General Biology 1

Rojielynne T. Yusay 12 – Aquinas

Lesson 1
What’s In
1. What are the contributions of the following scientists on the
discovery of the cell (include the year of discovery)?

Scientist Contributions

Hans and Zacharias Janssen Both Zacharias and Hans

Janssen are credited with
inventing the optical compound
microscope in the 1590s and
contributing to the development
of cell theory.
Robert Hooke The first British scientist, Robert
Hooke, used the microscope
invented by Zacharias and Hans
to observe living things. When
British scientist Robert Hooke
examined a tiny slice of cork
with an optical compound
microscope in 1665, he
discovered that the cork was
made up of numerous
microscopic units with a room-
like structure. He noticed small
structures that resembled tiny
rooms with walls surrounding
them. They were given the
name Cellulate, which means
"little rooms" in Latin. At that
moment, a cell was discovered
for the first time. There was
also where the cell theory was
conceived.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek In 1674, Anton Van
Leeuwenhoek became the first
person to observe live cells. He
was able to examine living cells
because to his invention of a
 microscope with upgraded
lenses that could magnify
objects by 270-300-fold.
Mathias Schleiden In 1838, German botanist
Matthias Jakob Schleiden was
the first to state that cells are
the building blocks of all plants
and that an embryotic plant can
emerge from a single cell.
Theodore Schwann Theodor Schwann, a German
botanist, stated the following
year, in 1839, that cells are also
the basic units of animals.
These arguments challenged
the idea that plants and animals
had essentially distinct
structures. Their discoveries
paved the way for the
development of cell theory,
which states that cells are the
basic units of living organisms.
Rudolf Virchow In 1855, Virchow published the
statement Omnis cellula e
cellula, which states that all
cells come from pre-existing
cells, based on his observations.
This was hardly a novel idea. It
had been written about before
by a scientist named Robert
Remak, but this was the first
time it gained any attention and
became a milestone in modern
biology. Until Virchow's
discovery, it was thought that
new cells were formed from a
fluid known as blastema. In the
early 1850s, it was also
acknowledged that diseases
were caused by blastema
imbalances. To lay the basis for
cellular pathology or the study
of disease at the cellular level,
Virchow employed the premise
that all cells develop from pre-
existing cells. His investigation
has demonstrated that diseases
start at the cellular level. As a
 result of his work, scientists are
now better equipped to
diagnose diseases.

2. How important is their discovery on the cell on today’s study

of life?

Their discovery of the cell is vital in today's study of life since

this serves as a foundation for widening and expounding our
understanding and advances of life.

All organisms are made of cells or aggregates of cells. Cells

vary in their shape, size and activities/functions. Based on the
presence or absence of a membrane bound nucleus and other
organelles, cells and hence organisms can be named as eukaryotic
or prokaryotic.

A typical eukaryotic cell consists of a cell membrane, nucleus

and cytoplasm. Plant cells have a cell wall outside the cell
membrane. The plasma membrane is selectively permeable and
facilitates transport of several molecules. The endomembrane
system includes ER, golgi complex, lysosomes and vacuoles. All the
cell organelles perform different but specific functions. Centrosome
and centriole form the basal body of cilia and flagella that facilitate
locomotion. In animal cells, centrioles also form spindle apparatus
during cell division. Nucleus contains nucleoli and chromatin
network. It not only controls the activities of organelles but also
plays a major role in heredity.

Endoplasmic reticulum contains tubules or cisternae. They are

of two types: rough and smooth. ER helps in the transport of
substances, synthesis of proteins, lipoproteins and glycogen. The
golgi body is a membranous organelle composed of flattened sacs.
The secretions of cells are packed in them and transported from the
cell. Lysosomes are single membrane structures containing
enzymes for digestion of all types of macromolecules. Ribosomes
are involved in protein synthesis. These occur freely in the
cytoplasm or are associated with ER. Mitochondria help in oxidative
phosphorylation and generation of adenosine triphosphate. They are
bound by double membrane; the outer membrane is smooth and
inner one folds into several cristae. Plastids are pigment containing
organelles found in plant cells only. In plant cells, chloroplasts are
responsible for trapping light energy essential for photosynthesis.
The grana, in the plastid, is the site of light reactions and the
 stroma of dark reactions. The green-coloured plastids are
chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll, whereas the other coloured
plastids are chromoplasts, which may contain pigments like
carotene and xanthophyll. The nucleus is enclosed by nuclear
envelope, a double membrane structure with nuclear pores. The
inner membrane encloses the nucleoplasm and the chromatin
material. Thus, cell is the structural and functional unit of life.

What’s News
1. Color the heads with yellow color and green color for the tails.

2. The tail hates water so they repel from it. They are called
hydrophobic.
3. The head loves water so they face out towards it. They are called
hydrophilic.
4. Water is very small that it can squeeze between the phospholipids and
can enter the cell. Draw blue dots on the picture above squeezing on the
bilayer to enter the cell.

There are 3 different structures that are made of proteins

embedded within the phospholipid bilayer.
1. CHANNELS
2. MARKERS

3. RECEPTORS
Guide Questions:
1. What are the substances that enters and exits the cell
membrane?
Small hydrophobic molecules and gases such as oxygen and carbon
dioxide enter and exit the cell membrane at a high rate. Small polar
molecules like water and ethanol can move through membranes as
well but at a slower rate.
2. From which part of the membrane the substance is passing?
Phospholipid bilayers play an important role in cell membranes. The
lipid bilayer serves as a barrier to the passage of molecules and ions into
and out of the cell; it is the part where the substance going through.

What’s More

What I Have Learned

 The cell membrane also known as the (1) phospholipid is a
biological membrane that separates the interior from the exterior of the
cell and protects the cell from its environment. The cell membrane
consists of four various parts. The (2) phospholipid bilayer, is a part of
the membrane, a double layer molecule which is like a tadpole. The head
is known to be (3) hydrophilic, and the tail is known to be (4)
hydrophobic. The (5) channel proteins are a part of the membrane
which is a special arrangement of amino acids. This provides a hydrophilic
passageway for water and large molecules. The (6) marker proteins are
another part of the membrane which extends across the cell membrane
and serve as a nametag of the cell. Also, (7) receptors proteins are
another part of the membrane. These proteins are located within the cell
surface membrane. They are like blobs with antennas. They can bind to
the corresponding ligands to initiate signaling pathways because they
have a special sensing structure. The (8) channel proteins embedded in
the phospholipids serves as a transportation passageway for some of the
molecules needed by the cell. Transport may occur by (9) diffusion and
osmosis across the membrane. It can also occur when a vesicle attaches
to the cell membrane from the inside and then opens to form a pocket,
expelling its contents to the outside called (10) exocytosis. The cell
membrane may also envelope something on the outside and surround it,
taking it into the cell called (11) endocytosis or (12) phagocytosis.
There are also processes where molecules move across a membrane from
a region of (13) low concentration to a region of high concentration,
and this requires a source of (14) energy to "pump" the molecules uphill
in concentration. Such processes are called (15) active transport.

What I Can Do

How will the food that we take would affect the entry and exit of
substances in and out of the cell membrane?
Endocytosis is the process by which very large particles of material
are wrapped in a plasma membrane and transported inside the cell as
vesicles or vacuoles. Even though the vacuole is inside the cell, none of
the trapped material passes through the membrane and remains on the
other side of the original membrane. The opposite of endocytosis is
exocytosis. A large amount of material is ejected from the cell without
ever passing through the membrane as individual molecules. Some
specialized types of cells use endocytosis and exocytosis to transfer large
amounts of bulk material into and out of themselves. Solid particles are
engulfed by phagocytosis ("cell eating"), a process that begins when
solids make contact with the outer cell surface, triggering the movement
of the membrane. The desired particles are then enclosed within a small
piece of the plasma membrane which forms a sac called a vacuole (or
vesicle), with the food particle inside it. This vacuole is then moved to the
interior of the cell. Strictly speaking, the food particles are not yet part of
the cell as it is still surrounded by membrane. Before food can be used, it
must be broken down to smaller pieces and those pieces moved into the
cytoplasm. Digestion occurs when the food vacuole is fused with a second
vacuole, called a lysosome, that contains powerful digestive enzymes.
Food is degraded, its nutrients are absorbed by the cell and its waste
products are left in the digestive vacuole, which may then leave the cell
by exocytosis. Phagocytosis occurs in the scavenging white blood cells of
our body. They prowl around looking for invading bacteria and viruses
which they engulf and destroy. Pinocytosis ("cell drinking") is almost the
same process as phagocytosis, except it involves liquids instead of solids.
During exocytosis a vacuole containing material to be execrated from the
cell moves to the plasma membrane and fuses with it. The vacuole
membrane becomes part of the plasma membrane and the contents are
released to the outside. Cells use this method to eliminate the wastes left
after digestion and metabolism and also to release a whole variety of
materials that have been synthesized inside the cell but which are needed
outside the cell. Release of hormones and digestive enzymes, found in
multicellular animals, are two examples of this process.

“Large organic particles become encased in a section of the

plasma membrane, generating vacuoles within the cell's
cytoplasm. This process allows cells to take in food and digest it
internally. Waste material or specially produced molecules in
vacuoles make their way to the plasma membrane and are
discharged when the vacuole membrane merges with the cell's
outer membrane.”

Should we be aware of the substances that will enter our cells?

Explain
Yes, we should be aware of the substances that will enter our cell
since the cell is the basic unit of life, and if we are not aware of the
substances that enter the cell, it may affect and destroy our entire
system, similar to when toxins enter the cell. Toxins disrupt enzymes,
impairing a wide range of bodily functions—for example, limiting the
formation of hemoglobin in the blood or diminishing the body's ability to
protect itself against free-radical damage, which accelerates aging.
Toxins induce pores to release cell nutrients or kill target cells by
disrupting their membrane, and on the other hand, toxins interact with
cell membrane to inject into the cytosol enzymatic domain or virulence
factors which are active intracellularly.

Lesson 2
What’s In

What’s New
I.

ORGANELLES UNICELLULAR MULTICELLULAR

Cell Membrane / /
Centrioles /
Cytoplasm / /
Golgi Apparatus /
Lysosomes /
Microtubules /
Mitochondrion / /
Nucleus / /
Ribosomes /
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum /
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum /

II.
 “The Major Structure of the Cell”

III.

“The Subcellular Organelles of Multicellular Cell”

Cell Membrane
- Glycoprotein
- Glycolipid
- Peripheral Membrane Protein
- Integral Membrane Protein
- Cytoskeletal Filaments
- Cholesterol
- Protein Channel
- Phospholipid Bilayer

Centrioles
- distal part
- central core 
- cartwheel
Cytoplasm
- cytosol
- organelles
- various particles and granules called cytoplasmic inclusions.

Golgi Apparatus
- The apparatus has three primary compartments, known generally as “cis,”
“medial,” and “trans.

Lysosomes
- glycogen
- mitochondria, or cisternae of the endoplasmic reticulum

Microtubules
- alpha-tubulin
- beta-tubulin
- protofilament
- heterodimers

Mitochondrion
- Outer membrane
- Inter membrane space
- Inner membrane
- Cristae
Nucleus
- Chromatin
- Nucleolus
- Nuclear Pores
- Nuclear Envelope

Ribosomes
- the small and large ribosomal sub units

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

- cisternae
- tubules
- vesicles

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

- Lamellar form or cisternae.
- Vesicular form or vesicle and.
- Tubular form or tubules.
What’s More
FAMILY ANALOGY

Cell Organelles
Family Role Functions that match the
Family Role
Father Protects and supports the family. Cell wall

Mother Aids in the management of Cilia

family affairs. She looks after
not only the physical aspects of
her family's existence but also
the intangible aspects, such as
establishing a dynamic
environment for her husband
and children within a household.
Sister Controls and regulates the Nucleus
activities within the family.
Brother Helping in making a strong Flagellum
foundation within the family.
Youngest Supplies happy energy to the Mitochondrion
rest of the family.

What I Have Learned

1. What is cytology and its importance?
Cytology, often known as cell biology, is the study of the structure
and function of individual cells. It is the fundamental unit of life, the basic
building block upon which all other organisms are constructed.
The importance of cytology stems from the fact that we now
understand the cell to be the functional unit of life. It is one of the most
vital fields of biological research. Physical damage, such as a burn or a
fractured bone, causes cell damage. It is critical to comprehend how cells
work in both healthy and diseased states. As a result, cell biologists and
researchers will be able to create vaccines, medications, and improved
varieties of plant, as well as get a better understanding of how all living
things work. Cytology is not only dealing with diseases but is also linked
to the human fertility program.
2. What are the techniques used by cytotechnologist in their
exploration on the structure and function of the cell?
 The cytotechnologist used the following techniques to investigate
the structure and function of cells: Examine cell samples for color, shape,
and size anomalies in cellular components and patterns. Verify patient
and specimen information to document specimens. Pathologists should be
consulted if there are any aberrant cell formations on the slides. To detect
abnormal conditions, prepare and analyze samples such as Papanicolaou
(PAP) smear bodily fluids and fine needle aspirations (FNAs). Examine
specimens under a microscope to determine their quality.
3. Enumerate the structure of the cell and describe its function.

Cell Component Structure Function

Nucleus Surrounded by nuclear Houses chromosomes,
envelope (double which are made of
membrane) perforated by chromatin (DNA and
nuclear pores; nuclear proteins); contains
envelope continuous with nucleoli, where ribosomal
endoplasmic reticulum (ER) subunits are made; pores
regulate entry and exit of
materials
Ribosome Two subunits made of Protein synthesis
ribosomal RNA and
proteins; can be free in
cytosol or bound to ER
Endoplasmic reticulum Extensive network of Smooth ER: synthesis of
membrane bounded lipids, metabolism of
tubules and sacs; carbohydrates, Ca2
membrane separates storage, detoxification of
lumen from cytosol; drugs and poisons Rough
continuous with nuclear ER: aids in synthesis of
envelop secretory and other
proteins from bound
ribosomes; adds
carbohydrates to proteins
to make glycoproteins;
produces new membrane
Golgi apparatus Stacks of flattened Modification of proteins,
membranous sacs; has carbohydrates on proteins,
polarity (cis and trans and phospholipids;
faces) synthesis of many
polysaccharides; sorting of
Golgi products, which are
then released in vesicles
Lysosome Membranous sac of Breakdown of ingested
hydrolytic enzymes (in substances, cell
animal cells) macromolecules, and
damaged organelles for
recycling
Vacuole Large membrane-bounded Digestion, storage, waste
vesicle disposal, water balance,
cell growth, and protection
Mitochondrion Bounded by double Cellular respiration
membrane; inner
 membrane has infoldings
(cristae)
Chloroplast Typically, two membranes Photosynthesis
around fluid stroma, which
contains thylakoids stacked
into grana (in cells of
photosynthetic eukaryotes,
including plants)
Peroxisome Specialized metabolic Contains enzymes that
compartment bounded by transfer hydrogen atoms
a single membrane from substrates to oxygen,
producing hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2) as a by-
product; H2O2 is converted
to water by another
enzyme

What I Can Do
1. Does your fitness and appearance have any relation to the
structure and functions of your cell? Explain.

The structure and functions of my cells are clearly linked to

my fitness and appearance. One of the overarching themes of
biology is that structure determines function; 

The shape (structure) of a protein determines its function. For

example, there are two basic shapes for proteins: fibrous and
globular (round). Fibrous proteins, such as collagen, are shaped like
a rope and give strength to our skin to prevent it from tearing.
Fibrous proteins are structural proteins because they help give
shape to and support the skin. Globular proteins, such as
hemoglobin, are used to transport oxygen in the blood. Other
examples of globular proteins that have different functions are
enzymes (catalyze or speed up chemical reactions in the body) and
plasma membrane proteins (can transport substances across the
cell membrane, play a role in cell communication, act as enzymes,
or help identify the cell to the rest of the body).

The structure of skeletal muscle cells allows them to have the

function of contraction, which allows us to move. For example,
skeletal muscle cells that make up your biceps brachii muscle are
attached to both ends of the humerus bone by tendons and are
packed full of contractile proteins (actin and myosin). When the
contractile proteins contract, they shorten the muscle cell, which
then pulls on the ends of the humerus and allows you to flex your
forearm.
 In studying humans, anatomy is the study of the structure of
the body (ex- where the quadriceps muscle is located)
and physiology is the study of how the body functions (ex- how the
quadriceps muscle contracts). Let’s take a look at the anatomy of
the heart, which dictates the heart’s function. The heart consists of
four hollow chambers (atria and ventricles) and is made of cardiac
muscle cells. This structure allows the heart to have the function of
pumping blood around the body. If the structure of the heart
changes (ex- some of the heart chambers become stretched out or
dilated), then the heart’s function decreases as the heart can no
longer pump as much blood, which will eventually cause congestive
heart failure.

Additional Activities

Cell Organelles
School Structure Function that match the
School
Structure
A. The Principal A nucleus is like the Nucleus
principal. He is in
charge of what
goes on in the school.

B. School’s Fence The cell wall is like the Cell Wall

school’s fence in
because it provides the
school support.

C. Security Guard The security guard of a Cell Membrane

cell is its cell
membrane. The cell
membrane allows
certain items into a cell
and blocks others from
entering, just like a
security guard protects
a real school.
D. Canteen The chloroplast is like Chloroplast
the canteen in a school
because it is where the
students in a school get
their energy.

E. Waste Disposal Area The vacuoles are Vacuoles

 similar to the waste
disposal area where the
school used to keep
trash.
F. School’s Field The mitochondria is like Mitochondria
school’s field
where we release all of
our energy.
G. Faculty and Staff Building the school's Ribosomes
foundation in order for
it to function.
H. Classrooms Students are Cytoplasm
accommodated here;
this is where the
majority of student
activity takes place.