NOTES FROM ELEMENTARY LINEAR ALGEBRA, 10TH EDITION, BY ANTON AND RORRES

CHAPTER 4: GENERAL VECTOR SPACES

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Section 4.1: Real Vector Spaces
Definition. Let V be an arbitrary nonempty set of objects on which two operations are defined: addition, and multiplication by
scalars (numbers). By addition, we mean a rule for associating with each pair of objects u and v in V an object u + v,
called the sum of u and v; by scalar multiplication, we mean a rule for associating with each scalar k and each object u
in V an object ku, called the scalar multiple of u by k. If the following axioms are satisfied by all objects u, v, w in V
and all scalars k and m, then we call V a vector space and we call the objects in V vectors.

1. If u and v are objects in V, then u + v is in V.

2. u + v = v + u

3. u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w

4. There is an object 0 in V, called a zero vector for V, such that 0 + u = u + 0 = u for all u in V.

5. For each u in V, there is an object –u in V, called a negative of u, such that u + (–u) = (–u) + u = 0.

6. If k is any scalar and u is any object in V, then ku is in V.

7. k(u + v) = ku + kv

8. (k + m)u = ku + mu

9. k(mu) = (km)(u)

10. 1u = u
• To Show that a Set with Two Operations is a Vector Space:

Step 1: Identify the set V of objects that will become vectors.

Step 2: Identify the addition and scalar multiplication operations on V.

Step 3: Verify Axioms 1 and 6; that is, adding two vectors in V produces a vector in V, and multiplying a vector in V by
a scalar also produces a vector in V. Axion 1 is called closure under addition and Axiom 6 is called closure under
multiplication.

Step 4: Confirm that Axioms 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, and 10 hold.
Theorem. Let V be a vector space, u a vector in V, and k a scalar; then: 

(a) 0u = 0

(b) k0 = 0

(c) (–1)u = –u

(d) If ku = 0 then k = 0 or u = 0.
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Section 4.2: Subspaces
Definition. A subset W of a vector space V is called a subspace of V if W itself is a vector space under the addition and scalar
multiplication defined on V.
Theorem. If W is a set of one or more vectors from a vector space V, then W is a subspace of V if and only if the following
conditions hold: 

(a) If u and v are vectors in W, then u + v is in W. 

(b) If k is any scalar and u is any vector in W, then ku is in W.
Theorem. If W1, W2, … Wr are subspaces of a vector space V, then the intersection of these subspaces is also a subspace of V.
Definition. If w is a vector in a vector space V, then w is said to be a linear combination of the vectors v1, v2, … , vr if it can be
expressed in the form w = k1v1 + k2v2 + … + krvr where k1, k2, … , kr are scalars. These scalars are called the
coefficients of the linear combination.
Theorem. If S = {w1, w2, … , wr} is a nonempty set of vectors in a vector space V, then the set W of all possible linear
combinations of the vectors in S is a subspace of V. This set W is the “smallest” subspace of V that contains all of the
vectors in S in the sense that any other subspace of V that contains those vectors contains W.
Definition. The subspace of a vector space V that is formed from all possible linear combinations of the vectors in a nonempty set S
is called the span of S, and we say that the vectors in S span that subspace. If S = {w1, w2, … , wr}, then we denote the
span of S by span{w1, w2, … , wr} or span(S).
Theorem. The solution set of a homogeneous linear system Ax = 0 in n unknowns is a subspace of Rn.
Theorem. If S = {v1, v2, … , vr} and S′ = {w1, w2, … , wk} are nonempty sets of vectors in a vector space V, then span{v1, v2, … ,
vr} = span{w1, w2, … , wk} if and only if each vector in S is a linear combination of those in S′ and each vector in S′ is a
linear combination of those in S.
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Section 4.3: Linear Independence
Definition. If S = {v1, v2, … , vr} is a nonempty set of vectors, then the vector equation k1v1 + k2v2 + … + krvr = 0 has at least one
solution, namely k1 = 0, k2 = 0, … , kr = 0. If this is the only solution, then S is called a linearly independent set. If
there are other solutions, then S is called a linearly dependent set.
Theorem. A set S with two or more vectors is: 

(a) Linearly dependent if and only if at least one of the vectors in S is expressible as a linear combination of the other
 vectors in S. 

(b) Linearly independent if and only if no vector in S is expressible as a linear combination of the other vectors in S.
Theorem. A finite set that contains 0 is linearly dependent. A set with exactly one vector is linearly independent if and only if that
vector is 0. A set with exactly two vectors is linearly independent if and only if neither vector is a scalar multiple of the
other.
Theorem. Let S = {v1, v2, … , vr} be a set of vectors in Rn. If r > n, then S is linearly dependent.
Definition. If f1 = f1(x), f2 = f2(x), … , fn = fn(x) are functions that are n – 1 times differentiable on the interval (–∞, ∞), then the
| f1(x) f2(x) … fn(x) |!
| f1′(x) f2′(x) … fn′(x) |!
| ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ |!
determinant W(x) = |
# f1(n–1)(x) f2(n–1)(x) … fn(n–1)(x) | is called the Wronskian of f1, f2, … , fn.
Theorem. If the functions f1, f2, … , fn have n – 1 continuous derivatives on the interval (–∞, ∞), and if the Wronskian of these
functions is not identically zero on (–∞, ∞), then they form a linearly independent set of vectors in C(n – 1)(–∞, ∞).
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Section 4.4: Coordinates and Basis
Definition. If V is any vector space and S = {v1, v2, … , vn} is a set of vectors in V, then S is called a basis for V if S is linearly
independent and S spans V.
• A nonzero vector space V is called finite-dimensional if it contains a finite set of vectors {v1, v2, … , vn} that forms a
basis. If no such set exists, V is called infinite-dimensional. In addition, we shall regard the zero vector space to be
finite dimensional.
Theorem. Uniqueness of Basis Representation: If S = {v1, v2, … , vn} is a basis for a vector space V, then every vector v in V can
be expressed in the form v = c1v1 + c2v2 + … + cnvn in exactly one way.
Definition. If S = {v1, v2, … , vn} is a basis for a vector space V, and v = c1v1 + c2v2 + … + cnvn is the expression for a vector v in
terms of the basis S, then the scalars c1, c2, … , cn are called the coordinates of v relative to the basis S. The vector (c1,
c2, … , cn) in Rn constructed from these coordinates is called the coordinate vector of v relative to S; it is denoted by
(v)S = (c1, c2, … , cn).
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Section 4.5: Dimension
Theorem. All bases for a finite-dimensional vector space have the same number of vectors.
Theorem. Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space, and let {v1, v2, … , vn} be any basis. If a set has more than n vectors, then it
is linearly dependent. If a set has fewer than n vectors, then it does not span V.
Definition. The dimension of a finite-dimensional vector space V, denoted by dim(V), is defined to be the number of vectors in a
basis for V. In addition, the zero vector space is defined to have dimension zero.
Theorem. Plus/Minus Theorem: Let S be a nonempty set of vectors in a vector space V. 

(a) If S is a linearly independent set, and if v is a vector in V that is outside of span(S), then the set S ⋃ {v} that results by
inserting v into S is still linearly independent. 

(b) If v is a vector in S that is expressible as a linear combination of other vectors in S, and if S – {v} denotes the set
obtained by removing v from S, then S and S – {v} span the same space; that is, span(S) = span(S – {v}).
Theorem. Let V be an n-dimensional vector space, and let S be a set in V with exactly n vectors. Then S is a basis for V if either S
spans V or S is linearly independent.
Theorem. Let S be a finite set of vectors in a finite-dimensional vector space V. 

(a) If S spans V but is not a basis for V, then S can be reduced to a basis for V by removing appropriate vectors from S. 

(b) If S is a linearly independent set that is not already a basis for V, then S can be enlarged to a basis for V by inserting
appropriate vectors into S.
Theorem. If W is a subspace of a finite-dimensional vector space V, then:

(a) W is finite-dimensional

(b) dim(W) ≤ dim(V)

(c) W = V if and only if dim(W) = dim(V)
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Section 4.6: Change of Basis
• The Change-of-Basis Problem: If v is a vector in a finite-dimensional vector space V, and if we change the basis for V
from a basis B to a basis B′, how are the coordinate vectors [v]B and [v]B′ related?
• Solution of the Change-of-Basis Problem: If we change the basis for a vector space V from an old basis B = {u1, u2,
… , un} to a new basis B′ = {u′1, u′2, … , u′n}, then for each vector v in V, the old coordinate vector [v]B is related to the
new coordinate vector [v]B′ by the equation [v]B = P[v]B′, where the columns of P are the coordinate vectors of the new
basis vectors relative to the old basis; that is, the column vectors of P are [u′1]B, [u′2]B, … , [u′n]B.
• P B′→ B = [ [u′1]B | [u′2]B | … | [u′n]B ]
• P B→ B′ = [ [u1]B′ | [u2]B′ | … | [un]B′ ]
• The columns of the transition matrix from an old basis to a new basis are the coordinate vectors of the old basis relative
to the new basis.
• [v]B′ = P B′→ B [v]B′
• [v]B′ = P B→ B′ [v]B′
Theorem. If P is the transition matrix from a basis B′ to a basis B for a finite-dimensional vector space V, then P is invertible and 

P–1 is the transition matrix from B to B′.
• A Procedure for Computing P B→ B′:

Step 1: Form the matrix [ B′ | B ].

Step 2: Use elementary row operations to reduce the matrix in Step 1 to reduced row echelon form.

Step 3: The resulting matrix will be [ I | P B→ B′ ].

Step 4: Extract the matrix P B→ B′ from the right side of the matrix in Step 3.
• [new basis | old basis] → (row operations) [ I | transition from old to new]
Theorem. Let B′ = {u1, u2, … , un} be any basis for the vector space Rn and let S = {e1, e2, … , en} be the standard basis for Rn. If
the vectors in these bases are written in column form, then P B′→ S = [u1 | u2 | … | un].
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Section 4.7: Row Space, Column Space, and Null Space
⎡a11 a12 ⋯ a1n ⎤
⎢a21 a22 ⋯ a2n ⎥
⎢⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⎥
# m1 am2 ⋯ amn⎦ the vectors 

Definition. For an m × n matrix A = ⎣a
r1 = [a11 a12 ⋯ a1n]

r2 = [a21 a22 ⋯ a2n]

⋮ ⋮

rm = [am1 am2 ⋯ amn]

in Rn formed from the rows of A are called the row vectors of A, and the vectors

c1 = [a11 a21 ⋯ am1] t 

c2 = [a12 a22 ⋯ am2] t 

⋮ ⋮

cn = [a1n a2n ⋯ amn] t 

in Rm formed from the columns of A are called the column vectors of A.
Definition. If A is a m × n matrix, then the subspace of Rn spanned by the row vectors of A is called the row space of A, and the
subspace of Rm spanned by the column vectors of A is called the column space of A. The solution space of the
homogeneous system of equations Ax = 0, which is a subspace of Rn, is called the null space of A.
• Question 1: What relationships exist among the solutions of a linear system Ax = b and the row space, column space,
and null space of the coefficient matrix A?
• Question 2: What relationships exist among the row space, column space, and null space of a matrix?
Theorem. A system of linear equations Ax = b is consistent if and only if b is in the column space of A.
Theorem. If x0 denotes any single solution of a consistent linear system Ax = b, and if v1, v2, … , vk form a basis for the nullspace
of A—that is, the solution space of the homogeneous system Ax = 0—then every solution of Ax = b can be expressed in
the form x = x0 + c1v1 + c2v2 + … + ckvk. Conversely, for all choices of scalars c1, c2, … , ck, the vector x in this formula
is a solution of Ax = b.
• The general solution of a consistent linear system can be expressed as the sum of a particular solution of that system and
the general solution of the corresponding homogeneous system.
Theorem. Elementary row operations do not change the null space of a matrix.
Theorem. Elementary row operations do not change the row space of a matrix.
Theorem. If a matrix R is in row-echelon form, then the row vectors with the leading 1’s (the nonzero row vectors) form a basis for
the row space of R, and the column vectors with the leading 1’s of the row vectors form a basis for the column space of
R.
Theorem. If A and B are row equivalent matrices, then: 

(a) A given set of column vectors of A is linearly independent if and only if the corresponding column vectors of B are
linearly independent. 

(b) A given set of column vectors of A forms a basis for the column space of A if and only if the corresponding column
vectors of B form a basis for the column space of B.
• Problem: Given a set of vectors S = {v1, v2, … , vn} in Rn, find a subset of these vectors that forms a basis for span(S),
and express those vectors that are not in that basis as a linear combination of the basis vectors.
• Basis for Span(S):

Step 1: Form the matrix A having vectors in S = {v1, v2, … , vk} as column vectors.

 Step 2: Reduce the matrix A to reduced row echelon form R.

Step 3: Denote the column vectors of R by w1, w2, … , wk}.

Step 4: Identify the columns of R that contain the leading 1’s. The corresponding column vectors of A form a basis for
span(S).

This completes the first part of the problem.

Step 5: Obtain a set of dependency equations by expressing each column vector of R that does not contain a leading 1 as
a linear combination of preceding column vectors that do contain leading 1’s.

Step 6: Replace the column vectors of R that appear in the dependency equations by the corresponding column vectors
of A.

This completes the second part of the problem.
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Section 4.8: Rank, Nullity, and the Fundamental Matrix Spaces
Theorem. The row space and column space of a matrix A have the same dimension.
Definition. The common dimension of the row space and column space of a matrix A is called the rank of A, and is denoted by
rank(A); the dimension of the null space of A is called the nullity of A and is denoted by nullity(A).
Theorem. Dimension Theorem for Matrices: If A is a matrix with n columns, then rank(A) + nullity(A) = n.
Theorem. If A is an m × n matrix, then: rank(A) = the number of leading variables in the solution of Ax = 0 and nullity(A) = the
number of parameters in the general solution of Ax = 0.
Theorem. If Ax = b is a consistent linear system of m equations in n unknowns, and if A has rank r, then the general solution of the
system contains n – r parameters.
Theorem. Let A be an m × n matrix. 

Overdetermined Case: If m > n, then the linear system Ax = b is inconsistent for at least one vector b in Rn. 

Underdetermined Case: If m < n, then for each vector b in Rm the linear system Ax = b is either inconsistent or has
infinitely many solutions.
Theorem. If A is any matrix, then rank(A) = rank(AT).
• rank(A) + nullity(AT) = m
• If rank(A) = r, then: 

dim[row(A)] = r

dim[col(A)] = r 

dim[null(A)] = n – r

dim[null(AT)] = m – r
Definition. If W is a subspace of Rn, then the set of all vectors in Rn that are orthogonal to every vector in W is called the orthogonal
complement of W and is denoted by the symbol W ⊥.
Theorem. If W is a subspace of Rn, then: 

(a) W ⊥ is a subspace of Rn.

(b) The only vector common to W and W ⊥ is 0.

(c) The orthogonal complement of W ⊥ is W.
Theorem. If A is a m × n matrix, then: 

(a) The null space of A and the row space of A are orthogonal complements in Rn. 

(b) The null space of AT and the column space of A are orthogonal complements in Rm.
Theorem. Equivalent Statements: If A is an n × n matrix, then the following statements are equivalent:

(a) A is invertible

(b) Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution

(c) the reduced row-echelon form of A is In

(d) A is expressible as a product of elementary matrices

(e) Ax = b is consistent for every n × 1 matrix b

(f) Ax = b has exactly one solution for every n × 1 matrix b

(g) det(A) ≠ 0

(h) The column vectors of A are linearly independent.

(i) The row vectors of A are linearly independent.

(j) The column vectors of A span Rn.

(k) The row vectors of A span Rn.

(l) The column vectors of A form a basis for Rn.

(m) The row vectors of A form a basis for Rn.

(n) A has rank n

(o) A has nullity 0

(p) The orthogonal complement of the null space of A is Rn.

(q) The orthogonal complement of the row space of A is 0.
!
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 Section 4.9: Matrix Transformations from Rn to Rm
Definition. If V and W are vector spaces, and if f is a function with domain V and codomain W, then we say that f is a
transformation from V to W or that f maps V to W, which we denote by writing f: V → W. In the special case where V
= W, the transformation is called an operator on V.
Theorem. For every matrix A the matrix transformation TA: Rn → Rm has the following properties for all vectors u and v in Rn and
for every scalar k:

(a) TA(0) = 0

(b) TA(ku) = kTA(u) (Homogeneity property)

(c) TA(u + v) = TA(u) + TA(v) (Additivity property)

(d) TA(u – v) = TA(u) – TA(v)
• TA(k1u1 + k2u2 + … + krur) = k1TA(u1) + k2TA(u2) + … + krTA(ur)
Theorem. If TA: Rn → Rm and TB: Rn → Rm are matrix transformations, and if TA(x) = TB(x) for every vector x in Rn, then A = B.
• A = [TA(e1) | TA(e2) | … | TA(en)].
• Finding the Standard Matrix for a Matrix Transformation:

Step 1: Find the images of the standard basis vectors e1, e2, … , en for Rn in column form.

Step 2: Construct the matrix that has the images obtained in Step 1 as its successive columns. This matrix is the standard
matrix for the transformation.
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Section 4.10: Properties of Matrix Transformations
Definition. A matrix transformation T: Rn → Rm is said to be one-to-one if T maps distinct vectors (points) in Rn to distinct vectors
(points) in Rm.
Theorem. If A is an n × n matrix and TA: Rn → Rn is the corresponding matrix operator, then the following statements are
equivalent: 

(a) A is invertible

(b) The range of TA is Rn

(c) TA is one-to-one.
• TA^{–1} = T–1A
• [T–1] = [T]–1
• Question: Are there algebraic properties for a transformation T: Rn → Rm that can be used to determine whether T is a
matrix transformation?
Theorem. T: Rn → Rm is a matrix transformation if and only if the following relationships hold for all vectors u and v in Rn and for
every scalar k:

(i) T(u + v) = T(u) + T(v) (Additivity property)

(ii) T(ku) = kT(u) (Homogeneity property)
Theorem. Every linear transformation from Rn to Rm is a matrix transformation, and, conversely, every matrix transformation from
Rn to Rm is a linear transformation.
Theorem. Equivalent Statements: If A is an n × n matrix, then the following statements are equivalent:

(a) A is invertible

(b) Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution

(c) the reduced row-echelon form of A is In

(d) A is expressible as a product of elementary matrices

(e) Ax = b is consistent for every n × 1 matrix b

(f) Ax = b has exactly one solution for every n × 1 matrix b

(g) det(A) ≠ 0

(h) The column vectors of A are linearly independent.

(i) The row vectors of A are linearly independent.

(j) The column vectors of A span Rn.

(k) The row vectors of A span Rn.

(l) The column vectors of A form a basis for Rn.

(m) The row vectors of A form a basis for Rn.

(n) A has rank n

(o) A has nullity 0

(p) The orthogonal complement of the null space of A is Rn.

(q) The orthogonal complement of the row space of A is 0.

(r) The range of TA is Rn

(s) TA is one-to-one.