Module: 5

Solid, Semiconductors and Superconductivity

Introductory class

Dr. Neelanjan Buzarbaruah

Subject Code: PH181101
Course Title: Physics-101
Dept. of Physics, AEC
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 1
 Syllabus

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 2

 Background of the Topic
• What is a Solid?
• What is a Semiconductor?
• What is Superconductivity?

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 3

 Solid state
Characteristics:

 Definite volume and shape.

 Regular order of arrangement of particles.

 Strong intermolecular forces.

 Low kinetic energy.

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 4

Classification of Solids

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 5

 Classification of Solids
• Solids can be classified into four types (based on nature of bonding)

Molecular (Van der Waals forces)

Covalent (Covalent bond)
Metallic (Metallic bond)
Ionic (Ionic bond)

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 6

 Molecular solids
Examples
forces of
attraction
between
particles weaken

liquid iodine
(by increasing the
temp.)

solid iodine
(at room temp.)
forces of attraction
between particles broken
Gaseous
(by further raising the temp.)
iodine
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 7
 Molecular solids
• The covalent bonds inside the molecules are very strong. The
molecules don't break apart easily. However the forces attracting
neighbouring molecules to each other are very weak. It is therefore
very easy to separate molecules from one another: e.g. ammonia

• When a molecular solid melts, it is the forces between the molecules

which are broken. Very little energy is needed to make this happen,
so molecular solids have low melting points

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 8

 Metallic Solids
A metallic solid is a solid that consists of
positive metal ions held together by a
surrounding “sea of electrons “(metallic
bonding).

In this kind of bonding, positively charged metal ions form the lattice which
is submerged in the “sea of electrons”
Or,
the metal ions occupy fixed position in the lattice structure and they are
surrounded by delocalized electrons.
Therefore, the intermolecular forces in metals must be rather strong.

Very soft to very hard, low to high melting point, good conductors of
electricity and heat.
Metallic lustre, malleable and ductile, moderate heats of fusion
Examples include iron, copper, and silver.
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 9
 Ionic Solids
An ionic solid is a solid that consists of cations and anions held together by
electrostatic attraction of opposite charges (ionic bond).

•Brittle, high melting point, good conductors in the aqueous solution or fused
state, high heats of fusion.

Salts like NaCl, KNO3, LiF, BaSO4

etc.

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 10

 Ionic Solids
Properties:
• Do not conduct electricity (no free ions or electrons) except when
molten or aqueous (as ions are free to move)
• High melting point and boiling point because of very strong electrostatic
attractions between cations and anions
• Soluble in polar solvents

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 11

 Covalent Solids
A covalent network solid is a solid that consists of atoms held together in large
networks or chains by covalent bonds.

Very hard, high melting point, poor conductors of heat

and electricity high heats of fusion.
Examples include carbon, in its forms as diamond or graphite,
asbestos, and silicon carbide.

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 12

 Covalent Solids
Three types:
1. Linear chains
2. 2-D layers
3. 3-D covalent network

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 13

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 17
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 18
 Crystal Lattices
• A crystal lattice is the geometric arrangement
of lattice points in a crystal.
A unit cell is the smallest boxlike unit from which you can construct a
crystal by stacking the units in three dimensions (see Figure 11.29).
There are seven basic shapes possible for unit cells, which give rise to seven
crystal systems used to classify crystals (see Figure 11.31 and Table 11.7).

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 19

 Figure
11.30:
Crystal
structure
and
crystal
lattice of
copper.

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 20

 Figure 11.31: Unit-cell shapes of the different crystal
systems.

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 21

 Cubic Unit Cells
• A simple cubic unit cell is a cubic cell in which
the lattice points are situated only at the
corners.
A body-centered cubic unit cell is one in which there is a lattice point
in the center of the cell as well as at the corners.
A face-centered cubic unit cell is one in which there are lattice points
at the center of each face of the cell as well as at the corners (see
Figures 11.30, 11.32, and 11.33).

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 23

 Figure 11.32: Cubic unit cells.

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 24

 Cubic unit cell

CN = 6 CN = 8 CN = 12

Axial length a=b=c

Axial angle       90
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 25
 Lattice Planes & Miller Indices
Lattice plane is any plane containing at least three noncollinear
lattice points

 A 3-D lattice consist of symmetrically organized atoms intersecting three sets of

parallel planes.
 These parallel planes are "crystal planes" and are used to determine the shape
and structure of the unit cell and crystal lattice.
 The planes intersect with each other and make 3D shapes that have six faces.
 These crystal planes define the crystal structure by making axes visible and are
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 26
the means by which we can calculate the Miller Indices.
 Lattice Planes & Miller Indices
Lattice plane is any plane containing at least three noncollinear
lattice points

Any crystallographic plane can be specified by three integers (h,k,l) – the Miller
indices. The indices of any given plane can be worked out by considering the
intersection of the plane with the crystallographic unit cell vectors a, b, c. If x,
y, z are the fractional coordinates of the intersections of the plane
with a, b, c, Miller indices are the smallest integers in the same ratio as (1/x,
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 27
1/y, 1/z).
 Crystal Axis
Crystal Axis: generally taken as parallel to the edges (intersections)
of prominent crystal faces

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 28

 Lattice Planes & Miller Indices

The orientation of a surface or a crystal plane may be defined by considering

how any plane intersects the main crystallographic axes of the solid. The
application of a set of rules leads to the assignment of the Miller Indices, (hkl).
These are a set of numbers that may be used to identify the plane or surface.

To calculate Miller Indices, follow these steps:

1. Determine the intercepts of the face along the crystallographic axes, in terms
of unit cell dimensions, then:
Take the reciprocals
Clear fractions
Reduce to lowest terms

For example, if the x-, y-, and z- intercepts are 3,1, and 6, the Miller indices are
calculated as follows:
1. Take reciprocals: 1/3, 1/1, 1/6
2. Clear fractions {multiply by 6}: 2, 6, 1
3. Reduce to lowest terms (already there)

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 29

 Lattice Planes & Miller Indices

The following treatment of the

procedure used to assign the Miller
Indices is a simplified one.

only a cubic crystal system (one having

a cubic unit cell with dimensions a x a
x a ) will be considered

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 30

 Lattice Planes & Miller Indices

Step 1 : Identify the intercepts on the

x- , y- and z- axes.

In this case the intercept on the x-

axis is at x = a ( at the point (a,0,0)

The surface is parallel to the y- and

z-axes. Strictly, therefore, there is no
intercept on these two axes. But, we
shall consider the intercept to be at
infinity ( ∞ ) for the special case
where the plane is parallel to an
axis. The intercepts on the x- , y- and
z-axes are thus

 Intercepts : a , ∞ , ∞

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 31

 Lattice Planes & Miller Indices
Step 2 : Specify the intercepts in
fractional co-ordinates

 Co-ordinates are converted to

fractional co-ordinates by dividing
by the respective cell-dimension.

For example, a point (x,y,z) in a unit

cell of dimensions a x b x c has
fractional co-ordinates of ( x/a, y/b ,
z/c ).

In the case of a cubic unit cell each

co-ordinate will simply be divided by
the cubic cell constant , a .

Fractional Intercepts :
a/a , ∞/a, ∞/a i.e. 1 , ∞ , ∞
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 32
 Lattice Planes & Miller Indices
Step 2 : Take the reciprocals of the
fractional intercepts

 This final manipulation generates

the Miller Indices which (by
convention) should then be
specified without being separated
by any commas or other symbols.

 The Miller Indices are also enclosed

within standard brackets (….) when
one is specifying a unique surface
such as that being considered here.

 The reciprocals of 1 and ∞ are 1 and

0 respectively, thus yielding Miller
Indices : (100)
(hkl) So the surface/plane illustrated is the
(100) plane of the cubic crystal
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 33
 Lattice Planes & Miller Indices

Other examples
The (110) surface

Assignment
Intercepts : a , a , ∞
Fractional intercepts : 1 , 1 , ∞
Miller Indices : (110)
(hkl)

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 34

 Lattice Planes & Miller Indices

Other examples
The (111) surface

Assignment
Intercepts : a , a , a
Fractional intercepts : 1 , 1 , 1
Miller Indices : (111)
(hkl)

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 35

 Interplanar distance

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 36

 Lattice Planes & Miller Indices

 By the set of crystallographic planes hkl, we mean a set of

parallel equidistant planes, one of which passes through the
origin, and the next nearest makes intercepts a/h, b/k, and c/l
on the three crystallographic axes.
 The integers hkl are usually called the Miller indices
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 37
Lattice Planes & Miller Indices

 For plane A, a/2, b/2, and 1c

 2,2, 1  plane is (221)
 For plane B, 1a, 1b, and 2c,
 1,1, 1/2  2, 2, 1
 plane is (221)
 For plane C, 3a/2, 3b/2, and 3c
 2/3, 2/3, 1/3  2,2, 1
 plane is (221)
 For plane D, 2a, 2b, and 4c,
 1/2, 1/2, 1/4  2,2, 1
 plane is (221)

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 38

Ingterplanar Distance & Miller Indices
 For crystal with orthogonal
axes:
OA.cos = ON
 (a/h) cos  = dhkl
𝒉
 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 = . 𝒅𝒉𝒌𝒍
𝒂
 For angles  and 
𝒌
𝐜𝐨𝐬  = . 𝒅𝒉𝒌𝒍
𝒃
𝒍
𝐜𝐨𝐬  = . 𝒅𝒉𝒌𝒍
𝒄
 Since for orthogonal axes:
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝜶 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 = 𝟏
 We write:

𝒉𝒉𝟐 +𝒌 𝟐 +𝒍𝟐
𝒌 𝟐𝟏 𝟐
. 𝒅𝒉𝒌𝒍 += 𝟐. 𝒅𝒉𝒌𝒍 +
𝟐 𝒍 𝟐
𝟐
. 𝒅𝟐𝒉𝒌𝒍 =1
𝒂
𝒂 𝟐 𝒃
𝒅𝒉𝒌𝒍 𝒄
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 39
Interplanar distance and Miller Indices

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 40

SEMICONDUCTORS

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 41

 What is a Semiconductor?

Microprocessors

LED

Capacitors
Transistors
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 42
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 43
 Range of
Conduciveness

The semiconductors fall somewhere midway between

conductors and insulators.
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 44
 Range of
Conduciveness

Semiconductors have special electronic properties which

allow them to be insulating or conducting depending on
their composition.
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 45
 1833

Michael Faraday Resistance (Ohms)

Temperature (ºC)

Discovers that electrical resistively decreases as temperature

increases in silver sulfide.
This is the first investigation of a semiconductor.
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 47
 Lab: Metals vs. Semiconductors
Data Chart
Temperature Copper Germanium
0ºC 31Ω 5.2Ω
25ºC 33Ω 4.2Ω
50ºC 37Ω 1.2Ω
75ºC 41Ω 0.63Ω
100ºC 44Ω .029Ω

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 48

 1874

Ferdinand Braun

The first semiconductor device was born.

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 50
 1927

Sommerfeld Bloch

Applied quantum mechanics to solids, helping explain the

conduction of electricity in semiconductors.
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 52
Scientific Principle of Conduction

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 53

 Valence Band

The highest occupied energy band is called the valence

band.
Most electrons remain bound to the atoms in this band.
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 54
 Conduction Band

The conduction band is the band of orbitals that are high in

energy and are generally empty.
It is the band that accepts the electrons from the valence
band.
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 55
 Energy Gap

The “leap” required for electrons from the Valence Band to

enter the Conduction Band.
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 56
 Conductors

In a conductor, electrons can move freely among these

orbitals within an energy band as long as the orbitals are
not completely occupied.
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 57
 Conductors

In conductors, Physics
theIntrovalence band is empty.
Class (Neelanjan) 58
 Conductors

Also in conductors, the energy gap is nonexistent or

relatively small.
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 59
 Insulators

In insulators, the valence band is full.

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 60
 Insulators

Also in insulators, the energy gap is relatively large.

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 61
 Semiconductors

In semiconductors, the valence band is full but the energy

gap is intermediate.
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 62
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 63
 Semiconductors

Only a small leap is required for an electron to enter the

Conduction Band.
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 64
Band Diagrams

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 65

 Silicon

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 66

Silicon is a very common element, the main element in sand
& quartz.
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 67
Silicon’s Arrangement

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 68

 Intrinsic Silicon

A silicon crystal is different from an insulator.

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 69
 Intrinsic Silicon

At any temperature above absolute zero temperature, there

is a finite probability that an electron in the lattice will be
knocked loose from its position.
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 70
 Intrinsic Silicon

The electron in the lattice knocked loose from its position

leaves behind an electron deficiency called a "hole".
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 71
 Current Flow

If a voltage is applied, then both the electron and the hole

can contribute to a small current flow.
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 72
 Doping

Doping (adding an impurity) can produce 2 types of semi-

conductors depending upon the element added.
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 73
 P-Type Doping

In P-type doping, boron or gallium is the dopant.

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 74

 P-Type Doping

Boron and gallium each have only three outer electrons.

When mixed into the silicon lattice, they form "holes" in the
lattice where a silicon electron has nothing to bond to.
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 75
 P-Type Doping

The absence of an electron creates the effect of a positive

charge, hence the name P-type.

Holes can conduct current. A hole happily accepts an

electron from a neighbor, moving the hole over a space. P-
type silicon is a good conductor.
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 76
 N-Type

In N-type doping, phosphorus or arsenic is added to the

silicon in small quantities.

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 77

 N-Type

Phosphorus and arsenic each have five outer electrons, so

they're out of place when they get into the silicon lattice.

The fifth electron has nothing to bond to, so it's free to move
around.
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 78
 N-Type

It takes only a very small quantity of the impurity to create

enough free electrons to allow an electric current to flow
through the silicon. N-type silicon is a good conductor.

Electrons have a negative charge, hence the name N-type.

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 79
 P-N Junction

We create a p-n junction by joining together two pieces of

semiconductor, one doped n-type, the other p-type.
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 80
 P-N Junction

In the n-type region there are extra electrons and in the p-

type region, there are holes from the acceptor impurities .

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 81

 P-N Junction
In the p-type region there are holes from the acceptor
impurities and in the n-type region there are extra electrons.

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 82

 P-N Junction

When a p-n junction is formed, some of the electrons from

the n-region which have reached the conduction band are
free to diffuse across the junction and combine with holes.

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 83

 SUPERCONDUCTORS
 Superconductivity is a
phenomenon in certain materials at
extremely low temperatures,
characterized by exactly zero
electrical resistance and exclusion
of the interior magnetic field (i.e.
the Meissner effect)

 This phenomenon is nothing

but losing the resistivity absolutely
when cooled to sufficient low
temperatures

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 84

 WHY WAS IT FORMED ?
• Before the discovery of the superconductors it
was thought that the electrical resistance of a
conductor becomes zero only at absolute zero

• But it was found that in some materials

electrical resistance becomes zero when
cooled to very low temperatures

• These materials are nothing but the SUPER

CONDUTORS.
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 85
 Discovery
• Superconductivity was discovered in
1911 by Heike Kammerlingh Onnes ,
who studied the resistance of solid
mercury at cryogenic temperatures
using the recently discovered liquid H. Kammerlingh Onnes –
helium as ‘refrigerant’. 1911 – Pure Mercury

• At the temperature of 4.2 K , he

observed that the resistance abruptly 0.15
disappears.
Resistance (Ω)
• For this discovery he got the NOBEL 0.10
PRIZE in PHYSICS in 1913.

• In 1913 lead was found to super Tc

conduct at 7K. 0.0
4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4

• In 1941 niobium nitride was found to Temperature (K)

super conduct at 16K

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 86
 SUPERCONDUCTING MATERIALS
Superconductivity - The phenomenon of
losing resistivity when sufficiently cooled to a
very low temperature (below a certain critical
temperature).

Properties of Superconductors

•Zero Electrical Resistance

•Defining Property
•Critical Temperature
•Quickest test
•10-5Ωcm
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 87
 Effect of Magnetic Field
The superconducting state of the material
cannot exist in presence of a magnetic field of
critical value even at absolute zero Element HC at 0K
(mT)
temperature.
Nb 198
• Critical magnetic field (HC) –
Pb 80.3
Minimum magnetic field required
to destroy the superconducting Sn 30.9
property at any temperature
H0
  T 2  Normal
H C  H 0 1    
  TC  
HC
H0 – Critical field at 0K
Superconducting
T - Temperature below TC
T (K) TC
TC - Transition Temperature Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 88
 Types of Superconductors
Type I Type II
• Sudden loss of magnetization • Gradual loss of magnetization
• Exhibit Meissner Effect • Does not exhibit complete
• One HC = 0.1 tesla Meissner Effect
• No mixed state • Two HCs – HC1 & HC2 (≈30 tesla)
• Soft superconductor • Mixed state present
• Eg.s – Pb, Sn, Hg • Hard superconductor
• Eg.s – Nb-Sn, Nb-Ti
-M Superconducting
Superconducting
-M
Mixed

Normal Normal

HC H HC2
HC1 HC
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) H 89
 APPLICATIONS OF
SUPER CONDUCTORS

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 90

 1. Engineering
• Transmission of power
• Switching devices
• Sensitive electrical instruments
• Memory (or) storage element in computers.
• Manufacture of electrical generators and
transformers

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 91

 Medical Applications
superconductors can perform a life-saving
function is in the field of bio magnetism

•Brain wave activity – brain tumour,

defective cells
•NMR – Nuclear Magnetic Resonance –
Scanning
•Separate damaged cells and healthy cells

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 92

Power transmission

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 93

 Cryotron
The cryotron is a switch that
operates using superconductivity.
The cryotron works on the
principle that magnetic fields
destroy superconductivity. The
cryotron is a piece of tantalum
wrapped with a coil of niobium
placed in a liquid helium bath.
When the current flows through
the tantalum wire it is
superconducting, but when a
current flows through the niobium
a magnetic field is produced. This
destroys the superconductivity
which makes the current slow
down or stop.

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 94

Super conductivity chips

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 95

Super Motors

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 96

 Magnetic Levitated Train

Magnetic levitation transport, or maglev, is a form of transportation

that suspends, guides and propels vehicles via electromagnetic force.
This method can be faster than wheeled mass transit systems,
potentially reaching velocities comparable to turboprop and jet aircraft
(500 to 580 km/h).

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 97

Both the rail and the train exert a magnetic field,
and the train is levitated by the repulsive force
between these magnetic fields which propels the
vehicle.

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 98

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 99
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 100
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 101
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 102
Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 103
Background of the Topic

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 104

 References

1. Engineering Physics, V Rajendran, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company

Limited.
2. Applied Physics for Engineers – Neeraj Mehta (PHI Learning Pvt. Limited)
3. A text Book of Engineering Physics – Dr. M.N. Avadhanulu and Dr. P.G.
Kshirsagar (S. Chand and Company Pvt. Limited)

Reference Books:
1. Introduction to Electrodynamics – D. J. Griffiths (Prentice Hall)
2. A Detailed text book of Engineering – Dr. S.P. Basavaraju (Subhas Stores,
Bangalore)

Physics Intro Class (Neelanjan) 105