at 95% accuracy we can take a sample of 217 respondents from a population of 475.

2. A researcher is conducting an investigation with regards to the organizational climate of 375 faculty
members of a certain university at National Capital Region (NCR). How many of the faculty members will
be taken as respondent if the researcher wants to have a margin error of 1%?
Solution:
Since the population will be represented by the entire faculty in certain university at the NCR, then
N should be 375 at 1% (0.01) marginal error:

n=

n=
n=
n= (rounded to the nearest whole number)
Method of Collecting Data
There are many methods of collecting data. However, there is no best method to get the desired information under
investigation. The choice of appropriate methods to be utilized depends on the following factors: nature of the problem,
the population under investigation, the time and material factors. Thus, to obtain the needed accurate information at a
minimum cost and least possible time, a combination of the following methods of data gathering may be applied.
a. The Direct or Interview Method - is one of the most effective methods of collecting original data. To
obtain accurate responses, the interview may be done by well-trained interviewers. The interviewer can
be of great help to the respondents in answering questions which the respondents could not understand.

b. The Indirect or Questionnaire Method – is one of the easiest method of data gathering. It takes time
to prepare because questionnaires need to be attractive. It can include illustrations, pictures, and
sketches. Its contents, especially the directions, must be precise, clear and elf-explanatory.
c. The Registration Method – the respondents provide information in compliance with certain laws,
policies, rules, regulations, decrees or standard practices. Data which can be collected by registration
method are as follows: marriage contracts, birth certificates, motor registration, licenses of firearms,
registration of corporations, real estate, voters, etc.
d. Other Methods
a. Observation Methods – utilizes to gather data regarding attitudes, behavior, values, cultural
patterns of the sample under investigation.
b. Telephone Interview – is employed if the questions to be asked are brief and few. An example is
the checks made on listeners to certain to certain radio programs like asking what program his
radio is on to. This method is used to find the most popular T.V. or radio programs.
c. Experiment – is applied to collect or gather data if the investigator wants to control the factors
affecting the variable studied. An example is when the researcher aims to determine the different

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Asst. Prof. IV
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 factors affecting the academic performance of the students such as methods of approaches used
in teaching, etc.
METHODS of PRESENTING DATA
1. Textual Method – the reader acquires information through reading the gathered data. Readers are directed to
pay particular attention on specific data such as comparisons, contrasts, syntheses, generalizations, or findings. However,
this method, when employed alone elicits boredom. It is a weak means of presenting the quantitative comparisons or
relations among quantitative or numerical data attractively and interestingly.
2. Tabular Method – is a more effective way of presenting relationships or comparisons of numerical data. It
provides a more precise, systematic and orderly presentation of data in rows and columns. This method results to easy and
comprehensible comparison of figure.
3. Semi-tabular Method – uses both the textual and tabular methods. This method is employed only if there are
few figures to be tabulated. The tables are followed by narrative explanations to make the facts more understandable.
4. Graphical Presentation – is the most effective method of presenting statistical results or findings. It provides
the relationships of data in pictorial form. Presentation of facts are made attractive and meaningful through the colors use
in the pictures, making it easy for important information to be grasp by the reader.

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
When the researcher gathers all the needed data, the next task is to organize and present them with the use of
appropriate tables and graphs. Frequency distribution is one system used to facilitate the description of important features
of the data.

Features of frequency distribution.

1. Class Interval or Class Limits – the class interval refers to grouping defined by a lower limit and an
upper limit. An example is the class interval 5 – 9. This involves the number 5, 6, 7, 8, & 9. The end
numbers 5 & 9 are called the class limits where 5 is the lower limit and 9 is the upper limit.
2. Class Boundaries – in a continuous data like test, weight, scores, height, etc. the class inter 5 – 9 is
supposed to start from 4.5 and ends at 9,5. These are more accurate expressions of class limits by at least
0.5. they are named as class boundaries or the real or true class limits. The exact lower limit is 4.5 and
exact upper limit is 9.5.
3. Class Marks – is the midpoint or middle value of a class interval. It is obtained by finding the average of
the lower-class limit and the upper-class limit. The class mark of the class limits 5 – 9 is (5 + 9)/2 or 7.

4. Class Size – refers to the difference between the upper-class boundary and the lower-class boundary of a
class interval. For the class boundaries 4.5 and 9.5, the class size is 5 since 9.5 minus 4.5 is equal to 5.
5. Class Frequency – means the number of observations belonging to a class interval.

CONSTRUCTING THE GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

To make a frequency distribution table, steps are followed. Let us use the test results in statistics of 50 students
given below.
88 62 63 88 65
85 83 76 72 63
60 46 85 71 67
75 78 87 70 42
63 90 63 60 73
55 62 62 83 79
78 40 51 56 80
90\ 47 48 54 77
86 55 76 52 76
40 52 72 43 60

Steps in Constructing the grouped frequency Distribution for the Statistics Test Scores.

Step 1. Arrange the test scores from highest to lowest.

90 80 72 62 52
90 79 72 62 52
88 78 71 62 51
88 78 70 60 48
87 77 67 60 47
86 76 65 60 46
85 76 63 56 43
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Mr. PORFERIO I. ROLAN

Asst. Prof. IV
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 85 76 63 55 42
83 75 63 55 40
83 73 63 54 40

Step 2. Determine the range (R) of the distribution.

The range refers to the difference between the highest and the lowest scores.
Range (R) = highest (H) – lowest (L)
R = 90 – 40
R = 50
Step 3. Determine the class size (c) by dividing the range by the desired class size as 3, 5, 7, 3tc. The quotient will give
the number of class intervals normally is not less than 10 and not more than 20. Take note the divisor use will be
the class size (c). in our sample data the range is 50. So, we will make the following test; 50/3 = 16+; 50/5 = 10;
while 50/7 = 7 +. Observe that the quotients 16+ is for c = 3; 10 is for c = 5; and 7+ is for c = 7. So we take c =5
since it gives the least number of class interval.
Step 4. When the class size is 5, all the lower-class limits must be multiples of 5. The lowest class interval should
include the lowest score while the highest-class interval should contain the highest score. Determine the 1st
highest class limit or class interval to include the highest score and the lower limit is a multiple of the class size (c).

Class limits to include the highest: 90, 91, 92, 93, 94

89, 90, 91, 92, 93
88, 89, 90, 91, 92
87, 88, 89, 90, 91
86, 87, 88, 89, 90

This means that the 1st class interval or class limit will be 90 – 94.
Step 5. Construct the frequency Distribution Table.
The Grouped Frequency Distribution Table of 50 Statistics Scores
Class Interval Class Frequency Class Marks Cumulative frequency Cumulative frequency
(C.I.) (f) (X) (CumF <) (CumF >)
90 – 94 2 92 50 2
85 – 89 6 87 48 8
80 – 84 3 82 42 11
75 – 79 8 77 39 19
70 – 74 5 72 31 24
65 – 69 2 67 26 26
60 – 64 10 62 24 36
55 – 59 3 57 14 39
50 – 54 4 52 11 43
45 – 49 3 47 7 46
40 – 44 4 42 4 50
N = 50

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA

Data which have been shown in tabular form, are graphed to grasp the essential fact or features easily and quickly.
Graphing data is one of the most effective device in presenting statistical results, values, and relationships in geometrical
or pictorial forms.
Some of the common methods of representing a distribution graphically: the histogram, the frequency polygon
and the cumulative frequency polygon.

Histogram – is made up of vertical bars that are joined together, making it an appropriate graph for continuous data. The
base of each bar or rectangle is equal to the class boundaries, wherein the height corresponding to its class frequency.
Steps in constructing a histogram includes the following steps.
a. Prepare the x and y-axis.
b. Lay off the x-axis and y-axis to represent the class intervals and the class frequencies respectively.
c. Draw each bar with the height equal to the class frequency of each class boundary.
d. The bases of the bar are plotted on the x-axis where the width corresponds to the real limits or class
boundaries of the class interval and the center of the base falls on the midpoint of the class interval.

Frequency Polygon – is commonly called linear graph. It is a very useful device to show changes in values over
successive periods of time. In constructing the frequency polygon, the following steps are included.
1. Represent the x-axis by utilizing the class marks of the class intervals.
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Mr. PORFERIO I. ROLAN

Asst. Prof. IV
Page 4 of 10
2. Represent the y-axis using the class frequencies.
3. Plot each class frequency directly above the class mark of each class intervals.
4. Connect the points by means of line segments.
5. Make an additional class at both ends of the distribution to close the polygon.

Cumulative Frequency Polygon is the graph of a cumulative frequency distribution.

To construct the graph, the steps are as follows.
1. Represent the units on the x-axis by the exact lower and upper limit of each class interval.
2. Represent the y-axis by the cumulative frequency (< and >).
3. Plot the point above the exact lower and upper limit which corresponds to its cumulative frequency (<, >).
4. Connect the points by line segments.

UNIVERSITY OF CALOOCAN CITY

COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND ACCOUNTANCY
Exercise: SAMPLE SIZE & TYPES OF DATA

NAME: Camille V. Tayao RATING:

COURSE/YEAR/SEC.: BSAIS 1 - B DATE: September 23, 2021
STUDENT NO.: 20211167 TIME: 10:00 – 1:00 DAY: Thursday
(5 points)
1. Determine the sample size (n) given the population size (N) and its corresponding margin of error (e)
of each of the following. Round off final answer to the nearest whole number.

a) N = 1500, e = 5% d) N = 500, e = 1%
1500 500
N= 2 N= 2
1+ 1500 ( 0.05 ) 1+ 500 ( 0.01 )
N = 315.79 N = 476.19

N = 316 N = 476

b) N = 235, e = 2.5% e) N = 495, e = 5%

235 495
N= N=
1+ 235 ( 0.025 )2 1+ 495 ( 0.05 )2
N = 204.90 N = 221.23
N = 205 N = 221

c) N = 6075, e = 10%
6075
N= 2
1+ 6075 ( 0.1 )
N = 98.38
N = 98

2. State whether the following types of data are qualitative or quantitative.

Quantitative a) The height of each student in Psychology class.
Qualitative b) Political party of each congressman and senator.
Quantitative c) The length of time of each 50 patients must stay in hospital.
Qualitative d) The marital status of each person living in a city.
Qualitative e) Religious affiliation of each patient of a Psychologist.
Quantitative f) Maria Anna Erika’s blood pressure.
Quantitative g) The number of women students under Professor Torrecampo at Saint Benidect College.
Qualitative h) The monthly inflation in your country.
Quantitative i) The speed of the cars.
Quantitative j) Time required repairing a mini-component.
Quantitative k) Monthly income of Professor Nocon.
Qualitative l) Educational attainment.
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Mr. PORFERIO I. ROLAN

Asst. Prof. IV
Page 5 of 10
Quantitative m) Weight of a truck.
Quantitative n) Weekly budget allowance of Professor Magdalena Balacua.
Quantitative o) Number of hours spent by Professor Willie Daguia.
Total points = 15 points
Exercise: Grouped Frequency Distribution

Given the test scores of 50 students in Statistics, construct the grouped frequency distribution table.

47 41 29 28 25
26 23 46 38 28
46 37 28 23 28
20 27 44 26 37
29 36 26 43 21
27 18 29 34 42
29 43 34 19 27
25 40 28 32 14
29 32 40 13 24
41 11 31 24 27

Arrange from highest to lowest. (10 points)

47 40 29 27 24
46 38 29 27 23
46 37 29 27 23
44 37 29 27 21
43 36 29 26 20
43 34 28 26 19
42 34 28 26 18
41 32 28 25 14
41 32 28 25 13
40 31 28 24 11

1. The highest score = 47

2. The lowest score = 11
3. The range (R) = 36
4. The desired class size or interval (i) = 3
5. The 1st group of class w/c contains the highest score is: 45 - 47

Exercises: Group Frequency Distribution

THE GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

Class Interval Class Frequency Class Marks Cumulative Frequency Cumulative Frequency
(C.I.) (f) (x) (Cumf <) (Cumf >)
45 - 47 3 46 50 3
42 – 44 4 43 47 7
39 – 41 4 40 43 11
36 – 38 4 37 39 15
33 – 35 2 34 35 17
30 – 32 3 31 33 20
27 – 29 14 28 30 34
24 – 26 7 25 16 41
21 – 23 3 22 9 44
18 – 20 3 19 6 47
15 – 17 0 16 3 47
12 – 14 2 13 3 49
9 – 11 1 10 1 50
N = 50
(25 points)
6. The real limits or class boundaries of the 1st highest class interval is = 44.5 – 47.5
7. The class mark or midpoint of the lowest class interval is = 10
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Mr. PORFERIO I. ROLAN

Asst. Prof. IV
Page 6 of 10
 8. The value of N = 50
9. The cumulative frequency < of the 1st class interval = 50
10. The cumulative frequency > of the 1st class interval =3

Exercise: Graphical Presentation of Data

Construct the graph of the following based from the given data in Statistics test results of 50 students in grouped
frequency distribution. (30 points)
a. histogram
b. frequency polygon
c. cumulative frequency polygon

a. HISTOGRAM
THE GROUPED FREQUENCY

Class Interval Class Frequency

lcb/[C.I.]/ucb
44.5/45 – 47/47.5 3
41.5/42 – 44/44.5 4
38.5/39 – 41/41.5 4
35.5/36 – 38/38.5 4
32.5/33 – 35/35.5 2
29.5/30 – 32/32.5 3
26.5/27 – 29/29.5 14
23.5/24 – 26/26.5 7
20.5/21 – 23/23.5 3
17.5/18 – 20/20.5 3
14.5/15 – 17/17.5 0
11.5/12 – 14/14.5 2
8.5/9 – 11/11.5 1
N = 50

1
4
1
3
1
2
1
1
1
0
9
8
7
6
5
4
3

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Asst. Prof. IV
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2
1
0

b. FREQUENCY POLYGON

39 - 41 4 40
36 – 38 4 37
33 – 35 2 34
30 – 32 3 31
27 – 29 14 28
24 – 26 7 25
21 – 23 3 22
18 – 20 3 19
15 – 17 0 16
12 – 14 2 13
9 - 11 1 10
N = 50

14

13

12

11

10

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Asst. Prof. IV
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 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 4
0 3 6 9 2 5 8 1 4 7 0 3 6 9

c. CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY POLYGON

Class Interval Class Frequency Class Marks Class Marks

lcb/(C.I.)/ucb (f) (x) (Cumf <)(Cumf >b)

44.5/45 – 47/47.5 3 46 50 3
41.5/42 – 44/44.5 4 43 47 7
38.5/39 – 41/41.5 4 40 43 11
35.5/36 – 38/38.5 4 37 39 15
32.5/33 – 35/35.5 2 34 35 17
29.5/30 – 32/32.5 3 31 33 20
26.5/27 – 29/28.5 14 28 30 34
23.5/24 – 26/26.5 7 25 16 41
20.5/21 – 23/23.5 3 22 9 44
17.5/18 – 20/20.5 3 19 6 47
14.5/15 – 17/17.5 0 16 3 47
11.5/12 – 14/14.5 2 13 3 49
8.5/9 – 11/11.5 1 10 1 50
N = 50

50
48
46
44
42
40
38
36
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
8 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4
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Asst. Prof. IV
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 - 1 4 7 0 3 6 9 2 5 8 1 4 7
3 - - - - - - - - - - - - -
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

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Asst. Prof. IV
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