PROJECT METHODOLOGY

UNIT – I_
Introduction: Project- Meaning- Features- Objectives of project- Difference between
dissertation and Thesis.
UNIT - II
Identification of project problems- Problems related to Finance, Marketing, HRM,
EDP, Banking
UNIT - III
Review of Literature - Sampling- Selection of sample- Collection of data.
UNIT - IV
Data analysis- Percentage and trend analysis- Numerical evaluation- Justification and
interpretation.
UNIT - V
Project Report Writing.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Project Methodology – Senthilkumar.K&Sasikumar.G, Himalaya Publishing House,
Mumbai.
2. Research Methodology – Methods and Techniques, C.R.Kothari, GouravGarg – New age
international publishers, New Delhi.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
3. Project Management – K.Nagarajan, New age international publishers, New Delhi.
4. Elements of project management - K.Nagarajan,,New age international publishers,
New Delhi.
5. A Guide to projects – Dr.R.Ravilochanan ,Margham publications, Chennai.

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 Meaning of a Project:
Project starts from scratch with a definite mission, generates activities involving a variety of
human and non-human resources, all directed towards fulfillment of the mission and stops once
the mission is fulfilled.

According to the Project Management Institute, USA, “a project is a one-set, time-limited,

goal-directed, major undertaking requiring the commitment of varied skills and
resources”.
It also describes a project as “a combination of human and non-human resources pooled
together in a temporary organisation to achieve a specific purpose”. The purpose and the set
of activities which can achieve that purpose distinguish one project from another.
Characteristic Features of a Project:
The characteristic features of a project are as follows:
1. Objectives:
A project has a fixed set of objectives. Once the objectives have been achieved, the project
ceases to exist.
2. Life Span:
A project cannot continue endlessly. It has to come to an end. What represents the end would
normally be spell out in the set of objectives.
3. Single entity:
A project is one entity and is normally entrusted to one responsibility centre while the
participants in the project arc many.
4. Team-work:
A project calls for team-work. The team again is constituted of members belonging to different
disciplines, organisations and even countries.
5. Life-cycle:
A project has a life cycle reflected by growth, maturity and decay. It has naturally a learning
component.
6. Uniqueness:No two projects are exactly similar even if Die plants are exactly identical or are
merely duplicated. The location, the infra-structure, the agencies and the people make each
project unique.

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7. Change:
A project sees many changes throughout its life while some of these changes may not have any
major impact; then- can be some changes which will change the entire character of course of the
project.
8. Successive principle:
What is going to happen during the life cycle of a project is not fully known at any stage. The
details get finalised successively with the passage of time. More is known about a project when it
enters the construction phase than what was known say, during the detailed engineering phase.
9. Made to order:
A project is always made to the order of its customer. The customer stipulates various
requirements and puts constraints within which the project must be executed.
10. Unity in diversity:
A project is a complex set of thousands of varieties. The varieties are in terms of technology,
equipment and materials, machinery and people, work culture and ethics. But they remain inter-
related and unless this is so, they either do not belong to the project or will never allow the
project to be completed.
11. High level of sub-contracting:
A high percentage of the work in a project is done through contractors. The more the complexity
of the project, the more will be the extent of contracting. Normally around 80% of the work in a
project is done through sub-contractors.
12. Risk and uncertainty:
Every project has risk and uncertainty associated with it. The degree of risk and uncertainty will
depend on how a project has passed through its various life-cycle phases. An ill-defined project
will have extremely high degree of risk and uncertainly Risk and uncertainty are not part and
parcel of only R and h projects—there simply cannot be a project without any risk and
uncertainty.
Objectives of project
1. Financial
Financial objectives are normally relatively easy to put together and you will find your sponsor is
keen to make sure that if your project is going to make the company any money that this is
record adequately in the project objectives. Your project may deliver a clear financial return (for

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example, launching a new product to the consumer market) or make a financial saving (such as
closing an underperforming office). 
2. Quality
There may be some quality objectives for your project, such as delivering to certain internal or
external quality standards. Quality objectives also manifest themselves in the form of process
improvement projects that aim to reduce defects or increase customer satisfaction somehow. You
may find that quality objectives are included in your quality plan, so you can take them from
there and include them in the main body of your project documentation (or vice versa, as you
will probably write the quality plan after your charter). 
3. Technical
Technology, install new technology or even to make use of existing technology during the
deployment of your project. Technology comes in different forms so this could include mobile
devices or telephones as well as hardware, software and networking capabilities. 
4. Performance
Performance objectives tend to be related to how the project will be run, so could include things
like delivering to a certain budget figure or by a certain date, or not exceeding a certain number
of resources. You could also have performance objectives related to achieving project scope,
such as the number of requirements that will be completed or achieving customer sign off. 
5. Compliance
Regulatory requirements form compliance objectives. For example, there could be the obligation
to meet legal guidance on your project or to comply with local regulations. A construction
project could also have the objective to meet or exceed health and safety targets. 
6. Business
Of course! This is the main area where you are likely to find project objectives and it relates to
what it is that you are doing – the key drivers for the project. Business objectives would be
things like launching that new product, closing that office or anything else that is the main reason
for delivering the project. 
Difference between dissertation and Thesis.
The reason why different people are giving an odd statement about the same thing and leaving
you confused behind is the kind of country they are following. In India, we follow European
structure where a dissertation is a small piece of work based on extensive research, On the other

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 hand, the thesis could be much longer and are written by those who are the professional
researcher. Americans are quite different from European in this context because they consider
thesis as a small research work by a student based on prior research and data on that particular
topic. While dissertation is a research book written by a person for his doctorate degree with a
massive research in the American context. That is why people are coming up with different
definitions of thesis and dissertations at different times.
Dissertation

Small in size, mainly 30-50 typed pages

Submitted for masters’orM.phill.degree
Researcher can use the pre-existing data in order to support his arguments
The purpose is to develop basic research calibre in a person.
No outdoor visit to collect data
Questionnaire and survey are not required
No detailed information
In Europe dissertation is for masters degree and thesis for doctorate
Thesis
Large in size can go beyond 200 pages
It is submitted for doctorate degree
For the thesis, your data should be original and your own.
It is a contribution to society, as research is used to implement and improve different policies.
The outdoor visit is must in order to know the ground reality.
Questionnaire and surveys are musts
Contains all information about the topic in depth.
In America thesis for masters and dissertation for doctorate

UNIT - II
Identification of project problems
 Problems prevent the goals and objectives identified in the previous step from being
achieved. This should include the full range of objectives identified in the previous step –
including objectives for different levels of planning and markets

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 Problem identification should consider not only ‘problems’ or ‘challenges’, but also
constraints on opportunities that are preventing the goals and objectives from being achieved.
 Identification should be based on empirical observations, such as data and information
obtained from surveys, demand modelling, interviews and studies from a wide range of sources.
Problem identification should result in problem statements that describe the nature of the
problem facing the transport system and its components.
2.1 Scoping the problem
When scoping problems, the following should be taken into account:
 The scope of a problem should be defined by what is preventing the achievement of the
objectives.
 Problem identification should not be confined to existing situations or issues. Emerging
and potential future problems should also be considered.
 Problems can be different for the various planning levels. For example, achieving a goal
of reducing road crashes may require a specific engineering ‘fix’ at the link level (such as safety
barriers or road widening), a series of rest areas at the corridor level and safety education
initiatives at the network level.
 Problems should be seen as multidimensional. It is important to ‘cast the net wide’ when
identifying problems. This means considering the full range of economic, social and
environmental factors and canvassing a broad spectrum of potential problems, such as
accessibility, business needs, availability, prices/cost, capacity, emissions and safety.
In scoping the problem, it can be helpful to map out what the problem is and its relationship to
transport system objectives. A couple of mapping techniques can be used to undertake this
exercise. The techniques are:
 Investment Logic Mapping
 Benefit Dependency Mapping.
The techniques are discussed further in . These techniques may assist in gaining an early
understanding of the problem and its relationship with transport system objectives, and in
identifying the underlying rationale for an intervention.
Problems related to Finance
1) Language Barriers

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Due to the advent of economic globalization, financial institutions are more interconnected than
ever before. A road construction project in Kenya can easily be financed by a Chinese bank. A
bridge construction in the U.S. can be financed by a U.K. Bank. Project finance lawyers just
have to adapt.
2) Understanding of foreign legal systems
Because foreign investors know very little about tax law and foreign legal systems, they often
rely on their attorneys' expertise and it’s common for foreign investors to travel with their
lawyers. In some project finance transactions, the applicable law is determined by the tax
structure of the project
3) Ethical Issues
Bringing in outside attorneys always triggers ethical considerations. A lawyer who needs the
assistance of outside attorneys has to ensure there is no conflict of interest, that the outside
attorneys are qualified and that they respect the rules of ethics.
4) Time Zone
Another challenge that project finance attorneys face is the difference in time zone. Project
finance transactions commonly involve parties from different time zones.
5) Interests of Lenders Involved
It’s common for a large project finance transaction to involve lenders from different sectors
(commercial banks, quasi government banks and private individuals) with different interests.
Some lenders might want to invest more than others and some might have different viewpoints
on the same issues
6) Cultural and Gender Issues
In many conservative and patriarchal societies, it’s rare for women to be involved in high level
transactions. Female lawyers often have to answer questions like; “where is the lawyer?” “Where
is the head of the delegation?” “Can you make decisions?” or statements like: “You might want
to consult your boss.”
Problems related to Marketing
1. Poorly defined goals
2. Unrealistic Deadlines
3. Scope creep
4.   Insufficient team skills

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 5.   Geographically dispersed teams
6.   Improper communication
7. Risk management
8.  Not using project management software
9.  Issues within a team
Problems related to HRM
1. Change management
2. Leadership development

3. HR effectiveness measurement

4. Organizational effectiveness

5. Compensation

6. Staffing: Recruitment and availability of skilled local labor

7. Succession planning
8. Learning and development
9. Staffing: Retention
10. Benefits costs: Health & welfare
Problems related to EDP
1. No Policy at the National Level.
2. Problems at the Pre training Phase. 
3. Over Estimation of Trainees.
4. Duration of EDPs.
5. Non Availability of Infrastructural Facilities.
6. Improper Methodology. 
7. Mode of Selection. 
8. Non Availability of Competent Faculty.
9. Poor Response of Financial Institutions.
Problems related to BANKING
1. Not making enough money.
2. Consumer expectations.

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 3. Increasing competition from financial technology companies. 
4. Regulatory pressure. 

UNIT III

A literature review may consist of simply a summary of key sources, but in the social sciences, a
literature review usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and
synthesis, often within specific conceptual categories. A summary is a recap of the important
information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that
information in a way that informs how you are planning to investigate a research problem. The
analytical features of a literature review might:
 Give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations,
 Trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates,
 Depending on the situation, evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most
pertinent or relevant research, or
 Usually in the conclusion of a literature review, identify where gaps exist in how a
problem has been researched to date.
The purpose of a literature review is to:
 Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research problem
being studied.
 Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration.
 Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
 Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.
 Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
 Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
 Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research.
 Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important].
Types of Literature Reviews
Argumentative Review

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 Integrative Review
Historical Review
Methodological Review
Systematic Review
Theoretical Review
Development of the Literature Review
1.Problem formulation -- which topic or field is being examined and what are its
component issues?
2.  Literature search -- finding materials relevant to the subject being explored.
3.  Data evaluation -- determining which literature makes a significant contribution to
the
Understandingthetopic.
4.  Analysis and interpretation -- discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent
literature.
SAMPLE

Sampling: Definition
Sampling is defined as the process of selecting certain members or a subset of the population to
make statistical inferences from them and to estimate characteristics of the whole population.
Sampling is widely used by researchers in market research so that they do not need to research
the entire population to collect actionable insights. It is also a time-convenient and a cost-
effective method and hence forms the basis of any research design.
For example, if a drug manufacturer would like to research the adverse side effects of a drug on
the population of the country, it is close to impossible to be able to conduct a research study that
involves everyone. In this case, the researcher decides a sample of people from
each demographic and then conducts the research on them which gives them an indicative
feedback on the behavior of the drug on the population.
Types of Sampling: Sampling Methods 
Any market research study requires two essential types of sampling. They are:

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1. Probability Sampling: Probability sampling s a sampling method that selects random
members of a population by setting a few selection criteria. These selection parameters allow
every member to have the equal opportunities to be a part of various samples.
2. Non-probability Sampling: Non probability sampling method is reliant on a
researcher’s ability to select members at random. This sampling method is not a fixed or pre-
defined selection process which makes it difficult for all elements of a population to have
equal opportunities to be included in a sample.
In this blog, we discuss the various probability and non-probability sampling methods that can be
implemented in any market research study.
Types of Sampling: Probability Sampling Methods
Probability Sampling is a sampling technique in which sample from a larger population are
chosen using a method based on the theory of probability. This sampling method considers every
member of the population and forms samples on the basis of a fixed process. For example, in a
population of 1000 members, each of these members will have 1/1000 chances of being selected
to be a part of a sample. It gets rid of bias in the population and gives a fair chance to all
members to be included in the sample.
There are 4 types of probability sampling technique:
 Simple Random Sampling: One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps
in saving time and resources, is the Simple Random Sampling method. It is a trustworthy
method of obtaining information where every single member of a population is chosen
randomly, merely by chance and each individual has the exact same probability of being
chosen to be a part of a sample.
For example, in an organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on conducting team
building activities, it is highly likely that they would prefer picking chits out of a bowl. In this
case, each of the 500 employees has an equal opportunity of being selected.
 Cluster Sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire
population into sections or clusters that represent a population. Clusters are identified and
included in a sample on the basis of defining demographic parameters such as age, location,
sex etc. which makes it extremely easy for a survey creator to derive effective inference from
the feedback.

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 For example, if the government of the United States wishes to evaluate the number of
immigrants living in the Mainland US, they can divide it into clusters on the basis of states
such as California, Texas, Florida, Massachusetts, Colorado, Hawaii etc. This way of
conducting a survey will be more effective as the results will be organized into states and
provides insightful immigration data.
 Systematic Sampling: Using systematic sampling method, members of a sample are
chosen at regular intervals of a population. It requires selection of a starting point for the
sample and sample size that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method
has a predefined interval and hence this sampling technique is the least time-consuming.
For example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a population
of 5000. Each element of the population will be numbered from 1-5000 and every 10th
individual will be chosen to be a part of the sample (Total population/ Sample Size = 5000/500
= 10).
 Stratified Random Sampling: Stratified Random sampling is a method where the
population can be divided into smaller groups, that don’t overlap but represent the entire
population together. While sampling, these groups can be organized and then draw a sample
from each group separately.
For example, a researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people belonging to
different annual income divisions, will create strata (groups) according to annual family
income such as – Less than $20,000, $21,000 – $30,000, $31,000 to $40,000, $41,000 to
$50,000 etc. and people belonging to different income groups can be observed to draw
conclusions of which income strata have which characteristics. Marketers can analyze which
income groups to target and which ones to eliminate in order to create a roadmap that would
definitely bear fruitful results.

Use of the Probability Sampling Method

There are multiple uses of the probability sampling method. They are:
 Reduce Sample Bias: Using the probability sampling method, the bias in the sample
derived from a population is negligible to non-existent. The selection of the sample largely
depicts the understanding and the inference of the researcher. Probability sampling leads to
higher quality data collection as the population is appropriately represented by the sample.

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 Diverse Population: When the population is large and diverse, it is important to have
adequate representation so that the data is not skewed towards one demographic. For example,
if Square would like to understand the people that could their point-of-sale devices, a survey
conducted from a sample of people across US from different industries and socio-economic
backgrounds, helps.
 Create an Accurate Sample: Probability sampling helps the researchers plan and create
an accurate sample. This helps to obtain well-defined data.
Types of Sampling: Non-probability Sampling Methods
The non-probability method is a sampling method that involves a collection of feedback on the
basis of a researcher or statistician’s sample selection capabilities and not on a fixed selection
process. In most situations, output of a survey conducted with a non-probable sample leads to
skewed results, which may not totally represent the desired target population. But, there are
situations such as the preliminary stages of research or where there are cost constraints for
conducting research, where non-probability sampling will be much more effective than the other
type.
There are 4 types of non-probability sampling which will explain the purpose of this sampling
method in a better manner:
 Convenience sampling: This method is dependent on the ease of access to subjects such
as surveying customers at a mall or passers-by on a busy street. It is usually termed
as convenience sampling, as it’s carried out on the basis of how easy is it for a researcher to
get in touch with the subjects. Researchers have nearly no authority over selecting elements of
the sample and it’s purely done on the basis of proximity and not representativeness. This non-
probability sampling method is used when there are time and cost limitations in collecting
feedback. In situations where there are resource limitations such as the initial stages of
research, convenience sampling is used.
For example, startups and NGOs usually conduct convenience sampling at a mall to distribute
leaflets of upcoming events or promotion of a cause – they do that by standing at the entrance
of the mall and giving out pamphlets randomly.
 Judgmental or Purposive Sampling: In judgemental or purposive sampling, the sample
is formed by the discretion of the judge purely considering the purpose of study along with the
understanding of target audience. Also known as deliberate sampling, the participants are

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 selected solely on the basis of research requirements and elements who do not suffice the
purpose are kept out of the sample. For instance, when researchers want to understand the
thought process of people who are interested in studying for their master’s degree. The
selection criteria will be: “Are you interested in studying for Masters in …?” and those who
respond with a “No” will be excluded from the sample.
 Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a sampling method that is used in studies
which need to be carried out to understand subjects which are difficult to trace. For example, it
will be extremely challenging to survey shelterless people or illegal immigrants. In such cases,
using the snowball theory, researchers can track a few of that particular category to interview
and results will be derived on that basis. This sampling method is implemented in situations
where the topic is highly sensitive and not openly discussed such as conducting surveys to
gather information about HIV Aids. Not many victims will readily respond to the questions
but researchers can contact people they might know or volunteers associated with the cause to
get in touch with the victims and collect information.
 Quota sampling:  In Quota sampling, selection of members in this sampling technique
happens on basis of a pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed on basis of specific
attributes, the created sample will have the same attributes that are found in the total
population. It is an extremely quick method of collecting samples.
Use of the Non-Probability Sampling Method
There are multiple uses of the non-probability sampling method. They are:
 Create a hypothesis: The non-probability sampling method is used to create a
hypothesis when limited to no prior information is  available. This method helps with
immediate return of data and helps to build a base for any further research.
 Exploratory research: This sampling technique is widely used when researchers aim at
conducting qualitative research, pilot studies or exploratory research.
 Budget and time constraints: The non-probability method when there are budget and
time constraints and some preliminary data has to be collected. Since the survey design is not
rigid, it is easier to pick respondents at random and have them take
the survey or questionnaire.
Difference between Probability Sampling and Non-Probability Sampling Methods

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We have looked at the different types of sampling methods above and their subtypes. To
encapsulate the whole discussion though, the major differences between Probability Sampling
and Non-Probability Sampling Methods are as below:

P r o b a b i l i t y S a m p l i n g N o n - P r o b a b i l i t y S a m p l i n g
D e f i n i t i o n
Probability Sampling is a sampling technique
in which sample from a larger population are Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique in which the researcher selects samples based on the subjective judgment of the researcher rather than random selection.
chosen using a method based on the theory of
probability.
A l t e r n a t i v e l y K n o w n a s
Non-random sampling method
Random sampling method.
P o p u l a t i o n s e l e c t i o n
The population is selected arbitrarily .
The population is selected randomly.
M a r k e t R e s e a r c h
The research is exploratory in nature.
The research is conclusive in nature.
S a m p l e
Since there is method to deciding the sample,
Since the sampling method is arbitrary, the population demographics representation is almost always skewed.
the population demographics is conclusively
represented.
S a m p l e
Take a longer time to conduct since the
research design defines the selection This type of sampling method is quick since neither the sample or selection criteria of the sample is undefined.
parameters before the market research study
begins.
R e s u l t s
This type of sampling is entirely unbiased and
This type of sampling is entirely biased and hence the results are biased too rendering the research speculative.
hence the results are unbiased too and
conclusive.
H y p o t h e s i s In non-probability sampling, the hypothesis is derived after conducting the research study.
In probability sampling, there is an underlying
hypothesis before the study begins and the

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 objective of this method is to prove the
hypothesis.

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in
an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test
hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.
There are two types of data Primary Data and Secondary Data →
1.Primary Data → Raw data or primary data is a term for data collected at source. This type of
information is obtained directly from first hand sources by means of surveys, observations and
experimentation and not subjected to any processing or manipulation and also called primary
data.
2.Secondary Data → It refers to the data collected by someone other than the user i.e. the data is
already available and analysed by someone else. Common sources of secondary data include
various published or unpublished data, books, magazines, newspaper, trade journals etc.
Collection of Primary Data →
Primary data is collected in the course of doing experimental or descriptive research by doing
experiments, performing surveys or by observation or direct communication with respondents.
Several methods for collecting primary data are given below –
1.Observation Method
It is commonly used in studies relating to behavioural science. Under this method observation
becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher, when it serves a
formulated research purpose and is systematically planned and subjected to checks and controls.
(a) Structured (descriptive) and Unstructured (exploratory) observation – When a
observation is characterized by careful definition of units to be observed, style of observer,
conditions for observation and selection of pertinent data of observation it is a structured
observation. When there characteristics are not thought of in advance or not present it is a
unstructured observation.
(b) Participant, Non-participant and Disguised observation – When the observer observes by
making himself more or less, the member of the group he is observing, it is participant
observation but when the observer observes by detaching himself from the group under

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observation it is non participant observation. If the observer observes in such a manner that his
presence is unknown to the people he is observing it is disguised observation.
(c) Controlled (laboratory) and Uncontrolled (exploratory) observation – If the observation
takes place in the natural setting it is a uncontrolled observation but when observer takes place
according to some pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedure it is a controlled
observation.
2.Interview Method
This method of collecting data involves presentation of oral verbal stimuli and reply in terms of
oral – verbal responses. It can be achieved by two ways :-
(A) Personal Interview – It requires a person known as interviewer to ask questions generally in
a face to face contact to the other person. It can be –
Direct personal investigation – The interviewer has to collect the information personally from
the services concerned.
Indirect oral examination – The interviewer has to cross examine other persons who are
suppose to have a knowledge about the problem.
Structured Interviews – Interviews involving the use of pre- determined questions and of
highly standard techniques of recording.
Unstructured interviews – It does not follow a system of pre-determined questions and is
characterized by flexibility of approach to questioning.
Focused interview – It is meant to focus attention on the given experience of the respondent and
its effect. The interviewer may ask questions in any manner or sequence with the aim to explore
reasons and motives of the respondent.
Clinical interviews – It is concerned with broad underlying feeling and motives or individual’s
life experience which are used as method to ellict information under this method at the
interviewer direction.
Non directive interview – The interviewer’s function is to encourage the respondent to talk
about the given topic with a bare minimum of direct questioning.
(B) Telephonic Interviews – It requires the interviewer to collect information by contacting
respondents on telephone and asking questions or opinions orally.
3.Questionnaire

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In this method a questionnaire is sent (mailed) to the concerned respondents who are expected to
read, understand and reply on their own and return the questionnaire. It consists of a number of
questions printed on typed in a definite order on a form on set of forms.
It is advisable to conduct a `Pilot study’ which is the rehearsal of the main survey by experts for
testing the questionnaire for weaknesses of the questions and techniques used.
Essentials of a good questionnaire –
-It should be short and simple
-Questions should proceed in a logical sequence
-Technical terms and vague expressions must be avoided.
-Control questions to check the reliability of the respondent must be present
-Adequate space for answers must be provided
-Brief directions with regard to filling up of questionnaire must be provided
-The physical appearances – quality of paper, colour etc must be good to attract the attention of
the respondent
4.Schedules
This method of data collection is similar to questionnaire method with the difference that
schedules are being filled by the enumerations specially appointed for the purpose. Enumerations
explain the aims and objects of the investigation and may remove any misunderstanding and help
the respondents to record answer. Enumerations should be well trained to perform their job,
he/she should be honest hard working and patient. This type of data is helpful in extensive
enquiries however it is very expensive.
Collection of Secondary Data
A researcher can obtain secondary data from various sources. Secondary data may either be
published data or unpublished data.
Before using secondary data, it must be checked for the following characteristics
1. Reliability of data – Who collected the data? From what source? Which methods? Time?
Possibility of bias?Accuracy?
2.Suitability of data – The object, scope and nature of the original enquiry must be studies and
then carefully scrutinize the data for suitability.

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3.Adequacy – The data is considered inadequate if the level of accuracy achieved in data is
found inadequate or if they are related to an area which may be either narrower or wider than the
area of the present enquiry.

UNIT – IV

Data analysis
Data analysis is a process of inspecting, cleansing, transforming, and modeling data with the
goal of discovering useful information, informing conclusions, and supporting decision-making.
Data analysis has multiple facets and approaches, encompassing diverse techniques under a
variety of names, while being used in different business, science, and social science domains.
Six Types Of Analyses Every Data

Descriptive
 Exploratory
 Inferential
 Predictive
 Causal

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  Mechanistic
1. Descriptive (least amount of effort):  The discipline of quantitatively describing the main
features of a collection of data. In essence, it describes a set of data.
– Typically the first kind of data analysis performed on a data set
– Commonly applied to large volumes of data, such as census data
-The description and interpretation processes are different steps
– Univariate and Bivariate are two types of statistical descriptive analyses.
– Type of data set applied to: Census Data Set – a whole population
 Example: Census Data
2. Exploratory: An approach to analyzing data sets to find previously unknown relationships.
– Exploratory models are good for discovering new connections
– They are also useful for defining future studies/questions
– Exploratory analyses are usually not the definitive answer to the question at hand, but only the
start
– Exploratory analyses alone should not be used for generalizing and/or predicting
– Remember: correlation does not imply causation
– Type of data set applied to: Census and Convenience Sample Data Set (typically non-uniform)
– a random sample with many variables measuredExample: Microarray Data Analysis 
3. Inferential: Aims to test theories about the nature of the world in general (or some part of it)
based on samples of “subjects” taken from the world (or some part of it). That is, use a relatively
small sample of data to say something about a bigger population.
– Inference is commonly the goal of statistical models
– Inference involves estimating both the quantity you care about and your uncertainty about your
estimate
– Inference depends heavily on both the population and the sampling scheme
– Type ofdata set applied to: Observational, Cross Sectional Time Study, and Retrospective Data
Set – the right, randomly sampled populationExample: Inferential Analysis 
4. Predictive: The various types of methods that analyze current and historical facts to make
predictions about future events. In essence, to use the data on some objects to predict values for
another object.
– The models predicts, but it does not mean that the independent variables cause

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– Accurate prediction depends heavily on measuring the right variables
– Although there are better and worse prediction models, more data and a simple model works
really well
– Prediction is very hard, especially about the future references
– Type of data set applied to: Prediction Study Data Set – a training and test data set from the
same population
5. Causal: To find out what happens to one variable when you change another.
– Implementation usually requires randomized studies
– There are approaches to inferring causation in non-randomized studies
– Causal models are said to be the “gold standard” for data analysis
– Type of data set applied to: Randomized Trial Data Set – data from a randomized study
6. Mechanistic (most amount of effort): Understand the exact changes in variables that lead to
changes in other variables for individual objects.
– Incredibly hard to infer, except in simple situations
– Usually modeled by a deterministic set of equations (physical/engineering science)
– Generally the random component of the data is measurement error
– If the equations are known but the parameters are not, they may be inferred with data analysis
– Type of data set applied to: Randomized Trial Data Set – data about all components of the
system
- Percentage and trend analysis:
Trend analysis is the widespread practice of collecting information and attempting to spot a
pattern. In some fields of study, the term "trend analysis" has more formally defined meanings.
Although trend analysis is often used to predict future events, it could be used to estimate
uncertain events in the past, such as how many ancient kings probably ruled between two dates,
based on data such as the average years which other known kings reigned.
Procedure for Calculating Trends:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
(1) One year is taken as a base year. Generally, the first or the last is taken as base year.
(2) The figures of base year are taken as 100.

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(3) Trend percentages are calculated in relation to base year. If a figure in other year is less than
the figure in base year the trend percentage will be less than 100 and it will be more than 100 if
figure is more than base year figure. Each year’s figure is divided by the base year’s figure.
The interpretation of trend analysis involves a cautious study. The mere increase or decrease in
trend percentage may give misleading results if studied in isolation. An increase of 20% in
current assets may be treated favorable. If this increase in current assets is accompanied by an
equivalent increase in current liabilities, then this increase will be unsatisfactory. The increase in
sales may not increase profits if the cost of production has also gone up.
The base period should be carefully selected. The base period should be a normal period. The
price level changes in subsequent years may reduce the utility of trend ratios. If the figure of the
base period is very small, then the ratios calculated on this basis may not give a true idea about
the financial data. The accounting procedures and conventions used for collecting data and
preparation of financial statements should be similar otherwise the figures will not be
comparable.
Illustration:
Calculate the trend percentages from the following figures of X Ltd. taking 2007 as the
base and interpret them:

Interpretation:
ADVERTISEMENTS:

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 (1) The sales have continuously increased in all the years up to 2011. The percentage in 2011 is
200 as compared to 100 in 2007. The increase in sales is quite satisfactory.
(2) The figures of stock have also increased from 2007 to 2011. The increase in stocks is more in
2003 and 2007 as compared to earlier years.
(3) Profit before tax has substantially increased. In five years period it has more than doubled.
The comparative increase in profits is much higher in 2010and 2011 as compared to 2009.
The expansion of the firm is good and it has doubled its sales and profits in just five years time.
The profits have increased more than sales which show that there is a proper control over cost of
goods sold, the overall performance of the concern is good.
UNIT - V
Project Report Writing
Project Report Writing must be effectively done. Replicating the outcomes of a marketing
research to the management usually encompasses an official printed report as well as verbal
recitation. Every individual possess an exclusive style of writing but there are some general
methods to be followed while writing for project reports. Before starting writing for projects one
should comprehensively understand the outcomes of the project and consideration must be given
to what the project would communicate. 
Guidelines for Project Report Writing
The basic guidelines that must be pursued for writing for any report or research paper are as
listed below:
1. Avoid using too much of technical jargon: The information derived from the research is
of due importance to marketing executive, who might utilize it while taking decisions on behalf
of the company. Thus the project report must be easy to understand and must not encompass
too much of technical phases. Complexities created by technical jargons might act as a
hindrance while treating the outcomes of statistical evaluation, as the chances of very few
understanding it is veryhigh. 
Hence, the technical aspects must be effectively translated. Terms such as confidence interval,
impact level, etc must be interpreted into everyday language. For researchers translating the
technical terms into simple and easy to understand will help the reader have a good grasp of the
analytical methods the firm has been using. 

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2. Translation of behavioral sciences vocabulary: Qualitative analysis can also result in
major intricacies as they have a terminology of their own, which is not used in day to day
operations. Some of the terms are evoked set, self-actualization, cognitive dissonance, etc if not
translated in a concise manner they can result in opportunities for misinterpretations.
3. Be succinct and accurate: The project report must be succinct but on the other hand
should also be accurate and concentrate on the major points of the decisive elements by
removing the insignificant ones. A researcher needs to analyze that he/she will be evaluated by
the contribution towards resolving the promotional issues and not by the attempt engaged in the
research methodology.
Format for Writing the Project Report
The format for writing a project report is listed as below:
 Page Title
 Abstract of the findings
 Content tables
 Catalog of Tables
 Catalog of figuresProject Introduction
 Introduction to the research setback
 Objectives of the research
 Premise of the researchResearch Methodology -Data collation
 Illustration and sampling technique
 Figure or qualitative techniques utilized for data assessment
 Sample narrativeSurveys
 Conclusions and interpretation
EXAMPLE
 Introduction
o Why your topic is important (convince us!)
o Where is it used? Applications
o What you will talk about/do
o Overview of the rest of your paper (section 2 covers...section 3 presents...)
 Background

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 o Any relevant and specific info
e.g. hardware statistics, equipment used
o What other people had to say on this topic(s)
(be sure to cite your references, and quote as appropriate)
o You are expected to discuss the books and papers that you include in your
references. You must also cite them. If nothing else, include a brief rationale
explaining why you thought it was useful.
o What other people did on this topic (or related topics)
o Problems and shortcomings of their work
o How your work is different and better
 Project
o Your approach to the problem
o What you did
o Design
- what you already had (and where it came from)
- what you added/changed
- for parts, include close-up drawings (e.g. Magic screenshots)
o What did/didn't work?
o Include graphs, equations, pictures, etc. as appropriate
o Results
Include relevant observations, measurements, and statistics. For example, for the
VLSI Class: Include statistics such as timing information if available by
simulation, or if not, your own analysis about critical path, delays, and clock
cycles. Be sure to include size information: the total size of the circuit measured
(X lambda by Y lambda), and the transistor count.
 Summary
o Try to draw together the intro, background, and project sections.
o How do they all relate together? (They may appear to be disjoint sections to an
unfamiliar reader).
o Restate important results

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  Conclusions
o What was accomplished / learned
o What you would have done differently
o Future work
 References
o You should include a number of books and papers that were useful. If no number
if specified, then include at least 5 books or papers. (If this is a group project,
include at least 5 per person.) Webpages do not count toward this minimum
number. Wikipedia is not appropriate, and you will be penalized if you include it.
o Cite the papers/books that you used
o Anything you found useful
o Include textbooks from class if you want
Guide to Writing a Project Report

production of a good piece of technical writing for a project report is as much a part of the
project as doing the experimental work. However excellent and original a piece of work the
project may be, unless the results can be communicated to other people it may as well not have
been done! Communicating results of an investigation in a clear and useful way is a key part of
science and is the reason for devoting a lot of effort to this aspect.
2. What level? The main part of the report should be comprehensible by other stage 3 students.
If more detailed information is to be included about some aspects (for instance, a complicated
mathematical derivation, of which only the result is essential to the main discussion) consider
including this as an appendix.
3. How much detail to include? It is not necessary, or even desirable; to describe every minute
detail of what was done. One of the most important aspects of good technical writing is to be
concise, yet remain informative. The ability to select what is essential, and to omit what is
merely incidental detail, is a skill every scientist needs to develop. In view of this, the main part
of your report must be within the word limit(s) specified in the applicable module description.
An overlong report will be penalized and receive a lower mark than it otherwise deserves.

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4. The nuts and bolts. Two copies of the report need to be submitted. Students who have
worked in pairs must write and present independent reports, stressing those aspects of the project
for which they were individually responsible.
5. Format of reports. Whilst not mandatory, there are good reasons for the usual format of a
report. Sections that you need to include are,
• Title
• Authors
• Abstract
• Table of contents
• Introduction
• Experimental techniques and methods
• Results and discussion
• Summary/conclusions
• References
• Appendices (if used)

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