BRIEF REVIEW

A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW: PLYOMETRIC TRAINING

PROGRAMS FOR YOUNG CHILDREN
BARBARA A. JOHNSON,1 CHARLES L. SALZBERG,2 AND DAVID A. STEVENSON1,3
1
Movement Analysis Laboratory, Shriners Hospitals for Children Salt Lake City, Salt Lake City, Utah; 2Department of Special
Education and Rehabilitation, Utah State University, Logan, Utah; and 3Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical
Genetics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah

ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION

I
Johnson, BA, Salzberg, CL, and Stevenson, DA. A systematic mproving physical activity is a national health initiative
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review: plyometric training programs for young children. for children of all abilities (22). Current national health
J Strength Cond Res 25(9): 2623–2633, 2011—The purpose initiatives recommend 60 minutes or more of
of this systematic review was to evaluate the efficacy and safety moderate to vigorous physical activity most days of
the week for school-aged children. The physical activity
of plyometric training for improving motor performance in young
should be enjoyable, developmentally appropriate, and
children; to determine if this type of training could be used to
should consist of a variety of activities. Children have the
improve the strength, running speed, agility, and jumping ability
opportunity to begin playing competitive sports at the age of
of children with low motor competence; and to examine the 7–8. However, before that time, young school-aged children
extent and quality of the current research literature. Primary engage in playground games and recreational sports where
research articles were selected if they (a) described the they run, skip, hop, jump, kick, and throw.
outcomes of a plyometric exercise intervention; (b) included Children with low motor competence have lower levels of
measures of strength, balance, running speed, jumping ability, physical fitness (13), lower levels of physical activity (24), and
or agility; (c) included prepubertal children 5–14 years of age; participate in fewer organized recreational and play activities
and (d) used a randomized control trial or quasiexperimental (2). Wrotniak et al. (24) suggested that running and jumping
design. Seven articles met the inclusion criteria for the final are fundamental skills for participation in active games and
review. The 7 studies were judged to be of low quality (values of sports. Therefore, improving running and jumping in
children with low motor competence may be an appropriate
4–6). Plyometric training had a large effect on improving the
intervention for increasing physical fitness, for increasing
ability to run and jump. Preliminary evidence suggests
physical activity levels, and for improving participation in
plyometric training also had a large effect on increasing kicking
recreational and play activities. However, there is a paucity of
distance, balance, and agility. The current evidence suggests research on interventions that aim specifically to improve
that a twice a week program for 8–10 weeks beginning at 50– running and jumping ability in children with low motor
60 jumps a session and increasing exercise load weekly results competence or in young children.
in the largest changes in running and jumping performance. An Plyometric exercise starts with a rapid stretch of a muscle
alternative program for children who do not have the capability followed by a rapid shortening. The nervous system is
or tolerance for a twice a week program would be a low- conditioned to react more quickly to the stretch-shortening
intensity program for a longer duration. The research suggests cycle. This type of exercise can enhance a child’s speed of
that plyometric training is safe for children when parents provide movement, increase power production (5,15,18,21), and
consent, children agree to participate, and safety guidelines are strengthen bone (11). Plyometric training programs have
been shown to be effective in adults and pubertal children for
built into the intervention.
improving running speed and jumping ability (17) and for
KEY WORDS strength, running speed, agility, jumping ability, increasing strength (21). Strength training can improve
motor competence, prepubertal children muscle performance and coordination of muscle groups,
however, to improve sport performance, children benefit
more from practicing and perfecting skills of the sport (4).
Address correspondence to Barbara A. Johnson, bajohnson@shrinenet. Therefore, plyometric training may be an appropriate
org. intervention for improving the motor ability of children to
25(9)/2623–2633 run, jump, hop, skip, kick, and throw.
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research Plyometric training produces dynamic movements and
Ó 2011 National Strength and Conditioning Association greater force on muscles and bones. Historically, plyometric

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 Plyometric Training Review

training was deemed unsafe for youth, and a predetermined intervention; (b) included measures of strength, balance,
level of strength was a prerequisite for participation in running speed, jumping ability or agility; (c) included
a plyometric program. However, an update from the National prepubertal children 5–14 years of age; and (d) used
Strength and Conditioning Association determined that this a randomized control trial or quasiexperimental design.
recommendation was not supported by current research or Articles that met the 4 inclusion criteria were chosen for the
observation of everyday play activities (10). Currently, final review. The reference lists of primary articles were
a limited number of studies have examined the influence searched for additional research.
of plyometric exercise on young children. Only 2 studies of
prepubertal children were included in a meta-analysis of Judging the Quality of the Evidence. The Physiotherapy
plyometric training (17,21). Clearly, more research is needed Evidence Database (PEDro) Scale was used to evaluate the
to understand young children’s response to plyometric quality of the research, and each study was coded for the 11
exercise. It will also be necessary to determine the safest items described in the PEDro criteria (19). Table 1 describes
and most effective method for progressing exercise load and the results of the quality rating. Intrarater agreement for this
to clarify the need for strength or motor skill prerequisites for review was determined by having a second physical therapist
participating in plyometric training. rate the quality of 3 randomly selected studies and comparing
The purpose of this systematic review was to examine the agreement between the 2 raters. The operational definitions
extent and quality of the current research literature, to of the PEDro criteria for rating quality were reviewed and
evaluate the efficacy and safety of plyometric training for consensus was established for the rating process. The 2 raters
improving motor performance in young children, and to were in exact agreement for the 3 studies.
determine if this type of training could be used to improve the
motor skills of children with low motor competence. Synthesis of the Research. The GRADE method (1) is a recent
system for rating medical evidence which considers the
METHODS consistency or homogeneity of the effect size across studies
and the directness of the evidence (the extent to which the
Experimental Approach to the Problem
people, interventions, and outcome measures are similar to
To obtain relevant literature on plyometric training, abstracts
those of interest). Effect sizes were calculated for those studies
and citations were identified through a search using the Elton
that reported means and SD s using Cohen’s d. Cohen’s
B Stephens Company (EBSCO) and Proquest search engines
description was used to classify effect sizes as small, medium or
in March 2010. Databases selected within these search
large (3). The concepts of consistency and directness from the
engines include Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied
GRADE method were adopted to synthesize the results of the
Health Literature (CINAHL), HealthSource, SportDisc, and
research. The author, source, date of publication, purpose,
MEDLINE. The initial search focused on finding literature
design, exercise protocol, sample characteristics, primary
using plyometric training in children with low motor
outcomes and study results are listed in Table 2.
proficiency or low motor competence. Search terms included
The articles were organized into categories to assist with
‘‘physical therapy interventions,’’ ‘‘developmental coordina-
synthesis (Tables 3–5). We looked for information about the
tion disorder,’’ ‘‘low motor competence,’’ ‘‘low motor
directness of the intervention (Table 3), the dosage of the
proficiency,’’ ‘‘running training,’’ ‘‘jump training,’’ and ‘‘plyo-
intervention, that is, frequency, duration, intensity, number of
metric exercise’’ in various combinations. Two hundred
repetitions (Table 4), the influence on motor skill perfor-
twenty-seven articles were located. The abstracts were
mance, that is, running, jumping, agility, balance, throwing,
reviewed, and there were no articles that described using
and kicking, strength or power (Table 5), and safety.
plyometric training as an intervention for children with low
motor competence, low motor proficiency, or for children
RESULTS
with developmental coordination disorder. A new search was
undertaken to identify articles describing plyometric training The process for identifying, screening, and selecting the final
programs for children. The following search terms were used studies for analysis is depicted in Figure 1. The 8 studies were
in various combinations to identify primary research articles: judged to be of low quality (values of 3–6). Across the 8
‘‘plyometric exercise,’’ ‘‘plyometric training,’’ ‘‘jump training,’’ studies, the strengths were (a) similarity of groups at baseline;
‘‘children,’’ ‘‘strength,’’ ‘‘balance,’’ ‘‘bone density,’’ ‘‘motor training,’’ (b) statistically significant results; and (c) methods that
‘‘neuromotor training,’’ and ‘‘sport performance.’’ The earliest addressed biases from maturation, gender, and age. The
randomized control trial to describe motor outcomes of weaknesses were (a) the lack of blinding of evaluators,
plyometric training on strength and balance in young subjects, and coaches; (b) the lack of the use of confidence
children was published in 1998. Therefore, only research intervals to demonstrate statistical precision; (c) the lack of
articles published in the last 12 years were selected for review. reporting of effect sizes to describe the magnitude of change;
and (d) the exclusion of drop-outs in the statistical analysis
Inclusion Criteria. Primary research articles were selected if (intention to treat). The mean PEDro rating for the studies
they (a) described the outcomes of a plyometric exercise was 4.5 out of 10. The low quality rating of the studies reflects
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 TABLE 1. Quality rating.

Study

Witzke and Diallo Ingle Kotzamanidis Meylan and Rubley Faigenbaum DiStefano
PEDro criteria Snow (23) et al. (5) et al. (14) (15) Malatesta (18) et al. (20) et al. (9) et al. (6)

Eligibility criteria specified Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Random group allocation 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
Concealed allocation 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Similar groups at baseline 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Blinding of subjects 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Blinding of coaches 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Blinding of assessors 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

the
85% of subjects received 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 key measurement
Intention to treat 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
Statistical sig reported for 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 key outcome
Effect sizes (Cohen’s d) or 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
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confidence levels reported

Totals (10 possible) 3 6 4 5 4 4 4 6

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 2626

Plyometric Training Review

TABLE 2. Evidence table.*

Author source Purpose Design (D), Protocol (P) Sample population Outcome measures Results
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
the

Witzke and To investigate the effects Design (D) quasiexperimental Power analysis not Isokinetic dynamometry Groups equivalent in
Snow (23), of 9 mos of plyometric reported.(N = 54 pretest
Med Sci jump training on bone women)
Sports Exerc mineral content, lower Protocol (P) weeks 1–4 = Purposive selection Static balance No significant difference
extremity performance 40–100 jumps, weeks in any variables between
and static balance. 5–9 = 360–1,000 jumps per groups
week; 100 per session.
Instruction included Matching for age and Block Food Frequency T tests demonstrated
months postmenarche Questionnaire
Home program performed Mean age = 14 6 6 y Significant [ in leg strength
33 wk for the 9-mo school SD 0.6 and bone mineral content at
year. hip in exercise group
PE class recruitment
(both athletes and
nonathletes)
Diallo et al. (5), To examine the (D) Random assignment Power analysis not SJ, CMJ, DJ, M5B Body mass [ in both
TM

J Sports Med effectiveness of purposive selection reported (N = 20 men) groups (p , 0.01)

Phys Fitness plyometric training and (P) 33 wk for 10 wks Mean age = 12 6 3 y, Sensitivity/specificity of % Body fat Y in the
maintenance on SD 0.4 outcome measures experimental group (p ,
performance of reported 0.05) then increased in
prepubescent soccer maintenance (p , 0.05)
players. 70 Per session per session Tanner stage reported Sprint-cycling performance
initially, progressed to 200– [ (p , 0.01)
300 jumps per session at the
end
Intensity [ after 5 wks Participants were CMJ [ (p , 0/01)
athletes
M5B [ (p , 0/01)
Kotzamanidis To examine the (D) Quasiexperimental Power analysis not SJ Sig [ in running velocity in
(15), J effectiveness of convenience sample reported 10–20 m run and 20–30-
Strength plyometric training and m run, not 10-m run
Cond Res maintenance on (P) 10 wks, 23 wk N = 20 male soccer
performance of players
prepubescent soccer Used Chu’s protocol for Mean age = 12 6 3 Running velocity Sig [ in jump time
players increasing intensity (no SD)
60 Jumps per session initially, Compared a plyometric
progressed to 100 jumps per training group to a group
session at the end receiving physical
education

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 Meylan and To determine the (D) Quasiexperimental Power analysis not SJ (flight time) No impact on ground
Malatesta influence of a short-term reported contact time
(18), J plyometric training Purposive sample N = 25, mean, age = CMJ No impact on M5BT
Strength within regular soccer 13 6 3 y, SD = 0.6
Cond Res practice on explosive (P) 8 wks, 23 wk Gender not reported Agility test Sig [ in sprint time
actions of early pubertal 32 Jumps per session initially, All played soccer in the Running velocity Sig [ in agility time
soccer players during 92 jumps per session at same league
the in season. the end
Tanner stage not M5B
reported
Rubley et al. To measure the effects of (D) Quasiexperimental Power analysis not Vertical jump 5 trials, No sig diff over time in
(20), J low frequency, low- reported 3 best ave control group
Strength impact plyometric Purposive selection N = 16, 10 training, No diff between groups
Cond Res training on vertical jump 6 control pretest or 7 wks posttest
and kicking distance in (P) 14 wks, 13 wk Mean age = 13 6 4 y, Kicking distance Sig higher jump height at
female adolescent SD = 0.5 14 wks
soccer players 16 Jumps per session initially, Female soccer players Sig greater kicking
progressed to 60 jumps per distance at 14 wks in
session at the end training group
Faigenbaum To examine the effects of (D) Quasiexperimental Power analysis not Presidential Council of Sig greater gains
(9), Physical a school-based reported Physical Fitness test in long jump, push-up, and
Ed plyometric training half mile run
program on children’s Purposeful selection N = 74, 40 children
fitness performance training group, 34
children control
Random assignment Mean age = 8 6 11 y HR met guidelines for
vigorous physical activity
(P) 23 wk, 9 wks, Reps Y as Boys and girls, 2 third-

Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

the
intensity [ 120 per session grade classes and 2
initially, progressed to 72 fifth- grade school PE
jumps per session at the end classes from the same
school
DiStefano et al. Compare the effects of (D) Randomized control trial Power analysis not Ground reaction forces Sig greater improvement
(6), J Strength a pediatric program to reported during in TTS in the anterior/
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Cond Res a traditional program countermovement posterior direction

vertical jump
Purposeful selection N = 66, 22 traditional TTS on depth jump on No sig differences in
training, 22 pediatric 1 leg ground reaction forces
training protocol, 22 during countermovement
control group vertical jump
Stratified assignment to group Mean age = 10 6 1 y, 37
based on age and sex men, 29 women from 67
soccer teams
(P) 33 wk, 9 wks
Exercise load remained

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constant

*SJ = squat jump; CMJ = countermovement jump; DJ = drop jump; M5B = running velocity multiple 5 bound test; TTS = time to stabilization; HR = heart rate.
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 Plyometric Training Review

TABLE 3. Directness of the intervention.

Construct Articles Results Conclusion

Age Witzke and Snow (23) Mean =14.6-y-olds The studies included children 8–14 y of age
Diallo et al. (5) Mean = 12.3-y-olds although tended to enroll at the older end of the
Ingle et al. (14) Mean = 12.3-y-olds age spectrum. Those enrolling older children
Kotzamanidis (15) Mean = 12.3-y-olds used Tanner levels to determine prepubertal
Meylan and Malatesta (18)
Mean = 13.3-y-olds status. One study used stratified sampling by age
Rubley et al. (20) Mean =13.3-y-olds and gender of 9- to 10-y-olds
Faignebaum et al. (9) 2 Classes of 8- to
9-y-olds, 2 classes
of 10- to 11-y-olds
DiStefano et al. (6) Mean = 10.1-y-olds
Gender Witzke and Snow (23) Women The majority of studies (71%) studied 1 gender of
Diallo et al. (5) Men participants.
Ingle et al. (14) Men
Kotzamanidis (15) Men
Meylan and Malatesta (18) Women
Rubley et al. (20) Gender not reported
Faignebaum (9,10) Both
DiStefano et al. (6) Both
Motor Witzke and Snow (23) Typical children All studies used typically developing children or
proficiency Diallo (5) Athletes athletes with average or above average motor
Ingle et al. (14) Typical children abilities.
Kotzamanidis (15) Athletes
Meylan and Malatesta (18) Athletes
Rubley et al. (20) Athletes
Faignebaum (9) Typical children
DiStefano (6) Athletes
Primary Witzke and Snow (23) Reliability reported The reliability was reported in 50% of the studies.
outcome Diallo et al. (5) Reliability not reported Validity was not reported in any study.
Ingle et al. (14) Reliability not reported
Kotzamanidis (15) Reliability not reported
Meylan and Malatesta (18) Reliability reported
Rubley et al. (20) Reliability reported
Faignebaum et al. (9) Reliability not reported
DiStefano et al. (6) Reliability reported

the limited amount of research into this topic area and study by Witzke and Snow (23) did not find statistically
suggests that caution be exercised when interpreting the significant results. A close examination of the Witzke and
results. These 8 studies are the initial attempts of researchers Snow (23) study suggested that the control group had greater
evaluating the efficacy of plyometric exercise training in initial strength and power values and had participated in
prepubertal children. Despite the low quality ratings, useful more sports than the treatment group, possibly influencing
information can be gained to determine the current state of their results. Therefore, only the results of 7 studies will be
knowledge regarding plyometric training and to identify discussed. The evidence describing the efficacy of plyometric
future research recommendations. The aims of this review training is described in Table 5. A total of 275 children
were to first determine the efficacy of plyometric training for participated in the 7 studies. The participants ranged in age
improving motor performance, then to determine the from 8 to 14 (mean age of 13). Diallo et al. (5), Ingle et al. (14),
optimum exercise dosage, and finally to determine the safety Kotzamandis (15), and Rubley et al. (20) all studied
of plyometric training for children. The following paragraphs participants of the same sex and age (12- to 13-year-old
describe our findings. boys) which accounted for possible age/sex bias. All 7 studies
described programs consisting of jumping, hopping, skipping,
Efficacy of Plyometric Training for Improving Motor bounding, and jumping over hurdles. Ingle et al. (14) added
Performance resistive exercises, Rubley et al. (20) added footwork and
Seven of the 8 studies (5,6,9,14,15,18,20) found statistically sprint drills, Faigenbaum et al. (9) added sprints and throws,
significant effects for improving motor performance. The and DiStefano et al. (6) added strengthening and balance
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TABLE 4. Consistency intervention effect.*

Construct Articles Results Conclusion

Strength Witzke and Snow (23) No significant improvement (typical) The current evidence suggests that
power Faigenbaum et al. (9) Significant [, small ES (typical) plyometric training produces a small
Ingle et al. (14) Significant [, mod ES (typical) effect on strength and a moderate
effect on power
Running Diallo (5) Significant [, ES not known (athlete) The current evidence suggests that
Kotzamanidis (15) Significant [, mod ES (typical) plyometric training produces
Faigenbaum et al. (9) Significant [, small ES (typical) a variable effect on running speed
Meylan and Significant [, large ES (athletes) with athletes making the greatest
Malatesta (18) improvement in shorter distance
running.
Jumping Diallo et al. (5) Significant [, ES not known The current evidence suggests that
Kotzamanidis (15) Significant [, large ES (typical) plyometric training produces a large
Meylan and Significant [, large ES (athlete) effect on jumping ability
Malatesta (18)
Rubley et al. (20) Significant [, large ES (athlete)
Faigenbaum et al. (9) Significant [, small ES (typical)
DiStefano et al. (6) No sig improvement
Throwing Ingle et al. (14) Not significant Unknown effect on throwing
Agility Meylan and Significant [, large ES (athlete) The current evidence suggests that
Malatesta (18) plyometric training produces
a moderate effect on agility
Kicking Rubley et al. (20) Significant [, large ES (athlete) The current evidence suggests that
plyometric training produces a large
effect on kicking (1 study)
Balance DiStefano et al. (6) Significant [ in the forward and The current evidence suggests
backward direction a traditional comprehensive training
program including plyometric
training improved in the forward and
backward direction
*ES = effect size.

exercises to the plyometric program. Five studies Malatesta (18) had a large effect size (21.28), Kotzamanidis
(5,6,17,18,20) included athletes from sports programs, and (15) had a moderate effect size (d = 20.75), and Faigenbaum
2 studies (9,14) included typical children from local schools. et al. (5) had a small effect size (d = 0.22). Faigenbaum et al.
The outcomes evaluated were jumping (squat jumps, long (5) included sprint drills and measured a half mile run. The 2
jumps, vertical jumps, depth jumps, countermovement jumps, studies with the larger effect sizes performed only jump
and multiple bounding), running velocity (distances from 10 exercise and demonstrated a large effect for running short
m to one-half mile), balance, agility, strength, and kicking distances (between 10 and 30 m).
distance. Three studies (15,18,20) measured the ability to Two studies (9,14) measured strength outcomes and both
jump and found statistically significant improvements in demonstrated statistically significant improvements. The
jumping ability with large effect sizes (d = 2.2, 2, and 1.41, study by Faigenbaum et al. (9) produced a small effect size
respectively). One study (9) had a small effect size (d = 0.24) (d = 0.23), and the study by Ingle et al. (14) a moderate effect
possibly because the outcome instrument used may not have size (d = 0.59). The study by Ingle et al. (14) may have shown
been as sensitive to change (Presidential Fitness Test vs. a larger effect because of the addition of resistive exercise
timed tasks from take-off to landing), and the purpose was to training to the plyometric program.
examine the effects of a school-based plyometric training Outcomes for agility, balance, and kicking were measured
program. One study (6) did not find a statistically significant in 1 study each. Meylan and Malatesta (18) measured agility
change in vertical jump although it did not progress the and demonstrated a statistically significant improvement,
plyometric exercise load during the 9-week program. with a large effect size (d = 22.15). Rubely et al. (20)
Four studies measured running velocity (5,9,15,18). Three measured kicking distance and demonstrated a statistically
demonstrated statistically significant improvements and significant improvement with a large effect size (d = 2.62).
provided sufficient data to calculate effect size. Meylan and DiStefano et al. (6) measured balance and demonstrated

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 Plyometric Training Review

TABLE 5. Consistency of exercise dosage.

Construct Articles Results Strength rating and conclusion

Duration Witzke and Snow (23) No effect from 9 mos home program Moderate (3 studies): The current
Diallo et al. (5) Effect from 10-wk program evidence suggests that a training
Ingle et al. (14) Effect from 12-wk program effect could be achieved with a
Kotzamanidis (15) Effect from 10-wk program 10-wk program. Two studies
Meylan and Effect from 8-wk program suggest that a training effect could
Malatesta (18) be achieved with a 9-wk program.
Rubley et al. (20) No effect at 7 wks, effect at One study suggests that a training
14 wks effect could be achieved in 8 wks
Faignebaum et al. (9) Effect from 10-wk program
DiStefano et al. (6) Large effect from a 9-wk program
Frequency Witzke and Snow (23) 3 Times a wk Moderate (3 studies): The current
Diallo et al. (5) 3 Times a wk, 30 sessions evidence suggests that a twice a wk
Ingle et al. (14) 3 Times a wk, 36 sessions program with a minimum of 16–20
Kotzamanidis (15) 2 Times a wk, 20 sessions sessions can produce a training
effect.
Meylan and 2 Times a wk, 16 sessions 13 wk with 14 sessions showed
Malatesta (18) changes although required a longer
Rubley et al. (20) 1 Time a wk, 14 sessions period of time.
Faignebaum et al. (9) 2 times a wk, 20 sessions
DiStefano et al. (6) 3 Times a wk, 27 sessions
No. of jumps Witzke and Snow (23) 100 Jumps per session initial, Moderate (3 studies)
360 end
Diallo et al. (5) 200 Jumps per session initial,
300 end
Ingle et al. (14) 64 Jumps per session initial,
120 end
Kotzamanidis (15) 60 Jumps per session initial,
92 end
Meylan and 50 Jumps per session initial, The current evidence suggests
Malatesta (18) 192 end beginning at 50–60 jumps per
Rubley et al. (20) 16 Jumps per session initial, session at the beginning of the
60 end intervention and performing 92–190
Faignebaum et al. (9) 120 Jumps per session initial, jumps per session by the end of
72 end intervention. One study suggests
DiStefano et al. (6) 30 Jumps per session initial, that 60 jumps a session over a longer
30 jumps end period of time will produce a training
effect. One study demonstrated that
30 jumps over 27 sessions would
improve balance.
Progression Diallo et al. (5) Approximate [ 10 jumps per wk. Very low
of intensity Ingleet al. (14) Approximate [ of 5 jumps per wk The intensity of the program was
progressed in all but 1 study. No 2
studies [ # of reps per week at the
same rate.
Kotzamanidis (15) Approximate [ of 12 jumps per wk The Meylan and Kotzamanidis studies
Meylan and Approximate [ of 18 jumps per wk demonstrated large effects on
Malatesta (18) jumping with their interventions
Rubley et al. (20) Approximate[ of 3 jumps per wk
Faignebaum et al. (9) Decreased repetitions as intensity
increased
DiStefano et al. (6) Did not progress exercise load
Maher, G, Sherrington, C, Herbert, RD, Moseley, AM, and Elkins, M. Reliability of the PEDro Scale for Rating Quality of Randomized
Controlled Trials. Phys Ther 83: 713–721, 2005.

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Figure 1. Summary of the review process.

a statistically significant improvement with a large effect size repetitions a week to approximately 192 jumps per session
(d = 2.30). The participants in all of these studies were soccer by the end of the intervention. Kotzamandis (15) had
players, and the soccer training may have influenced kicking a similar program and also produced large effect sizes for
and agility. running and jumping. Rubley et al. (20) exercised children
The evidence suggested that plyometric training had a large once a week for 14 weeks with a low number of jumps (16
effect on improving the ability to jump. This result would be jumps per session progressing to 60 at the end of 14 weeks).
expected because the interventions in all studies included This study did not have as large an effect size on jumping as
jump training. The evidence suggested that plyometric the studies by Meylan and Malatesta (18) or Kotzamandis
training also had an effect on running velocity, although (15). Faigenbaum et al. (9) and Ingle et al. (14) exercised
the effects were not consistently large across studies. The children twice a week for 20 weeks and decreased repetitions
effects were greatest for the 30-m distance and small for the as intensity increased. These authors also used a method for
half mile run. Plyometric training also had a large effect on increasing exercise load. However, they did not describe their
improving kicking distance and agility. The jump training methods in as much detail and their training program
may have had some transfer effect to these skills, although the resulted in smaller effect sizes for running, jumping, and
participants’ soccer training may have accounted for the strength improvement. DiStefano et al. (6) exercised children
improvements seen in agility and kicking distance. Despite 3 times a week for 9 weeks; however, this did not increase the
the large effect size for agility and kicking improvement, there exercise load. This study had a large effect on improving
was only one randomized controlled trial on each outcome. balance.
The current evidence suggests that a twice a week program
Exercise Dosage for 8 to 10 weeks beginning at 50–60 jumps a session and
The evidence for recommending an exercise dosage is increasing repetitions weekly by 12–18 repetitions to
summarized in Table 5. Seven studies (5,6,9,14,15,18,20) a maximum of 90–190 results in the largest changes in
demonstrated statistically significant results and were used running and jumping performance. An alternative program
for judging the consistency of the exercise dosage. The for children who do not have the capability or tolerance for
categories evaluated were frequency, duration, number of a twice a week program would be a low intensity program for
jumps, and the method for increasing exercise load. a longer duration (20). Only 1 study (14) performed a follow-
The frequency of the training programs varied across up evaluation 12 weeks after the intervention. A decline of
studies from once a week to 3 times a week. The early studies strength occurred toward baseline at the follow-up evalua-
performed by Witzke and Snow (23) and Diallo et al. (5) tion indicating a need to continue the exercise training to
exercised children 3 d wk21 with large number of jumps per maintain strength gains.
session (100–200 at the beginning of the session and 300–360
at the end). Witzke and Snow (23) did not find significant Safety
results. The Diallo et al. (5) study demonstrated statistical Two studies documented that there were no injuries during
significance; however, they did not include data for the intervention. Faigenbaum et al. (9) exercised 74 children
calculating the effect size, so the magnitude of the change and DiStefano et al. (6) exercised 66 children without a single
was unknown. Later studies exercised children twice a week injury or complaint of muscle soreness. Additionally, every
starting at 50–60 jumps and ending at 92–192 jumps a session. study addressed safety in the description of the intervention.
Meylan and Malatesta’s (18) study showed the largest effect Each study reported Institutional Review Board approval and
sizes on running, jumping, and agility and incorporated consent of parents and assent of participants. Two studies
a twice a week program for 8 weeks. These authors began at (5,9) reported low participant to instructor ratios (1:4 and 1:5,
approximately 50 jumps per session and increased 18 respectively) during the intervention. Five studies (5,6,9,15,18)

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Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
 Plyometric Training Review

described a warm-up and cool-down period, emphasized of verbal instruction about the task requirements may have
instruction and correct technique, and assured the use of resulted in enhanced understanding of the task. Verbal feedback
appropriate exercise surfaces and exercise spaces. Meylan and on the results of task performance may have also enhanced
Malatesta (18) described a program that was tailored to the learning. Next, they adapted the exercises to the coordination
child’s capability. capacity of the children and encouraged children to perform at
full speed. The drills lasted only 10 seconds with a 90-second
DISCUSSION rest period between drills. Sessions were separated by 48 hours.
Previous reviews of research on adults suggested that The focus of 1 session was to work on vertical power, the
plyometric exercise improves strength (21), running, and second session to work on horizontal power. The intensity and
jumping (17). The results of this review of the literature on progression were determined by considering both intensity of
young children also suggested that plyometric training had the exercise and number of ground contact times. The load was
a large effect on improving the ability to jump (15,18,20) and varied and the researchers used a blocked practice paradigm.
run (15,18), but only a small effect on improving strength Load was progressed for 3 weeks, decreased slightly the fourth
(9,14). The small effect on improving strength may be week, increased again for weeks 5 and 6, decreased slightly for
explained by the differences in the mechanisms for strength week 7, and increased in week 8. The attention to principles of
gain in prepubertal children. Strength gains in young children exercise and sport science for optimizing the benefits of
have been attributed to intrinsic muscle adaptation and plyometric exercise may have been responsible for the greater
neural adaptation because prepubertal children lack circu- improvements. DiStefano et al. (6) found that a pediatric
lating androgens responsible for muscle hypertrophy (12). program with 3 progressive phases was not as effective as
The evidence suggested that plyometric training also had a traditional program. The 9-week progressive pediatric
a large effect on improving kicking distance (20), balance (6), program may not have performed phase 3 exercises long
and agility (18), although replication of these results with enough or provided a sufficient exercise load to cause change in
another carefully controlled study would improve our jumping ability and balance.
confidence in the outcomes from this research. Safety is always a concern when initiating an exercise
The participants in the research for this review had average intervention for children because of the possibility of injury,
or above average motor competence (healthy, typically muscle soreness, overtraining, or frustration. Many of the
developing children or athletes). More information is needed studies included a description of procedures to address safety
to determine if children with low motor competence and concerns. The plyometric training programs were relatively
possible comorbidities such as learning and attention problems short (10–25 minutes), included a warm-up and cool down,
or musculoskeletal impairments can participate in and benefit had a low instructor to student ratio, emphasized correct
from plyometric training. Children develop motor proficiency technique, provided guidelines for progressing the work load,
by spontaneously engaging in running and jumping activities and were carried out on appropriate exercise surfaces and in
on a daily basis. Children with low motor competence are not exercise spaces. The research suggests that plyometric
as proficient at running and jumping resulting in decreased training is safe for children when parents provide consent,
participation in active games and sports. Plyometric training children agree to participate, and safety guidelines are built
has the potential for improving running and jumping abilities if into the intervention.
similar improvements can be obtained safely in children with The National Strength and Conditioning Association
low motor competence. Future research should also evaluate guidelines call for adequate supervision and a properly
the generalization of learning beyond the intervention sessions designed resistance training program for children. Plyomteric
and the transfer of skills to physical activity in daily routines. exercise may be one of a variety of developmentally
There are many components of motor performance that appropriate activities included in a training program for
contribute to learning how to run, skip, hop, jump, kick, and young children. However, coaches should use caution when
throw. Task-specific interventions emphasize teaching func- undertaking plyometric training interventions for young
tional motor skills and using principles of motor learning (verbal children because the research to determine the safety and
instructions; amount, structure and schedule of practice; and efficacy is in its infancy. Future research is necessary (a) to
frequency of feedback) to enhance the intervention and determine if there should be strength or motor skill
enhance the generalization or transfer of learning to new achievement prerequisites for participating in plyometric
situations (16). Meylan and Malatesta’s (18) study resulted in training, (b) to replicate the safety and efficacy of plyometric
the largest effect size on running and jumping. The authors training for prepubertal children, and (c) to identify appropri-
provided a comprehensive description of the intervention, the ate progression of the exercise load during plyometric training.
exercise dosage, detailed participant instructions, and described
the focus for each session. First, they emphasized technique PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
including an upright posture, body alignment, avoiding The plyometric training programs used in the studies
excessive side to side movement in vertical jumps, soft landings, reviewed for this manuscript can be used to design an
and instant recoil to prepare for the next jump. The specificity exercise program. The results of this review indicate that
the TM

2632 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
 the TM

Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | www.nsca-jscr.org

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