1

Introduction

Course Contents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Basic components and
terminology of IC engine
1.3 Working of 4-Stroke SI
engine
1.4 Working of 4-Stroke CI
engine
1.5 Comparison of SI and CI
Engines
1.6 Two-Stroke Engine
1.7 IC Engine classification
1.8 Application of IC Engine
1.9 Engine Performance
Parameters
1.10 Air standard cycles

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1. Introduction Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

1.1 Introduction
− Once man discovered the use of heat in the form of fire, it was just a step to formulate
the energy interactions. With this, human beings started to use heat energy for
cooking, warming up living spaces, drying and so on.
− Further, due to the development of civilization and increase in population, man had
to move from one place to another. Animals were used in transportation between the
4th and 5th centuries BC, and spread to Europe and other countries in the 5 th century
BC and China in about 1200 BC.
− Gradually, man replaced the animals with motive power that was used in
transportation. The use of power vehicles began in the late 18th century, with the
creation of the steam engine. The invention of Otto (1876) and Diesel (1892) cycles in
the 19th century transformed the method of propulsion from steam to petroleum
fuel.
− ENGINE: Engine is a device which converts one form of Energy into another form
− HEAT ENGINE: Heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel
into thermal energy and utilizes this thermal energy to perform useful work. Thus,
thermal energy is converted to mechanical energy in a heat engine.
− Heat engines can be broadly classified into two categories:
a) Internal Combustion Engines (IC Engines)
b) External Combustion Engines (EC Engines)
1.1.1 Classification of heat engines
− Engines whether Internal Combustion or External Combustion are of two types:
(i) Rotary engines
(ii) Reciprocating engines
− A detailed classification of heat engines is given in Fig. 1.1.

Fig 1.1 Classification of heat engines

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 1. Introduction

1.1.2 Comparison of I.C. Engines and E.C. Engines

− Comparison of IC engine and EC engine is given in table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Comparison of IC engine and EC engine
I.C. Engine E.C. engine
1. Combustion of fuel takes place inside the 1. Combustion of fuel takes place outside
cylinder the cylinder
2. Working fluid may be Petrol, Diesel & 2. Working fluid is steam
Various types of gases
3. Require less space 3. Require large space
4. Capital cost is relatively low 4. Capital cost is relatively high
5. Starting of this engine is easy & quick 5. Starting of this engine requires time
6. Thermal efficiency is high 6. Thermal Efficiency is low
7. Power developed per unit weight of 7. Power Developed per unit weight of
these engines is high these engines is low
8. Fuel cost is relatively high 8. Fuel cost is relatively low

1.2 Basic components and terminology of IC engines

− Even though reciprocating internal combustion engines look quite simple, they are
highly complex machines. There are many components which have to perform their
functions effectively to produce output power.
− There are two types of engines, viz., spark-ignition (SI) and compression-ignition (Cl)
engine.
1.2.1 Engine Components
− A cross section of a single cylinder spark-ignition engine with overhead valves is shown
in Fig.1.2. The major components of the engine and their functions are briefly
described below.

Fig. 1.2 Cross-section of spark-ignition engine

a) Cylinder block
− The cylinder block is the main supporting structure for the various components. The
cylinder of a multicylinder engine are cast as a single unit, called cylinder block. The
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1. Introduction Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

cylinder head is mounted on the cylinder block. The cylinder head and cylinder block
are provided with water jackets in the case of water cooling or with cooling fins in the
case of air cooling.
b) Cylinder
− As the name implies it is a cylindrical vessel or space in which the piston makes a
reciprocating motion. The varying volume created in the cylinder during the operation
of the engine is filled with the working fluid and subjected to different thermodynamic
processes. The cylinder is supported in the cylinder block.
c) Piston
− It is a cylindrical component fitted into the cylinder forming the moving boundary of
the combustion system. It fits perfectly (snugly) into the cylinder providing a gas-tight
space with the piston rings and the lubricant. It forms the first link in transmitting the
gas forces to the output shaft.
d) Combustion chamber
− The space enclosed in the upper part of the cylin-der, by the cylinder head and the
piston top during the combustion process, is called the combustion chamber. The
combustion of fuel and the consequent release of thermal energy results in the
building up of pressure in this part of the cylinder.
e) Inlet manifold
− The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of the engine and through
which air or air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder is called the inlet manifold.
f) Exhaust manifold
− The pipe which connects the exhaust system to the exhaust valve of the engine and
through which the products of combustion escape into the atmosphere is called the
exhaust manifold.
g) Inlet and Exhaust valves
− Valves are commonly mushroom shaped pop-pet type. They are provided either on
the cylinder head or on the side of the cylinder for regulating the charge coming into
the cylinder (inlet valve) and for discharging the products of combustion (exhaust
valve) from the cylinder.
h) Spark Plug
− It is a component to initiate the combustion process in Spark- Ignition (SI) engines and
is usually located on the cylinder head.
i) Connecting Rod
− It interconnects the piston and the crankshaft and trans-mits the gas forces from the
piston to the crankshaft. The two ends of the connecting rod are called as small end
and the big end (Fig.1.3). Small end is connected to the piston by gudgeon pin and the
big end is connected to the crankshaft by crankpin.
j) Crankshaft
− It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into useful rotary motion of the
output shaft. In the crankshaft of a single cylinder engine there are a pair of crank arms
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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 1. Introduction

and balance weights. The balance weights are provided for static and dynamic
balancing of the rotating system. The crankshaft is enclosed in a crankcase.
k) Piston rings
− Piston rings, fitted into the slots around the piston, provide a tight seal between the
piston and the cylinder wall thus preventing leakage of combustion gases.
l) Gudgeon pin
− It links the small end of the connecting rod and the piston.
m) Camshaft
− The camshaft (not shown in the figure) and its associated parts control the opening
and closing of the two valves. The associated parts are push rods, rocker arms, valve
springs and tappets. This shaft also provides the drive to the ignition system. The
camshaft is driven by the crankshaft through timing gears.
n) Cams
− These are made as integral parts of the camshaft and are so de-signed to open the
valves at the correct timing and to keep them open for the necessary duration.
o) Flywheel
− The net torque imparted to the crankshaft during one complete cycle of operation of
the engine fluctuates causing a change in the angular velocity of the shaft. In order to
achieve a uniform torque an inertia mass in the form of a wheel is attached to the
output shaft and this wheel is called the flywheel.
p) Carburetor
− Carburetor is used in petrol engine for proper mixing of air and petrol.
q) Fuel pump
− Fuel pump is used in diesel engine for increasing pressure and controlling the quantity
of fuel supplied to the injector.
r) Fuel injector
− Fuel injector is used to inject diesel fuel in the form of fine atomized spray under
pressure at the end of compression stroke.
1.2.2 Terminologies used in IC engine
− Cylinder Bore (d): The nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder is called the
cylinder bore and is designated by the letter d and is usually expressed in millimeter
(mm).
− Piston Area (A): The area of a circle of diameter equal to the cylinder bore is called
the piston area and is designated by the letter A and is usually expressed in square
centimeter (cm2).
− Stroke (L): It is the linear distance traveled by the piston when it moves from one
end of the cylinder to the other end. It is equal to twice the radius of the crank. It
is designated by the letter L and is expressed usually in millimeter (mm).

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1. Introduction Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

Fig 1.3 IC Engine nomenclature

− Stroke to Bore Ratio (L/d): L / d ratio is an important parameter in classifying the size
of the engine.
− If d < L, it is called under-square engine.
− If d = L, it is called square engine.
− If d > L, it is called over-square engine.
An over-square engine can operate at higher speeds because of larger bore and
shorter stroke.
− Dead Centre:
In the vertical engines, top most position of the piston is called Top Dead Centre (TDC).
When the piston is at bottom most position, it is called Bottom Dead Centre (BDC).
In horizontal engine, the extreme position of the piston near to cylinder head is called
Inner Dead Centre (IDC.) and the extreme position of the piston near the crank is called
Outer Dead Centre (O.D.C.).
− Displacement or Swept Volume (Vs): The volume displaced by the piston in one stroke
is known as stroke volume or swept volume. It is expressed in terms of cubic
centimeter (cc) and given by
𝜋
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐴 × 𝐿 = 𝑑 2 𝐿
4
− Cubic Capacity or Engine Capacity: The displacement volume of a cylinder multiplied
by number of cylinders in an engine will give the cubic capacity or the engine capacity.
For example, if there are K cylinders in an engine, then
Cubic capacity  Vs  K
− Clearance Volume (Vc): It is the volume contained between the piston top and cylinder
head when the piston is at top or inner dead center.
− Compression Ratio (r): The ratio of total cylinder volume to clearance volume is called
the compression ratio (r) of the engine.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑟=
𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 1. Introduction

𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑠
∴𝑟=
𝑉𝑐
For petrol engine r varies from 6 to 10 and for Diesel engine r varies from 14 to 20.
− Piston speed (Vp): It is average speed of piston. It is equal to 2LN, where N is speed of
crank shaft in rev/sec.
2𝐿𝑁 𝑚
𝑉𝑝 = ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
60
where, L = Stroke length, m
N = Speed of crank shaft, RPM

1.3 Working of Four Stroke Spark-Ignition Engine

− In a four-stroke engine, the cycle of operations is completed in four strokes of the
piston or two revolutions of the crankshaft.
− During the four strokes, there are five events to be completed, viz., suction,
compression, combustion, expansion and exhaust. Each stroke consists of 180° of
crankshaft rotation and hence a four-stroke cycle is completed through 720° of crank
rotation.
− The cycle of operation for an ideal four-stroke SI engine consists of the following four
strokes: (i) suction or intake stroke; (ii) compression stroke; (iii) expansion or power
stroke and (iv) exhaust stroke.

Fig. 1.4 Working principle of a four-stroke SI engine

− The details of various processes of a four-stroke spark-ignition engine with overhead
valves are shown in Fig. 1.4 (a-d). When the engine completes all the five events under
ideal cycle mode, the pressure-volume (p-V) diagram will be as shown in Fig.1.5.

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1. Introduction Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

a) Suction or Intake Stroke: Suction stroke 0→1 (Fig.1.5) starts when the piston is at the
top dead centre and about to move
downwards. The inlet valve is assumed to
open instantaneously and at this time the
exhaust valve is in the closed position, Fig.1.4
(a).
− Due to the suction created by the motion of
the piston towards the bottom dead centre,
the charge consisting of fuel-air mixture is
drawn into the cylinder. When the piston
reaches the bottom dead centre the suction
stroke ends and the inlet valve closes Fig. 1.5 Ideal p-V diagram of a four-
stroke SI engine
instantaneously.
b) Compression Stroke: The charge taken into the cylinder during the suction stroke is
compressed by the return stroke of the piston 1→2, (Fig.1.5). During this stroke both
inlet and exhaust valves are in closed position, Fig. 1.4(b).
− The mixture which fills the entire cylinder volume is now compressed into the
clearance volume. At the end of the compression stroke the mixture is ignited with
the help of a spark plug located on the cylinder head.
− In ideal engines it is assumed that burning takes place instantaneously when the piston
is at the top dead centre and hence the burning process can be approximated as heat
addition at constant volume.
− During the burning process the chemical energy of the fuel is converted into heat
energy producing a temperature rise of about 2000 °C (process 2→3), Fig.1.5. The
pressure at the end of the combustion process is considerably increased due to the
heat release from the fuel.
c) Expansion or Power Stroke: The high pressure of the burnt gases forces the piston
towards the BDC, (stroke 3→4) Fig .1.5. Both the valves are in closed position, Fig.
1.4(c). Of the four-strokes only during this stroke power is produced. Both pressure
and temperature decrease during expansion.
d) Exhaust Stroke: At the end of the expansion stroke the exhaust valve opens
instantaneously and the inlet valve remains closed, Fig. 1.4(d). The pressure falls to
atmospheric level a part of the burnt gases escape. The piston starts moving from the
bottom dead centre to top dead centre (stroke 5→0), Fig.1.5 and sweeps the burnt
gases out from the cylinder almost at atmospheric pressure. The exhaust valve closes
when the piston reaches TDC.
− At the end of the exhaust stroke and some residual gases trapped in the clearance
volume remain in the cylinder. These residual gases mix with the fresh charge coming
in during the following cycle, forming its working fluid.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 1. Introduction

− Each cylinder of a four-stroke engine completes the above four operations in two
engine revolutions, first revolution of the crankshaft occurs during the suction and
compression strokes and the second revolution during the power and exhaust strokes.
− Thus for one complete cycle there is only one power stroke while the crankshaft
makes two revolutions. For getting higher output from the engine the heat addition
(process 2→3) should be as high as possible and the heat rejection (process 3→4)
should be as small as possible. Hence, one should be careful in drawing the ideal p - V
diagram (Fig.1.5), which should represent the processes correctly.

1.4 Working of Four Stroke Compression-Ignition Engine

− The four-stroke Cl engine is similar to the four-stroke SI engine but it operates at a
much higher compression ratio. The compression ratio of an SI engine is between 6
and 10 while for a Cl engine it is from 16 to 20.
− In the Cl engine during suction stroke, air, instead of a fuel-air mixture, is inducted.
Due to higher compression ratios employed, the temperature at the end of the
compression stroke is sufficiently high to self-ignite the fuel which is injected into the
combustion chamber.
− In Cl engines, a high pressure fuel pump and an injector are provided to inject the fuel
into the combustion chamber. The carburetor and ignition system necessary in the SI
engine are not required in the Cl engine.
− The ideal sequence of operations for the four-stroke Cl engine as shown in Fig. 1.6 is
as follows:
a) Suction Stroke: In the suction stroke piston moves from TDC to BDC. Air alone is
inducted during the suction stroke. During this stroke inlet valve is open and exhaust
valve is closed, Fig.1.6 (a).

Fig. 1.6 Cycle of operation of CI engine

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1. Introduction Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

b) Compression Stroke: In this stroke piston moves from BDC to TDC. Air inducted during
the suction stroke is compressed into the
clearance volume. Both valves remain closed
during this stroke, Fig. 1.6 (b).
c) Expansion Stroke: Fuel injection starts nearly at
the end of the com-pression stroke. The rate of
injection is such that combustion maintains the
pressure constant in spite of the piston
movement on its expansion stroke increasing
the volume. Heat is assumed to have been
added at constant pressure. After the injection Fig. 1.7 Ideal p-V diagram for a four
of fuel is completed (i.e. after cut-off) the stroke CI engine
products of combustion expand. Both the valves remain closed during the expansion
stroke, Fig. 1.6(c).
d) Exhaust Stroke: The piston travelling from BDC to TDC pushes out the products of
combustion. The exhaust valve is open and the intake valve is closed during this stroke,
Fig. 1.6 (d). The ideal p - V diagram is shown in Fig. 1.7.
− Due to higher pressures in the cycle of operations the Cl engine has to be sturdier than
a SI engine for the same output. This results in a Cl engine being heavier than the SI
engine. However, it has a higher thermal efficiency on account of the high
compression ratio (of about 18 as against about 8 in SI engines) used.

1.5 Comparison of SI and Cl Engines

− The detailed comparison of SI and CI engine is given in table 1.2
Table 1.2 Comparison of SI and CI Engines
Description SI Engine CI Engine
Basic cycle Works on Otto cycle or constant Works on Diesel cycle or constant
volume heat addition cycle. pressure heat addition cycle.
Fuel Gasoline, a highly volatile fuel. Diesel oil, a non-volatile fuel. Self-
Self-ignition temperature is high. ignition temperature is
comparatively low
Introduction of A gaseous mixture of fuel-air is Fuel is injected directly into the
fuel introduced during the suction combustion chamber at high
stroke. A carburetor and an pressure at the end of the
ignition system are necessary. compression stroke. A fuel pump
Modern engines have gasoline and injector are necessary.
injection.
Load control Throttle controls the quantity of The quantity of fuel is regulated to
fuel-air mixture to control the control the load. Air quantity is
load. not controlled.

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Ignition Requires an ignition system with Self-ignition occurs d u e to high

spark plug in the combustion temperature of air because of the
chamber. Primary voltage is high compression. Ignition system
provided by either a battery or a and spark plug are not necessary.
magneto.
Compression 6 to 10. Upper limit is fixed by 16 to 20. Upper limit is limited by
ratio anti- knock quality of the fuel. weight increase of the engine.
Speed Due to light weight and also due Due to heavy weight and also due
to homogeneous combustion, to heterogeneous combustion,
they are high speed engines. they are low speed engines.
Thermal Because of the lower CR, the Because of higher CR, the
efficiency maximum value of thermal maximum value of thermal
efficiency that can be obtained is efficiency that can be obtained is
lower. higher.
Weight Lighter due to comparatively Heavier due to comparatively
lower peak pressures. higher peak pressures.

1.6 Two-Stroke Engine

− In two-stroke engines the cycle is completed in one revolution of the crankshaft. The
main difference between two-stroke and four-stroke engines is in the method of filling
the fresh charge and removing the burnt gases from the cylinder.
− In the four-stroke engine these operations are performed by the engine piston during
the suction and exhaust strokes respectively.
− In a two- stroke engine, the filling process is accomplished by the charge compressed
in crankcase or by a blower. The induction of the compressed charge moves out the
product of combustion through exhaust ports. Therefore, no separate piston strokes
are required for these two operations.
− Two strokes are sufficient to complete the cycle, one for compressing the fresh charge
and the other for expansion or power stroke. It is to be noted that the effective stroke
is reduced.
− Figure 1.8 shows one of the simplest two-stroke engines, viz., the crankcase scavenged
engine. Figure 1.9 shows the ideal p - V diagram of such an engine.
− The air-fuel charge is inducted into the crankcase through the spring loaded inlet valve
when the pressure in the crankcase is reduced due to upward motion of the piston
during compression stroke. After the compression and ignition, expansion takes place
in the usual way.
− During the expansion stroke the charge in the crankcase is compressed. Near the end
of the expansion stroke, the piston uncovers the exhaust ports and the cylinder
pressure drops to atmospheric pressure as the combustion products leave the
cylinder.
− Further movement of the piston uncovers the transfer ports, permitting the slightly
compressed charge in the crankcase to enter the engine cylinder.
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1. Introduction Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

Fig. 1.8 Crankcase scavenged two-stroke SI engine

− The piston top usually has a projection to

deflect the fresh charge towards the top of
the cylinder preventing the flow through
the exhaust ports. This serves the double
purpose of scavenging the combustion
products from the upper part of the
cylinder and preventing the fresh charge
from flowing out directly through the
exhaust ports.
− The same objective can be achieved
without piston deflector by proper shaping
of the transfer port. During the upward
motion of the piston from B D C the transfer Fig 1.9 Ideal p-V diagram of a two-stroke SI
ports close first and then the exhaust ports, engine
thereby the effective compression of the charge begins and the cycle is repeated.
1.7 IC engine Classification
− I.C. Engines may be classified according to,
a) Type of the fuel used as :
(1) Petrol engine (2) Diesel engine
(3) Gas engine (4) Bi-fuel engine (Two fuel engine)
b) Nature of thermodynamic cycle as :
(1) Otto cycle engine (2) Diesel cycle engine
(3) Duel or mixed cycle engine
c) Number of strokes per cycle as :
(1) Four stroke engine (2) Two stroke engine

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 1. Introduction

d) Method of ignition as :
(1) Spark ignition engine (S.I. engine)
Mixture of air and fuel is ignited by electric spark.
(2) Compression ignition engine (C.I. engine)
The fuel is ignited as it comes in contact with hot compressed air.
e) Method of cooling as :
(1) Air cooled engine (2) Water cooled engine
f) Speed of the engine as :
(1) Low speed (2) Medium speed
(3) High speed
Petrol engine are high speed engines and diesel engines are low to medium speed
engines
g) Number of cylinder as :
(1) Single cylinder engine (2) Multi cylinder engine
h) Position of the cylinder as :
(1) Inline engines (2) V – engines
(3) Radial engines (4) Opposed cylinder engine
(5) X – Type engine (6) H – Type Engine
(7)U – Type Engine (8) Opposed piston engine
(9) Delta Type Engine

Fig. 1.10 Engine classification by cylinder arrangements

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1.8 Application of IC Engines

− The most important application of IC engines is in transport on land, sea and air. Other
applications include industrial power plants and as prime movers for electric
generators. Table 1.3 gives, in a nutshell, the applications of both IC and EC engines.
Table 1.3 Application of Engines
IC Engine EC Engine
Type Application Type Application
Gasoline engines Automotive, Marine, Steam Engines Locomotives, Marine
Aircraft
Gas engines Industrial power Stirling Engines Experimental Space
Vehicles
Diesel engines Automotive, Railways, Steam Turbines Power, Large Marine
Power, Marine
Gas turbines Power, Aircraft, Close Cycle Gas Power, Marine
Industrial, Marine Turbine

1.9 Engine Performance Parameters

− The engine performance is indicated by the term efficiency, η. Five important engine
efficiencies and other related engine performance parameters are discussed below.
1.9.1 Indicated Power
− The power produced inside the engine cylinder by burning of fuel is known as
Indicated power (I.P.) of engine. It is calculated by finding the actual mean effective
pressure.
sa
Actual mean effective pressure, Pm  N 2 (1.1)
l m
where,
a = Area of the actual indicator diagram, cm2
l = Base width of the indicator diagram, cm
s = Spring value of the spring used in the indicator, N/m2/cm
P LAn
ip  m kW (1.2)
60000
where,
Pm = Mean effective pressure N/m2
L = Length of stroke, m
A = Area of cross section of the cylinder, m2
N = RPM of the engine crank shaft
N
n for 4-stroke
2
nN for 2-stroke

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1.9.2 Brake power

− It is the power available at engine crank shaft for doing useful work. It is also known
as engine output power. It is measured by dynamometer.
2 NT Pmb LAn
B.P.   kW (1.3)
60000 60000
where
T W R (1.4)
W = Net load acting on the brake drum, N
R = Effective radius of the brake drum, m
N = RPM of the crank shaft
T = Resisting torque, Nm
Pmb = Brake mean effective pressure
1.9.3 Indicated Thermal Efficiency (ith )
− Indicated thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the indicated power, ip, to the
input fuel energy in appropriate units.
ip  kJ / s 
ith  (1.1)
energy in fuel per second  kJ / s 
ip ip
ith   (1.2)
mass of fuel/s  CV of fuel m f  CV
1.9.4 Brake Thermal Efficiency ( bth )
− Brake thermal efficiency is the ratio of power available at crank shaft, bp, to the input
fuel energy in appropriate units.
bp bp
bth   (1.3)
mass of fuel/s  CV of fuel m f  CV
1.9.5 Mechanical Efficiency (m )
− Mechanical efficiency is defined as the ratio of brake power (delivered power) to the
indicated power (power provided to the piston).
bp bp
m   (1.4)
ip bp  fp
fp  ip  bp (1.5)
1.9.6 Volumetric Efficiency (v )
− Volumetric efficiency indicates the breathing ability of the engine. It is to be noted
that the utilization of the air is that determines the power output of the engine. Intake
system must be designed in such a way that the engine must be able to take in as
much air as possible.
− Volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual volume flow rate of air into the
intake system to the rate at which the volume is displaced by the system.
Actual volume of charge or air sucked at atm. condition
v  (1.6)
Swept volume
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1.9.7 Air standard efficiency

− It is the efficiency of the thermodynamic cycle of the engine.

− For petrol engine,

1
air  1  (1.7)
r 
 1

− For diesel engine,

1    1 
air  1   1   (1.8)
 r       1 
1.9.8 Relative Efficiency or Efficiency Ratio
− Relative efficiency or efficiency ratio is the ratio of thermal efficiency of an actual cycle
to that of the ideal cycle. The efficiency ratio is a very useful criterion which indicates
the degree of development of the engine.

rel  th (1.9)
air
1.9.9 Specific output
− The specific output of the engine is defined as the power output per unit area.
B.P.
Specific output  (1.10)
A
1.9.10Specific fuel consumption
− Specific fuel consumption (SFC) is defined as the amount of fuel consumed by an
engine for one unit of power production. SFC is used to express the fuel efficiency of
an I.C. engine.
m
SFC  f k g / k Wh (1.11)
B.P.
1.10 Air Standard Cycles
− In most of the power developing systems, such as petrol engine, diesel engine and gas
turbine, the common working fluid used is air. These devices take in either a mixture
of fuel and air as in petrol engine or air and fuel separately and mix them in the
combustion chamber as in diesel engine
− The mass of fuel used compared with the mass of air is rather small. Therefore the
properties of mixture can be approximated to the properties of air.
− Exact condition existing within the actual engine cylinder are very difficult to
determine, but by making certain simplifying assumptions, it is possible to
approximate these conditions more or less closely. The approximate engine cycles
thus analysed are known as theoretical cycles.
− The simplest theoretical cycle is called the air-cycle approximation. The air-cycle
approximation used for calculating conditions in internal combustion engine is called
the air-standard cycle.
Prepared By: Darshit S. Dadhaniya Department of Mechanical Engineering
Page 1.16 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 1. Introduction

− The analysis of all air-standard cycles is based upon the following assumption:
a) The gas in the engine cylinder is a perfect gas, i.e. it obeys the gas laws and has
constant specific heats.
b) The physical constants of the gas in the cylinder are the same as those of air at
moderate temperatures i.e., the molecular weight of cylinder gas is 29 and Cp = 1.005
kJ/kg K and Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg K.
c) The compression and expansion processes are adiabatic and they take place without
internal friction, i.e., these processes are isentropic.
d) No chemical reaction takes place in the cylinder. Heat is supplied or rejected by
bringing a hot body or a cold body in contact with cylinder at appropriate points during
the process.
e) The cycle is considered closed, with the same ‘air’ always remaining in the cylinder to
repeat the cycle.
− Because of many simplifying assumptions, it is clear that the air-cycle approximation
does not closely represent the conditions within the actual cylinder. Due to the
simplicity of the air-cycle calculation, it is often used to obtain approximate answers
to complex engine problems.
1.10.1 The Otto Cycle OR Constant Volume Cycle (Isochoric)
 The cycle was successfully applied by a German scientist Nicolous A. Otto to produce
a successful 4 – stroke cycle engine in 1876.

Fig. 1.11 p-V and T-s diagrams of Otto cycle

 The thermodynamic cycle is operated with isochoric (constant volume) heat addition
and consists of two adiabatic processes and two constant volume changes.
 Fig. 1.11 shows the Otto cycle plotted on p – V and T – s diagram.
Adiabatic Compression Process (1 – 2):
 At pt. 1 cylinder is full of air with volume V1, pressure P1 and temp. T1.
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Darshit S. Dadhaniya
Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 1.17
1. Introduction Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

 Piston moves from BDC to TDC and an ideal gas (air) is compressed isentropically to
state point 2 through compression ratio,
V1
r
V2

Constant Volume Heat Addition Process (2 – 3):

 Heat is added at constant volume from an external heat source.
p3
 The pressure rises and the ratio rp or   is called expansion ratio or pressure
p2
ratio.
Adiabatic Expansion Process (3 – 4):
 The increased high pressure exerts a greater amount of force on the piston and pushes
it towards the BDC.
 Expansion of working fluid takes place isentropically and work done by the system.
V4
 The volume ratio is called isentropic expansion ratio.
V3

Constant Volume Heat Rejection Process (4 – 1):

 Heat is rejected to the external sink at constant volume. This process is so controlled
that ultimately the working fluid comes to its initial state 1 and the cycle is repeated.
 Many petrol and gas engines work on a cycle which is a slight modification of the Otto
cycle.
 This cycle is called constant volume cycle because the heat is supplied to air at
constant volume.
Air Standard Efficiency of an Otto Cycle:
 Consider a unit mass of air undergoing a cyclic change.
 Heat supplied during the process 2 – 3,

q1  CV T3  T2 

 Heat rejected during process 4 – 1 ,

q2  CV T4  T1 

 Work done,
W  q1  q2
W  CV T3  T2   CV T4  T1 
 Thermal efficiency,

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Page 1.18 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 1. Introduction

Work done W
 
Heat supplied q1
CV T3  T2   CV T4  T1 

CV T3  T2 

 1
T4  T1  (1.12)
T3  T2 

− For Adiabatic compression process (1 – 2),

 1
T2  V1 
   r  1
T1  V2 
 T2  T1r γ 1 (1.13)
− For Isentropic expansion process (3 – 4),
 1
T4  V3 
 
T3  V4 
 1
V 
T3  T4  4 
 V3 
γ 1
V 
T3  T4  1   V1  V4 , V2  V3 
 V2 

T3  T4  r 
 1
(1.14)
 From equation 1.16, 1.17 & 1.18, we get,

otto  1 
T4  T1 
T4 r  1  T1 r  1

otto  1 
T4  T1 
r T4  T1 
 1

1
otto  1   1
(1.15)
r
− Expression 1.19 is known as the air standard efficiency of the Otto cycle.
 It is clear from the above expression that efficiency increases with the increase in the
value of 𝑟 (as γ is constant).
 We can have maximum efficiency by increasing 𝑟 to a considerable extent, but due to
practical difficulties its value is limited to 8.
 In actual engines working on Otto cycle, the compression ratio varies from 5 to 8
depending upon the quality of fuel.

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Darshit S. Dadhaniya

Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 1.19
1. Introduction Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

 At compression ratios higher

than this, the temperature
after combustion becomes
high and that may lead to
spontaneous and uncontrolled
combustion of fuel in the
cylinder.
 The phenomenon of
uncontrolled combustion in
petrol engine is called
detonation and it leads to poor
engine efficiency and in
Fig. 1.12 Variation of Otto cycle efficiency with compression
structural damage of engine
ratio
parts.
 Fig. 1.12 shows the variation of air standard efficiency of Otto cycle with compression
ratio.
Mean Effective Pressure:
 Net work done per unit mass of air,

Wnet  CV T3  T2   CV T4  T1  (1.16)

 Swept volume,

 V  RT  1 
Swept volume V1 V2 V1 1  2   1 1  
 V1  P1  r 
RT
 1  r 1 (1.17)
Pr
1

 Mean effective pressure,

Work done per cycle
mep 
swept volume

CV T3  T2   CV T4  T1 

RT1
 r  1
Pr
1

CV Pr  T3  T2   T4  T1  
 1
  (1.18)
R  r  1  T1 
 For process 1 – 2,
 1
T2  V1 
 
T1  V2 

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 1. Introduction

T2  T1 r γ 1
 Process 2 – 3,
T3 P3
  V2 V3 
T2 P2

T3  T2    explosion pressure ratio 

 T3  T1 α r γ 1
 Process 3 – 4,
 1
V 
T4  T3  3 
 V4 
 1
V 
T4  T3  3 
 V4 
 1
 V2 
T4  T1  r  1
 
 V1 
1
T4  T1  r  1   1
r
 T4  T1  α

− Substituting all these temperature values in equation 1.22, We get,

CV P1 r  T1 r  T1 r   T1  T1  
 1  1

mep   
R  r  1  T1 

CV P1 r  T1 r   1  T1   1 
 1
 mep   
R  r  1  T1 
CV P1 r
 mep   r  1  1   1
R  r  1  
P1 r
 mep   r  1  1   1  (1.19)
 r  1  1  

 CV 1 
  
 R  1 
 CP 
C  , CP  CV  R, 
 V 
  CP  CV 1 
CV   1   R,  
  CV  R   1 

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1. Introduction Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

1.10.2 The Diesel Cycle OR Constant Pressure Cycle (Isobaric)

 This cycle was discovered by a German engineer Dr. Rudolph Diesel. Diesel cycle is also
known as constant pressure heat addition cycle.

Fig. 1.13 p-V and T-s diagrams of Diesel cycle

Adiabatic Compression Process (1 – 2):
V
 Isentropic (Reversible adiabatic) compression with r  1 .
V2

Constant Pressure Heat Addition Process (2 – 3):

 The heat supply is stopped at point 3 which is called the cut – off point and the volume
V
ratio   3 is called cut off ratio or Isobaric expansion ratio.
V2
Adiabatic Expansion Process (3 – 4):
V
 Isentropic expansion of air 4  isentropic expansion ratio.
V3
Constant Volume Heat Rejection Process (4 – 1):
 In this process heat is rejected at constant volume.
− This thermodynamics cycle is called constant pressure cycle because heat is supplied
to the air at constant pressure.

Air Standard Efficiency for Diesel Cycle:

 Consider unit mass of air.
 Heat supplied during process 2 – 3,
q1  CP T3  T2 
 Heat rejected during process 4 – 1,
q2  CV T4  T1 
 Work done,

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 1. Introduction

W  q1  q2
W  CP  T3  T2   CV  T4  T1 
 Thermal efficiency,
Work done

Heat supplied
CP T3  T2   CV T4  T1 
 
CP T3  T2 
CV T4  T1 
  1 
CP T3  T2 

1 T4  T1 
  1  (1.20)
 T3  T2 
 For adiabatic compression process (1 – 2),
V1
r (1.21)
V2

P2  V1 
 
P1  V2 
P2  P1  r  (1.22)
 1
V 
T2  T1  1   T1 r  1 (1.23)
 V2 
− For constant pressure heat addition process (2 – 3)
P3  P2  P1  r  (1.24)
V3
  Cutoff ratio  (1.25)
V2
V3
T3  T2 (1.26)
V2
 T2 
T3  T1 r  1   (1.27)
 For adiabatic expansion process (3 – 4),
P4  P3 V3 / V4   P3 V3 / V1 
 


V /V 
P4  P3  3 2   P3   / r 

(1.28)
 V1 / V2 
 1  1
V  
T4  T3  3   T3  
 V4  r

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1. Introduction Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

T1  r  1     1
T4 
r  1
T4  T1    (1.29)
− Using above equations in equation 1.24
1 T4  T1 
 1 
 T3  T2 

 1 
1 T 
1

 T1 
 T1 r  1  T1 r  1 

1   ρ 1   
γ

 η 1     γ 1    (1.30)

r  γ  ρ   1 
 
 Apparently the efficiency of diesel cycle depends upon the compression ratio (r) and
cutoff ratio (ρ) and hence upon the quantity of heat supplied.
 Fig. 1.14 shows the air standard efficiency of diesel cycle for various cut off ratio.
 Further,

  1
K
    1

reveals that with an increase in the cut – off ratio (ρ) the value of factor K increases.
− That implies that for a diesel
engine at constant compression
ratio, the efficiency would
increase with decrease in ρ and in
the limit ρ → 1 , the efficiency
would become
1
1   1
r
ρ γ  1 
 Since the factor K  is
γ  ρ   1  Fig. 1.14 Efficiency of Diesel cycle for various cut-off
always greater than unity, the ratio
Diesel cycle is always less efficient than a corresponding Otto cycle having the same
compression ratio.
 However Diesel engine operates on much higher compression ratio (14 to 18)
compared to those for S.I. Engines operating on Otto cycle.
 High compression ratios for Diesel engines are must not only for high efficiency but
also to prevent diesel knock; a phenomenon which leads to uncontrolled and rapid
combustion in diesel engines.

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Page 1.24 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 1. Introduction

Mean Effective Pressure:

 Net work done per unit mass of air,

Wnet  C p T3  T2   CV T4  T1  (1.31)

 Swept volume,

 V  RT  1 
Swept volume V1 V2 V1 1  2   1 1  
 V1  P1  r 
RT1
  r 1 (1.32)
Pr
1

 Mean effective pressure,

Work done per cycle
mep 
swept volume

CP T3  T2   CV T4  T1 
 mep 
RT1
 r  1
Pr
1

CV Pr   T3  T2   T4  T1  
 mep  1
  (1.33)
R  r  1  T1 
 From equation 1.27, 1.31 and 1.33,
T2  T1 r  1

T3  T1 r  1 

T4  T1  

CV Pr   T1 r  1  T1 r  1   T1    T1  

 mep  1
 
R  r  1  T1 

P1r
 mep  γr γ 1   ρ 1      ργ  1   (1.34)
 γ  1 r  1  

1.10.3 The Dual Combustion Cycle OR The Limited Pressure Cycle

 This is a cycle in which the addition of heat is partly at constant volume and partly at
constant pressure.
Adiabatic Compression Process (1 – 2):
V
 Isentropic (Reversible adiabatic) compression with r  1 .
V2
Constant Volume Heat Addition Process (2 – 3):
P3
 The heat is supplied at constant volume with explosion ratio or pressure ratio   .
P2
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Darshit S. Dadhaniya
Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 1.25
1. Introduction Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

Fig. 1.15 p-V and T-s diagrams of Diesel cycle

Constant Pressure Heat Addition Process (3 – 4):
 The heat supply is stopped at point 4 which is called the cut – off point and the volume
V
ratio   4 is called cut off ratio.
V3
Adiabatic Expansion Process (4 – 5):
V5
 Isentropic expansion of air with  isentropic expansion ratio.
V4

Constant Volume Heat Rejection Process (5 – 1):

 In this process heat is rejected at constant volume.
− The high speed Diesel engines work on a cycle which is slight modification of the Dual
cycle.

Thermal Efficiency for Dual Cycle:

 Consider unit mass of air undergoing the cyclic change.
 Heat supplied,
q1  q23  q34
q1  CV T3  T2   C P T4  T3 
 Heat rejected during process 5 – 1,

q2  CV T5  T1 

− Work done,
W  q1  q2
W  CV T3  T2   CP T4  T3   CV  T5  T1 

 Thermal efficiency,

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 1. Introduction

Work done

Heat supplied

CV T3  T2   CP T4  T3   CV  T5  T1 
 
CV T3  T2   CP T4  T3 

  1 
T5  T1  (1.35)
T3  T2    T4 T3 
 For adiabatic compression process (1 – 2),
V1
r (1.36)
V2

P2  V1 
 
P1  V2 

P2  Pr
1 (1.37)
 1
V 
T2  T1  1   T1 r  1 (1.38)
 V2 
 For constant volume heat addition process (2 – 3)
V1
V3 V2 
r
P3
  Pressure ratio  (1.39)
P2
 P3  P2    P1  r   
P3
T3  T2
P2
 T2 
T3  T1 r  1 (1.40)
 For constant pressure heat addition process (3 – 4)

1 

P3  P4  Pr (1.41)
V4
  Cutoff ratio  (1.42)
V3
V4
T4  T3
V3
T4 T3 
T4  T1 r  1 (1.43)
− For adiabatic expansion process (4 – 5),
 
4 4  PV
PV 5 5

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Darshit S. Dadhaniya

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1. Introduction Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

P5  P4 V4 / V5   P3 V4 / V1   V1  V5 & P3  P4 

 

 
V V  V V 
P5  P3  4 3   P3  4 2   V3  V2 
 V1 V3   V1 V3 

V /V 
P5  P3  4 3   P3   / r           i 

(1.44)
 V1 / V2 
and
 1
V 
T5  T4  4 
 V5 
 1

T5  T4  
r
T1 r  1    1
T5 
r  1
T5  T1   (1.45)
− From equation 1.39,

 1 
T5  T1 
T3  T2    T4  T3 

 1 
T    T  1

1

T r  T r    T r   T r
1
 1
1
 1
1
 1
1 
 1

 1 
   1 

 r  1   1       1

1 
 η 1     γ 1  
 αργ 1   
 (1.46)
r   α   1  γα  ρ  1 
 
 It can be seen from the equation 1.50 that the thermal efficiency of a Dual cycle can
be increased by supplying a greater portion of heat at constant volume (high value of
𝛼) and smaller portion at constant pressure (low value of 𝜌).
 In the actual high speed Diesel engines operating on this cycle, it is achieved by early
fuel injection and an early cut-off.
 It is to be noted that Otto and Diesel cycles are special cases of the Dual cycle.
 If 𝜌 = 1 (𝑉3 = 𝑉4 )
− Hence, there is no addition of heat at constant pressure. Consequently the entire heat
is supplied at constant volume and the cycle becomes the Otto cycle.
− By substituting 𝜌 = 1 in equation 1.50, we get,
1
𝜂 = 1 − (𝛾−1) = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑟
 Similarly if 𝛼 = 1, the heat addition is only at constant pressure and cycle becomes
Diesel cycle.
Prepared By: Darshit S. Dadhaniya Department of Mechanical Engineering
Page 1.28 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 1. Introduction

− By substituting 𝛼 = 1 in equation 1.50, we get,

1 (𝜌𝛾 − 1)
𝜂 = 1 − 𝛾−1 [ ] = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑟 𝛾(𝜌 − 1)
− Mean Effective Pressure:
 Net work done per unit mass of air,

Wnet  CV T3  T2   C p T4  T3   CV T5  T1  (1.47)

 Swept volume,

 V  RT  1 
Swept Volume V1 V2 V1 1  2   1 1  
 V1  P1  r 
RT1
  r 1 (1.48)
Pr
1

 Mean effective pressure,

Work done per cycle
mep 
swept volume

CV T3  T2   C p T4  T3   CV T5  T1 

 mep 
RT1
 r  1
Pr
1

CV Pr  T3  T2    T4  T3   T5  T1  

 mep  1
 
R  r  1  T1 
 From equation 1.42, 1.44, 1.47 and 1.49,
T2  T1 r  1
T3  T1 r  1  
T4  T1 r  1    
T5  T1   

CV Pr   T1 r  1  T1 r  1    T1 r  1  T1 r  1   T1   T1  

 mep  1
 
R  r  1  T1 

P1r
 mep   α –1   r γ 1  γαr γ 1  ρ  1    αργ  –1    (1.49)
 γ  1 r  1  

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Darshit S. Dadhaniya

Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 1.29
2
FUEL AIR CYCLES & ACTUAL AIR CYCLES

Course Contents

2.1 Fuel-Air cycle

2.2 Variable specific heat
2.3 Change of internal energy and
enthalpy during a process
with variable specific heats
2.4 Isentropic expansion with
variable specific heats
2.5 Effect of variable specific
heats on air standard
efficiency of Otto and Diesel
cycle
2.6 Dissociation
2.7 Effect of operating variables
2.8 Comparison of air standard
and actual cycle
2.9 Deviation of actual cycle from
fuel air cycle
2.10 Valve and Port timing diagram

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2. Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

2.1 Fuel-Air cycle

2.1.1 Introduction
− The air cycle approximation of air standard theory has highly simplified assumptions.
The air standard theory gives an estimate of engine performance which is much
greater than the actual performance. For example the actual indicated thermal
efficiency of a petrol engine of, say compression ratio 7:1, is of the order of 30%
whereas the air standard efficiency is of the order of 54%.
− This large divergence is partly due to non-instantaneous burning and valve operation,
incomplete combustion, etc. But the main reason of divergence is the
oversimplification in using the values of the properties of the working fluid for cycle
analysis.
− In the air cycle analysis it was assumed that the working fluid is nothing but air and
this air was a perfect gas and had constant specific heats.
− In actual engine the working fluid is not air but a mixture of air, fuel and residual gases.
Furthermore, the specific heats of the working fluid are not constant but increase as
temperature rises, and finally, the products of combustion are subjected to
dissociation at high temperature.
2.1.2 Factors considered for Fuel-Air cycle calculations
The following factors are taken into consideration while making fuel-air cycle
calculations:
− The actual composition of the cylinder gases: The cylinder gases con-tains fuel, air,
water vapour and residual gas. The fuel-air ratio changes during the operation of the
engine which changes the relative amounts of CO2, water vapour, etc.
− The variation in the specific heat with temperature: Specific heats increase with
temperature except for mono-atomic gases. Therefore, the value of γ also changes
with temperature.
− The effect of dissociation: The fuel and air do not completely combine chemically at
high temperatures (above 1600 K) and this leads to the presence of CO, H2, H and O2
at equilibrium conditions.
− The variation in the number of molecules: The number of molecules present after
combustion depends upon fuel-air ratio and upon the pressure and temperature after
the combustion.
2.1.3 Assumptions made for Fuel-Air cycle analysis
− There is no chemical change in either fuel or air prior to combustion.
− Subsequent to combustion, the charge is always in chemical equilibrium.
− There is no heat exchange between the gases and the cylinder walls in any process,
i.e. they are adiabatic. Also the compression and expansion processes are frictionless.
− In case of reciprocating engines it is assumed that fluid motion can be ignored inside
the cylinder.
− With particular reference to constant- volume fuel-air cycle, it is also assumed that

Prepared By: Darshit S. Dadhaniya Department of Mechanical Engineering

Page 2.2 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 2. Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

− The fuel is completely vaporized and perfectly mixed with the air, and
− The burning takes place instantaneously at top dead centre (at constant
volume).
2.1.4 Importance of Fuel-Air cycle
− The air-standard cycle analysis shows the general effect of only compression ratio on
engine efficiency whereas the fuel-air cycle analysis gives the effect of variation of
fuel-air ratio, inlet pressure and temperature on the engine performance. It will be
noticed that compression ratio and fuel-air ratio are very important parameters of the
engine while inlet conditions are not so important.
− The actual efficiency of a good engine is about 85 per cent of the estimated fuel-air
cycle efficiency. A good estimate of the power to be expected from the actual engine
can be made from fuel-air cycle analysis. Also, peak pressures and exhaust
temperatures which affect the engine structure and design can be estimated
reasonably close to an actual engine. Thus the effect of many variables on the
performance of an engine can be understood better by fuel-air cycle analysis.

2.2 Variable Specific Heats

− All gases, except mono-atomic gases, show an increase in specific heat with
temperature. The increase in specific heat does not follow any particular law.
However, over the temperature range generally encountered for gases in heat engines
(300 K to 2000 K) the specific heat curve is nearly a straight line which may be
approximately expressed in the form
C p  a1  K1T
(2.1)
Cv  b1  K1T
where a1,b1 and K1 are constants. Now,
R  C p  Cv  a1  b1 (2.2)
where R is the characteristic gas constant.
− Above 1500 K the specific heat increases much more rapidly and may be expressed in
the form
C p  a1  K1T  K 2T 2 (2.3)
Cv  b1  K1T  K 2T 2 (2.4)
− In above equations if the term T2 is neglected it becomes same as Eqn.2.1. Many
expressions are available even upto sixth order of T (i.e. T6) for the calculation of Cp
and Cv.
− The physical explanation for increase in specific heat is that as the temperature is
raised, larger fractions of the heat would be required to produce motion of the atoms
within the molecules. Since temperature is the result of motion of the molecules, as a
whole, the energy which goes into moving the atoms does not contribute to
proportional temperature rise. Hence, more heat is required to raise the temperature

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2. Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

of unit mass through one degree at higher levels. This heat by definition is the specific
heat. The values for Cp and Cv for air are usually taken as
Cp =1.005 kJ/kg K , Cv =0.717 kJ/kg K at 300 K
Cp =1.345 kJ/kg K , Cv =1.057 kJ/kg K at 2000 K
− Since the difference between Cp and Cv is constant, the value of γ decreases with
increase in temperature. Thus, if the variation of specific heats is taken into account
during the compression stroke, the final temperature and pressure would be lower
than if constant values of specific heat are used. This point is illustrated in Fig.2.1.

Fig. 2.1 Loss of power due to variation of specific heat

− With variable specific heats, the temperature at the end of compression will be 2',
instead of 2. The magnitude of drop in temperature is proportional to the drop in the
value of ratio of specific heats. For the process 1—>2, with constant specific heats
 1
v 
T2  T1  1  (2.5)
 v2 
with variable specific heats,
k 1
v 
T2'  T1  1  (2.6)
 v2' 
Cp
where k  . Note that v2’ = v2 and v1/v2 = v1/v2’ = r.
Cv
− For given values of T1, p1 and r, the magnitude of T2 depends on k. Constant volume
combustion, from point 2 ' will give a temperature T3’ instead of T3. This is due to the
fact that the rise in the value of Cv because of variable specific heat, which reduces the
temperature as already explained.
− The process, 2'-3' is heat addition with the variation in specific heat. From 3', if
expansion takes place at constant specific heats, this would result in the process 3'-4"
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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 2. Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

whereas actual expansion due to variable specific heat will result in 3'-4' and 4' is
higher than 4". The magnitude in the difference between 4' and 4 " is proportional to
the reduction in the value of γ.
− Consider the process 3'-4"
k 1
v 
T4"  T3'  3  (2.7)
 v4 
For the process 3’-4’
 1
v 
T4'  T3'  3  (2.8)
v
 4
− Reduction in the value of k due to variable specific heat results in increase of
temperature from T4” to T4’.
2.3 Change of Internal energy and enthalpy during a process with
variable specific heats
2.3.1 Change of Internal energy
− The small change in internal energy of a unit mass of a gas for small change in
temperature (dT) is given by:
du  Cv dT
T2
 u2  u1   Cv dT
T1
T2
  (b  KT ) dT
T1
T2
 T2  K
 bT  K   b T2  T1   T22  T12 
 2 T 2
1

 T  T  
 T2  T1  b  K 2 1 
 2 
T1  T2
 T2  T1  b  KTm  where, Tm 
2
Cvm  b  KTm ( Cvm mean specific heat at constant volume)
 u2  u1  Cvm T2  T1  (2.9)
2.3.2 Change of Enthalpy
− The small change in enthalpy of a unit mass of a gas for small change in temperature
(dT) is given by:
dh  C p dT

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Darshit S. Dadhaniya

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2. Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

T2
 h2  h1   C p dT
T1
T2
  (a  KT ) dT
T1
T2
 T2  K
  aT  K   a T2  T1   T22  T12 
 2 T 2
1

 T  T  
 T2  T1   a  K 2 1 
 2 
T1  T2
 T2  T1  a  KTm  where, Tm 
2
C pm  a  KTm ( C pm mean specific heat at constant pressure)
 h2  h1  C pm T2  T1  (2.10)

2.4 Isentropic expansion with variable specific heats

− Consider one kg of air, the heat transfer to a system using first law can be written as
dQ  du  dW
dQ  Cv dT  pdv
− For isentropic process, dQ  0
 Cv dT  pdv  0
dT p
 Cv
 dv  0
T T
dT dv
 Cv R 0  pv  RT 
T v
− Putting the values of R and Cv in the above equation, we get
dT dv
  b  KT   a  b  0
T v
− Integrating both sides we get
dT dv
   b  KT     a  b   constant
T v
dT dv
 b  K  dT   a  b    constant
T v
 b log e T  KT  (a  b) log e v  constant
 log e T b  log e e KT  log e v ( a b )  constant
 T beKT v( ab)  constant
K a
T ( 1)
 Te b v b
 constant (2.11)
T Kb T ba
 e v  constant (2.12)
v
T p p
pv  RT   
v R a b
Prepared By: Darshit S. Dadhaniya Department of Mechanical Engineering
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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 2. Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

− Inserting the value of above equation in eq. 2.13.

p Kb T ba
 e v  constant
a b
a KT
 pv b e b
 constant (2.13)

2.5 Effect of variable specific heats on air standard efficiency of Otto

and diesel cycle
2.5.1 Otto cycle
− The air standard efficiency of Otto cycle is given by
1
  1   1
r
Now, C p  Cv  R
Cp R
 1 
Cv Cv
R  Cp 
  1     (2.14)
Cv  Cv 

R
1 
  1 R
 1 r Cv

Cv
r
R
 1    r 

Cv

− Taking log on both sides, we have

R
 log e 1      log e  r 
Cv
− Differentiating the above equation, we have
1 d  1 
   R log e r   2 
1   dCv  Cv 
d R dC
    log e r  v
1  Cv Cv
d 1  dCv
      1  log e r  (2.15)
  Cv
− Negative sign indicates the decrease in efficiency with increase in Cv.
− The Eq. 2.15 gives the percentage variation in air standard efficiency of Otto cycle on
account of percentage variation in Cv.
2.5.2 Diesel Cycle
− The air standard efficiency of diesel cycle is given by

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Darshit S. Dadhaniya

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2. Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

1    1 
  1  1  
 r       1 
1    1 
1     1  
 r       1 
− Taking log on both sides, we get
 log 1     log     1  log  r   log   log    1
 1

 log 1     log     1    1 log r  log   log    1

− Differentiating the above equation with respect to γ
1 d 1 1
       log e   log e r 
1  d   1 

d    log e  1 
  1    log e r   
d    1 
d
− Multiplying the above equation by

d  1      log e  1 
  log
 e r      d (2.16)
      
 1 
R
− Eq. 2.14 is   1  , differentiating this equation with respect to Cv
Cv
d R R dCv
  2  d   
dCv Cv Cv Cv
dCv
d       1  (2.17)
Cv
− Inserting the value of Eq. 2.17 into Eq. 2.16, we get
d 1     log e  1  dCv
      1 log e r    (2.18)
     1   Cv

2.6 Dissociation
− Dissociation process can be considered as the disintegration of combustion products
at high temperature.
− Dissociation can also be looked as the reverse process to combustion. During
dissociation the heat is absorbed whereas during combustion the heat is liberated.
− In IC engines, mainly dissociation of CO2 into CO and O2 occurs, whereas there is a very
little dissociation of H2O.
− The dissociation of CO2 into CO and O2 starts commencing around 1000 °C and the
reaction equation can be written as
2CO2  Heat 2CO  O2

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Page 2.8 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 2. Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

− Similarly, the dissociation of H2O occurs at temperatures above 1300 °C and written
as
2H2O  Heat 2H 2  O2
− The presence of CO and O2 in the gases tends to prevent dissociation of CO2; this is
noticeable in a rich fuel mixture, which, by producing more CO, suppresses
dissociation of CO2.
− On the other hand, there is no dissociation in burnt gases of a lean fuel-air mixture.
This is mainly due to the fact that temperature produced is too low for this
phenomenon to occur.
− Hence, the maximum extent of dissociation occurs in the burnt gases of the chemically
correct fuel-air mixture when the temperatures are expected to be high but decreases
with the leaner and richer mixtures.
− In case of internal combustion engines heat transfer to the cooling medium causes a
reduction in the maximum temperature and pressure. As the temperature falls during
the expansion stroke the separated constituents recombine; the heat absorbed during
dissociation is thus again released, but it is too late in the stroke to recover entirely
the lost power. A portion of this heat is carried away by the exhaust gases.

Fig. 2.2 Effect of dissociation on temperature

− Figure 2.2 shows a typical curve that indicates the reduction in the temperature of the
exhaust gas mixtures due to dissociation with respect to air-fuel ratio. With no
dissociation maximum temperature is attained at chemically correct air-fuel ratio.
− With dissociation maximum temperature is obtained when mixture is slightly rich.
Dissociation reduces the maximum temperature by about 300 °C even at the
chemically correct air-fuel ratio. In the Fig. 2.2, lean mixtures and rich mixtures are
marked clearly.

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2. Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

Fig. 2.3 Effect of dissociation on power

− The effect of dissociation on output power is shown in Fig.2.3 for a typical four-stroke
spark-ignition engine operating at constant speed. If there is no dissociation the brake
power output is maximum when the mixture ratio is stoichiometric.
− The shaded area between the brake power graphs shows the loss of power due to
dissociation. When the mixture is quite lean there is no dissociation. As the air-fuel
ratio decreases i.e., as the mixture becomes rich the maximum temperature raises and
dissociation commences.
− The maximum dissociation occurs at
chemically correct mixture strength.
As the mixture becomes richer,
dissociation effect tends to decline
due to incomplete combus-tion.
− Dissociation effects are not so
pronounced in a Cl engine as in an SI
engine. This is mainly due to
(i) the presence of a heterogeneous
mixture and
(ii) excess air to ensure complete
combustion.
Both these factors tend to reduce the Fig. 2.4 Effect of dissosiation shown on a p-V
diagram
peak gas temperature attained in the Cl
engine.
− Figure 2.4 shows the effect of dissociation on p-V diagram of Otto cycle. Because of
lower maximum temperature due to dissociation the maximum pressure is also
reduced and the state after combustion will be represented by 3' instead of 3. If there
was no reassociation due to fall of temperature during expansion the expansion

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 2. Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

process would be represented by 3'-4" but due to reassociation the expansion follows
the path 3'-4'.
− By comparing with the ideal expansion 3-4, it is observed that the effect of dissociation
is to lower the temperature and consequently the pressure at the beginning of the
expansion stroke. This causes a loss of power and also efficiency. Though during
recombining the heat is given back it is too late to contribute a convincing positive
increase in the output of the engine.

2.7 Effect of operating variables

The effect of common engine operating variables on the pressure and temperature
within the engine cylinder is better understood by fuel-air cycle analysis. The details
are discussed in this section:
2.7.1 Compression Ratio
− The fuel-air cycle efficiency increases with the compression ratio in the same manner
as the air-standard cycle efficiency, principally for the same reason (more scope of
expansion work. This is shown in fig 2.5.

Fig. 2.5 Effect of compression ratio and mixture strength on efficiency

− The variation of indicated thermal efficiency with respect to the equivalence ratio for
various compression ratios is given in fig 2.6. The equivalence ratio,  , is defined as
ratio of actual fuel-air ratio to chemically correct fuel-air ratio on mass basis.

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Fig. 2.6 Effect of mixture strength on thermal efficiency for various compression ratios
− The maximum pressure and temperature increase with compression ratio since the
temperature, T2, and pressure, p2, at the end of compression are higher. However, it
can be noted from the experimental results that the ratio of fuel-air cycle efficiency to
air-standard efficiency is independent of the compression ratio for given equivalence
ratio for the constant volume fuel-air cycle.
2.7.2 Fuel Air ratio
a) Efficiency
− As the mixture is made lean (less
fuel) the temperature rise due to
combustion will be lowered as a
result of reduced energy input per
unit mass of mixture. This will result
in lower specific heat.
− Further, it will lower the losses due
to dissociation and variation in
specific heat. The efficiency is
therefore, higher and, in fact,
approaches the air-cycle efficiency
as the fuel-air ratio is reduced as Fig. 2.7 Effect of mixture strength on thermal
efficiency
shown in Fig. 2.7.
b) Maximum Power
− Fig. 2.8 gives the cycle power as affected by fuel-air ratio. By air-standard theory
maximum power is at chemically correct mixture, but by fuel-air theory maximum

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 2. Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

power is when the mixture is about 10% rich. As the mixture becomes richer the
efficiency falls rapidly.

Fig. 2.8 Effect of fuel-air ratio on power

− This is because in addition to higher specific heats and chemical equilibrium losses,
there is insufficient air which will result in formation of CO and H2 in combustibles,
which represents a direct wastage of fuel.
c) Maximum temperature
− At a given compression ratio the
temperature after combustion
reaches a maximum when the
mixture is slightly rich, i.e., around
6 % or so (F/A = 0.072 or A/F = 14:1)
as shown in Fig. 2.9.
− At chemically correct ratio there is
still some oxygen present at the point
3 because of chemical equilibrium
effects a rich mixture will cause more
fuel to combine with oxygen at that
point thereby raising the
temperature T3. However, at richer
mixtures increased formation of CO
counters this effect.
d) Maximum Pressure
− The pressure of a gas in a given space
Fig. 2.9 Effect of equivalence ratio on T3 and P3
depends upon its temperature and
the number of molecules The curve of p3, therefore follows T3, but because of the
increasing number of molecules p3 does not start to decrease until the mixture is
somewhat richer than that for maximum T3 (at F/A = 0.083 or A/F = 12:1), i.e. about
20 per cent rich (Fig.2.9).

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e) Exhaust Temperature
− The exhaust gas temperature, T4 is
maximum at the chemically correct
mixture as shown in Fig. 2.10. At
this point there is reassociation as
the temperature decrease so heat
will be released these heat cannot
be used in engine cylinder so the
exhaust gases carry these heat with
them and it result in higher exhaust
temperature.
− At lean mixtures, because of less
fuel, T3 is less and hence T4 is less.
At rich mixtures less sensible
energy is developed and hence T4 is
less. That is, T4 varies with fuel-air
ratio in the same manner as T3
Fig. 2.10 Effect of fuel-air ratio on the exhaust gas
except that maximum T4 is at the temperature
chemically correct fuel-air ratio in
place of slightly rich fuel-air ratio (6 %) as in case of T3.
− However, the behaviour of T4 with compression ratio is different from that of T3 as
shown in Fig. 2.10 Unlike T3, the exhaust gas temperature, T4 is lower at high
compression ratios, because the increased expansion causes the gas to do more work
on the piston leaving less heat to be rejected at the end of the stroke. The same effect
is present in the case of air-cycle analysis also.

2.8 Comparison of air standard and actual cycles

The actual cycles for internal combustion engines differ from air-standard cycles in
many respects. These differences are mainly due to:
− The working substance being a mixture of air and fuel vapour or finely atomized liquid
fuel in air combined with the products of combustion left from the previous cycle.
− The change in chemical composition of the working substance.
− The variation of specific heats with temperature.
− The change in the composition, temperature and actual amount of fresh charge
because of the residual gases.
− The progressive combustion rather than the instantaneous combustion.
− The heat transfer to and from the working medium
− The substantial exhaust blowdown loss, i.e., loss of work on the expan-sion stroke due
to early opening of the exhaust valve.
− Gas leakage, fluid friction etc., in actual engines.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 2. Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

Most of the factors listed above tend to decrease the thermal efficiency and power
output of the actual engines. On the other hand, the analysis of the cycles while taking
these factors into account clearly indicates that the estimated thermal efficiencies are
not very different from those of the actual cycles.

2.9 Deviation of Actual cycle from Fuel-Air cycle

− Major deviation from of actual cycle from the Fuel air cycle is due to
− Variation in Specific heats
− Dissociation
− Progressive combustion
− Incomplete combustion of fuel
− Time loss factor
− Heat loss factor
− Exhaust blowdown factor
2.9.1 Time losses
Time losses may be burning time loss and spark timings loss.
a) Burning time loss
− In theoretical cycle, the burning is assumed to be instantaneous but actually burning
takes some time. The time required depends upon F:A ratio, fuel chemical structure
and its ignition temperature. This also depends upon the flame velocity and the
distance from the ignition point to the opposite side of combustion chamber.
− During combustion, there is always increase in volume. The time internal between the
spark and complete burning of the charge is approximately 40° crank rotation.

Fig. 2.11 Effect of time losses on p-V diagram

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− The effect of time required for combustion; the maximum pressure is not produced
when volume is minimum (vc) as expected. It is produced some time after TDC.
Therefore, the pressure rises from b to c as shown in Fig. 2.11.
− The point 3 represents the maximum pressure if the combustion should have taken
place instantly. The difference in area of actual cycle and fuel-air cycle shows the loss
of power as shown in Fig. 2.11. This loss of work is called burning time loss. This time
loss is defined as the loss of power due to time required for mixing the fuel with air
and for complete combustion.
b) Spark Timing Loss
− A definite time is required to start the burning of fuel after generating the spark in the
cylinder. The effect of this, the maximum pressure is not reached at TDC and it reaches
late during the expansion stroke. The time at which the burning starts is varied by
varying the angle of advance (spark advance).
− If the spark is given at T.D.C., the maximum pressure is low due to expansion
of gases.
− If the spark is advanced by 40° to start combustion at T.D.C., the combustion
takes place at T.D.C. But the heat loss and the exhaust loss may be higher and
again work obtained is not optimum.
− In the above two cases, the work area is less, and, therefore, power developed per
cycle and efficiency are lower.

Fig. 2.12 Effects of angle of advance a on p - v diagram

− Thus for getting maximum work output, a moderate spark advance of 15° to 25° is the
best.
c) Incomplete Combustion Loss
− The time loss always includes a loss due to incomplete combustion. It is impossible
obtain perfect homogeneous air-fuel mixture. Fuel vapour, air, and residual gas is
present in the cylinder before ignition takes place. Under these circumstances it is
possible to have excess oxygen in one part of the cylinder and excess fuel in another
part of it. Therefore, some fuel does not burn or burns partially. Both CO and O2 will
appear in the exhaust.
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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 2. Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

− It should be noted that it is necessary to use a lean mixture to eliminate fuel wastage
while a rich mixture is required to utilize all the oxygen. Slightly leaner mixture will
give maximum efficiency but too lean a mixture will burn slowly, increasing the losses
or will not burn at all causing total waste. In the rich mixture some of the fuel will not
get oxygen and will be completely wasted. Also, the flame speed in the rich mixture is
low, thereby increasing the time losses and lowering the efficiency.
2.9.2 Direct heat loss
− During the combustion process and expansion process, the gases inside the engine
cylinder are at a considerably higher temperature, so the heat is lost to the jacket
cooling water or air. Some heat is lost to the lubricating oil where splash lubrication
system is used for lubricating cylinder and piston.
− The loss of heat which takes place during combustion has the maximum effect, while
that lost before the end of the expansion stroke has little effect, since it can do very
small amount of useful work.
− During combustion and expansion, about 15% of the total heat is lost. Out of this,
however, much is lost too late in the cycle to have done any useful work.
− In case all heat loss is recovered, about 20 percent of it may appear as useful work.
2.9.3 Exhaust blowdown loss
− At the end of exhaust stroke, the
cylinder pressure is about 7 bar. If
the exhaust valve is opened at
B.D.C., the piston has to do work
against high cylinder pressure
costing part of the exhaust stroke.
When the exhaust valve is opened
too early entire part of the
expansion stroke is lost.
− Thus, best compromise is that
exhaust valve be opened 40° to 70°
before B.D.C., thereby, reducing the
cylinder pressure to halfway to Fig. 2.13 Effect of blow down
atmosphere before the start of the
exhaust stroke.

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2. Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

2.9.4 Pumping losses

− In case of ideal cycles the suction and
exhaust processes were assumed to be
at atmospheric pressure. However some
pressure differential is required to carry
out the suction and exhaust processes
between the fluid pressure and cylinder
pressures.
− During suction the cylinder pressure is
lower them the fluid pressure in order to
induct the fluid into the cylinder and the Fig. 2.14 Pumping Loss
exhaust gases are expelled at a pressure higher than the atmospheric pressure.
− Therefore some work is done on the gases during suction and exhaust stroke. This
work is called pumping work as shown in Fig. 2.14 by shaded area.
2.9.5 Rubbing Friction Losses
− The rubbing friction losses are caused due to
− Friction between piston and cylinder walls
− Friction in various bearings
− Friction in auxiliary equipment such as pumps and fans.
− The piston friction increases rapidly with engine speed and to small extent by
in-creases in m.e.p.
− The bearing and auxiliary friction also increase with engine speed.
− The engine efficiency is maximum at full load and reduces with the decrease in load.
It is due to the fact that direct heat loss, pumping loss and rubbing friction loss increase
at lower loads.

2.10 Valve and port timing diagrams

− The valve timing diagram shows the position of the crank when the various operations
i.e., suction, compression, expansion exhaust begin and end.
− The valve timing is the regulation of the positions in the cycle at which the valves are
set to at open and close
− The poppet valves of the reciprocating engines are opened and closed by cam
mechanisms. The clearance between cam, tappet and valve must be slowly taken up
and valve slowly lifted, at first, if noise and wear is to be avoided. For the same reasons
the valve cannot be closed abruptly, else it will bounce on its seat. (Also, the cam
contours should be so designed as to produce gradual and smooth changes in
directional acceleration).
− Thus, the valve opening and closing periods are spread over a considerable number of
crankshaft degrees. As a result, the opening of the valve must commence ahead of the
time at which it is fully opened (i.e. before dead centres). The same reasoning applies
for the closing time and the valves must close after the dead centres.
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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 2. Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

2.10.1 Valve timing diagram of 4-Stroke Petrol engine

− The actual valve timings used for low speed and high speed engines are shown in Fig.
2.15 (a) and (b).
a) Inlet valve
− The inlet valve opening occurs a few degrees prior to the arrival of the piston at TDC
during the exhaust stroke. This is necessary to insure that the valve will be fully open
and fresh charge starts to flow into the cylinder as soon as the piston starts to move
down.
− If the inlet valve is allowed to close at BDC, the cylinder would receive less charge than
its capacity and the pressure of the charge at the end of suction stroke will be below
atmosphere. To avoid this, the inlet valve is kept open for 40°-50° rotation of the crank
after the suction stroke for high speed engine and 20° to 25° for low speed engine.
− The kinetic energy of the charge produces a ram effect which packs more charge into
the cylinder during this additional valve opening. Therefore, the inlet valve closing is
delayed.
− Higher the speed of the engine, the inlet valve closing is delayed longer to take an
advantage of ram effect.

Fig. 2.15 Valve timing diagram for low and high speed 4-stroke SI engine
b) Exhaust valve
− The exhaust valve is set to open before BDC (say about 25° before BDC in low speed
engines and 55° before BDC in high speed engines).

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2. Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

− If the exhaust valve did not start to open until BDC, the pressures in the cylinder would
be considerably above atmospheric pressure during the first portion of the exhaust
stroke, increasing the work required to expel the exhaust gases. But opening the
exhaust valve earlier reduces the pressure near the end of the power stroke and thus
causes some loss of useful work on this stroke.
− However, the overall effect of opening the valve prior to the time the piston reaches
BDC results in overall gain in output.
− The closing time of exhaust valve effects the volumetric efficiency. By closing the
exhaust valve a few degrees after TDC (about 15° in case of low speed engines and 20°
in case of high speed engines) the inertia of the exhaust gases tends to scavenge the
cylinder by carrying out a greater mass of the gas left in the clearance volume. This
results in increased volumetric efficiency.
c) Ignition
− Theoretically it is assumed that spark is given at the TDC and fuel burns
instantaneously. However, there is always a time lag between the spark and ignition
of the charge. The ignition starts some time after giving the spark, therefore it is
necessary to produce the spark before piston reaches the TDC to obtain proper
combustion without losses. The angle through which the spark is given earlier is
known as "Ignition Advance" or "Angle of Advance".
d) Valve Overlap
− From the valve timing diagram it is obvious that there will a period when both the
intake and exhaust valves are open at the same time. This is called valve overlap (say
about 15° in low speed engine and 30° in high speed engines). This overlap should not
be excessive otherwise it will allow the burned gases to be sucked into the intake
manifold, or the fresh charge to escape through the exhaust valve.
2.10.2 Valve timing diagram of 4-Stroke Diesel engine
− The actual valve timing diagram of 4-Stroke Diesel cycle engine is shown in fig. 2.16.
The various strokes are modified for similar reasons as explained in case of petrol
engine.
Fuel Injection Timing
− The opening of fuel valve is necessary for better evaporation and mixing of the fuel.
As there is always lag between ignition and supply of fuel, it is always necessary to
supply the fuel little earlier.
− In case of diesel engine, the overlapping provided is sufficiently large compared with
the petrol engine. More overlapping is not advisable in petrol engine because the
mixture of air and petrol may pass out with the exhaust gases and it is highly
uneconomical. This danger does not arise in case of diesel engine because only air is
taken during the suction stroke.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 2. Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles

1 – TDC
2 – BDC
3 – Inlet Valve Opens
4 – Inlet Valve Closes
5 – Fuel Valve Opens
6 – Fuel Valve Closes
7 – Exhaust Valve Opens
8 – Exhaust Valve Closes

2.16 Valve Timing Diagram of 4-Stroke Diesel Cycle Engine

− The valve timing of diesel engine have to be adjusted depending upon the speed of
the engine. The typical valve timings are as follows:
− IV opens at 250 before TDC
− IV closes at 300 after BDC
− Fuel injection starts at 50 before TDC
− Fuel injection closes at 250 after TDC
− EV opens at 450 before BDC
− EV closes at 150 after TDC
2.10.3 Port Timing Diagram of 2-stroke engine
− The port timing diagram for actual working of the two-stroke petrol and diesel engine
is shown in Fig. 2.17. The port timing diagram is self-explanatory.

(a) Petrol Engine (b) Diesel Engine

Fig. 2.17 Port Timing Diagram for 2-stroke Engine

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 3
COMBUSTION

Course Contents

3.1.− Combustion
Course Contents
3.2.1.1 Introduction
Combustion equation
3.3.1.2 Static Balancing
Composition of air
3.4.1.3 Types fraction
Mass of Balancing
and mole
1.4 Balancing of Several Masses
fraction
Rotating in the Same Plane
3.5. Stoichiometry
3.6.1.5 Dynamic Balancing
Determination of minimum
1.6
airBalancing of Several
for complete Masses
combustion
Rotatingof formation
3.7. Enthalpy in the different
Planes flame temperature
3.8. Adiabatic
3.9.− Calorific value of fuel and its
determination

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3. Combustion Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

3.1 Combustion
− In chemical thermodynamics the study of systems involving chemical reactions is
important topic. A chemical reaction may be defined as the rearrangement of atoms
due to redistribution of electrons. In a chemical reaction the terms, reactants and the
products are frequently used.
− ‘Reactants’ comprise of initial constituents which start the reaction while ‘products’
comprise of final constituents which are formed by the chemical reaction. Although
the basic principles which will be discussed in this chapter apply to any chemical
reaction, here main attention will be focused on an important type of chemical
reaction—“combustion”.
− Combustion is a chemical reaction that occurs when oxygen combines with other
substances to produce heat and usually light.
3.2 Combustion equations
− All fuels contain combustible elements such as C, H2 and S which readily combine with
oxygen and evolve heat during combustion. It is always necessary to supply sufficient
air for the complete combustion of fuels.
− The following chemical equations are used to calculate the amount of oxygen
required, and the amount of gases produced by the combustion of fuel,
− The oxygen supplied for combustion is usually provided by atmospheric air, and it is
necessary to use accurate and consistent analysis of air by mass and by volume. It is
usual in combustion calculations to take air as 23.3% O2, 76.7% N2 by mass, and 21%
O2, 79% N2 by volume.
− The small traces of other gases in dry air are included in nitrogen, which is sometimes
called ‘atmospheric nitrogen'. Some important combustion equations are given
below:
1) Combustion of Hydrogen:
2H2 + O2  2H2O
2 moles of H2 + 1 mole of O2  2 moles of H2O
4 kg of H2 + 32 kg of O2  36 kg of H2O
1 kg of H2 + 8 kg of O2  9 kg of H2O
2) Combustion of Carbon
a. Complete combustion of carbon to carbon dioxide
C + O2  CO2
1 mole of C + 1 mole of O2  1 moles of CO2
12 kg of C + 32 kg of O2  44 kg of CO2
8 11
1 kg of C + kg of O2  kg of H2O
3 3
b. Incomplete combustion of carbon to carbon monoxide
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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 3. Combustion

2C + O2  2CO
2 mole of C + 1 mole of O2  3 moles of CO
24 kg of C + 32 kg of O2  56 kg of CO2
4 7
1 kg of C + kg of O2  kg of H2O
3 3
3) Combustion of Sulphur
S + O2  SO2
1 mole of S + 1 mole of O2  1 moles of SO2
32 kg of S + 32 kg of O2  64 kg of SO2

1 kg of S + 1 kg of O2  2 kg of SO2

4) Combustion of Methane
CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O
1 mole of CH4 + 2 mole of O2  1 moles of CO2 + 2 mole of H2O
16 kg of CH4 + 64 kg of O2  44 kg of CO2 + 36 kg of H2O
11 9
1 kg of CH4 + 4 kg of O2  kg of CO2 + kg of H2O
4 4

3.3 Composition of Air

− Approximate composition of air by mass and by volume is shown in below table. Here
we assume that air contains nitrogen and oxygen only the rests are negligible.
Table 3.3.1 Composition of Air
By Volume By Mass Molecular Mass
79 % 77 %
N2 32
3.76 moles 3.347 kg
21 % 23 %
O2 28
1 mole 1 kg
100 % 100 %
Air 28.97 29
4.76 moles 4.347 kg

3.4 Mass fraction and Mole fraction

3.4.1 Mass Fraction
− It is defined as the ratio of mass of a constituent of a mixture or compound to the total
mass of mixture or compound.
Mass of a constituent in the mixture
Mass Fraction =
Mass of mixture

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3. Combustion Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

3.4.2 Mole fraction

− The ratio of moles of a constituent gas to the total moles of mixture of gases is called
the mole fraction.
Moles of a constituent in the mixture
Mole Fraction =
Total moles of mixture of gases
3.5 Stoichiometry
3.5.1 Air fuel Ratio:
ma
− It is expressed in a mass basis and defined as A/F ratio = .
mf
3.5.2 Stoichiometric (Theoretical) Air
− The minimum amount of air needed for the complete combustion of a fuel is called
the stoichiometric or theoretical air.
− A mixture of theoretical air and fuel is called Stoichiometric or Chemically correct
mixture.
3.5.3 Excess Air
− In practice the combustion of fuel is never complete due to non-homogeneity of
mixture.
− In order to ensure complete combustion of fuel, usually, actual air supplied is more
than the theoretical air required for complete combustion of fuel. Then,
Excess air = Actual air - Stoichiometric (theoretical) air
Actual A/F ratio - Stoichiometric A/F ratio
% excess air = ×100
Stoichiometric A/F ratio

− The magnitude of excess air supplied depends on the homogeneity of mixture,

turbulence and maximum pressure and temperature to be attained in combustion
process.
3.5.4 Equivalence Ratio (∅)
− It is a measure of the stoichiometric AF ratio relative to actual AF ratio.
AF FA
  st  a
AFa FAst
where AF = ma/mf, FA = mf/ma and FA = 1/AF.
− When   1 , mixture is stoichiometric.
− Lean mixture (   1 ): If actual A.F. ratio is more than stoichiometric A.F. ratio, the
mixture is said to lean or weak mixture.
− Rich mixture (   1 ): If actual A.F. ratio is less than stoichiometric A.F. ratio, the
mixture is said to rich mixture.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 3. Combustion

3.6 Determination of Minimum Air Required Per kg of Solid or Liquid

Fuel for Complete Combustion
− Let us consider 1 kg of fuel, the ultimate analysis of which shows that carbon is ‘C’ kg,
hydrogen is ‘H’ kg, sulphur is ‘S’ kg and oxygen is ‘O’ kg. The amount of oxygen required
can be computed with the help of combustion.
− From the combustion equations in section 3.2
8
1 kg of carbon requires kg of O2
3
8
C kg of carbon requires   C kg of O2
3
− Similarly,
H kg of hydrogen requires (8 H) kg of O2
S kg of hydrogen requires (S) kg of O2
Total oxygen required = (8/3)C + 8H + S kg
− Since O kg of oxygen is already present in the fuel. Therefore, minimum oxygen
required for complete combustion
Min. Oxygen required for complete combustion
8 8  O
   C  8H  S  O  C  8  H    S
3 3  8
− Air contains 23% of oxygen by mass and therefore kg of air required per kg of fuel for
complete combustion is given by
1 8  O  100
  C  8 H    S  
100  3  8  23
1 8  O 
  C  8 H    S 
23  3  8 
3.7 Enthalpy of formation
− A combustion reaction is a particular kind of chemical reaction in which products are
formed from reactants with the release or absorption of energy as heat is transferred
to and from the surroundings.
− In some substances like hydrocarbon fuels which are many in number and complex in
structure the heat of reaction or combustion may be calculated on the basis of known
values of the enthalpy of formation, ∆Hf of the constituent of the reactants and
products at the temperature T0 (reference temperature).
− The enthalpy of formation (∆Hf) is the increase in enthalpy when a compound is
formed from its constituent elements in their natural form and in a standard state.
− The standard state is 25°C, and 1 atm. pressure, but it must be borne in mind that not
all substances ran exist in natural form, e.g. H20 cannot be a vapour at 1 atm. and
25°C.
− The expression of a particular reaction, for calculation purposes, may be given as:

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3. Combustion Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

H 0   ni H fi   ni H fi
P R

− Typical values of ∆Hf for different substances at 25℃ (298 K) in kJ/mole are given
below:
Table 3.2 Values of Enthalpy of formation for different substances
Sr. No. Substance Formula State ∆Hf
1 Oxygen O Gas 249143
O2 Gas 0
2 Water H2O Liquid -285765
Vapour -241783
3 Carbon C Gas 714852
Diamond 1900
Graphite 0
4 Carbon Monoxide CO Gas -111508
5 Carbon Dioxide CO2 Gas -393443
6 Methane CH4 Gas -74855
7 Methyl alcohol CH3OH Vapour -240532
8 Ethyl alcohol C2H5OH Vapour -281102
9 Ethane C2H6 Gas -83870
10 Ethene (Ethylene) C2H4 Gas 51780
11 Propane C3H8 Gas -102900
12 Butane C4H10 Gas -125000
13 Octane C8H18 Liquid -247600

3.8 Adiabatic flame temperature

− In a given combustion process that takes place adiabatically and with no work or
changes in kinetic or potential energy involved, the temperature of the products is
referred to as the adiabatic flame temperature.
− With the assumptions of no work and no changes in kinetic or potential energy, this is
the maximum temperature that can be achieved for the given reactants because any
heat transfer from the reacting substances and any incomplete combustion would
tend to lower the temperature of the products.
− The following points are worth noting
i) The maximum temperature achieved through adiabatic complete combustion
varies with the type of reaction and percent of theoretical air supplied.
ii) For a given fuel and given pressure and temperature of the reactants, the
maximum adiabatic flame temperature that can be achieved is with a
stoichiometric mixture.
iii) The adiabatic flame temperature can be controlled by the amount of excess air
that is used. This is important, for example, in gas turbines, where the maximum
permissible temperature is determined by metallurgical consideration in turbine,
and close control of the temperature of the product is essential.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 3. Combustion

3.9 Calorific values of fuels and its determination

− The calorific value of the fuel is the amount of heat generated by burning unit mass or
unit volume of the fuel. A fuel is more desirable whose heat generating capacity is
high.
− If a fuel contains hydrogen, water will be formed as one of the products of combustion.
If this water is condensed, a large amount of heat will be released than if water exist
in the vapour phase.
− For this reason two heating values are defined; the higher or gross heating value and
the lower or net heating value.
− The C.V. of the fuel determined by an experiment gives H.C.V. as the products of
combustion are cooled to atmospheric temperature at which most water-vapour in
the exhaust is cooled and condensed and its latent heat is given to the cooling
medium.
− In actual practice, the latent heat of vapour in exhaust is carried with the water vapour
and is not available. Therefore the L.C.V. of the fuel is calculated by deducting latent
heat of water vapour from HCV (determined by experiment).
 LCV  HCV  mH2O  h fg
where mH 2O is the mass of water vapour formed per kg of fuel burned and hfg is the
latent heat of water vapour at partial water-vapour pressure in the exhaust gases.
− In actual practice, for all practical purposes, the LCV of the fuel is considered.
− Two different methods for finding HCV of liquid fuel and gaseous fuel are described
here.
3.9.1 Bomb calorimeter
− The calorific value of powdered and liquid fuels is determined at constant volume in
the bomb calorimeter. It resembles the shape of a bomb, and thus it is known as the
bomb calorimeter. It is shown in Fig. 3.1.
Construction
− The fuel is burnt in a strong steel chamber, known as bomb, which is immersed in a
known mass of water. The fuel sample is placed in a crucible inside the bomb, which
is filled with oxygen under a pressure above 25 atm. It is then ignited by an electrically
heated platinum wire. The combustion thus takes place at constant volume, the fuel
bums almost in a constant-pressure environment due to the high pressure of oxygen.
To reduce any losses of heat, the calorimeter is also provided with additional water
jacket and air. A motor-driven stirrer is used to keep the water temperature uniform
around the bomb and an accurate thermometer (Beckman type) is immersed in water
to measure the temperature accurately.
Procedure
− A known quantity of fuel sample as a briquette is placed into the crucible and a fuse
wire is connected with the electrodes as shown in Fig. 16.6. The bomb is then placed
in a calorimeter with a weighed quantity of water. After making necessary
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3. Combustion Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

connections, the stirrer is started and temperature measurements are taken every
minute. At the end of the fifth minute, a charge is fired and temperature readings are
taken carefully every 10 seconds during this period. When the temperature readings
begin to fall, the frequency of readings may be reduced to one every minute.

Fig.3.1 Sectional view of a bomb calorimeter

− After experimentation, the bomb is taken out from its housing. The products of
combustion are released through the release valve. Then it is opened, and the unburnt
fuse wire, if any, is collected and weighed. A temperature-time curve is plotted.
− The measured temperature rise is corrected for various losses. The allowance for
combustion of fuse wire is determined from the weight of the fuse and its known
calorific value. The water equivalence of a calorimeter must be used in calculation to
accommodate its allowance.
− The heat released by combustion of fuel is absorbed by water surrounding the bomb
and calorimeter. Thus an energy balance yields to
Mass of fuel  calorific   Mass of water equivalent 
 
value + mass of fuse   of calorimeter  specific 

wire burn  caloric   heat of water  corrected 
value of fuse wire   temperature rise 

m f CV  m fuseCV1  (mw  me )C pw T2  T1   Tc 

 mw  me  C pw T2  T1   Tc   m fuseCV1
CV  (3.1)
mf
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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 3. Combustion

where
Tc = radiation correction to temperature, it is obtained from graphical presentation of
observation before and after firing
mf = mass of fuel
mfuse = mass of fuse water
mw = mass of water filled in calorimeter
me = water equivalent of calorimeter
CV1 = Calorific value of fuse wire
T2 – T1 = Observed temperature difference
− The bomb calorimeter measures a higher calorific value of fuel. If a liquid fuel is being
tested, it is contained in a gelatin capsule and the firing may be assisted by paraffin of
known calorific value in the crucible.
3.9.2 Junkers gas calorimeter
− Junkers gas calorimeter is shown in fig. 3.2. It is designed to burn a gaseous fuel under
a steady flow conditions at atmospheric pressure.

Fig. 3.2 Junkers Gas Calorimeter

− Heat is transferred from the products to water flowing steadily through the outer
jacket of the calorimeter. The operating conditions are adjusted to obtain a gas outlet
temperature equal to the inlet temperature of the fuel and combustion air.

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3. Combustion Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

− From observed water temperatures and measured quantities of fuel and jacket water,
the heating value is calculated and reduced to the corresponding value for 25°C
operation.
− Some of the water vapour in the products condenses and drains from the calorimeter
in to a collecting vessel. This measured quantity of condensate is used in the sub
sequent conversion of the calorimetric heating value to the constant pressure higher
and lower heating values that are based, respectively, upon complete and zero
condensation of the water vapour formed during the combustion reaction.

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Page 3.10 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
4
FUELS & ITS SUPPLY SYSTEM FOR SI
AND CI ENGINE

Course Contents
4.1 Important qualities of IC
engine fuels
4.2 Rating of Fuels
4.3 Carburetion
4.4 Simple Carburetor
4.5 Complete Carburetor
4.6 Calculation of Air-Fuel ratio
provided by simple
carburetor
4.7 Types of Carburetor
4.8 Gasoline Injection
4.9 MPFI
4.10 Functional requirement of
an Injection system
4.11 Classification of Injection
System
4.12 Injection Pump
4.13 Fuel Injector
4.14 Types of Nozzles
4.15 Spray Formation
4.16 Quantity of fuel and size of
orifice

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4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

Fuels
− Heat engine is a device which converts heat energy into mechanical work. In an
internal combustion engine the heat energy is released by burning fuel in the engine
cylinder. The chemical reactions which permit the release of heat energy are quite fast
but the time taken in preparing a proper mixture of fuel and air depends mainly upon
the nature of fuel and method of introducing it into combustion chamber.
4.1 Important qualities of IC Engine fuels
− A good I.C. engine fuel must possess the following properties.
− It must have high energy density (kJ/kg).
− It should be easy to handle.
− It must possess good combustion qualities.
− It must have thermal stability.
− It must have low deposit forming tendency.
− It should be easy to handle and store.
− It should be free from hazard.
− It should not have chemical reactions with engine components, through which it flows.
− It should easily mix with air and evaporate as quickly as possible (low hfg).
− Products of combustion should not be corrosive to the engine parts.
− It must possess low toxicity.
− Its effect on air-pollution should be minimum.
− It should be economically available in very large quantities.
− The basic requirement of I.C. engine fuel is, the combustion should be fast with
maximum amount of heat release without forming any deposits and should not have
destructive effects on the engine parts and atmospheric air by exhaust gases.
4.2 Rating of Fuels
4.2.1 Rating of SI engine fuels
− Fuels differ widely in their ability to resist the knocking and detonation in S.l. engines.
It is expressed in terms of octane number.
− Fuel rating specifications require the standard engines operating under prescribed
standard conditions.
− The rating of a particular fuel is compared on the standard engine with that of a
standard reference fuel which is usually the combination of iso-octane (2,2,4 trimethyl
pentane) and n-heptane (C7 H16) by volume.
− Arbitrarily the iso-octane is assigned a rating of 100 octane number since this fuel has
minimum knocking tendency and the n-heptane is assigned a rating of zero octane
because of its high tendency to knock.
− The percentage volume of iso-octane in the mixture of iso-octane and n-heptane
represents the octane number rating of a fuel.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

− If a fuel is assigned a knock rating of 80, it means the fuel has the same tendency to
knock under standard operating conditions as the mixture of standard fuel having 80%
iso-octane and 20% of n-heptane fuels by volume.
− Hence the octane number rating of the fuel is an expression which indicates the ability
of a fuel to resist knock or detonation in SI Engines.
Method of Determination Octane Rating of Fuel:
− Octane rating of fuels is determined by testing a fuel on a variable compression
co­operative fuel research (CFR) engine under specified conditions.
− The fuel to be tested for knock rating is used in this engine to produce standard knock
by varying the compression ratio under standard operating conditions. Knockmeter
reading is noted.
− The fuel to be tested for knock rating is used in this engine to produce standard knock
by varying the compression ratio under standard operating conditions. Knockmeter
reading is noted.
Performance Number (PN)
− Certain fuels show even less tendency to knock than iso-octane fuel i.e. they have
octane number more than 100. In order to extend the octane scale, the knock rating
of fuel is measured in terms Army-Navy performance number represented by “PN”.
− It is defined as the ratio of knock limited indicated mean effective pressure (KLi.m.e.p)
of the fuel under test to the knock limited indicated mean effective pressure of iso-
octane.
KLi.m.e.p of test fuel
PN  (4.1)
KLi.m.e.p of iso-octane
− In certain cases the knock rating of fuel can be improved by adding tetra ethyl lead
(TEL) and when added to iso-octane it shows improved anti-knock characteristics.
− If ‘x’ ml of TEL is added to a U.S. gallon of iso-octane, the octane number (ON > 100) is
expressed as (100 + x) ml of TEL.
− Another method of octane scale is given by Wiese, and expressed as,
PN - 100
ON = 100 + (4.2)
3
4.2.2 Rating of CI engine fuels
− Increased delay period or ignition lag promotes knocking in C.I. engines. The property
of ignition lag is generally measured by cetane number.
− The fuel cetane (C16H34) is straight chain paraffin with good ignition qualities and it is
arbitrarily assigned a rating of 100 cetane number.
− While the hydrocarbon fuel alpha-methyl-naphthalene (C10H7CH3) has poor ignition
quality and it is assigned zero cetane number.
− These two fuels are mixed by volume and the mixture is matched with a fuel under
test in a standard engine running under prescribed conditions.

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4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

− The cetane number of a fuel is defined as the percentage by volume of Cetane in a

mixture of cetane (C16H34) and alpha-methyl-naphthalene that produces the same
delay period or ignition lag as the fuel being tested under same operating conditions
on the same engine.
− Higher the cetane number of fuel lesser will be the tendency for diesel knock.
Diesel Index
− An alternative method of expressing the quality of diesel fuel is called diesel index.
− It is defined as
Aniline point (  F)  API gravity at 15 C
Diesel Index = (4.3)
100
where
Aniline point represents the lowest temperature at which the diesel fuel is completely
miscible with an equal volume of aniline.
American Petroleum Institute (API) gravity is the density of diesel oil and it is
expressed as
141.5
API gravity= - 131.5 (4.4)
Specific gravity at 15 °C

Fuel supply system for SI Engine

− Spark ignition engine normally use volatile liquid fuels. Preparation of fuel-air mixture
is done outside the engine cylinder and formation of a homogeneous mixture is
normally not completed in the inlet manifold. Fuel droplets which remain in
suspension continue to evaporate and mix with air even during suction and
compression processes. The process of mixture preparation is extremely important
for SI engines. The purpose of carburetion is to provide a combustible air-fuel mixture
in the required quantity and quality for efficient operation of the engine under all
conditions.
4.3 Carburetion
− The process of formation of a combustible fuel-air mixture by mixing the proper
amount of fuel with air before admission to engine cylinder is called carburetion and
the device which does this job is called a carburetor.
4.3.1 Factors affecting carburetion
a) The engine speed
− Since modern engines are high speed type, the time available for mixture formation is
very limited. For example, an engine sunning at 3000 rpm has only 10 milliseconds for
mixture induction during intake stroke. When the speed becomes 6000 rpm the time
available is only 5 ms.
b) The vapourization characteristics of the fuel
− The factors which ensure high quality carburetion within short period are the presence
of highly volatile hydrocarbons in the fuel. Therefore, suitable evaporation
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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

characteristics of the fuel, indicated by its distillation curve, are necessary for efficient
carburetion especially at high speed.
c) The temperature of the incoming air
− The temperature and pressure of the surrounding air has large influence on efficient
carburetion. Higher atmospheric air temperature increases the vapourization of fuel
and produce a more homogeneous mixture. An increase in atmospheric temperature,
however leads to a decrease in power output of the engine when the air-fuel ratio is
constant due to reduced mass flow into the cylinder or, in other words, reduced
volumetric efficiency.
d) The design of carburetor
− The design of the carburetor, the intake system and the combustion chamber have
considerable influence on uniform distribution of mixture to the various cylinders of
the engine. Proper design of carburetor elements alone ensures the supply of desired
composition of the mixture under different condition of the engine.
4.3.2 Automotive engine mixture requirement at different loads and speeds
− Actual air-fuel mixture requirements in an automotive engine is not constant but
varies with load and speed.

Fig. 4.1 Carburetor Performance to fulfill engine requirements

− For successful operation of the engine, the carburetor has to provide mixtures which
follow the general shape of the curve ABCD (single cylinder) and A'B'C'D' (multi
cylinder) in Fig. 4.1 which represents a typical automotive engine requirement. The
carburetor must be suitably designed to meet the various engine requirements.

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 4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

− As indicated in Fig. 4.1 there are three general ranges of throttle operation. In each of
these, the automotive engine requirements differ. As a result, the carburetor must be
able to supply the required air-fuel ratio to satisfy these demands. These ranges are:
(i) Idling (mixture must be enriched)
(ii) Cruising (mixture must be leaned)
(iii) High Power (mixture must be enriched)
i) Idling Range
− An idling engine is one which operates at no load and with nearly closed throttle.
Under idling conditions, the engine requires a rich mixture, as indicated by point A in
Fig. 4.1.
− This is due to the existing pressure conditions within, the combustion chamber and
the intake manifold which cause exhaust gas dilution of the fresh charge. The
pressures indicated in Fig. 4.2 are representative values which exist during idling. The
exhaust gas pressure at the end of the exhaust stroke does not vary greatly from the
value indicated in Fig. 4.2, regardless of the throttle position.

Fig. 4.2 Schematic diagram of combustion chamber and induction system at the start of intake
stroke
− Since, the clearance volume is constant, the mass of exhaust gas in the cylinder at the
end of the exhaust stroke tends to remain fairly constant throughout the idling range.
The amount of fresh charge brought in during idling, however, is much less than that
during full throttle operation, due to very small opening of the throttle (Fig. 4.2).
− This results in a much larger proportion of exhaust gas being mixed with the fresh
charge under idling conditions. Further, with nearly closed throttle the pressure in the
intake manifold is considerably below atmospheric due to restriction to the air flow.
− When the intake valve opens, the pressure differential between the combustion
chamber and the intake manifold results in initial backward flow of exhaust gases into
the intake manifold. As the piston proceeds down on the intake stroke, these exhaust
gases are drawn back into the cylinder, along with the fresh charge.
− As a result, the final mixture of fuel and air in the combustion chamber is diluted more
by exhaust gas. The presence of this exhaust gas tends to obstruct the contact of fuel

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

and air particles - a requirement necessary for combustion. This results in poor
combustion and, as a result, in loss of power.
− It is, therefore, necessary to provide more fuel particles by richening the air-fuel
mixture. This richening increases the probability of contact between fuel and air
particles and thus improves combustion.
− As the throttle is gradually opened from A to B, (Fig. 4.1), the pressure differential
between the inlet manifold and the cylinder becomes smaller and the exhaust gas
dilution of the fresh charge diminishes. Mixture requirements then proceed along line
AB (Fig. 4.1) to a leaner A/F ratio required for the cruising operation.
ii) Cruising Range
− In the cruising range from B to C (Fig. 4.1), the exhaust gas dilution problem is relatively
insignificant.
− The primary interest lies in obtaining the maximum fuel economy. Consequently, in
this range, it is desirable that the carburetor provides the engine with the best
economy mixture.
iii) Power Range (From about 75% to 100% rated power)
− The mixture requirement for maximum power is a rich mixture, of A/F about 14 : 1 or
(F/A ≈ 0.07).
− Besides providing maximum power, a rich mixture also prevents overheating of
exhaust valve at high load and inhibits detonation. At high load there is greater heat
transfer to engine parts.
− Enriching the mixture reduces the flame temperature and the cylinder temperature,
thereby reducing the cooling problem and lessening the chances of damaging the
exhaust valves. Also, reduced temperature tends to reduce detonation. Aircraft
engines have elaborate arrangement far enrichment of mixture, as detonation can
wreck the engine in a matter of seconds.

4.4 Simple carburetor

− A simple carburetor is shown in the figure 4.3.
− It mainly consist of a float chamber, fuel discharge nozzle and a metering orifice, a
venturi, a throttle valve and a choke.
− The float and a needle valve system maintains a constant level of gasoline in the float
chamber.
− If the amount of fuel in the float chamber falls below the designed level, the float goes
down, thereby opening the fuel supply valve and admitting fuel. When the designed
level has been reached, the float closes the fuel supply valve thus stopping additional
fuel flow from the supply system.
− Float chamber is vented either to the atmosphere or to the upstream side of the
venturi.

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4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

− During suction stroke air is drawn through the venturi. Venturi is a tube of decreasing
cross-section with a minimum are at the throat. Venturi tube is also known as choke
tube and is so shaped that it offers minimum resistance to the air flow.

Fig. 4.3 A simple or elementary carburetor

− As air is passes through the venturi the velocity increases reaching a maximum at the
venturi throat. Correspondingly, the pressure decrease reaching a minimum.
− From the float chamber, the fuel is fed to a discharge jet, the tip of which is located in
the throat of venturi.
− Because of the differential pressure between the float chamber and the throat of the
venturi, known as carburetor depression, fuel is discharged into the air stream. The
fuel discharge is affected by the size of the discharge jet and it is selected to give the
required air-fuel ratio.
− The pressure at the throat at the fully open throttle condition lies between 4 to 5 cm
of Hg, below atmospheric and seldom exceeds 8 cm Hg below atmospheric. To avoid
overflow of fuel through the jet, the level of the liquid in the float chamber is
maintained at a level slightly below the tip of the discharge jet. This is called the lip of
the nozzle. The difference in the height between the top of the nozzle and the float
chamber level is marked h in Fig. 4.3.
− The gasoline engine is quantity governed, which means that when power output is to
be varied at a particular speed, the amount of charge delivered to the cylinder is
varied. This is achieved by means of a throttle valve usually of the butterfly type which
is situated after the venturi tube.
− As the throttle is closed less air flows through the venturi tube and less is the quantity
of air-fuel mixture delivered to the cylinder and hence power output is reduced. As
the throttle is opened, more air flows through the choke tube resulting in increased

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

quantity of mixture being delivered to the engine. This increases the engine power
output.
Drawbacks:
− It provides the required A/F ratio only at one throttle position. At the other throttle
positions the mixture is either leaner or richer depending on whether the throttle is
opened less or more.
− It provides increasing richness of A/F mixture as the speed of the engine increases.
Reason behind that is as the throttle valve is opened gradually, the pressure at the
venturi throat decreases, which decreases density of air with increase in its air
velocity. Whereas, the quantity of fuel flow remains constant. Therefore, A/F ratio
decreases with increase in speed of engine.
− If the speed is too low, we get very lean mixtures which may not be sufficient to ignite
the mixture.
− So the simple carburettor is only suitable for small stationary engines to run at
constant speed.
4.5 Complete Carburetor (Modification in Simple carburetor)
− For meeting the demand of the engine under all conditions of operation, the following
addi­tional devices/systems are added to the simple carburetor:
1. Main metering system
2. Idling system
3. Power enrichment or economiser system
4. Acceleration pump system
5. Choke.
4.5.1 Main metering system
− The main metering system of a carburetor is designed to supply a nearly constant basis
fuel-air ratio over a wide range of speeds and loads. This mixture corresponds
approximately to best economy at full throttle (A/F ratio ≈ 15.6 or F/A ratio 0.064).
− Since a simple or elementary carburetor tends to enrich the mixture at higher speeds
automatic compensating device are incorporated in the main metering system to
correct this tendency. These devices are:
a) Compensating Jet device
− The principle of compensating jet device is to make the mixture leaner as the throttle
opens progressively. In this method, as can be seen from Fig. 4.4 in addition to the
main jet, a compensating jet is incorporated. The compensating jet is connected to the
compensation well. The compensating well is also vented to atmosphere like the main
float chamber.
− The compensating well is supplied with fuel from the main float chamber through a
restricting orifice. With the increase in air flow rate, there is decrease of fuel level in
the compensating well, with the result that fuel supply through the compensating jet
decreases.

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Fig 4.4 Compensating jet device

Fig 4.5 Effect of compensating device on fuel-air ratio

− The compensating well is supplied with fuel from the main float chamber through a
restricting orifice. With the increase in air flow rate, there is decrease of fuel level in
the compensating well, with the result that fuel supply through the compensating jet
decreases.
− The compensating jet thus progressively makes the mixture leaner as the main jet
progressively makes the mixture richer. The sum of the two tends to keep the fuel-air
mixture more or less constant as shown in Fig. 4.5. The main jet curve and the
compensating jet curve are more or less reciprocals of each other.
b) Emulsion tube or air bleeding device
− In the modem carburetors the mixture correction is done by air bleeding alone. In this
arrangement the main metering jet is fitted about 25 mm below the petrol level and
it is called a submerged jet (see Fig. 4.6).
− The jet is situated at the bottom of a well, the sides of which have holes which are in
communication with the atmosphere.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

− Air is drawn through the holes in the well, the

petrol is emulsified, and the pressure
difference across the petrol column is not as
great as that in the simple or elementary
carburetor.
− Initially, the petrol in the well is at a level equal
to that in the float chamber. On opening the
throttle this petrol, being subject to the low
throat pressure, is drawn into the air. This
continues with decreasing mixture richness as
the holes in the central tube are progressively
uncovered. Normal flow then takes place from
the main jet.
c) Auxiliary valve carburetor Fig. 4.6 Emulsion Tube
− Fig. 4.7 (a) shows a simplified picture of an
auxiliary valve device for under­standing the principle. When the engine is not
operating the pressure, p1 acting on the top of the auxiliary valve is atmospheric. The
vacuum at the venturi throat increases (the throat pressure, p2 decreases) with
increase in load. This pressure differential (p1 – p2) lifts the valve against the tension
of the spring. And as a result, more air is admitted and the mixture is prevented from
becoming rich.

Fig. 4. Auxiliary Valve and Port carburetor

d) Auxiliary port carburetor

− An auxiliary port carburetor is illustrated in fig. 4.6(b).
− By opening the butterfly valve, additional air is admitted and at the same time the
depression at the venturi throat also reduced, decreasing the quantity of fuel drawn
in. This method is used in aircraft carburetors for altitude compensation.

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4.5.2 Idling system

− During starting or idling, engine runs
without load and throttle valve remains
in closed position. Engine produces
power only to overcome friction
between the parts, and a rich mixture is
to be fed to the engine to sustain
combustion.
− The idling system as shown consist of an
idling fuel passage and an idling port.
When the throttle is partially closed, a
depression past the throttle allows the
fuel to go into the intake through the
idle tube.
− The depression also draws air through
the idle air bleed and mixes with fuel. As
the throttle is opened, the main jet Fig. 4.8 Idling Jet
gradually takes over while the idle jet
becomes ineffective.
− The fuel flow depends on the location of the idle nozzle and the adjustment of the idle
screw.
4.5.3 Power enrichment or Economiser system
− As the maximum power range of
operation (75% to 100% load) is
approached, some device must allow
richer mixture (A/F about 13:1, F/A
0.08) to be supplied. Such a device is the
meter rod economiser shown in Fig. 4.8.
The name economiser is rather
misleading.

− The meter rod economizer shown in Fig.

4.9, simply provides a large orifice
opening to the main jet as the throttle
is opened beyond a certain point. The
rod may be tapered or stepped.

Fig. 4.9 Meter rod economiser

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

4.5.4 Acceleration Pump System

− When it is desired to accelerate the engine rapidly, a simple carburetor will not
provide the required rich mixture. Rapid opening of the throttle will be immediately
followed by an increased airflow, but the inertia of the liquid fuel will cause at least a
momentarily lean mixture just when richness is desired for power.

Fig. 4.10 Acceleration Pump

− To overcome this deficiency an acceleration pump is provided, one example of which
is shown in Fig. 4.10. The pump consists of a spring loaded plunger. A linkage
mechanism is provided so that when the throttle a rapidly opened the plunger moves
into the cylinder and forces an additional jet of fuel into the venturi.
− The plunger is raised again against the spring force when the throttle is partly closed.
Arrangement is provided so that when the throttle is opened slowly, the fuel in the
pump cylinder is not forced into the venturi but leaks past plunger or some holes into
the float chamber.
4.5.5 Choke
− During cold starting period, at low cranking speed
and before the engine has warmed up, a mixture
much richer than usual mixtures (almost 5 to 10
times more fuel) must be supplied simply because
a , large fraction of the fuel will remain liquid even
in the cylinder, and only the vapour fraction forms
a combustible mixture with the air.
− The most common means of obtaining this rich
mixture is by the use of a choke, which is a
butterfly type of valve placed between the
entrance to the carburetor and the Venturi throat
as shown in Fig. 4.11.
− By partially closing the choke, a large pressure Fig.4.11 Choke valve spring-
drop can be produced at the venturi throat that loaded bypass

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4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

would normally result from the amount of air flowing through the venturi. This strong
suction at the throat will draw large quantities of fuel from the main nozzle and supply
a sufficiently rich mixture so that the ratio of evaporated fuel to air in the cylinders is
within combustible limits.
− Choke valves are sometimes made with a spring loaded by-pass so that high pressure
drops and excessive choking will not result after the engine has started and has
attained a higher speed. Some manufacturers make the choke operate automatically
by means of a thermostat such that when the engine is cold the choke is closed by a
bimetallic element. After starting and as the engine warms up the bimetallic element
gradually opens the choke to its fully open position.

4.6 Calculation of the Air-fuel ratio supplied by simple carburetor

− A simple carburetor with the tip of the fuel nozzle z metres above the fuel level in the
float chamber is shown in fig. 4.12. The expression for air-fuel ratio for the carburetor
can be found (a) accurately, by taking compressibility of air into account, or (b)
approximately, by neglecting the change in density of air from inlet to the throat of
the carburetor, i.e. neglecting the compressibility of the air.

Fig. 4.12 Principles of a simple carburetor

4.6.1 Accurate analysis

− Applying the steady flow energy equation to section AA and BB and assuming unit
mass flow of air, we have
1
q  w  (h2  h1 )  (C 22  C12 ) (4.5)
2
− Here q, w are the heat and work transfers from entrance to throat and h and C stand
for enthalpy and velocity respectively.
− Assuming an adiabatic flow, we get q  0, w  0 and C1  0 ,

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

C2  2  h1  h2  (4.6)
− Assuming air to behave like ideal gas, we get h  CPT . Hence, eq. 4.6 can be written
as,
C2  2CP T1  T2  (4.7)
− As the flow process from inlet to the venturi throat can be considered to be isentropic,
we have
  1 
 
T2  p2   
  (4.8)
T1  p1 
 
  1 

  
p2    
T1  T2  T1 1    
(4.9)
p
  1  
− Substituting eq. 4.9 in eq. 4.7, we get
 
  1 

  p2    
C2  2CPT1 1     (4.10)
p
  1  
− Now, mass for air,
ma  1 AC
1 1  2 A2C2 (4.11)
where A1 and A2 are the cross-sectional area at section 1-1 and section 2-2.
− To calculate the mass flow rate of air at venturi throat, we have
p1 p
 2 (4.12)
1  2


1
 p 
2  1  2 
 p1 
1
 
  1 

 p2     
p2    
ma    1 A2 2CPT1 1     (4.13)
 p1  p
  1  
1
 
  1 

 p2   p1   p2     
  A2 2CPT1 1    
 p1  RT1 p
  1  

 2   1 
  
Ap  p    p   
ma  2 1 2CP  2   2  
 (4.14)
R T1 p  p1 
 1  
− The above equation gives theoretical mass flow of air. The actual mass flow is obtained
by multiplying by the coefficient of discharge of the venturi.

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4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

 2

  1 

Ap   p2    p2    
maactual  Cda 2 1 2CP       (4.15)
R T1 p p
 1   1  
− In order to calculate the air-fuel ratio, fuel flow rate is to be calculated. As the fuel is
incompressible, applying Bernoulli’s Theorem we get
p1 p2 C 2f
   gz (4.16)
f f 2
where  f is the density of fuel, C f is the fuel velocity at the nozzle exit and z is the
height of the nozzle exit above the level of fuel in the float chamber
 p  p2 
Cf  2  1  gz  (4.17)
  f 
− Mass flow rate of fuel,

m f  Af C f  f (4.18)

 Af 2  f  p1  p2  gz  f  (4.19)
where Af is the area of cross-section of the nozzle and  f is the density of the fuel
− Above equation gives theoretical mass flow of the fuel to find actual mass flow
coefficient of discharge of fuel nozzle must be taken into consideration.
m factual  Cdf Af 2  f  p1  p2  gz  f  (4.20)
maactual
A/F ratio 
m f actual

 2

  1 

  p    p    

2CP     
2 2

p p
A Cda A2 p  1   1  
   1  (4.21)
F Cdf Af R T1 2  f  p1  p2  gz  f 
4.6.2 Approximate analysis
− When air is considered as incompressible, Bernoulli’s Theorem is applicable to air flow
also. Hence, assuming C1 ≈ 0
p1 C22
p2
  (4.22)
f f 2

 p  p2 
C2  2  1  (4.23)
  f 
ma  A2C2 a  A2 2a  p1  p2  (4.24)

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

maactual  Cda A2 2a  p1  p2  (4.25)

maactual
A/F ratio 
m f actual

A Cda A2  a  p1  p2 
   (4.26)
F Cdf Af  f  p1  p2  gz  f 
− If nozzle lip can be neglected then, z = 0
A Cda A2 a
   (4.27)
F Cdf Af f
4.6.3 Air-Fuel ratio provided by a simple carburetor
− It is clear from expression for m f (Eq. 4.20) that if (p1 – p2) is less than gzpf there is no
fuel flow and this can happen at very low air flow. As the air flow increases, (p1 – p2)
increases and when (p1 – p2) > gzpf the fuel flow begins and increases with increase in
the differential pressure.
− At high air flows where (p1 – p2) is large compared to gzpf the fraction gzpf /(p1 – p2)
becomes negligible and the air-fuel ratio approaches
Cda A2 a
 
Cdf Af f
− A decrease in the density of air reduces the value of air-fuel ratio (i.e., mixture
becomes richer). It happens at
(a) High air flow rates where (p1 – p2) becomes large and 2 decreases.
(b) High altitudes where the density of air is low.

4.7 Types of carburetors

− Depending upon the direction of air and fuel flow, the carburettors are classified as:
(i) Updraft carburettors (ii) Downdraft carburettors (iii) Side draft or horizontal
carburettors.
− Fig. 4.13(a) shows the updraft carburettor in which the air enters the carburettor
against the gravity from bottom in the upward direction.
− The disadvantage of such a carburettor is that it has to lift the sprayed fuel droplets
by air friction.
− Since the fuel droplets have the tendency to separate out from air stream due to high
inertia, it becomes necessary to design the jet tube and throat of relatively smaller
area in order to increase the air velocity to an extent it carries the fuel particles along
even at low engine speeds, otherwise, the mixture reaching the engine will be lean.
− However, with relatively smaller cross-section of jet tube, the carburettor cannot
supply the mixture at the required rapid rate at high engine speeds. Due to this the
updraft carburettors have now become almost obsolete.

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Fig. 4.13 Types of Carburetors

− Fig. 4.13(b) shows the down-draft carburettor. These are usually installed at a level
higher than the intake manifolds. In these carburettors the flow of mixture is assisted
by the gravity in its passage into intake manifolds. This allows the proper flow of
mixture even at low engine speeds and at the same time the carburettor is reasonably
accessible.
− Fig. 4.13(c) shows the side-draft carburettor. It consists of a horizontal jet tube. Such
a carburettor has the advantage where under bonnet space is limited and also the
resistance to flow is reduced due to elimination of one right angled turn in the intake
passages.
− Most automotive carburetors are either downdraft or side-draft. In the United States,
downdraft carburetors were almost ubiquitous, partly because a downdraft unit is
ideal for V engines. In Europe, side-draft carburetors are much more common in
performance applications. Small propeller-driven flat airplane engines have the
carburetor below the engine (updraft).

4.8 Gasoline Injection

− In a carburettor engine, uniformity of mixture strength is difficult to realize in each
cylinder of a multicylinder engine. Figure 4.14 shows a typical pattern of mixture
distribution in an intake manifold of a multicylinder engine.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

Fig. 4.14 Typical pattern of mixture distribution in a multi-cylinder engine

− As may be noticed that the intake valve is open in cylinder 2. As can also be observed
the gasoline moves to the end of the manifold and accumulates there. This enriches
the mixture going to the end cylinders.
− However, the central cylinders, which are very close to the carburettor, get the leanest
mixture. Thus the various cylinders receive the air-gasoline mixture in varying
quantities and richness. This problem is called the maldistribution and can be solved
by the port injection system by having the same amount of gasoline injected at each
intake manifold.
− Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop injection systems for gasoline engines.
By adopting gasoline injection each cylinder can get the same richness of the air-
gasoline mixture and the maldistribution can be avoided to a great extent.
− Gasoline injection system is preferred a carburetion for one or more of the following
reasons:
(i) To have uniform distribution of fuel in a multicylinder engine.
(ii) To improve breathing capacity i.e. volumetric efficiency.
(iii) To reduce or eliminate detonation.
(iv) To prevent fuel loss during scavenging in case of two-stroke engines.
4.8.1 Types of Gasoline Injection Systems
− The fuel injection system can be classified as:
(i) Gasoline direct injection into the cylinder (GDI)
(ii) Port injection
(a) Timed, and (b) Continuous
(iii) Manifold injection
− The above fuel injection systems can be grouped under two heads, viz., single-point
and multi-point injection. In the single point injection system, one or two injectors are
mounted inside the throttle body assembly. Fuel sprays are directed at one point or

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4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

at the center of the intake manifold. Another name of the single point injection is
throttle body injection. Multipoint injection has one injector for each engine cylinder.
In this system, fuel is injected in more than one location. This is more common and is
often called port injection system.
− The gasoline fuel injection system used in a spark- ignition engine can be either of
continuous injection or timed injection.
Continuous injection systems:
This system usually has a rotary pump. The pump maintains a fuel line gauge pressure
of about 0.75 to 1.5 bar. The system injects the fuel through a nozzle located in the
manifold immediately downstream of the throttle plate. In a supercharged engine,
fuel is injected at the entrance of the supercharger. The timing and duration of the
fuel injection is determined by Electronic Control Unit (ECU) depending upon the load
and speed.
Timed fuel injection system:
− This system has a fuel supply pump which sends fuel at a low pressure of about 2 bar
when the engine is running at maximum speed. A fuel metering or injection pump and
a nozzle are the other parts of the system. The nozzle injects the fuel in the manifold
or the cylinder head port at about 6.5 bar or into the combustion chamber at pressures
that range from 16 to 35 bar.
− Timed injection system injects fuel usually during the early part of the suction stroke.
During maximum power operation injection begins after the closure of the exhaust
valve and ends usually after BDC. Direct in-cylinder injection is superior and always
desirable and better compared to manifold injection. In this case both low and high
volatile fuels can be used and higher volumetric efficiencies can be achieved.
− Typical fuel injection methods used in four stroke gasoline engines are shown in Fig.
4.15.

Fig. 4.15 Different methods of fuel injection

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

4.8.2 Components of Injection System

− The objectives of the fuel injection system are to meter, atomize and uniformly
distribute the fuel throughout the air mass in the cylinder. At the same time it must
maintain the required air-fuel ratio as per the load and speed requirement the engine.
− To achieve all the above tasks, a number of components are required in the fuel
injection system, the functions of which are mentioned below.
(i) Pumping element - moves the fuel from the fuel tank to the injector. This includes
necessary piping, filter etc.
ii) Metering element - measures and supplies the fuel at the rate demanded by load
and speed conditions of the engine.
iii) Mixing element - atomizes the fuel and mixes it with air to form a homogenous
mixture.
iv) Metering control - adjusts the rate of metering in accordance with load and speed
of the engine.
v) Mixture control - adjusts fuel-air ratio as demanded by the load and speed.
vi) Distributing element - divides the metered fuel equally among the cylinders.
4.8.3 ELECTRONIC FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM
− Modern gasoline injection systems use engine sensors, a computer, and solenoid
operated fuel injectors to meter and inject the right amount of fuel into the engine
cylinders. These systems called electronic fuel injection (EFI) use electrical and
electronic devices to monitor and control engine operation.
− An electronic control unit (ECU) or the computer receives electrical signals in the form
of current or voltage from various sensors. It then uses the stored data to operate the
injectors, ignition system and other engine related devices. As a result, less unburned
fuel leaves the engine as emissions, and the vehicle rives better mileage.
− Typical sensors for an electronic fuel injection system includes the following:
Exhaust gas or oxygen sensor - senses the amount of oxygen in the en­gine exhaust
and calculates air-fuel ratio. Sensor output voltage changes in proportion to air-fuel
ratio.
Engine temperature sensor - senses the temperature of the engine coolant, and from
this data the computer adjusts the mixture strength to rich side for cold starting.
Air flow sensor - monitors mass or volume of air flowing into the intake manifold for
adjusting the quantity of fuel.
Air inlet temperature sensor - checks the temperature of the ambient air entering the
engine for fine tuning the mixture strength.
Throttle position sensor - senses the movement of the throttle plate so that the
mixture flow can be adjusted for engine speed and acceleration.
Manifold pressure sensor - monitors vacuum in the engine intake mani­fold so that
the mixture strength can be adjusted with changes in engine load.
Camshaft position sensor - senses rotation of engine camshaft/crankshaft for speed
and timing of injection.
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Knock sensor - microphone type sensor that detects ping or preignition noise so that
the ignition timing can be retarded.

4.9 MPFI (Multi Point Fuel Injection System)

− The main purpose of the MPFI system is to supply a proper ratio of gasoline and air to
the cylinders. These systems function under two basic arrangements namely
i) Port Injection
ii) Throttle body injection
4.9.1 Port Injection
− In the port injection arrangement, the injector is placed on the side of the intake
manifold near the intake port (fig. 4.16), the injector sprays gasoline into the air, inside
the intake manifold. The gasoline mixes with the air in a reasonably uniform manner.
This mixture of gasoline and air then passes through the intake valve and enters into
the cylinder.

Fig. 4.16 Port Injection Fig. 4.17 Multi-point fuel injection (MPFI) near port

− Every cylinder is provide with an injector in its intake manifold. If there are six
cylinders, there will be six injectors. Fig. 4.17 shows a simplified view of a port or multi
point fuel injection (MPFI) system.
4.9.2 Throttle body injection System
− Fig. 4.18 illustrates the simplified sketch of throttle body injection system (Single point

Fig. 4.18 Throttle body injection (single point)

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

-injection). This throttle body is similar to the carburettor throt­tle body, with the
throttle valve controlling the amount of air entering the intake manifold.
− An injector is placed slightly above the throat of the throttle body. The injector sprays
gasoline into the air in the intake manifold where the gasoline mixes with air. This
mixture then passes through the throttle valve and enters into the intake manifold.
− As already mentioned, fuel-injection systems can be either timed or continuous. In the
timed injection system, gasoline is sprayed from the injectors in pulses. In the
continuous injection system, gasoline is sprayed continuously from the injectors.
− The port injection system and the throttle-body injection system may be either pulsed
systems or continuous systems. In both systems, the amount of gasoline injected
depends upon the engine speed and power demands. In some literature MPFI systems
are classified into two types: D- MPFI and L-MPFI.
4.9.3 D- MPFI system
− The D-MPFI system is the manifold fuel injection system. In this type, the vacuum in
the intake manifold is first sensed. In addition, it senses the volume of air by its density.
Fig. 4.19 gives the block diagram regarding the functioning of the D-MPFI system.

Fig 4.19 D-MPFI gasoline injection system

− As air enters into the intake manifold, the manifold pressure sensor detects the intake
manifold vacuum and sends the information to the ECU. The speed sensor also sends
information about the rpm of the engine to the ECU.
− The ECU in turn sends commands to the injector to regulate the amount of gasoline
supply for injection. When the injector sprays fuel in the intake manifold the gasoline
mixes with the air and the mixture enters the cylinder.
4.9.4 L-MPFI system
− The L-MPFI system is a port fuel-injection system. In this type the fuel metering is
regulated by the engine speed and the amount of air that actually enters the engine.
This is called air-mass metering or air-flow metering. The block diagram of an L-MPFI
system is shown in Fig. 4.20.

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4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

Fig. 4.20 L-MPFI gasoline injection system

− As air enters into the intake manifold, the air flow sensor measures the amount of air
and sends information to the ECU. Similarly, the speed sensor sends information about
the speed of the engine to the ECU.
− The ECU processes the information received and sends appropriate commands to the
injector, in order to regulate the amount of gasoline supply for injection. When
injection takes place, the gasoline mixes with the air and the mixture enters the
cylinder.
Fuel supply system for CI Engine
− In C.I. engines, the air is taken in during the suction stroke and compressed to a high
pressure (28 to 70 bar) and high temperature (520° to 720°C) according to the
compres­sion ratio used (12 : 1 to 20 : 1). The high temperature of air at the end of
stroke is sufficient to ignite the fuel.
− Fuel is injected into the cylinder at the end of the compression stroke; the pressure of
fuel injected lies between 100 to 200 bar. During the process of injection the fuel is
broken into very fine droplets. The droplets vaporise taking the heat from the hot air
and form a combustible mixture and start burning. As the burning starts, the
vaporisation of fuel is accelerated as more heat is available. As the combustion
progresses, the amount of oxygen available for burning reduces and therefore heat
release is reduced.
− The period between the start of injection and start of ignition, called the ignition delay,
is about 0.001 second for high speed engines and 0.002 second for low speed engines.
The injection period covers about 25° of crank rotation. After the ignition the
temperature and pressure rise rapidly. The whole performance of engine is totally
dependent on the delay period; the lesser the delay period better is the engine
performance.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

4.10 Functional Requirements of an Injection System

For a proper running and good performance from the engine, the following requirements
must be met by the injection system:
− Accurate metering of the fuel injected per cycle. This is very critical due to the fact
that very small quantities of fuel being handled. Metering errors may cause drastic
variation from the desired output. The quantity of the fuel metered should vary to
meet changing speed and load requirements of the engine
− Timing the injection of the fuel correctly in the cycle so that maximum power is
obtained ensuring fuel economy and clean burning.
− Proper control of rate of infection so that the desired heat-release pattern is achieved
during combustion.
− Proper atomization of fuel into very fine droplets
− Proper spray pattern to ensure rapid mixing of fuel and air
− Uniform distribution of fuel droplets in the combustion chamber
− To supply equal quantities of metered fuel to all cylinders in case of multi cylinder
engines
− No lag during beginning and end of injection i.e., to eliminate dribbling of fuel droplets
into the cylinder.

4.11 Classification of Injection Systems

− In a constant-pressure cycle or diesel engine, only air is compressed in the cylinder
and then fuel is injected into the cylinder by means of a fuel-injection system. For
producing the required pressure for atomizing the fuel either air or a mechanical
means is used. Accordingly the injection systems can be classified as:
(i) Air injection systems
(ii) Solid injection systems
4.11.1 Air Injection System
− In this system, fuel is forced into the cylinder by means of compressed air.
− This system is little used nowadays, because it requires a bulky multi-stage air
compressor. This causes an increase in engine weight and reduces the brake power
output further.
− One advantage that is claimed for the air injection system is good mixing of fuel with
the air with resultant higher mean effective pressure. Another is the ability to utilize
fuels of high viscosity which are less expensive than those used by the engines with
solid injection systems. These advantages are off-set by the requirement of a
multistage compressor thereby making the air-injection system obsolete.
4.11.2 Solid Injection System
− In this system the liquid fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber without
the aid of compressed air. Hence, it is also called airless mechanical injection or solid
injection system. Solid injection systems can be classified as:
(i) Individual pump and nozzle system
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(ii) Unit injector system

(iii) Common rail system
(iv) Distributor system
4.11.3 Typical fuel feed system for a CI engine
− Fuel feed system of CI engine comprise mainly of the following components.
i) fuel tank
ii) fuel feed pump to supply fuel from the main fuel tank to the injection system
iii) injection pump to meter and pressurize the fuel for injection
iv) governor to ensure that the amount of fuel injected is in accordance with
variation in load
v) injector to take the fuel from the pump and distribute it in the combus­tion
chamber by atomizing it into fine droplets
vi) fuel filters to prevent dust and abrasive particles from entering the pump and
injectors thereby minimizing the wear and tear of the components.

Fig. 4.21 Typical fuel feed system for a CI engine

− A typical arrangement of various components for the solid injection system used in a
Cl engine is shown in Fig. 4.21.
− Fuel from the fuel tank first enters the coarse filter from which is drawn into the
plunger feed pump where the pressure is raised very slightly. Then the fuel enters the
fine filter where all the dust and dirt particles are removed.
− From the fine filter the fuel enters the fuel pump where it is pressurized to about 200
bar and injected into the engine cylinder by means of the injector. Any spill over in the
injector is returned to the fine filter. A pressure relief valve is also provided for the
safety of the system.
− The above functions are achieved with the components listed above. The types of solid
injection system described in the following sections differ only in the manner of
operation and control of the components mentioned above.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

4.11.4 Types of Solid injection systems

a) Individual Pump and Nozzle System
− The details of the individual pump and nozzle system are shown in Fig. 4.22(a) and (b).
In this system, each cylinder is provided with one pump and one injector.
− In this arrangement a separate metering and compression pump is provided for each
cylinder. The pump may be placed close to the cylinder as shown in Fig. 4.22(a) or they
may be arranged in a cluster as shown in Fig. 4.22(b).
− The high pressure pump plunger is actuated by a cam, and pro­duces the fuel pressure
necessary to open the injector valve at the correct time. The amount of fuel injected
depends on the effective stroke of the plunger.

Fig. 4.22 Injection systems with pump and nozzle arrangements used in Cl engines

b) Unit Injector system

− The unit injector system, Fig. 4.22(c), is one in which the pump and the injector nozzle
are combined in one housing. Each cylinder is provided with one of these unit
injectors.
− Fuel is brought up to the injector by a low pressure pump, where at the proper time,
a rocker arm actuates the plunger and thus injects the fuel into the cylinder. The

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amount of fuel injected is regulated by the effective stroke of the plunger. The pump
and the injector can be integrated in one unit as shown in Fig. 4.22(c).
c) Common Rail System
− In the common rail system, Fig. 4.22(d), a HP pump supplies fuel, under high pressure,
to a fuel header. High pressure in the header forces the fuel to each of the nozzles
located in the cylinders.
− At the proper time, a mechanically operated (by means of a push rod and rocker arm)
valve allows the fuel to enter the proper cylinder through the nozzle. The pressure in
the fuel header must be that, for which the injector system was designed, i.e., it must
enable to penetrate and disperse the fuel in the combustion chamber.
− The amount of fuel entering the cylinder is regulated by varying the length of the push
rod stroke. A high pressure pump is used for supplying fuel to a header, from where
the fuel is metered by injectors (assigned one per cylinder). The details of the system
are illustrated in Fig. 4.22(d).
d) Distributor System
− Fig. 4.23 shows a schematic diagram of a distributor system. In this system the pump
which pressurizes the fuel also meters and times it. The fuel pump after metering the
required amount of fuel supplies it to a rotating distributor at the correct time for
supply to each cylinder.

Fig. 4.23 Schematic diagram of distributor system

− The number of injection strokes per cycle for the pump is equal to the number of
cylinders. The details of the system are given in Fig. 4.23. Since there is one metering
element in each pump, a uniform distribution is automatically ensured. Not only that,
the cost of the fuel-injection system also reduces to a value less than two-thirds of
that for individual pump system. A comparison of various fuel-injection systems is
given in Table 4.1.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

Table 4.1 Comparison of various fuel injection system

Air Solid Injection System
Job Injection Individual Common Distributor
System Pump Rail
Metering Pump Pump Injection valve Pump
Timing Fuel cam Pump cam Fuel cam Fuel cam
Injection Rate Spray valve Pump cam Spray valve Fuel cam
Atomization Spray valve Spray tip Spray tip Spray tip
Distribution Spray valve Spray tip Spray tip Spray tip

4.12 Injection Pump

− The main objectives of fuel-injection pump is to deliver accurately metered quantity
of high pressure fuel (in the range from 120 to 200 bar) at the correct time to the
injector fitted on each cylinder. Injection pumps are of two types, viz. (i) Jerk type
pumps (ii) Distributor type pumps
4.12.1 Jerk Type Pump (BOSCH fuel Injection Pump)
− Commonly used pump is shown in fig. 4.24.
− It consists of a reciprocating plunger inside a barrel. The plunger is driven by a
camshaft. The working principle of jerk pump is illustrated in Fig. 4.25.
− A sketch of a typical plunger is shown.
− A schematic diagram of the plunger
within the barrel is shown. Near the port
A, fuel is always available under relatively
low pressure. While the axial movement
of the plunger is through cam shaft, its
rotational movement about its axis by
means of rack D. Port B is the orifice
through which fuel is delivered to the
injector. At this stage it is closed by
means of a spring loaded check valve.
− When the plunger is below port A, the
fuel gets filled in the barrel above it. As
the plunger rises and closes the port A the
fuel will flow out through port C. This is
because it has to overcome the spring
force of the check valve in order to flow
through port B. Hence it takes the easier
way out via port C.
− At this stage rack rotates the plunger and Fig. 4.24 BOSCH fuel pump
as a result port C also closes. The only escape route for the fuel is past the check valve
through orifice B to the injector. This is the beginning of injection and also the effective
stroke of the plunger.
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4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

− The injection continues till the helical indentation on the plunger un­covers port C.
Now the fuel will take the easy way out through C and the check valve will close the
orifice B. The fuel-injection stops and the effective stroke ends.
− Hence the effective stroke of the plunger is the axial distance traversed between the
time port A is closed off and the time port A is uncovered.
− The plunger is rotated to the position shown. The same sequence of events occur. But
in this case port C is uncovered sooner. Hence the effective stroke is shortened.
− It is important to remember here that though the axial distance traversed by the
plunger is same for every stroke, the rotation of the plunger by the rack determining
the length of the effective stroke and thus the quantity of fuel injected.

Fig. 4.25 Principle of helix bypass pump

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

4.12.2Distributor Type Pump

− This pump has only a single pumping element and the fuel is distributed to each
cylinder by means of a rotor (Fig. 4.26).
− The rotor has a central longitudinal passage two sets of radial holes (each equal to the
number of engine cylinders) located at different heights. One set is connected to pump
inlet via central passage whereas the second set is connected to delivery lines leading
to injectors of the various cylinders.

Fig. 4.26 Principle of working of distributor type fuel-injection pump

− The fuel is drawn into the central rotor passage from the inlet port when the pump
plunger move away from each other. Wherever, the radial delivery passage in the
rotor coincides with the delivery port for any cylinder the fuel is delivered to each
cylinder in turn.
− Main advantages of this type of pump lies in its small size and its light weight.

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4.13 Fuel Atomiser or Injector

− A fuel atomiser which is commonly
used is shown, in Fig. 4.27. The
high pressure fuel coming out of
fuel pump enters into the atomiser
as shown in the figure.
− The nozzle valve is lifted up due to
high pressure fuel entering at the
bottom of the valve and the fuel is
injected into the cylinder through
the nozzle.
− The pressure of the fuel falls as it is
injected into the cylinder and the
nozzle valve moves down under
the spring force and closes the
nozzle inlet to the inlet fuel
passage. Thus the fuel supply to
the engine is cut-off.
− Any high pressure fuel leaking past
the plunger of the nozzle valve is
fed back to the fuel tank through
the outlet fuel passage. The
adjusting screw helps to adjust the
tension in the spring.

4.14 Types of Nozzles

− The type of nozzle used is greatly
dependent on the type of
combustion chamber as open type
or pre-combustion chamber. The
nozzles are classified as per the
type of orifice and its number used
for injecting the fuel in the
combustion chamber.
− The nozzles are classified as
1. Single hole nozzle Fig. 4.27 Fuel Atomiser
2. Multihole nozzle
3. Pintal nozzle
4. Pintaux nozzle.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

4.14.1 Single Hole Nozzle

− This is the simplest type of nozzle and is used in open
combustion chambers.
− It consists of a single hole bored centrally through the
noz­zle body and closed by the needle valve. The size of the
hole is usually larger than 0.2 mm.
− Its spray cone angle varies from 5 to 15°. In some cases, a
cone is given a series of spiral grooves in order to impart a
rotational motion to the fuel for better mixing with the air.
− The arrangement is shown in fig. 4.28.
Advantages Fig. 4.28 Single hole nozzle
− Simple in construction and operation.
Disadvantages
− Very high injection pressure is required because whole of the fuel passes through a
single hole and, also, because the relative fuel velocity required is high.
− This type of nozzle has a tendency to dribble.
− As the spray angle is very narrow (usually about 15°), this does not facilitate good
mixing unless higher air velocities are provided.
4.14.2 Multihole Nozzle
− This type of nozzle finds extensive use in automobile engines,
particularly having open combustion chambers. It mixes the
fuel with air properly even with slow air move­ment available
with open combustion chambers.
− The number of holes varies from 4 to 18; the greater number
provides better fuel distribution. The hole diameter lies
between 0.25 to 0.35 mm and hole angle lies between 20° to
45°.
− Usually the holes are drilled symmetrically but many times
they are non-symmetrical to meet certain specific
requirements of the combustion chamber.
Fig. 4.29 Multihole nozzle
Advantages
− Gives good atomisation.
− Distributes fuel properly even with lower air motion available in open combustion
chambers.
Disadvantages
− Holes are small and liable to clogging.
− Dribbling between injections
− Very high injection pressures (180 bar and above)
− Close tolerance in manufacture (due to small holes) and hence costly.

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4.14.3 Pintle Nozzle

− The stem of the nozzle valve is extended to form a pin
or pintle which protrudes through the mouth of the
nozzle body. It may be either cylindrical or conical in
shape.
− The size and shape of the pintle can be varied according
to requirement. The spray core angle is gen­erally 60°.
− When the valve lifts, the pintle partially blocks the
orifice and thus does not allow the pressure drop to be
greater. As the lift of the valve increases the entire
Fig. 4.30 Pintle nozzle
orifice is uncovered and full area for flow is available.
Thus dribbling is avoided.
− The spray obtained by the pintle nozzle is hollow conical spray.
Advantages
− It is self-cleaning type and prevents the carbon deposition on the nozzle hole.
− It avoids weak injection and dribbling.
− It results in good atomisation.
− Its injection characteristics are more near the required one.
Disadvantages
− Distribution and penetration poor, hence not suitable for open combustion chambers.
4.14.4 Pintaux Nozzle
− It is a type of pintle nozzle which has an
auxiliary hole drilled in the nozzle body [Fig.
4.31)].
− It injects a small amount of fuel through this
additional hole which is called pilot injection
in the upstream direction slightly before the
main injection.
− The needle valve does not lift fully at low
speeds and most of the fuel is injected Fig. 4.31 Pintaux Nozzle
through the auxiliary hole.
Advantage
− This nozzle gives better cold starting performance.
Disadvantage
− Its injection characteristics are poorer than the multihole nozzle.

4.15 Spray Formation

− The various phases of spray formation as the fuel is injected through the nozzle are
shown in Fig. 4.32.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine

Fig. 4.32 Successive phases of spray formation

− At the start of the fuel-injection the pressure difference across the orifice is low.
Therefore single droplets are formed as in Fig. 4.32(a). As the pressure difference
increases the following process occur one after the other.
− A stream of fuel emerges from the nozzle, [Fig. 4.32(b)].
− The stream encounters aerodynamic resistance from the dense air present in the
combustion chamber (12 to 14 times the ambient pressure) and breaks into a spray,
say at a distance of l3, [Fig. 4.32(c)]. The distance of this point where this event occurs
from the orifice is called the break-up distance.
− With further and further increase in the pressure difference, the break­up distance
decreases and the cone angle increases until the apex of the cone practically coincides
with the orifice [Fig. 4.32(d), (e) and (f)].
− At the exit of the orifice the fuel jet velocity, V/, is of the order of 400 m/s. It is given
by the following equation
2  pinj  pcyl 
V f  Cd (4.28)
f
where Cd = coefficient of discharge for the orifice
pinj = fuel pressure at the inlet to the injector, N/m2
pcyl = pressure of charge inside the cylinder, N/m2
ρf = fuel density kg/m3
− The spray from a circular orifice has a denser and compact core, surrounded by a cone
of fuel droplets of various sizes and vaporized liquid.

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4. Fuels and its supply system for SI and CI engine Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

− Larger droplets provide a higher penetration into the chamber but smaller droplets
are required for quick mixing and evaporation of the fuel. The diameter of most of the
droplets in a fuel spray is less than 5 microns.

4.16 Quantity of fuel and size of orifice

− The quantity of the fuel injected per cycle depends to a great extent upon the power
output of the engine.
− The fuel is supplied into the combustion chamber through the nozzle holes and the
velocity of the fuel for good atomization is of the order of 400 m/s. The velocity of the
fuel through nozzle orifice in terms of h can be given by
V f  Cd 2 gh (4.29)
where h is the pressure difference between injection and cylinder pressure, measured
in m of fuel column.
− The volume of fuel injected per second, Q, is given by
Q = Area of all orifices × fuel jet velocity × time of one injection × number of injections
per second for one orifice
    60  N
Q   d 2  n  V f     i (4.30)
4   360 N  60
where Ni for four-stroke engine is rpm/2 and for a two-stroke engine Ni is rpm itself
d is the diameter of one orifice in m,
n is the number of orifices,
θ is the duration of injection in crank angle degrees and
Ni is the number of injections per minute.
− Usually the rate of fuel-injection is expressed in mm3/degree crank angle/litre cylinder
displacement volume to normalize the effect of engine size.

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5
IGNITION AND GOVERNING SYSTEM

Course Contents
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Requirement of an Ignition
system
5.3 Battery Ignition System
5.4 Components of Battery Ignition
system
5.5 Magneto ignition system
5.6 Spark plug
5.7 Firing order
5.8 Governing of IC engine

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5. Ignition and Governing System Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

5.1 Introduction
− In S.I. engine the combustion process is initiated by spark between the two electrodes
of spark plug. This occurs just before the end of compression stoke. The ignition
process must add necessary energy for starting and sustaining burning of the fuel till
combustion takes place.
− Ignition is only a pre-requisite of combustion. It does not influence the gross
combustion process. It is only a small scale phenomenon taking place within a
specified small zone in the combustion chamber.
− Ignition only ensures initiation of combustion process and has no degree intensively
or extensively.
Energy requirements for ignition:
− A spark energy below 10 millijoules is adequate to initiate combustion for A/F ratio
12-13 : 1 (Range of mixtures normally used); the duration of few micro-seconds is
sufficient to start combustion.
− A spark can be struck between the gap in the in two electrodes of the spark plug by
sufficiently high voltage. There is a critical voltage called breakdown voltage below
which no sparking would occur. In practice the pressure, temperature and density
have a profound influence on the voltage required to cause the spark. Also, the striking
voltage is increased due to the fouling factor of the electrodes owing to deposits and
abrasion.
− For automotive engines, in normal practice, the spark energy to the tune of 40
millijoules and duration of about 0.5 millisecond is sufficient over entire range of
operation.
5.2 Requirements of an Ignition System
− For an ignition system to be acceptable it must be moderately priced, reliable and its
performance must be adequate to meet all the demands imposed on it by various
operating conditions.
− An ignition system should fulfil the following requirements:
i) It should have an adequate reserve of secondary voltage and ignition energy over the
entire operating speed range of the engine.
ii) It should consume the minimum of power and convert it efficiently to a high-energy
spark across the spark-plug electrode gap.
iii) It should have a spark duration which is sufficient to establish burning of the air-fuel
mixture under all operating conditions.
iv) It should have an ability to produce an ignition spark when a shunt is established over
the spark plug electrode insulator surface, due possibly to carbon, oil or lead deposit,
liquid fuel or water condensation.
v) Good performance at high speed.
vi) Longer life of breaker points and spark plug.
vii) Good starting when the breaker points open slowly at cranking speed.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 5. Ignition and Governing System

viii) Good reproducibility of secondary voltage rise and maximum rise.

ix) Adjustment of spark advance with speed and load.
− The basic source of electrical energy is either battery, a generator or magneto,
− The battery and generator normally provide 6 V or 12 V direct current, while
the magneto provides an alternating current of higher voltage.
− The low voltage (6 V to 12 V) is boosted to a very high potential of about 10 kV
to 20 kV, in order to overcome the spark gap resistance and to release enough
energy to initiate self-propagating flame within the combustible mixture.
5.3 Battery ignition system
− It is a commonly used system because of its combined cheapness, convenience of
mainte-nance, attention and general suitability.
− Construction. This system consists of the following components:
1. Battery (6 or 12 volts) 2. Ignition switch
3. Induction coil 4. Circuit/Contact breaker
5. Condenser 6. Distributor
− The system is shown in fig. 5.1.

Fig. 5.1 Battery or Coil Ignition system.

− One terminal of the battery is ground to the frame of the engine, and other is
connected through the ignition switch to one primary terminal of the ignition coil
(consisting of a comparatively few turns of thick wire wound round an iron core).
− The other primary terminal is connected to one end of the contact points of the circuit
breaker and through closed points to ground. The primary circuit of the ignition coil

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5. Ignition and Governing System Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

thus gets completed when contact points of the circuit breaker are together and
switch is closed.
− The secondary terminal of the coil is connected to the central contact of the
distributor and hence to distributor rotor. The secondary circuit consists of secondary
winding (consisting of a large number of turns of fine wire) of the coil, distributor and
four spark plugs.
− The contact breaker is driven by a cam whose speed is half the engine speed (for four
stroke engines) and breaks the primary circuit one for each cylinder during one
complete cycle of the engine.
− The breaker points are held on contact by a spring except when forced apart by lobs
of the cam.
− A ballast resistor is provided in series with the primary winding to regulate primary-
current. For starting purposes this resistor is by passed so that more current can flow
in the primary circuit.
Working:
− To start with, the ignition switch is made on and the engine is cranked i.e. turned by
hand when the contacts touch, the current flows from battery through the switch,
primary winding of the induction coil to circuit breaker points and the circuit is
completed through the ground. A condenser connected across the terminals of the
contact breaker points prevent the sparking at these points.
− The rotating cam breaks open the contacts immediately and breaking of this primary
circuit brings about a change of magnetic field; due to which a very high voltage to the
tune of 8000 to 12000 V is produced across the secondary terminals. (The number of
turns in the secondary winding may be 50 to 100 times than in primary winding). Due
to high voltage the spark jumps across the gap in the spark plug and air fuel mixture is
ignited in the cylinder.
− Fig. 5.2 shows the gradually building up of the primary current from the time the
points close until they open.

Fig. 5.2 Built up time for primary current Fig. 5.3 Typical pattern of normal ignition action
− Fig 5.3 shows a typical wave-form or pattern of the normal ignition action.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 5. Ignition and Governing System

− At point L the distributor opens and the magnetic field of the coil-primary
winding collapses and consequently the secondary voltage, indicated by the
firing line, rises to point M. The height of firing line shows the voltage needed
to jump the rotor gap and to ionize the gap between the spark plug electrodes.
− After the spark is initiated the gap becomes ionized resulting in decreased gap
resistance and a smaller voltage is then required to maintain the arc across the
gap. The lower voltage and the spark duration is represented by the height and
length of the spark line NP.
− At point P the major portion of the energy of the coil is expended and
consequently there is a drop in the secondary voltage which result in
extinguishing of the spark.
− Due to spark extinction the circuit becomes open, the current flow is stopped,
and, hence the magnetic field (produced in the secondary winding, during the
firing period NP while the current was flowing in the secondary winding and
across the spark gap to ground) collapses, thereby, inducing a current in the
primary winding, which eventually flows into the condenser and charge it.
− When voltage in the condenser becomes higher than that in the primary
winding, it discharges back in the primary winding. This results in collapsing of
the magnetic field and rebuilding up of voltage in the secondary winding. This
pulsing back and forth, weaked each time, continues till whole of the energy is
dissipated (Refer Fig. 5.3-intermediate section).
− At point Q the contact points close and remain so during dwell period. At the
end of this period the points again open at S (there being no condenser action
during the period, since it is shorted out across the closed points).
Advantages:
− It offers better sparks at low speeds, starting and for cranking purposes.
− The initial cost of the system is low.
− It is a reliable system and periodical maintenance required is negligible except for
battery.
− Items requiring attention can be easily located in more accessible position than those
of magnetos.
− The high speed engine drive is usually simpler than magneto drive.
− Adjustment of spark timing has no deterimental effect over the complete ignition
timing range.
Disadvantages:
− With the increasing speed, sparking voltage drops.
− Battery, the only unreliable component of the system needs regular attention. In case
battery runs down, the engine cannot be started as induction coil fails to operate.
− Because of battery, bulk of the system is high.

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5. Ignition and Governing System Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

5.4 Components of Battery Ignition system

In this section we will discuss the essential components used in battery ignition system.
5.4.1. The battery:
− The function of battery is to store electricity in the form of chemical energy, when
required to convert the latter back into electrical energy.
− Motor vehicles use lead-acid batteries which have a series of positive and negative
plates which are interpersed, the plates being immersed in a solution of dilute
sulphuric acid, called the electrolyte. For compactness the plates are placed close
together and separators are used to reduce the chance of shorting taking place.
Advantage of 12 V ignition system over 6 V system:
− Considerably higher voltages are obtainable.
− For transmitting equal power with excessive voltage drop, the cable in a 6-V system
needs theoretically to be four times the thickness of 12-V system, cables.
− Improved starting.
− Adequate electric power to supply the increasing number of electrical accessories
used.
5.4.2. The ignition coil
− To create an adequate spark across the gap
of sparking plug high electrical pressure is
needed. Electrical pressure is measured in
volts and the 12 volts supplied by the
battery is totally inadequate.
− The function of ignition coil is to increase
the voltage between 10,000 and 15,000
volts in some conditions, although the
voltage which occurs under normal running
conditions is of the order of 4000-5000
volts.
− Two coils of insulated wire are wound on a
laminated soft iron core. The inner coil,
called the secondary, has more turns than
the outer primary coil. There are about
20000 turns on the secondary and 400
turns on the primary.
− If a low voltage passing through the primary
Fig. 5.4 The Ignition coil
coil is switched off a higher voltage is
induced in the secondary coil, the increase being approximately in the same
proportion to the number of turns of the two coils. The core and windings are placed
in an iron sheath. The entire assembly being housed in a sealed container (Fig. 5.4).

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 5. Ignition and Governing System

− A high tension lead from the centre of the coil carries the supply to the distributor.
Two small terminals are situated either side of the high tension lead, one being
connected to the contact breaker and marked CB and the other to the ignition switch
identified by the letters SW.
5.4.3. Contact breakers:
− This is a mechanical device for making [Fig. 5.5 (a)] and breaking [Fig. 5.5 (b)] the
primary circuit of the ignition coil. It consists essentially of a fixed metal point against
which, another metal point bears which is being on a spring loaded pivoted arm.

Fig. 5.5 Contact breaker

− The metal used is invariably one of the hardest metals, usually tungsten and each point
has a circular flat face of about 3 mm diameter.
− The fixed contact point is earthed by mounting it on the base of the contact breaker
assembly whereas the arm to which the movable contact point is attached, is
electrically insulated. When the points are closed the current flows and when they are
open, the circuit is broken and the flow of current stops. The pivoted arm has,
generally, a heel or a rounded part of some hard plastic material attached in the
middle and this heel bears on the cam which is driven by the engine. Consequently,
every time the cam passes under the heel, the points are forced apart and the circuit
is broken.
− The pivoted arm is spring loaded, so that when the points are not separated by the
action of the cam, they are held together by the pressure of the spring thereby closing
the primary circuit. The condition and adjustment of the contact breaker points are
important. The points are subjected to a very severe hammering during their period
of service. Uneven wear of the points may require a refacing or replacing depending
upon the condition of the points.
− An eight cylinder engine running at 3000 rpm requires 12000 sparks per minute, i.e.
200 sparks per second. If the breaker is to operate satisfactorily at this speed, the

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5. Ignition and Governing System Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

travel of the breaker arm must be held down to the minimum to ensure a positive
spark and the breaker arm must be made very light.
5.4.4. The distributor
− The distributor includes the contact breaker points and the mechanism for
automatically advancing or retarding the spark timing in accordance with the engine
speed for optimum power to be developed by the engine.
− The function of the distributor is to distribute the ignition surges to the individual
spark plugs in the correct sequence and at the correct instants in time. Depending on
whether a particular engine has 4, 6 or 8 cylinders, there are 4, 6 or 8 ignition pulses
(surges) generated for every rotation of the distributor shaft. The use of a distributor
represents a considerable simplification in a battery ignition system because in most
cases we want to use only a single ignition circuit.
5.4.5. The Condenser
− It consists of sheets of metal foil separated by an insulating material (e.g. mica) placed
face to face.
− One sheet of metal foil is connected to condenser terminal, next to the metal case of
the condenser and so on alternatively.
− The condenser terminal is connected to one side of contact breaker and the casing to
the other side of contact breaker and usually earth so that the condenser remains in
parallel with the contact breaker.
− As the contact breaker points separate in the distributor, the flow of current from the
battery through the primary winding of the coil is interrupted.
− Instantly the magnetic field begins to collapse and this collapse attempts to re-
establish the flow of current.
− If the condenser is not provided, the current would be re-established which would
result into a heavy arc across the separating contact breaker points and the energy of
the ignition coil will be consumed by the arc. This may bum the contact breaker points.
− The condenser prevents the arcing across the contact breaker points and prolongs its
life.
− Therefore, the functions of condenser are:
(i) To minimise arcing and pitting of contact breaker points.
(ii) To intensify the spark

5.5 Magneto ignition system

− Magneto is a special type of ignition system with its own electric generator to provide
the necessary energy for the system.
− It is mounted on the engine and replaces all the components of the coil ignition system
except the spark plug. A magneto when rotated by the engine is capable of producing
a very high voltage and does not need a battery as a source of external energy.
− A schematic diagram of a high tension magneto ignition system is shown in Fig. 5.6.
The high tension magneto incorporates the windings to generate the primary voltage
Prepared By: Darshit S. Dadhaniya Department of Mechanical Engineering
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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 5. Ignition and Governing System

as well as to step up the voltage and thus does not require a separate coil to boost up
the voltage required to operate the spark plug.

Fig. 5.6 High tension magneto ignition system

− Magneto can be either rotating armature type or rotating magnet type. In the first
type, the armature consisting of the primary and secondary windings all rotate
between the poles of a stationary magnet, whilst, in the second type the magnet
revolves and the windings are kept stationary. A third type of magneto called the polar
inductor type is also in use. In the polar inductor type magneto both the magnet and
the windings remain stationary but the voltage is generated by reversing the flux field
with the help of soft iron polar projections, called inductors.
− The working principle of the magneto
ignition system is exactly the same as
that of the coil ignition system. With the
help of a cam, the primary circuit flux is
changed and a high voltage is produced
in the secondary circuit.
− Fig. 5.7 compares the breaker current
vs. speed curve of the coil ignition
system with that of the magneto
ignition system.
− It can be seen that since the cranking Fig. 5.7 Break current vs. speed for coil and
magneto ignition systems
speed for starting is low the current
generated by the magneto is very low. As the engine speed increases the current
increases. Thus, with magneto there is almost always a starting difficulty and a
separate battery is needed for starting. The magneto is best at high speeds, and
therefore, is widely used for sports and racing cars, craft engines, etc.

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Darshit S. Dadhaniya

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5. Ignition and Governing System Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

− In comparison to the coil ignition system magneto system is more costly but highly
reliable. However, due to the poor starting characteristics and due to the fact that
voltage generated is effected with the changes in spark timing, almost invariably the
coil ignition system is preferred to the magneto system.
− The coil or battery ignition system requires more maintenance than the magneto
system. It is also heavier than the magneto system.
5.5.1. Low Tension Magneto Ignition system
− The main disadvantage of the high tension magneto ignition system lies in the fact
that the wirings carry a very high voltage current and thus there is a high possibility of
causing engine misfire due to leakage. To avoid this the high tension wires must be
suitably shielded.
− The development of the low tension magneto system is an attempt to avoid this
trouble.
− In the low tension magneto system the secondary winding is changed to limit the
secondary voltage to a value of about 400 volts and the distributor is replaced by a
brush contact. The high voltage is obtained with the help of a step-up transformer. All
these changes have effect of limiting the high voltage current only in a small portion
of the ignition system wiring and, thus, avoid the possibilities of leakage, etc.

5.5.2. Comparison between Battery (coil) Ignition System and Magneto

Ignition System
Table 5.1 Comparison of Battery (coil) and Magneto Ignition system
Battery (coil) Ignition System Magneto Ignition System
1. Battery is must. Impossible to start 1. No battery is needed hence no
the engine when battery is problem of battery discharge.
discharged.
2. Current for primary circuit is 2. The required electric current is
obtained from the battery. generated by the magneto.
3. A good spark is available at spark 3. During staring quality of spark is
plug at low speed. poor due to low speed.
4. Staring of engine is easier. 4. Engine starting is rather difficult.
5. Efficiency of the system falls with 5. The intensity of spark keeps on
fine fall of spark intensity as engine improving as the speed goes on
speed rises. increasing. The efficiency of the
system thus improves as the
engine speed rises
6. Occupies more space. 6. Occupies less space.
7. Mostly employed in petrol cars and 7. Used in racing cars, motor cycles,
buses. scooters, etc.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 5. Ignition and Governing System

5.6 Spark plug

− The function of the spark plug is to generate the
spark in the combustion chamber using a high
voltage communicated by the secondary. The
spark plug provides two electrodes with a proper
gap across which, high potential is discharged and
spark is generated.
− A sectional view of a conventional spark plug is
shown in Fig. 5.8. It consists of a steel shell, an
insulator, and two electrodes. The high voltage
supply from secondary is given to the central
electrode which is insulated with porcelain. The
other electrode is welded to the steel shell of the
plug and thereby automatically grounded when
the plug is fitted in the cylinder head of the
Fig. 5.8 Schematic of a Typical Spark Plug.
engine. The electrodes are made of high nickel
alloy to withstand severe corrosion and erosion to which they are subjected.
− The tips of central electrode and insulation are exposed to the burned gases. This
results high thermal stresses and the insulator may crack. As the tips are subjected to
high temperature (2000-2500°C), the heat must flow from the insulator and tip to the
surrounding shell in order to cool the electrodes and prevent preignition.
− The spark plugs are classified as hot plug and cold plug depending upon the
temperature at the tip of the electrodes. The operating temperature of the tip
depends upon the amount of heat transferred and it depends upon the path followed
by the heat to flow. A cold plug has a short heat flow path where as hot plug follows
a long flow path for the heat to flow as shown in Fig. 5.9.

Fig. 5.9 Heat Transfer Path of Hot and Cold Spark Plug

− The hot plug is used to avoid cold fouling where combustion chamber temperatures
are relatively low as during low power operation and continuous idling.
− A spark plug which runs satisfactory, the temperature at cruising speed may run cool
at idling speed and tips will be fouled by unburned carbon deposits or excess

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5. Ignition and Governing System Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

lubricating oil. The carbon deposits burns at 350°C where as lubricating deposits burn
at 550°C. If the spark plug runs hot at idling speed to prevent carbon deposits, it may
run too hot at high speed. This may cause undesirable preignition. If the plug runs
above 800°C, then preignition generally occurs.
− Insulator tip length is the most important parameter which controls the operating
temperature. Therefore, the tip temperature is generally controlled by varying
insulator tip position and electrode material.
− It is necessary in practise to compromise in order to obtain a proper spark plug which
would operate satisfactorily throughout the engine operating range. An improper
spark plug has remained a major source of engine trouble as misfiring and preignition.

5.7 Firing order

− The sequence in which, firing impulses occur in multicylinder SI-engine is called the
firing order. The angle between the successive crank throws in multi-cylinder engine
govern the order in which successive pistons arrive at TDC.
− The firing order should be such that there must be always a proper balance and it does
not cause vibrations.
− In 4-cylinder, 4-stroke engine, the firing in all cylinders will over in two revolutions of
the crank-shaft. With crank throws at 180°, the cylinders 1 and 4 will reach TDC
simultaneously. If the firing interval is made 180°, the firing in cylinder-1 cannot be
followed by the cylinder-4. Similarly, the firing of the cylinder-2 cannot be followed by
cylinder-3. Therefore, the possible firing order in 4-cylinder engine is 1-2-4-3 or 1-3-4-
2, the latter is more popular.
− In case of inline 6-cylinders engine, the cranks are set at 120° and the cylinders 1-6, 2-
5 and 3-4 will be at TDC simultaneously. Therefore, the firing order should be arranged
to take place in front and rear halves of the engine cylinder. The possible sequence of
6-cylinder engine is
1-5-3-6 -2-4 or 1-4-2-6-3-5
− In 8-cylinder engines, the cranks are set (360 x 2/8) to 90° and possible firing orders
are
1-6-2-5-8-3-7-4 and 1-5-4-8-6-3-7-2
1-8-4-3-6-5-7-2 and 1-8-7-3-6-5-4-2
− To decide the sequence for V-arrangement is more complicated.

5.8 Governing of IC engine

− The purpose of governing is to maintain the speed of the engine constant regardless
of the changes in the load on the engine. The mechanism used for this purpose is
known as governor and method used is kwon as governing.
− If the load on the engine decreases, the speed of the engine will begin to increase if
the fuel supply is not decreased. On the other hand, if the load on the engine
increases, the speed of the engine will begin to decrease if the fuel supply is not

Prepared By: Darshit S. Dadhaniya Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 5. Ignition and Governing System

increased. The purpose of governing is to supply the fuel to the engine according to
the load on the engine and to maintain the speed of the engine constant.
The methods of governing:
− The governing of speed of the engine according to the load is done by one of the
following methods:
i) The fuel supplied to the engine is completely cut off during few cycles of the
engine. This is known as Hit and Miss Governing. This is generally used for gas
engine.
ii) The fuel supplied per cycle of the engine is varied according to the load on the
engine. This is known as Quality Governing. The A : F ratio is changed according
to the load on the engine. Rich mixture is supplied at high loads and lean
mixture is supplied at low loads. This is used for diesel engines.
iii) The quantity of air-fuel mixture supplied is varied according to the load on the
engine. The A : F ratio of the mixture supplied to the engine at all loads remain
merely constant, therefore it is known as Quantity Governing. This is used for
petrol engine.
− All these methods are discussed in detail below.
5.8.1. Hit and Miss Governing
− This method is used for gas engines as well as for oil engines but is more popular in
gas engines only.
− This system of governing omits the explosions occasionally when the speed of the
engine rises above the mean speed of the engine. The number of omitted explosions
are increased with the increase in speed.

Fig. 5.10 hit and Miss Governing

− The usual method adopted for missing an explosion is to omit the opening of the gas
valve in case of gas engine and putting the plunger of the oil pump out of action in the
case of oil engines. During the missing cycle, the engine performs an idle cycle.
− The outline of the method used in gas engine is shown in Fig. 5.10.
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Darshit S. Dadhaniya
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5. Ignition and Governing System Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

− The position of all the components of the system are shown in the figure when the
engine is running at full load. The cam 'C' rotates at half speed of the crankshaft. As
the cam C pushes the point A, the point D is lifted upwards because the lever BD turns
about the fulcrum B and hits the valve steam through the knife-edged point E and
opens the valve to allow the gas to the engine cylinder. At full load condition, there is
working stroke for every cycle of the engine.
− When the load on the engine is decreased, the speed of the crank-shaft increases and
the speed of the governor also. The balls fly out as the speed of the spindle, on which
the governor is fixed, increases. The governor sleeve is pushed up and the point 'H' of
the lever GH also goes up and the point F on the lever GF moves towards the right as
shown in figure.
− The point 'E' on the knife edge is also moved towards the right and misses the opening
of the gas valve. The loss of power due to missing cycle decreases the speed of the
engine. The point E is lifted up by the cam during the missing cycle also but as it is
pushed away (towards the right) from the original position, it is not possible to open
the gas valve.
− The number of the missing cycles increases with the further decrease in load. The
missing cycles are zero when the engine is running at full load condition. The directions
of motion of all components under low load condition are shown by an arrow on the
figure.
− This method is known as Hit and Miss method because the valve is opened by giving
the hit and speed control is achieved by missing the openings of the gas valve.
− The principle and mechanism of the method used for oil engine are exactly same but
the plunger of the fuel pump is put out of action instead of gas valve.
− With this method of governing the engine, the engine either works under maximum
efficiency condition or does not fire at all. This method gives better economy at light
loads than any other method.
− The great disadvantage of this method is, the engine requires heavy flywheel as the
absence of turning effort on the crankshaft during the idle cycle. This method is used
for the engines of small B.P. (below 20 kW) and do not require close speed regulation.
5.8.2. Quality Governing
− The amount of fuel supplied to the diesel engine cylinder per cycle is varied according
to the load on the engine in this method of governing.
− The quantity of fuel supplied according to the load on the engine is varied by one of
the following methods.
a) The stroke of the fuel pump plunger is varied by the governor and quantity of oil
supplied is varied according to load.
− The weight of fuel supplied by the fuel pump is given by

mf  d 2 L f
4
where d is the diameter of the fuel pump and L is the stroke of the fuel pump.
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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 5. Ignition and Governing System

As L, is varied, the fuel supplied to the engine cylinder also varies.

b) A control valve is inserted to the delivery side of the fuel pump. The opening of the
valve is controlled by the governor. It opens after a part of delivery stroke is
performed. In this system, the oil is delivered to the engine cylinder from the fuel
pump during some part of the delivery stroke and returned back to the suction side
during the remaining part of the delivery stroke.
c) The closing of suction valve of the fuel pump may be delayed. The suction valve of the
fuel pump remains open during first part of the delivery stroke, therefore part of the
fuel oil is returned back to the fuel pump during some part of the delivery stroke and
delivered to the engine during the remaining part of the delivery stroke. The method
is known as "Spill Method”.
d) The stroke of the pump plunger remains constant at all loads but the effective stroke
is changed according to the load on the engine. By changing the angular position of
the helical groove on the plunger of the fuel pump relative to the suction port, the
amount of fuel delivered can be changed. This is the common method used in all
modem C.I. high speed engines.
− In all these systems, the air supply remains constant and the quantity of fuel supplied
is changed, therefore the quality of the mixture (A : F) changes according to the load
on engine.
5.8.3. Quantity Governing
− This is used in many gas engines and
is commonly used for all petrol
engines. The mixture strength
supplied to the engine is
maintained constant but the
quantity supplied to the engine is
varied by means of a throttle valve.
The movement of the throttle valve
is regulated by the lift of the
centrifugal governor.
− The arrangement is shown in Fig. Fig. 5.11 Quantity governing used for petrol engine
5.11.
− As the engine speed increases (due to decrease in load), the governor balls fly out and
the governor sleeve lifted up and partly throttle valve is closed reducing the quantity
of mixture supplied to the engine cylinder. This reduces the indicated mean effective
pressure and ultimately the power developed by the engine.
− This system of governing can be used for gas engines in various ways. The air and gas
supplied, each can be throttled by separate valves in the air and gas passages and then
supplied to the engine or a mixture of air and gas of constant A : F ratio coming out
from the mixing valve is supplied to the engine cylinder. The quantity of mixture
supplied is controlled by varying the lift of the main inlet valve.
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Darshit S. Dadhaniya
Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 5.15
6
Supercharging

Course Contents
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Objective of supercharging
6.3. Superchargers
6.4. Supercharging Power
6.5. Types of Superchargers
6.6. Comparison of supercharger
Methods or arrangement of
6.7.
supercharging
6.8. Supercharging of SI engines
6.9. Supercharging of CI engines
6.10. Effect of supercharging
Modification of engine for
6.11.
Supercharging
Advantage and Disadvantage of
6.12.
Supercharging
6.13. Turbocharging
Advantage and Disadvantage of
6.14.
Turbocharging
6.15. Methods to overcome Turbo lag
Comparison of Supercharger and
6.16.
Turbocharger
6.17. Methods of Turbocharging
6.18. Two stage Turbocharging

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Sagar S. Kanjiya

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6. Supercharging Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

6.1. Introduction
 The power and efficiency of an internal combustion engine are increased with increasing
compression ratio, speed of engine, charge density and reducing exhaust temperature.
 Supercharging in internal combustion engines is one of the method to improve engine
performance and efficiency.
 The supercharging can be defined as process of increasing charge (inlet air) density in
order to increase power output and efficiency of the engine.
 The purpose of supercharging an engine is to raise the density of the air charge, before
it’s delivered to the cylinders. Thus, the increased mass of air is trapped and then
compressed in each cylinder during each induction and compression stroke makes more
oxygen available for combustion than the conventional method of drawing the fresh air
charge into the cylinder (naturally aspirated).
 Consequently, more air and fuel per cycle will be forced into the cylinder, and this can
be efficiently burnt during the combustion process to raise the engine power output
higher than conventional naturally aspirated engine.
 The charge density can be increased by lowering air temperature or increasing the
charge pressure. The device used for increasing the pressure of air above atmospheric
pressure is called supercharger.
 A supercharger is an air compressor used to increase the pressure and density of air
supplied to an internal combustion engine. This compressed air supplies a greater mass
of oxygen per cycle of the engine to support combustion than available to a naturally
aspirated engine, which makes it possible for more fuel to be burnt and more work to be
done per cycle, which increases the power produced by the engine.
6.2. Objective of supercharging
 The objectives of supercharging include the following:
1) To obtain more power from an existing engine when the greater power demand
occurs.
2) To increase more power output for a given weight and hulk of the engine. Therefore
weight of engine per kW is reduced. This is important consideration for aircraft
engines or racing car engines.
3) To reduce the size of engine to fit in a limited space as in marine applications.
4) To overcome the effect of high altitudes (power loss with rate of 1 % per 100 m
altitudes) in case of engine used for aircraft applications and engine installations in
the mountains In this case the supercharger compensates the loss of power due to
altitude.
6.3. Superchargers
 A supercharger is a device that increases the pressure of the air intake above
atmospheric pressure. Supercharger increases intake mass by compressing air above
atmospheric pressure with the help of a compressor as shown in Fig.
 It increases density of the air, which makes for a denser charge entering the combustion
chamber.
 Superchargers are driven mechanically by belt, chain drive or by gear from the engine’s
crankshaft. Most of superchargers are driven by belt. The drive pulley or gear of engine,
in turn, rotates the compressor driven pulley or gear.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 6. Supercharging

 To pressurize the air, a supercharger must rotate at higher speed than the engine, and
hence the drive pulley or gear is larger than the compressor pulley or gear. Typical
supercharger is rotated at speeds 50,000 to 65,000 rpm.

Fig. 6. 1 Supercharging
6.4. Supercharging Power
 The power required to drive the supercharger can be calculated by considering the
steady flow process.

Fig. 6. 2 Steady flow process

Steady flow energy equation for inlet and outlet section,

𝐸1 + 𝑃1 𝑉1 + 𝑊 = 𝐸2 + 𝑃2 𝑉2 + 𝑄

Assuming heat loss Q=0,

𝑊 = 𝐸2 + 𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝐸1 + 𝑃1 𝑉1

𝑊 = ℎ2 − ℎ1 = 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

 Power required by compressor is given by,

𝑚𝑎 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑃=
𝑐
Where ma is the amount of air per second supplied by the supercharger

6.5. Types of Superchargers

 The supercharger can be classified as follows:
1) Positive-displacement type which deliver a nearly-fixed volume of air per revolution
at all speeds and a fairly constant level of boost regardless of engine speed.
2) Dynamic compressors rely on accelerating the air to high speed and then exchanging
that velocity for pressure by diffusing or slowing it down & deliver increasing boost
with increasing engine speed.

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6. Supercharging Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

1. Reciprocating air compressor

 The size of compressor decided by volume of air to be supplied to the engine
 This makes it quite heavy and bulky
 High compression ratio and isentropic efficiency is 75-85%
 The speed is limited. This increase the weight of the compressor
 Rarely used nowadays

Fig. 6. 3 Reciprocating air compressor

2. Vane blower
 Positive displacement rotary type compressor
 This consists of rotor rotating in a large cylindrical casing the rotor which has four slots,
remains in contact with the casing at least at one point all the time
 The axis of the rotor is mounted eccentrically
 The blade slides radially in and out of the slots of the rotor as it moves
 Due to vane the flow is pulsating and noisy and the speed is limited because of radial
motion of vanes.

Fig. 6. 4 Vane blower

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 6. Supercharging

3. Twin screw or lysholm compressor

 Positive displacement rotary supercharger
 A twin-screw supercharger operates by pulling air through a pair of meshing lobes that
resemble a set of worm gears.
 A twin-screw supercharger compresses the air inside the rotor housing (That's because
the rotors have a conical taper, which means the air pockets decrease in size as air
moves from the fill side to the discharge side).
 As the air pockets shrink, the air is squeezed into a smaller space
 More efficient than root blower
 Require more precision in manufacturing and noisy
 Cost is higher

Fig. 6. 5 Twin screw or lysholm compressor

4. Root blower
 As the rotors rotate, the air, at atmospheric pressure, is trapped in the pockets formed
between the lobes and casing
 The rotary motion of the lobes delivers the entrapped air into the receiver
 Thus more and more flow of air into the receiver increases its pressure.
 Finally, the air at a higher pressure is delivered from the receiver.
 Larger and sit on top of engine sticking out of the bonnet
 Least efficient and add more weight to vehicle
 Suitable for low and medium speed engines for stationary and marine installations

Fig. 6. 6 Root blower

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6. Supercharging Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

5. Centrifugal compressor
 A centrifugal supercharger works by powering an impeller (a device similar to a rotor) at
very high speeds to quickly draw air into a small compressor housing.
 Impeller speeds can reach ‘50,000 to 60,000 RPM’.
 Centrifugal superchargers are the most efficient and the most common induction
systems. They are small, lightweight and attachable to the front of the Engine.
 As the air is drawn in the hub of the impeller, centrifugal force causes it to radiate
outward. The air leaves the impeller at high speed, but low pressure.
 A diffuser converts the high-speed, low-pressure air to low-speed, high-pressure air.
Thus pressurized air is achieved.

Fig. 6. 7 Centrifugal compressor

6.6. Comparison of superchargers
Table 6. 1 Comparison of Supercharger types
Screw compressor Centrifugal compressor Roots blower
Positive displacement rotary Positive displacement
Type Dynamic compressor
com pressure rotary compressor
Pressure ratio 1 to 4 bar 1.5 to 3 1.1 to 2
Speed 3000 to 30,000 rpm. 15000 to 30000 rpm 4000 to-5000 rpm
Good low to mid-range
Response Very good, No lag. Poor low-speed response,
power
Low, intercoolers are Low, intercoolers are High, limits boost
Heat Buildup
usually not needed. usually not needed. available. .
Adiabatic
70-80% 60-78% 40-55%
Efficiency
Noise Very low noise levels. Typically very noisy Typically very noisy
Suitable for Low to The centrifugal
Suitable for low and
moderate speed engines. Its supercharger is used for
medium speed engines
Applications mechanical complexity and both low speed heavy duty
for stationary and
high cost limits its extensive and high speed light
marine installations.
use. engine.
Cost High Moderate Cheap

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 6. Supercharging

6.7. Methods or arrangement of supercharging

1. Compressor driven by engine
 In this arrangement, the compressor (supercharger) is driven by engine with help of
gearing or belt drive, a certain engine output is used to run the compressor as shown in
Fig.
 In this case, net output of supercharged engine is greater than gross output of naturally
aspirated engine. The net output increase due to supercharging is obtained by
subtracting this power from the gross output. Air cooler is used after compressor to
reduce the temperature of air: therefore, further density of air is increased.

Fig. 6. 8 Compressor driven by engine

2. Compressor driven by turbine
 In this arrangement, the compressor (supercharger) is driven by turbine which run with
help of exhaust gases coming from engine as shown in Fig. In this case engine output is
not utilized to drive the compressor, but the exhaust energy of the engine is used to run
the turbine which is coupled to a compressor. There is no mechanical connection
between engine and supercharger. This arrangement is also called turbo-supercharged.

Fig. 6. 9 Compressor driven by turbine

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6. Supercharging Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

3. Compressor driven by external source of power

 In this arrangement, the compressor (supercharger) is neither driven by engine nor
turbine, but compressor is separately driven by external power source (i.e. electric
motor) as shown in Fig.

Fig. 6. 10 Compressor driven by external source of power

4. Compressor driven by engine shaft and free turbine
 In this arrangement, power produced by engine is utilized only to run the compressor as
shown in Fig. The exhaust gases coming from engine is utilized to run the turbine. The
power produced by turbine is used for external load. This arrangement is also known as
generator type supercharging.

Fig. 6. 11 Compressor driven by engine shaft and free turbine

5. Direct coupling between engine, turbine and compressor
 In this arrangement, the compressor, engine and turbine all are coupled together with
help of gearing as shown in Fig. In this case, if the turbine output is not enough to run
the compressor during the part load on the engine, the engine power takes care of the
remaining load of compressor. In addition to this an extra power from the turbine can be
fed to the engine.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 6. Supercharging

Fig. 6. 12 Direct coupling between engine, turbine and compressor

6.8. Supercharging of SI engines
 Comparison between natural aspired and supercharged Otto cycle is shown in fig.

Fig. 6. 13 Otto cycle without supercharging and with supercharging

 The larger upper loop is a measure of the positive power developed in the cylinder for
both cycle.
 The lower loop represents the negative power needed to fill the cylinder with fresh
charge in natural aspired cycle and for supercharged cycle small loop area (0-1-5-6-0)
which is above the atmospheric line represents the work done in pumping the fresh
charge into the cylinder.
 The mean effective temperature of the supercharged cycle is higher than natural aspired
cycle - more power develop
 Net work done =
[area 1-2-3-4-1] + [area 0-1-5-6-0] – [work consume by supercharger]
Supercharging limits for SI engine
 Supercharging of engine is done by increasing the charge pressure. The increase in
pressure and usually in temperature also, because of supercharging reduces ignition
delay and consequently the engine has a knocking tendency at this pressure.
 In supercharged SI engine highest knocking tendency is occurred nearer at chemically
correct air fuel ratio. Very lean and very rich mixtures give non-knocking operation. The
lean limits of non-knocking are narrow and require very accurate control of mixture

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6. Supercharging Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

ratio. Therefore, normally supercharged SI engine run on rich mixtures to control knock
but, use of rich mixtures results in higher specific fuel consumption.
 Supercharged SI engine employs lower compression ratios in order to reduce knock and
hence lower thermal efficiency. Also, due to above reason specific fuel consumption of
supercharged SI engine is higher than that of unsupercharged engine.
 Due to burning of high pressure and large density charge, more heat is developed inside
the engine cylinder and the cooling system may not carry away the extra amount of
heat. This causes overheating of the cylinder walls which may get damaged. Also, due to
overheating there may be chance of pre-ignition and knocking.
 Supercharging of petrol engine because of its poor fuel economy as discussed above, it is
not very popular and is used only when more power is needed in case of racing cars or
to compensate altitude loss in case of aircrafts.
6.9. Supercharging of CI engines
 Fig. shows an ideal supercharged diesel cycle on p-V diagram. Compressed air above
atmospheric pressure enters and exhausted at atmospheric pressure
 The net work done =
[area 1-2-3-4-1] + [area 0-1-5-6-0] - [work consume by supercharger]

Fig. 6. 14 Diesel cycle with supercharging

Performance of Supercharged CI engine
 Supercharging of engine is done by increasing the charge pressure. Increase in pressure
and temperature of intake air reduces ignition delay and hence the rate of pressure rise
resulting quieter and smoother combustion. This improvement in combustion allows a
poor quality fuel to be used in a diesel engine and it is also not sensitive to types of fuel
 Due to high rate of pressure rise, diesel knock may be produced. As the rate of pressure
rise is reduced at high inlet pressure the knocking and pre-ignition are absent and the
engine runs smoother.
 The increase in intake air temperature decreases volumetric and thermal efficiency, it is
essential to keeps the temperature of the supercharging as low as possible in order to
get high volumetric and thermal efficiency. However, an increase in temperature does
not give rise to knocking or pre-ignition.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 6. Supercharging

 In CI engine supercharging makes better atomization of fuel, lesser knock tendency,

more complete, smoother combustion, reduces specific fuel consumption, improved
cold starting and reduced exhaust smoke.
 If unsupercharged CI engine is supercharged it will increase reliability and durability of
engine due to smoother combustion and lower exhaust temperature.
Supercharging limits for CI engine
 Supercharging of CI engine is limited by mechanical and thermal loading.
 If the temperature of the piston and cylinder is very high it results in increased rate of
heat release (high thermal loading), scuffing of piston ring and heavy finer wear.
 The load on bearings is increased due to increased pressure in the cylinder. By increasing
the strength of the materials of piston and valves a higher degree of supercharging of
the CI engine is possible.
6.10. Effect of supercharging
1 Increased Engine Output (p-V diagrams)
2 Greater induction of charge mass
3 Better atomization of fuel
4 Better mixing of air and fuel
5 Better scavenging of products
6 Better torque characteristic over whole speed range
7 Quicker acceleration of vehicle
8 More complete and smoother combustion
9 Inferior/poor ignition quality fuel usage
10 Smooth operation and reduced in diesel knocking
11 Knocking tendency increase in SI Engines
12 Improve cold starting
13 Reduced exhaust smoke
14 Reduce specific fuel consumption in turbocharging
15 Mechanical efficiency increases
16 Thermal efficiency increases
17 Increase heat losses due to increased turbulence
18 Increased gas loading
19 Increased valve overlap period of 60° to 160° of crank angle
20 Increased cooling requirements of piston and valves

SI engines CI engine
Fig. 6. 15 Supercharging effect for SI engines and CI engine

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6. Supercharging Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

6.11. Modification of engine for Supercharging

 These modifications include increase in the valve overlap period to allow complete
scavenging of the clearance volume and increase in clearance volume by decreasing the
compression ratio.
 For a diesel engine, injection system must be modified to supply increased amount of
fuel; this will require greater nozzle area than the normally aspirated engine.
 In case of turbocharged engine the exhaust valve opens a bit earlier to supply more
energy to the turbocharger.
 Moreover, the exhaust manifold of such an engine is insulated to reduce heat losses in
contrast to the water-cooled exhaust manifold of a normally aspirated engine.
6.12. Advantage and Disadvantage of Supercharging
Advantage
1. Higher mass of charge and hence higher volumetric efficiency.
2. Increased power output.
3. Better torque characteristics over the whole speed range.
4. Ratio of weight to power of engine is reduced.
5. Better mixing of fuel & air and scavenging.
6. Superchargers do not suffer lag and hence, engine response is very good against load
on engine. Hence, quick acceleration of vehicle is possible.
7. In CI engine, supercharging makes better atomization of fuel, lesser knock tendency,
more complete and smoother combustion, reduces specific fuel consumption,
improved cold starting and reduced exhaust smoke.
8. Superchargers can he bolted to the top or side of the engine. That makes them
cheaper to install and easier to service and maintain. Therefore, it is easier to install
than turbochargers.
9. Roots & twin screw compressor superchargers are efficient at low speed (rpm) and
centrifugal compressor superchargers are more efficient at higher speed.
Disadvantage
1. Supercharger requires power which taken from engine itself. Hence, if supercharger
is not designed properly or engine is running at part load than net power output is
reduced.
2. The main disadvantage of supercharging specially in SI engine is that it increases
knocking tendency of engine. Since the temperature is raised because of forced
induction, knocking takes place which is a serious problem.
3. Mechanical and gas loading increases with an increase in supercharging.
4. Supercharged SI engine employs lower compression ratios in order to reduce knock
and hence lower thermal efficiency. Also, due to above reason specific fuel
consumption of supercharged SI engine is higher than that of unsupercharged
engine.
5. In the supercharged engine, the temperature and pressure vary in cylinder, results in
scuffing of piston rings and heavy liner wear. Also, load on bearings is increased due
to increased pressure in the cylinder.
6. Increases the strain on the engine and running gear.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 6. Supercharging

6.13. Turbocharging
 Turbocharger or turbocharging is a type of forced induction system whose function is
same as that of supercharger and it is the one of the method of supercharging.
Therefore, it is also known as turbo-supercharging.
 Turbocharger compresses the air flowing into the engine. As we know that
superchargers are powered by engine itself. Therefore net power output may be
reduced if compressor is not fully utilized.
 In contrast to superchargers, the turbocharger uses the exhaust gases from the engine
to run a turbine (works like a gas turbine), which in turn compressor. The turbine in the
turbocharger rotates at speeds of up to 150,000 RPM
 In order to understand how the power output is increased by turbocharging, consider
the Otto cycle on p-V diagram with and without supercharging. Work available with
exhaust gases is represented by area 4-6-5-4. This work can be converted into useful
work with help of turbocharger. This is achieved by expanding exhaust gases to ideally
atmospheric pressure in the turbine which turns the compressor.
 The net output of engine is equal to sum of engine output and gas exchange work
output (output increased by increasing pressure of charge while in case of supercharging
it is reduced by work required for supercharger).
 The exhaust from the cylinders passes through the turbine blades, causing the turbine to
spin. The more exhaust that goes through the blades, the faster they spin.

Fig. 6. 16 Otto cycle with Turbocharging

 In order to handle speeds of up to 150,000 rpm, the turbine shaft has to be supported
very carefully.
 Most turbochargers use a ‘Fluid Bearing’. This type of bearing supports the shaft on a
thin layer of oil that is constantly pumped around the shaft. This serves two purposes: It
cools the shaft and some of the other turbocharger parts and it allows the shaft to spin
without much friction. Some turbochargers use ‘Ball Bearings’ instead of fluid bearings
to support the turbine shaft. But these are not your regular ball bearings, they are super-
precise bearings made of advanced materials to handle the speeds and temperatures of
the turbocharger.
 Ceramic turbine blades are lighter than the steel blades used in most turbochargers.

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6. Supercharging Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

6.14. Advantage and Disadvantage of Turbocharging

Advantage
1. Increased power for an engine of the same size or reduction in size for an engine
with the same power output.
2. Reduced specific fuel oil consumption - mechanical, thermal and scavenge
efficiencies are improved due to less cylinders, greater air supply and use of exhaust
gasses.
3. Thermal loading is reduced due to shorter more efficient burning period for the fuel
leading to less exacting cylinder conditions.
Disadvantage
1. Special exhaust manifolds are required with turbochargers.
2. One of the main problems with turbochargers is that they do not provide an
immediate power boost. It takes a second for the turbine to get up to speed before
boost is produced. This results in a lag known as turbo lag.
3. Fuel injection system is required to modify to inject more fuel per cycle.
4. The efficiency of the turbine blades is very sensitive to gas velocity so that it is very
difficult to obtain good efficiency over a wide range of operations.

6.15. Methods to overcome Turbo lag

 One way to decrease turbo lag is to reduce the inertia of the rotating parts, mainly by
reducing their weight. This allows the turbine and compressor to accelerate quickly, and
start providing boost earlier.
 A small turbocharger will provide boost more quickly and at lower engine speeds.
 Most automotive turbochargers have a waste gate, which allows the use of a smaller
turbocharger to reduce lag. Some engines use two turbochargers of different sizes.
 The smaller one spins up to speed very quickly, reducing lag, while the bigger one takes
over at higher engine speeds to provide more boost.

6.16. Comparison of Supercharger and Turbocharger

Table 6. 2 Comparison of Supercharger and Turbocharger
SUPERCHARGING TURBOCHARGING
1. Superchargers are powered by engine 1. Turbochargers are powered by turbine
itself. Belts, chains, shafts, and gears are which is run with help of exhaust gases.
common methods of powering a
supercharger.
2. Supercharger runs at speed up to about 2. Turbocharger runs at speed up to about
30,000 rpm. 150,000 rpm.
3. A supercharger places a mechanical load 3. It does not place a mechanical load on the
on the engine to drive. engine to drive.
4. It is less efficient because it does not use 4. It is more efficient because it uses potential
one energy of engine exhaust gases. and kinetic energy of the exhaust gas to
drive the compressor.
5. No back pressure in the engine exhaust. No 5. The principal disadvantages of
more loss of power due direct drive. turbocharging are back-pressure, heat soak
of the intake air, and the inefficiencies of
the turbine.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 6. Supercharging

6.17. Methods of Turbocharging

1. Constant Pressure Turbocharging
 The exhaust from various cylinders discharge into a common manifold at pressure at
pressures higher than the atmospheric pressure.
 The exhaust gasses from all the expanded in the exhaust valves to an approximately
constant pressure in common manifold from here it passes to turbine.
 Thus the blow-down energy, in the form of internal energy, is converted into work in the
turbine.
 The exhaust gases are maintained at constant pressure during the whole cycle so that a
pure Reaction turbine can be used.

Fig.6. 17 Constant Pressure Turbocharging

Advantages:
 The exhaust piping is very simple for multi-cylinder engine as well as single-cylinder; and
highly efficient turbine can be used.
 The pressure ratio used is higher in the compressor and turbine and hence recovery of
exhaust energy is efficient and lower specific fuel consumption.
 Exhaust gases is supplied to the turbine at constant temperature and pressure,
therefore, the turbine runs at higher efficiency.
 Engine speed is not limited by the pressure waves in the exhaust pipes.

Disadvantages:
 In order to maintain constant pressure it requires the larger size exhaust pipes.
 Scavenging is not efficient.
 At part load the efficiency of turbine reduces due to partial admissions to the turbine.
 It does not make full use of the high kinetic energy of the gases leaving the exhaust port.
 Losses inherent in the mixing of this high velocity gas with a large volume of low velocity
gas cannot be recovered.
 The response of the system to the load change is considerably poor, this is due to very
slow acceleration against load increased.

2. Pulse turbocharging (Buchi Type)

 Considerable part of the blow-down energy is converted into exhaust pulses as soon as
the exhaust valve opens. These pulses are fed to the turbine through narrow exhaust
pipe by the shortest possible route to the turbine where this energy is utilised.

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6. Supercharging Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

 A large proportion of energy is thus recovered. Towards the end of the exhaust the
pressure in the exhaust pipe drops below the scavenging and large air pressure making
scavenging quite easy.
 Separate exhaust pipes are used so that the exhaust process of various cylinders does
not interfere with one another.

Fig.6.18 Pulse turbocharging (Buchi Type)

Advantages:
 The space required is less due to short and smaller diameter pipes.
 Comparatively better scavenging is obtained at low loads due to reduced pressure below
the scavenging pressure at end of exhaust pipe and large air pressure making scavenging
quite easy.
 The recovery of exhaust blow down energy is more efficient than constant pressure
system.
 Separate exhaust pipes are used so that the exhaust processes of various cylinders do
not interface with one another.

Disadvantages:
 At high pressure ratio in the turbine, recovery of energy is poor.
 Complicated inlet and exhaust pipe arrangement are needed in case of multi-cylinder
engine.
 The length of the pipe or engine speed is limited.
 Scavenging processes is disturbed if the waves have to travel long distance to reach to
the turbine.

3. Pulse converter
 Constant pressure turbocharger have a lower efficiency at part load and it requires
steady flow for maximum efficiency; while in case of pulse turbocharger turbine
operates at relatively lower efficiency due to partial admission operation, and recovery
of energy is poor.
 However, pulse turbocharger has good part load efficiency and also provides good
scavenging. In order to utilize advantages and avoids drawbacks of both, constant
pressure and pulse turbochargers can be used simultaneously.
 It is achieved using pulse convertor turbocharging which is a combination of constant
pressure and pulse turbochargers.
 In the pulse convertor, different branches of exhaust manifolds are connected together
in a special designed venturi junction before entry to turbine.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 6. Supercharging

 The pressure pulse is converted into kinetic energy in the nozzle section of venturi. It
creates a suction effect in the exhaust line and helps in scavenging process of the
engine.
 In the stabilization (diffuser) section, pressure gradually increases and high pressure
exhaust is supplied to the turbine. Pulse convertor system gives a quick response to
engine. It is suitable and efficient even at part load condition for low pressure ratio
turbine.

Fig.6.19 Pulse converter

6.18. Two stage turbocharger
 For diesel engines requiring very high degree of supercharging (bmep ranging from 25 to
30 bar) which cannot be obtained in a single-stage turbocharger can either use two
turbines and two compressors on a single shaft or use two-stage turbocharging,
 Two –stage turbocharging is defined as use of two turbochargers of different sizes in
series.
 For example a high-pressure stage operating on pulse system and a low-pressure stage
on constant pressure operation.

Fig. 6. 20 Two stage turbocharger

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6. Supercharging Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

Fig. 6. 21 Two stage turbocharger

Advantages:
1. Better matching of the turbochargers to engine operating conditions possible.
2. The efficiency of two-stage turbocharger is higher than that of a single stage
turbocharger having a high boost ratio.
Disadvantages:
1. The space requirement is higher.
2. The total system is heavier.

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7
Combustion in SI and CI Engines

Course Contents
7.1. Introduction to S.I. engine
Combustion Related Concepts and
7.2.
Definitions
7.3. Ignition Limit
7.4. Stages of combustion
7.5. Factors affecting ignition lag
Factors affecting the flame
7.6.
propagation
Abnormal combustion and knocking
7.7.
in S.I. engines
Effect of Engine Variables on
7.8.
Detonation in S.I. Engines
7.9. Control of knocking
S.I. engine Combustion Chamber
7.10.
Design
Different Types of Combustion
7.11.
Chambers for S.I. Engines in Use:
7.12. Introduction to C.I engine
7.13. Combustion Stages in C.I. Engines
Effect of Engine Variables on Delay
7.14.
Period
Knock in C.I. Engines (Abnormal
7.15.
Combustion)
Factors affecting the knocking in C.I
7.16.
engine
Comparison of the knocking in S.I.
7.17.
and C.I. engines
Combustion Chamber Design for
7.18.
C.I. Engines
Classification of Combustion
7.19.
Chambers for C.I. Engines

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7. Combustion in SI and CI Engines Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

7.1. Introduction
 In Spark Ignition (S.I.) engine, fuel and air is mixed outside the engine cylinder in
carburetor in proper proportion.
 Combustion is chemical reaction between hydrogen and carbon in fuel with oxygen in
air. It produces CO2 and H2O and liberates energy in the form of heat. Actual process of
combustion is very complicated and lot of research is going on since many years.
 During combustion, large amount of heat is generated which is utilized to run the I.C
engine.
 Combustion in S.I. engine requires following conditions:
(1) Proper proportion of air-fuel mixture should be compressed to required level
(compression ratio = 6 to 10)
(2) Spark should take place with required intensity.
(3) Combustion should start at spark plug, and the flame should propagate in
combustion chamber.
7.2. Combustion Related Concepts and Definitions
 The internal combustion engines derive their energy in the form of heat by combustion
of homogeneous mixture of fuel and air in the combustion chamber.
 An enormous amount of research has been carried out, both theoretical and
experimental, regarding the burning of this homogeneous mixture, but in actual practice
the mixture inside the cylinder is never homogeneous.
 The reasons for such existent of heterogeneous mixtures in the cylinder may be non-
uniform distribution of fuel and air in the combustion chamber or due to the dilution of
mixture by the left over residual (burnt) gases in the clearance space of the cylinder of
its previous stroke or for other reasons.
 The combustion problem of such mixtures is quite complex and intricate.
 However, the researches carried out in case of combustion of homogeneous mixtures in
spherical bomb by igniting the fuel by a spark at a point have shown that there is a
development of a flame defined as gas rendered luminous by liberation of chemical
energy, which starts from the point of ignition and spreads continuously in outward
direction.
 If the flame travels from the point of ignition up to the end of combustion chamber
without any change in speed and shape, the combustion is said to be normal.
 If the mixture of fuel and air ignites prior to reaching the flame front, this phenomenon
of combustion is called auto-ignition.
 The temperature at which the fuel will ignite itself without a flame is called self-ignition
temperature (S.I.T.).
 The auto-ignition of fuel is affected by various factors like density of charge (mixture of
fuel and air); its temperature and pressure, turbulence and the air-fuel ratio.
 In case of normal combustion the forward boundary of reaction zone of a flame is
called flame front. It is defined as the surface or area between the luminous region and
the dark region of the unburned charge.
 The velocity of flame by which it moves in space is called spatial velocity which depends
upon the shape and size of the combustion chamber.
 It has two components viz. transformation velocity and gas velocity.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 7. Combustion in SI and CI Engines

 Former is defined as the relative velocity of burned gases with which the flame front
moves from burned to unburned gases and it is the velocity by which the unburned
gases approach the burning zone.
 The combustion is defined as the rapid and high temperature oxidation of fuel with
liberation of heat energy.
 The main constituents of most fuels are carbon (C) and hydrogen (H2) and their burning
involves the rapid oxidation of C to CO or CO2 and of H2 to H2O. Usually the combustion
processes take place in gaseous phase.
 The requirement for initiating a combustion process are the presence of a combustible
mixture of air and fuel, a means for initiating the combustion, the formation of a flame
and its propagation across the combustion chamber.
7.3. Ignition Limit
 The flame inside the combustion chamber will propagate from spark plug to end of
combustion chamber only if temperature inside the cylinder exceeds 1500 K and A/F
ratio is within combustible limit i.e. between 9:1 to 21:1.
 Beyond this limit it may be too lean or too rich and practically the combustion will not
be possible. As we know that Stoichiometric A/F ratio for isooctane (C 8H18) is
approximately 15:1.

C8 H18 + 12.5 O2 + 12.5  3.76 N2  8 CO2 + 9 H2 O + 12.5  3.76 N2

 If combustion is complete, C02 and H2O will come out in exhaust. If mixture is lean,
excess air comes out in exhaust with C02 and H2O. If mixture is rich, incomplete
combustion will take place resulting in reduced power and producing C0 2, H2O and CO in
exhaust.

Fig.7. 1 Ignition Limit Hydrocarbons

7.4. Stages of combustion

 In I.C. engine, if inlet and exhaust valves are closed and piston moves from bottom dead
centre (BDC) to top dead centre (TDC), compression will take place and similarly from
top to bottom, expansion will take place. If combustion does not take place during this
process, the pressure (p) verses crank angle () diagram obtained is known as Motoring
curve.
 Theoretical p-  diagram where spark occurs at TDC, pressure suddenly rises due to
combustion and, then expansion of combustion products take place.

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7. Combustion in SI and CI Engines Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

Fig. 7. 2 (a) p -  diagram without combustion (b) theoretical p -  diagram with

(non- firing) combustion

 The actual p-  diagram with combustion is very complicated but as per this figure it is
divided into three stages namely;
 Stage I = A to B = Ignition lag,
 Stage II = B to C = Flame propagation,
 Stage III = C onwards = After burning.
 To achieve maximum advantage of high pressure generated during combustion, peak
pressure should be after and near to the TDC.
 If peak pressure is before TDC, it produces negative force on the piston which
may damage the piston, piston rod, and crank shaft.
 If peak pressure is after and far from TDC, force generated due to combustion
cannot be fully utilized.
 Considering above fact spark timing (point A) should be selected that maximum pressure
(point C) will be after and near TDC.

Fig 7. 3 Actual p -  diagram for S.I. engine

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 7. Combustion in SI and CI Engines

Stage I - Ignition lag:

 Ignition lag is the duration between spark (point A) and starting of combustion (point B).
 At point B, first rise of pressure detected and the actual curve differs from motoring
curve. So time interval between spark (point A) and first pressure rise (point B) is known

 Ignition lag is also known as preparation phase during which spark, chemical process
takes place, and flame generates. In SI engine combustion ignition lag is very important
and it should be as small as possible for getting more power.
Stage II - Flame propagation:
 The time duration between point B (combustion starts) and point C (Peak pressure) is
known as flame propagation.
 The most of the heat is generated during this phase. Normally spark will occur (Point A)
approximately 30° to 35° before TDC, so that peak pressure (Point C) is obtained 5° to
10° after TDC at cruising speed.
 As speed vary this spark timing should vary forgetting peak pressure at 5° to 10° after
TDC.
Stage III - After burning:
 Theoretically we can say that combustion should be completed at point C i.e. at
maximum pressure in Fig.
 But actually combustion will continue after point C i.e. during expansion stroke which is
known as after burning.
 It may be due to type of fuel, rich mixture etc. About 10% of heat may be liberated
during this stage.

Fig 7. 4 Theoretical and Actual p-V diagram for S.I. engine

 In S.I engine, combustion takes place at constant volume and in C.I. engine at constant
pressure. Area of actual p-V diagram is always less than theoretical p-V diagram. Area of
p-V diagram means work done and it should be as large as possible.
 So to achieve this, actual p-V diagram should be close to theoretical p-V diagram. To
achieve this, process of combustion should be as fast as possible i.e. timing or crank
angle of 1st and 2nd phase should be as small as possible.

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7.5. Factors affecting ignition lag

1. A:F ratio:
 Maximum power is produced at slightly richer mixture. At maximum power, heat
generated is maximum, which will reduce Ignition-lag timing as shown.

Fig.7. 5 Effect of A/F Ratio on Ignition Lag

2. Fuel:
 Chemical composition and nature of fuel plays vital role in combustion. The fuel with
higher self-ignition temperature has longer ignition lag period.
3. Initial temperature and pressure:
 The chemical reaction between fuel and air greatly depends on temperature and
pressure. As temperature and pressure increases reaction becomes fast which reduces
ignition lag. Any factor which increases in-cylinder temperature or pressure will lead to
decrease the ignition lag period. These factors may be supercharging, increasing
compression ratio, retarding –the spark timing, etc.

Fig.7. 6 Effect of Pressure and Temperature on Ignition Lag

4. Electrode gap:
 In a spark plug, distance between positive and negative electrode is known as electrode.
Sup. The effect of electrode gap on mixture strength for different compression. As the
electrode gap increases, higher voltage is required to produce the spark.

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Fig.7. 7 Effect of Electrode gap on A:F ratio required for different compression ratio
 Following conclusion were made.
a) For small electrode gap (i.e. 0.25 mm) range of A:F ratio for development of flame
nucleus is reduced.
b) For low compression ratio (say for CR=5) higher electrode gap is required.
c) As electrode gap increases the range of mixture strength increases.
d) As compression ratio increases combustion will be possible with small electrode gap.
5. Turbulence:
 Turbulence means irregular motion of the charge inside the combustion chamber.
Turbulence is directly proportional to engine speed.
 Ignition lag is not much affected by increasing the turbulence. So, engine speed does not
affect the ignition lag measured in milli seconds but ignition lag in crank angle increases
with speed.
 Therefore, angle of advance for spark timing increases with increasing speed and
decreases with decreasing speed to maintain a constant ignition lag. Therefore, in all S.I
engine automatic spark advance and retard mechanism is used to maintain constant
ignition lag.
7.6. Factors affecting the flame propagation
 Flame propagation is very important in combustion process of S.I engines. The flame
propagation depends on velocity of flame from spark plug to cylinder wall. The fast
flame propagation will improve combustion and economy. A : F ratio and turbulence are
major factors affect the flame propagation. Following are the factors that affect the
flame propagation.
1. A : F Ratio:
 As we know that maximum power is generated at slightly richer mixture. Therefore,
maximum flame speed and flame propagation take place at approximately 10% richer
mixture. For lean or too rich mixture flame propagation takes large time.

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Fig.7. 8 Effect of A/F Ratio on flame propagation

2. Compression Ratio (CR):
 Higher value of compression ratio increases the pressure and temperature of the
working mixture and decreases the concentration of residual gases in the engine
cylinder. This will speed up 1st phase (Ignition lag) and 2nd phase (flame propagation) of
combustion. The drawback of increasing the in-cylinder temperature and pressure is to
increase the possibility of detonation or knocking.
3. Intake temperature and pressure:
 As discussed earlier, as the intake temperature and pressure increases, the flame speed
and flame propagation also increases.
4. Load on the Engine:
 As the load on an engine increases, the cycle pressure and temperature also increases.
Hence the flame speed increases.
5. Turbulence:
 Irregular motion of charge entered inside the cylinder is known as turbulence.
Turbulence is also generated inside the cylinder during compression by suitable design
of the combustion chamber. In S.I. engine for combustion of fuel, the turbulence is very
important factor because flame speed is directly proportional to the turbulence of the
mixture. Advantages of turbulence are as follows:
a) It provides better mixing of air and fuel.
b) It increases the rate of heat transfer.
c) Accelerate the chemical reaction, therefore combustion is improved.
d) Flame propagation decreases and flame speed increases, therefore, weak
(lean) mixture can also be burnt efficiently.
Besides all above advantages there are few disadvantages of high turbulence:-
 Due to high turbulence high heat transfer rate may cool the flame generated which lead
to reduce flame velocity and flame may extinguish.
6. Engine Speed;
 Turbulence generated is linearly proportional to engine speed. So as engine speed
increases, turbulence increases which will increase the flame propagation.

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7.7. Abnormal combustion and knocking in S.I. engines

 In normal combustion the flame generated from spark plug and it travels to the end of
cylinder wall smoothly without any disturbance.
 Under some operating conditions abnormal combustion may occur which will affect the
combustion process. This results into the decreased power output, rough running of
engine, and damage the engine parts also.
 Abnormal combustions are mainly of two types :
a) Detonation or knocking, and
b) Surface ignition.
1. Detonation or knocking
 The temperature at which fuel will be self-ignited without any external source (like
flame front, or spark, etc.) is known as “Self-Ignition Temperature” (SIT).
 This process of ignition is called “auto ignition”.
 In normal combustion all the charge in the engine cylinder is ignited by flame front
 In knock combustion most of the charge is ignited by flame front but some amount of
change will “auto ignite”.

Fig.7. 9 Normal combustion and detonation

 Knocking or detonation is due to auto ignition of end charge before reaching the flume
front in that part of the combustion chamber.
 In normal combustion flame will travel from A to BB’ to D. Combustion of end charge
between BB’ and D takes place by flame front only
 The flame from A travels towards BB’ two things will happen during this process, which
will create the knocking.
1. End charge between BB and D receives heat by flame front, and
2. This end charge is compressed because of flame front.

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 Both these factors will increase the temperature of end charge and reaches up to the
self-ignition temperature (SIT). Therefore, the charge between CC' and D auto ignites
before the flame is reached, which is known as knocking.
 Due to this knocking high pitching metallic sound is produced, combustion becomes
erratic, power is drastically reduced and whole engine vibrates.
Salient features of knocking: -
1. Peak pressure for normal combustion is approximately 50 bar while during knocking it
increases to 150 to 170 bar.

Fig.7. 10 Pressure rise due to knocking

2. Only 5% of total charge can produce the severe knock.
3. High pitching metallic sound is produced during knocking.
4. Inside the cylinder high velocity and pressure waves are produced.
2. Effects of detonation or knocking
1. Decrease In power output and efficiency:
 Heat transfer to cooling water increases during knocking, therefore, power output and
efficiency of the engine decreases.
2. Pre-ignition:
 As rate of heat transfer increases, some parts inside the cylinder like valves, spark plug,
etc. get overheated. Due to overheating hot spot ignition of charge occurs before the
spark. This phenomenon is known as Pre-ignition and pre-ignition is very danger which
may damage the engine and blast may also take place.
3. Mechanical damage:
 High pressure waves with large amplitude (190-210 bar) are generated during knocking.
This will lead to wear different parts of engine like piston, cylinder, cylinder head, valves
etc. Due to high heat transfer rate piston and piston rings may damage and even melts
also. Spark plug is also over heated and may became hot spot.
4. Noise and Roughness:
 Due to high pressure waves engine parts vibrate, engine runs rough, and loud pulsating
noise is created.

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3. Abnormal Combustion (Surface ignition)

 Knocking or detonation discussed above is combustion knock, and it is due to end charge
combustion by self-ignition before reaching the flame front. It is also known as spark
knock.
 Abnormal combustion also occurs by surface ignition. In surface ignition, ignition will not
occur by spark plug but due to any hot spot in combustion chamber.
 During combustion some of the part receives heat from combustion and becomes very
hot and it acts as a spark plug. This hot part may be exhaust valve head, any carbon
particle deposited on the piston or cylinder head or spark plug electrode.
 Carbon deposits also occupy some space inside the cylinder. So increases the
compression ratio which causes for high temperature. Also carbon deposits are poor
heat conductor which acts as an insulator leads to decreases the heat transfer and
finally causes high in cylinder temperature.
 The surface ignition occurs before (pre-ignition) or after (post-ignition) normal ignition.
Pre ignition is very dangerous as it creates the negative work which may damage the
engine parts like piston, piston rod, and crank shaft. Pre-ignition and post-ignition may
or may not causes knocking.
 Different type of combustion phenomenon available by this surface ignition are:
1. Run-on surface ignition
2. Run-away surface ignition
3. Wild ping
4. Rumble
1. Run-on surface ignition:
 S. I. engine can be stop by switch-off the ignition system means power supply to spark
plug is cut-off and hence spark does not occur by spark plug.
 Theoretically engine should stop but actually it runs due to any hot surface (which may
act as a spark plug) inside the engine cylinder. This phenomenon is known as “Run-on
surface ignition”.
2. Run-away surface ignition:
 Defective spark plug or exhaust valve receive the heat from combustion cycle and this
heated spot causes pre-ignition. This type of surface ignition is very dangerous which
may seizure or melt the piston and cylinder. The engine may catch fire, when fire enters
in suction intake manifold.
3. Wild ping:
 Some hot carbon deposits moves free inside the combustion chamber which provide
source for combustion.
 This combustion occurs erratic and unpredictable way produces very sharp knocking
which is known as wild ping.
4. Rumble:
 Due to hot spot inside the combustion chamber, combustion starts at a number of
points (like diesel engine). It may be before (pre-ignition) or after (post-ignition) normal
spark.
 As combustion starts at number of points, heavy explosion of mixture take place which
produces large erratic noise. High pressure waves produces resulting in engine vibration
& noise which is known as engine rumble.

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7.8. Effect of Engine Variables on Detonation in S.I. Engines

 It has been seen that the detonation in S.I. engine sets in if the end part of the gas auto-
ignites before the flame front reaches it. The tendency to detonation will be reduced if
the fuel has long ignition lag, high S.I.T. and high flame speeds or reduced time for flame
travel. Therefore the onset of detonation is very dependent on the properties of fuel.
 Hence, those engine variables which tend to increase the ignition lag and increase the
flame speeds would tend to reduce the detonation tendency. The factors are :
1. Intake temperature:
 Increased intake temperature reduces the delay period, therefore, increases the
detonation tendency. However, it should be noted that the increased temperatures also
increases the flame speed, thereby, reducing the detonation tendency.
 But, the effect of increase temperature has more pronounced effect on delay period
compared to flame speeds due to which the detonation tendency is increased with
increase in intake temperature.
2. Intake pressure:
 Increased intake pressure increases the density of charge and reduces the delay period
but increases the flame speed. The overall effect is to increase the detonation tendency.
3. Compression ratio:
 Increased compression ratio increases both the pressure and temperature and reduces
the delay period, hence, the tendency to detonation increases.
4. Ignition advance:
 Advancing the spark timing increases the peak pressures of the cycle and thus reduces
the delay period of end part of the gas in the combustion chamber, hence, tendency to
detonate increases.
5. Coolant temperature:
 Raising the coolant temperature will increase the cylinder wall temperature and reduce
the heat transfer rate between gas and cylinder walls.
 Increased temperature of the gases would reduce the delay period and increase the
detonation tendency.
6. Engine load:
 Higher loads on the engine increases the heating of the engine and reduces the delay
period. Therefore the increased loads increases the detonation tendency of the engine.
 It is for this reason the spark ignition engines are never overloaded.
7. Engine speed:
 Increase in engine speed increases the turbulence in the combustion chamber thereby
increasing the flame speeds while the effect on the delay period is negligible. Due to this
the increased speed of the engine reduces the detonation tendency.
8. Air-fuel ratio:
 It has been mentioned earlier that about 10% rich mixtures have the minimum delay
period and the flame speeds are high.
 But, it is observed that the effect of slightly rich mixtures on delay period is more
dominant compared to flame speeds due to which the detonation tendency increases.

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9. Engine size:
 Similar engines of various sizes have the delay period nearly the same. However, in case
of larger sized engines the flame has to travel longer distance of combustion space
compared to smaller sized engines.
 Therefore, the larger engines have more tendency to detonate compared to smaller
engines.
10. Combustion chamber design:
 In general, more the compact combustion chambers, shorter will be flame travel and
combustion time, hence, it will give better anti-knock characteristics.
 Also, if the combustion chamber design is such that it promotes turbulence then the
flame speed will increase which would reduce the tendency to detonate.
 For above reasons the combustion chamber are designed nearer to spherical shape to
reduce the distance of flame travel and shaped in such a way to promote turbulence
11. Location of spark plug:
 In case the spark plug is located centrally in the combustion chamber, it reduces the
length of flame travel, hence, reduces the tendency to detonate. The flame travel can
also be reduced by using two or more spark plugs.
12. Type of fuel:
 The fuels with lower self-ignition temperature or with its greater pre flame reactions will
have more tendency to detonate.
 Fuels of paraffin series have maximum tendency to detonate and of aromatic series have
minimum tendency to detonate.
 The naphthalene series fuels come in between the two.
 Table 7.1 gives the general summary of engine variables affecting the detonation in S.I.
engines.
Table 7. 1 Effect of engine variables on detonation in S.I. engines

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7.9. Control of knocking

 Following are different parameter by which knocking tendency can be reduced.
1. Increasing engine speed which increases the turbulence.
2. Retarding spark timing.
3. Reducing pressure in inlet manifold
4. Using too lean or too rich mixture.
5. Injecting the water inside the combustion chamber which reduces the in cylinder
temperature, hence the knocking tendency decreases.
6. Decreasing the compression ratio.
7. Increasing turbulence by proper combustion chamber design.
7.10. S.I. engine Combustion Chamber Design
 Design of combustion chamber for S.I engine is very important for following reasons:
1. To achieve high power output.
2. To achieve high thermal efficiency.
3. Smooth running of engine.
4. To avoid knocking or detonation.
5. Long life of engine.
6. Minimum maintenance of engine.
Objectives of Combustion Chamber Design for S.I. Engines
 A combustion chamber needs to be designed to meet the general objectives of
developing high power output and high thermal efficiency with smooth running of
engine and minimum octane number requirement of fuel. In order to achieve these
objectives, following factors are to be kept in mind while designing the combustion
chambers of S.I. engines.
1. The length of flame travel from the spark plug to the farthest point should be kept
minimum to avoid detonation problem.
It involves the problem of location of spark plug and shape of combustion chamber.
Usually the spark plugs are located at the central location or in some cases dual spark
plugs are used.
Also, the shape of combustion chambers should be as far as possible spherical to reduce
the length of flame travel.
2. To achieve high speed of flame propagation, an adequate amount of turbulence also
ensures more homogeneous mixture by scouring away the layer of stagnant gas clinging
to the chamber walls. However, excessive turbulence should be avoided since it
increases the heat transfer losses to cylinder walls and affects the thermal efficiency of
the engine.
3. It should have small surface to volume ratio to minimise heat losses. A hemispherical
shape provides minimum surface to volume ratio.
4. It should provide large area to the inlet and exhaust valves with ample clearance around
the valve head. It reduces the pressure drop across the valves, therefore, improves the
volumetric efficiency. Use of sleeve valves are said to have low tendency to detonate
compared to poppet valves due to absence of any high temperature area.
5. Exhaust valves should not be located near the end gas location of combustion chamber
to reduce the possibility of detonation since these valves are hottest spot in the
combustion chamber.

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6. The combustion chambers should be so designed that it can burn largest mass of the
charge as soon as the ignition occurs with progressive reduction in the mass of charge
burned towards the end of combustion.
7. Exhaust valve head is the hottest region of combustion chamber. It should be cooled by
water jacket or by other means to reduce the possibility of detonation.
8. Octane number requirement of fuel increases with bore at the same piston speed when
other factor remaining the same. Combustion time and cylinder inner surface
temperature also increase with bore. For this reason the S.I. engine cylinder diameters
are usually limited to 100 mm.
9. Thickness of cylinder walls should be uniform to avoid non-uniform expansion.
7.11. Different Types of Combustion Chambers for S.I. Engines in
Use:
 Few important types of S.I. combustion chambers used are being discussed below :
1. T-Head Combustion Chamber:
 This type of combustion chamber is shown in Fig. 7.11. It was used by Ford in 1908 but it
is obsolete today. It has the following disadvantages :
1. It needs two cam shafts to operate each valve separately.
2. Long flame travel, therefore, it has more tendency to detonate. Compression ratios
were limited to 5 : 1.
3. Has high surface-volume ratio.

Fig.7. 11 T-head combustion chambers

2. L-Head or Side Valve Combustion Chamber:
 Original form of L-head combustion chambers used up to 1930 is shown in Fig. 7.12. The
top surface of the combustion chamber is in the form of a flat slab. Its intake valve and
exhaust valve are kept side by side with spark plug location above the valves. Length of
the combustion chamber covers the entire piston and valve assembly.
 Advantages of L-head combustion chamber :
1. Easy to cast.
2. Easy to carry out maintenance.
3. Easy to lubricate the valve mechanism.
4. Cylinder head can easily be removed, therefore, decarbonizing can be carried out
without disturbing the valve gear mechanism.

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Fig.7. 12 L-head combustion chamber

 Disadvantages of L-head combustion chamber :
1. There is a loss of velocity of intake air since it has to take two right angle turns
before reaching the cylinder. It results into poor turbulence.
2. Distance to be travelled by flame is more and it is super imposed by poor turbulence,
therefore, tendency to detonation is more. Compression ratio is limited to 4 : 1.
3. Mixing of air-fuel is unsatisfactory.
4. It has low power and low thermal efficiency.
3. Recardo Turbulent Combustion Chamber:
 The design of combustion chamber as suggested by Recardo in the year 1919 is shown in
Fig. 7.13. However, modifications have been carried out in the design given at later
stages.
 The Recardo combustion chamber overcomes the disadvantages experienced in the L-
head combustion chamber.
 Recardo combustion chamber provides a turbulent head.

Fig.7. 13 Recardo turbulent combustion chamber

 The salient features of this combustion chamber are :
1. Combustion chamber provides high turbulence. Because at top dead centre position
only a thin layer of charge exists between the piston crown
and combustion chamber, due to this the whole charge is pushed back in the
combustion chamber during the compression stroke, therefore, it provides
additional turbulence.
2. Combustion chamber ensures a more homogeneous mixture of fuel and air by
scouring away the layer of stagnant gas clinging to the chamber walls.
3. The piston comes in closed contact with the combustion chamber head in this
design, it reduces the effective length of flame travel. Hence, tendency to detonation
is reduced.

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4. Because of contact of piston with chamber the mass of end gas is negligible.
Therefore impact of detonation will be negligible even if detonation occurs.
5. The detonation tendency is further reduced since the end gas is a thin layer and it is
cooled by comparatively cooler cylinder head.
6. Spark plug is centrally located in the combustion chamber, the length of flame travel
is reduced. It results into reduced tendency to detonate.
Modern S.I. Engine Combustion Chambers:
 After the period of 1950 the combustion chambers used are either overhead valve, also
called as I-head, combustion chambers or the F-head combustion chambers. Overhead
combustion chambers were first introduced in Ambassador Car in the year 1959.
 The overhead and F-combustion chamber designs are based on principles of Recardo
combustion chamber with certain modifications.
 The advantages of overhead valve combustion chambers on L-head combustion
chambers are as follows :
1. Use of large valves or valve lifts and reduced passage ways provides better breathing
of the engine, it increases volumetric efficiency of the engine with reduced pumping
losses.
2. It gives less tendency to detonate due to reduced flame travel.
3. Less force on head bolts and reduced possibility of leakage.
4. Exhaust valve is incorporated in the combustion chamber head instead of cylinder
block. Therefore, heat failures limited to head only.
5. Uses low surface-volume ratio, it reduces the heat losses and increases power
output and efficiency.
 Few of the important combustion chambers of overhead valve type and F-head type are
described below.
1. Bath Tub Combustion Chamber:
 This type of combustion chamber is shown in Fig. 7.14. It is simple and easy to cast. Both
valves are mounted on the head with spark plug on one side of the combustion
chamber.
 The charge at the end of compression stroke is pushed into the combustion space
known as squish which provides additional turbulence.
 Since the valves are provided in a single row in the head, it reduces the size of the
valves.
 Because of this the disadvantage of this design is that it reduces the breathing capacity
of the engine with increased pumping losses.
 To overcome this difficulty, the modern engine design use relatively larger piston
diameters compared to stroke length.

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7. Combustion in SI and CI Engines Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

Fig.7. 14 Bath tub combustion chamber

2. Rover Head Combustion Chamber:
 The piston has cavity at the centre which produces high turbulence and reduces
knocking tendency.
 High compression ratio can be used
 Due to high CR better combustion with high thermal efficiency can be achieved

Fig.7. 15 Rover Head Combustion Chamber

3. Wedge Head Combustion Chamber:
 This type of combustion chamber is shown in Fig. 7.16. Valves are placed in inclined
position.
 The end gas is kept cool by the intake valve and relatively cooler piston.
 Spark plug is approximately kept at the centre and it reduces the flame travel.

Fig.7. 16 Wedge head combustion chamber

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4. F-Head Combustion Chamber:

 Fig. 7.17 shows the combustion chamber similar to combustion chamber used by Willy's
Jeep in India. This combustion chamber is also wedge shaped but similar in design to
Rover head chamber.
 This combustion chamber has all the advantages of modern combustion chambers listed
above. The inlet valve is kept in vertical position with large intake area to increase
breathing of air and reduce the pumping losses.
 The air during compression stroke creates turbulence due to back flow of air into the
chamber.
 Additional turbulence is created by the left hand portion of the piston head when at TDC
by squish action.

Fig.7. 17 F-head combustion chamber

 The spark plug is inclined and so located that it reduces the flame travel, hence, the
detonation tendency.
5. Combustion Chamber for Jaguar Engine:
 Fig. 7.18 shows the combustion chamber shape used for Jaguar engine.
 It utilises the principle that the hemispherical shape gives the minimum surface to
volume ratio.
 Such a concept is useful to reduce the head losses thereby increasing the output power
and thermal efficiency of the engine.
 The combustion chamber is designed hemispherical shape with inlet and exhaust valves
placed on the sides of the head.
 Valves are operated in inclined position.

Fig.7. 18 Combustion chamber to Jaguar engine

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7. Combustion in SI and CI Engines Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

 Hemispherical shape used not only reduces the heat transfer losses by virtue of low
surface to volume ratio, it also permits to use the larger diameter valves, therefore, has
higher volumetric efficiency.
 The crown of piston is so shaped to produce required turbulence, therefore, the flame
speeds are increased, hence, reduces the tendency to detonate.
 Spark plug is located centrally which reduces the flame travel and again it helps in
preventing detonation.

Section II: Combustion in C.I. Engines

7.12. Introduction
 C.I. engine only air sucks during suction and fuel is injected at the end of compression
stroke.
 In S.I. engine nearly stoichiometric air fuel mixture is supplied while in C.I. engine 40 to
75% excess air is required for better combustion. For induction of this excess air, the size
of C.I. engine compared to S.I. engine is always larger and heavier to generate the 1
same power.
 C.I. engine the combustion starts at I number of points simultaneously i.e. multipoint
combustion takes place.
 In S.I. engine combustion takes place due to spark, whereas in C.I, engine combustion
takes place due to compression ignition. As self-ignition temperature (SIT) of diesel is
low, fuel can be ignited without spark.
 During compression stroke only air is compressed to higher pressure (CR = 16 to 22), so
that temperature of air inside the cylinder increases (440 to 540°C) beyond SIT of diesel
fuel. At the end of compression, diesel fuel is injected in liquid state at very high
pressure (120 to 200 bar) with the help of fuel pump and injector.
 The atomized fuel vaporize, mix with air, and combustion starts.
7.13. Combustion Stages in C.I. Engines
 In case of compression ignition engines the air alone is compressed and raised to high
pressure and temperatures in the compression stroke by using high compression ratios.
 The temperature of air attained is far above the self-ignition temperature of the diesel
fuel used.

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Fig.7. 19 Combustion stages in C.I. Engines

 The fuel is injected by a fuel pump into the combustion chamber by one or more jets
under very high pressures of about 120-210 bar pressures at about (20 – 35)
before TDC. The point A represents the time at which the fuel injection starts on (p - )
diagram shown in Fig. 7.19. Combustion takes place in four stages which are as
follows :

1. First stage (Ignition delay period):

 The fuel leaves the nozzles initially in the form of a jet, and later on, it disintegrates into
a core of fuel surrounded by a spray envelope of air and fuel particles due to
atomization, vaporization and mixing with hot air.
 During vaporization process of fuel it receives its latent heat from surrounding air and
this causes a slight drop in pressure in the cylinder as shown by curve AB.
 As soon as the vaporization is over, the preflame reactions of the mixture start. During
such chemical reactions the energy is released at slow rate and the pressure starts
building up.
 Therefore, the preflame reactions first start slowly and then accelerates until the
ignition of fuel takes place. It corresponds to point C on diagram.
 The time interval between the start of fuel injection and commencement of combustion
is called the delay period.
 The delay period can be divided into two parts as follows :
a) Physical delay:
 This represents the time interval from the time of injection of fuel to its attainment of
self-ignition temperature during which the fuel is atomized, vaporized and mixed with
air.
b) Chemical delay:
 After physical delay period is over, the time interval up to the time the fuel auto-ignites
and flame appears is called chemical delay.
 During this period pre flame reactions take place. This period corresponds to ignition lag
of S.I. engines.

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7. Combustion in SI and CI Engines Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

 In practice, it is very difficult to separate exactly these two delay periods since the
processes involved are very complex.
2. Second stage (Period of uncontrolled combustion):
 Once the delay period is over the mixture of fuel and air will auto-ignite since it is above
the self-ignition temperature.
 The flame appears at one or more locations where concentration of fuel and air mixture
is optimum. This is due to the fact that the mixture present in the combustion chamber
at the time of ignition is extremely heterogeneous unlike the homogeneous mixture of
S.I. engines.
 Once the flame appears the mixture in other regions will either be burnt by propagating
flames or it will auto-ignite because of the heat transfer from the burnt mixture and high
temperatures existing in the combustion chamber.
 The fuel which is accumulated during the delay period is now ready for combustion and
it would burn at an extremely rapid rate causing a steep rise in cylinder pressure and
temperature.
 The rate of pressure rise depends upon the fuel injected and accumulated, which is
directly proportional to the time of injection and the engine speed.
 Higher the delay period, higher would be the rate of pressure rise. During this period it is
difficult to control the amount of fuel burning, for this reason, this period of rapid
combustion is called the period of uncontrolled combustion as represented by curve CD
in Fig. 7.19.
3. Third stage (Period of controlled combustion):
 Once the fuel accumulated during the delay period is burnt in the period of uncontrolled
combustion, the temperature and pressures in the cylinder will be so high that the
further quantity of fuel injected will burn as soon as it leaves the nozzle provided
sufficient oxygen is present in the cylinder.
 Therefore the rate of pressure rise can now be controlled by controlling the rate of fuel
injection. This period of combustion is known as period of controlled combustion
represented by curve DE.
4. Fourth state (After burning):
 Theoretically the combustion is completed at the point the maximum pressure is
attained during the cycle corresponding to point E few degree after TDC.
 However, the burning of fuel continues during its expansion stroke due to reassociation
of dissociated gases and any unburned fuel due to heterogeneous condition of mixture.
This phase of combustion is called after burning.
7.14. Effect of Engine Variables on Delay Period
1. Compression ratio:
 Increased compression ratio increases the density, pressure and temperature of the
charge. Increased temperatures and pressure reduces the delay period.
2. Inlet pressure (supercharging):
 Increased inlet pressures increases the pressures in the compression stroke and reduces
the delay period.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 7. Combustion in SI and CI Engines

3. Intake temperature:
 Higher intake temperatures will result into high temperatures at the time of fuel
injection, therefore, it will reduce the delay period.
4. Engine speed:
 Increased speed will increase the delay period in terms of degrees of crank rotation,
since the fuel pump is driven by the engine through gears. Therefore, during the delay
period more fuel will be accumulated in the cylinder with increased speed and burning
of this fuel during the period of uncontrolled combustion will result into high rate of
pressure rise and high temperatures. It also results into better mixing of fuel and air due
to increased turbulence.
5. Jacket water temperature:
 Increased jacket water temperature increases the air temperature in the cylinder,
hence, reduces the delay period.
6. Load on engine:
 Increased loads on the engine reduces delay period. Since the air-fuel ratio decreases
with the increase in operating temperatures.
7. Injection pressure:
 Increased injection pressures will give better atomization of fuel. It generally tends to
reduce the delay period slightly.
8. Fuels:
 Higher the self-ignition temperature of the fuel, higher will be the delay period.
9. Injection timing:
 If fuel is injected much before TDC the delay period is larger since the pressure and
temperatures in the cylinder are low. It will give extremely high rate of pressure rise
during the period of uncontrolled combustion.
 Too late injection will reduce delay period but it would result in poor efficiency of the
engine and the engine will not run smoothly.
10. Engine size:
 It has no effect on delay period in terms of time. However, large engines operate at
lesser speed, therefore, delay period in terms of crank angle is smaller. Hence, less fuel
enters the cylinder and the engine will run smooth.
7.15. Knock in C.I. Engines (Abnormal Combustion)
 In C.I engine as delay period increases, the amount of fuel injected and accumulated in
combustion chamber increases. A very high temperature and pressure is generated by
combustion of this large amount of fuel is known as knocking or detonation in C.I
engine.
 “Accumulation of fuel during large delay period creates very high pressure, it is known as
knocking in C.I. engine.”
 This high rate of pressure rise creates pulsating combustion which produces heavy noise.
 In C.I. engine knocking occurs during initial phase of combustion i.e. as delay period is
completed and uncontrolled combustion starts.

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7. Combustion in SI and CI Engines Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

Fig.7. 20 p -  diagram of C.I. engine with and without Knocking

7.16. Factors affecting the knocking in C.I engine
Table 7. 2 Factors affecting the knocking in C.I engine
Sr. No Variable increases Effect on knocking tendency
1. Fuel (Cetane No.) Decreases
2. Intake air/fuel/Jacket water temp. Decreases
3. Intake Pressure (supercharging) Decreases
4. Load (F: A Ratio) Decreases
5. Injection pressure Decreases
6. Injection advance angle Increases
7. Engine size Decreases
8. Speed Increases
9. Compression ratio Decreases
7.17. Comparison of the knocking in S.I. and C.I. engines
(1) In S.I. engine knocking takes place at the end of combustion process while in C.I. engine
it takes place at the beginning of combustion.
(2) In S.I. engine knocking is due to end charge auto-ignition before reaching the flame
while in C.I. engine knocking is due to auto-ignition of more fuel accumulated due to
long delay period.

Fig.7. 21 p -  diagram of S.I and C.I. engine

(3) In S.I. engine pressure rise is very high during knocking due to homogeneous mixture as
compared to the C.I. engines.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 7. Combustion in SI and CI Engines

(4) Chances of pre-ignition in the S.I. engine is more because air-fuel mixture enters during
suction stroke while in the C.I. engine fuel is injected at the end of compression stroke.
(5) In the C.I engine knocking is due to delay period and delay period cannot be zero. There
is always pressure rise due to accumulation of fuel during delay period. Therefore, the
C.I. engine is known as knock engine. As degree of pressure rise increases above certain
limit which may start to produce audible noise and vibration. It is the starting of
knocking. Therefore, in the C.I. engine it is difficult to distinguish between knocking and
non-knocking operation.
 Table 7.3 gives the factors which reduce the detonation and knocking tendency in S.I.
and C.I. engines.

Table 7. 3 Factors tending to reduce detonation and knocking in S.I. and C.I. engines

7.18. Combustion Chamber Design for C.I. Engines

Objectives
 In the C.I engine during induction, suction, and compression only air is there and fuel is
injected at the end of compression. The time available for vaporization and mixing with
air is very limited. Also for better mixing and better combustion air swirl is required
which gives better combustion.
 For better combustion atomization, vaporization and proper mixing with air is required
in minimum time and result of all these give high power, better efficiency, smooth and
noiseless engine running, and shorter delay period which reduces probability of
knocking.
 To achieve all of the above advantages the design of C.I engine combustion chamber
becomes more complicated and swirl is very important in the C.I engine.
Air Swirl:
 For proper mixing of fuel and air in the combustion chamber the various methods of air
movement are employed called air swirl. Various types of air swirl are being discussed
below :
1. Induction Swirl

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7. Combustion in SI and CI Engines Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

 In this method swirl is provided to incoming air to the cylinder during suction, that’s why
it is known as induction swirl.
 Different methods of giving swirl to incoming air are shown in fig 7.22 in which air enters
at some angle and gets the swirl.
 Fig. 7.22 (b) shows a masking or shrouding one side of the inlet valve, so that air enters
only around the part of periphery of the valve and air swirl is produced. The angle of
mask used usually varies from 90° to 140°.
 The best tangential direction of air movement can be obtained by turning the valve
around its axis. Fig. 7.22 (c) illustrates the method of producing air swirl by casting a lip
on one side of the inlet valve. Air enters from the top and due to lip it gets the swirl.

Fig.7. 22 Different methods of achieve induction swirl

2. Compression Swirl
 In this method air swirl is produced during compression stroke. At the top of the piston
different types of cavity is formed which gives different type of swirl during
compression. It is shown in Fig. 7.23 (a) and (b).

Fig.7. 23 Compression Swirl

3. Combustion Induced Swirl
 In this method swirl is produced by high pressure generated during first part of
combustion of fuel. The piston head have different types of design which help to
generate the swirl during combustion. This method is employed in pre-combustion and
air cell combustion chamber designs.
7.19. Classification of Combustion Chambers for C.I. Engines
 The combustion chamber for the C.I. engines are classified as follows:
a. Open combustion chamber or Direct injection (D.I.) combustion chambers.
b. Pre-combustion chamber.
c. Turbulent combustion chamber or Indirect injection combustion chamber.
d. Special combustion chambers.
1. Open or Direct Injection (DI) Combustion Chambers

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 7. Combustion in SI and CI Engines

 In an open combustion chamber the space between the piston and cylinder head is open
i.e. no restriction in between. Therefore, all air is contained in single space between the
piston and cylinder head. The fuel is directly injected inside this space that’s why it is
also known as direct injection engine or in short D.I. engine.
 To achieve better combustion and swirl different types of cavity are formed in piston
crown and cylinder head.
 In some cases, the shape of cylinder head provides a cavity to create favourable
conditions for better mixing and better burning.
 The salient features of open combustion chamber are:
(1) Less turbulence is generated in this type, so heat loss is less and thus, starting is
easier.
(2) Excess air required is more, so engine size increases, and thermal efficiency also
increases.
(3) Generally they are used for large capacity, and low speed engines.

Fig.7. 24 Cavity in piston crown

Fig.7. 25 Cavity in piston crown

 Advantages and disadvantages of this type of combustion chambers are as follows :
Advantages:
1. The thermal efficiency is high because heat transfer losses are less.
2. Easier starting because heat transfer losses are less.
3. Simple in construction.
4. In case of slow speed engines less costly fuels with longer delay can be used.

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7. Combustion in SI and CI Engines Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

Disadvantages:
1. Engine size becomes large for generating same power due to large excess air
required.
2. Due to less turbulence, high injection pressure is required with multiple hole nozzle.
3. Maintenance cost is higher.
2. Pre-Combustion Chamber
 A small additional chamber called as pre-combustion chamber is connected with main
combustion chamber where fuel is injected in this pre-combustion chamber. Both these
chambers are connected with small holes.
 As fuel is injected, combustion starts at pre-combustion chamber and products of
combustion rush out through small holes to main combustion chamber with very high
velocity, thus it generates turbulence as well as swirl which produces bulk combustion in
the main combustion chamber. About 80% of energy is released in main combustion
chamber.
 The first combustion starts at pre-combustion chamber due to high temperature of it
and it propagates to main combustion chamber, thus the delay period is reduced and
poor grade fuel can also be easily burnt.

Fig.7. 26 Precombustion chamber

Advantages:
1. Fuel with wide range of Cetane No. can be used.
2. As injection pressure is low, simple fuel nozzle can be used.
3. Smoother running of engine.
4. Engine can be run at high speed.
5. As delay period in main combustion chamber is very small, knocking tendency is very
less. Also engine can run with higher compression ratio.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 7. Combustion in SI and CI Engines

Disadvantages:
1. Engine design becomes complicated due to pre-combustion chamber.
2. Heat loss from pre-combustion chamber is high.
3. Due to high heat loss cold starting is difficult.
4. The fuel consumption is high and thermal efficiency is low.
3. Turbulent or Indirect Injection (IDI) Combustion Chambers
 These combustion chambers are similar as that of pre-combustion chamber. The
difference is that in pre-combustion chamber only 20 to 25% of total air enters while in
these type 80 to 90% of total air circulates in pre-chamber.
 As high rate of “swirl” produces in this type, it is also known as swirl combustion
chamber. During compression stroke most of the air from main combustion chamber
enters to pre-combustion chamber, where high rate of swirl is produced.
 Fuel is injected in this pre-combustion chamber and the ignition and bulk of the
combustion takes place therein. Few configurations of these type are shown in Fig.7.27
(a) and (b).

Fig.7. 27 Turbulent or Indirect Injection (IDI) Combustion Chambers

 The advantages and disadvantages of this type are listed below:
Advantages:
1. Due to high rate of swirl comparatively rich mixture (low A:F ratio) can be used
which makes engine compact for given output.
2. Large range of Cetane No. fuel can be used.
3. Injection pressure and pattern of injection is not very important due to swirl f thus
simple nozzle can be used.
4. Smooth running and low maintenance of the engine.
5. The engine can be operated at high speed because delay period is very small, thus
probability of knocking is less.

Disadvantages:
1. Due to large heat loss to cylinder wall fuel consumption increases (high bsfc).
2. Low thermal efficiency due to heat loss.
3. Cold starting of engine is difficult.
4. Special combustion chambers
1. M.A.N. Combustion Chamber

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7. Combustion in SI and CI Engines Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

 Dr. Meurer of Maschimenfabric Augsburg Nurnberg (M.A.N.) of Germany in 1954

developed a special type of open combustion chamber, also called as ‘M’ combustion
chamber.
 It is suitable for small, high speed engines. In this design, the combustion chamber has a
spherical cavity in the piston as shown in Fig. 7.28.
 The fuel spray impinges tangentially on the cavity and it spreads over the entire
chamber. Such type fuel spray impingement was believed to be undesirable in earlier
designs of open combustion chambers.

Fig.7. 28 M.A.N. combustion chamber

 But according to the theory used in this design it is suggested that the air borne fuel
spray in the cavity makes homogeneous mixture and it auto ignites before impingement
with normal delay period, while the remainder fuel impinging on the cavity walls have to
evaporate from the cavity prior to combustion.
 It controls the rate of pressure rise in the second stage of combustion and gives smooth
running of engine.
 However, it is further possible to control the air borne fuel spray by varying the distance
between the nozzle tip and the combustion chamber walls.
Advantages:
1. Large range of fuel can be used, so poor quality of fuel with low cetane no. can also
be used.
2. Better combustion and low exhaust emission.
3. More power because of high volumetric efficiency.
4. Easy cold starting.
5. No combustion noise.
6. Low rate of pressure rise.
Disadvantages:
1. Poor performance and high emission at low load on engine.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 7. Combustion in SI and CI Engines

2. Air-Cell Combustion Chamber

 Air-cell combustion chamber design used for Lanova engine is represented in Fig. 7.29.
In this case a separate air-cell through a small neck communicates with the main
combustion chamber.
 The fuel is injected across the main chamber into the neck of air-cell which is designed
to run hot.

Fig.7. 29 Air cell combustion chamber for Lanova engine (plan view)
 The combustion is initiated in the air cell and due to high pressure rise it flows back into
main chamber.
 The main combustion chamber is so designed that the gas stream from air-cell splits into
two vertices to create high swirl.
 High turbulence and high temperature of gases reduce the delay period and it controls
the rate of pressure rise and the engine runs smooth.
 This design differs from pre-combustion chamber in respect of fuel injection.
 In case of air cell the fuel is injected in the main chamber while in the other case into
pre-combustion chamber.
Advantages:
1. Cold starting of the engine is easier.
2. Due to high rate of swirl better mixing of air and fuel can be achieved which
improves the combustion.
3. Exhaust emissions is less.
4. As maximum pressure rise is low, engine runs smoothly.
Disadvantages:
1. Low thermal efficiency.
2. Higher fuel consumption (high bsfc).
3. Cannot be used for variable speed engine.

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8
Engine Lubrication and Cooling

Course Contents
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Types of Lubrication System
8.3 Wet sump Lubrication System
8.4 Dry sump Lubrication System
8.5 Types of cooling
8.6 Air Cooling System
8.7 Water Cooling System
8.8 Thermo-syphon Cooling
Forced circulation thermo-stat
8.9
Cooling System
8.10 Pressurised Water Cooling
8.11 Evaporative Cooling System

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 8. Engine Lubrication and Cooling Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

8.1 Introduction
 The lubrication is the flow of oil between two mating surfaces having relative modem.
The effectiveness of lubrication plays an important role in the performance
characteristics and determing the service life of an engine.
Function of lubricating system:
 To reduce the power required to overcome friction by providing Imbrication and to
reduce wear between the rubbing and bearing surfaces, thereby increasing the net
power output and engine service life.
 To Work as a coolant, carrying away heat (caused by friction) from the bearings.
Cylinders and pistons.
 To work as a cleaner, washing away the products of wear as well as combustion from
piston rings and bearings.
 To form a good seal between the piston rings and cylinder wall by providing lubricating
film on the cylinder wall.
 To reduce noise of engine by absorbing vibration.

8.2. Types of lubricating systems

 There are three types of lubricating system used for I.C. engine as
a) Mist lubrication system
b) Wet sump lubrication system
a) Splash lubrication
b) Semi-pressure lubrication
c) Full pressure lubrication
c) Dry sump lubrication system

 The mist lubrication system is used for two stroke petrol engine in which 2 to
3% lubricating oil added in the fuel tank. The mixture of oil and petrol sucks through
carburetor. The fuel petrol is vaporised and oil in the form of mist goes through crancase
into the cylinder, connecting rod bearings, piston rings and piston pins.

8.3. Wet sump lubrication system

 In this system, the bottom of crank case contains a large capacity oil sump which works
as a oil supply or reservoir tank and most of cases act as a oil cooler. From the crank case
sump oil is drawn by a low pressure oil pump and delivered to various components of
engine. Oil then gradually returns back by gravity to the sump after serving the purpose.
The basic components of a wet sump lubrication system are shown in Fig.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 8. Engine Lubrication and Cooling

Figure 1 Wet sump lubrication system

(a) Splash lubrication system

 In this system, caps on the big end bearings of connecting rods are provided with
scoops. The oil level in the sump is maintained in a way that when the connecting axis
big end is at its lowest position the scoop at that end just dip into oil throughs in which
oil is supplied by oil pump from sump as shown in Fig. Hence, oil is directed big end
bearings through holes in the caps and due to splash of oil reaches over various parts of
engine like cylinder walls, crankshaft, piston rings, and piston pins etc. Excess oil returns
back by gravity to the sump.
 Splash lubrication system is suitable for low and medium speed engines having
moderate bearing load pressure. It is used for small four stroke stationary engines only.

Figure 2 Splash Lubrication system

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8. Engine Lubrication and Cooling Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

(b) Semi-pressure lubrication system

 As we know that splash system is not sufficient if the bearing loads are high. In the semi-
pressure system in which the main and crankshaft bearings are lubricated by oil under
pressure, and remaining other parts are lubricated by splash lubrication as shown in Fig.
Oil is drawn from lower portion of the sump through a filter and is delivered by means of
a gear pump at gauge pressure about 1 bar to the main and crank shaft bearings. The
cylinder wall, piston pins, cam and camshaft, timing gears, piston rings etc are lubricated
by splash lubrication.

Figure 3 Semi-pressure Lubrication system

 In this method lubrication takes place by combination of splash and pressure system
instead of lubrication only by pressure system in case of full pressure system, hence it is
less costly as compared to full pressure system. It enables higher bearing loads and
speeds to be employed as compared to splash lubrication system.

(c) Full pressure lubrication system

 The full pressure lubrication system is most commonly used, in which the lubricating oil
under pressure is supplied to the main bearing and crank shaft bearing through holes
drilled in the supporting wall and bearing journals as shown in Fig.
 Drilled passages in the crank shaft carry lubricating oil from main bearing to the
connecting rod and then piston pins, piston rings through drilled passage in the
connecting rod. Oil is delivered by pressure pump at pressure ranging form 1.5 to 4 bar.
 A pressure gauge is provided to confirm the circulation of oil to the various parts. A
pressure regulating valve is also provided on the delivery side of this pump to prevent
excessive pressure.
 The full pressure lubricating system is used for high speed and large capacity engine
compared to splash and semi pressure system due to ability to take higher bearing
loads. However this system is required more power to supply high pressure oil
compared to semi pressure and splash lubrication system.
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 Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 8. Engine Lubrication and Cooling

Figure 4 Full pressure Lubrication system

8.4. Dry lubrication system

 In a dry sump lubrication system, as shown in Fig, oil from the sump (engine crankcase)
is pumped to the seperate storage tank outside the engine cylinder. The oil from the
sump passes through the filter.
 The function of filter is to remove the abrasive particles from oil, otherwise this
abrasive particles causes the wear of bearing surfaces and also deposits to the bearing
surfaces. If the filter becomes clogged the filter bypass relief valve open, permitting oil
to bypass the filter.
 Oil from the storage or supply tank is pumped to the engine bearings and cylinder
through oil cooler. In this system, oil pressure varies from 3 to 8 bar. The pressure relief
valve is used to prevent excessive pressure build up after cold start of the engine
 The oil cooler reduces temperature of oil therefore dry sump lubricating system
permits the use of thinner oils, results in decreases the frictional resistance of engine.
Dry sump lubrication system is generally used for high capacity engines.

Figure 5 Dry sump Lubrication system

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 8. Engine Lubrication and Cooling Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

8.5. Types of Cooling System

 The cooling system for I.C. engines can broadly be classified as follows :
 Direct cooling or air cooling in which heat from cylinder walls is directly
transferred to surrounding air.
 Water cooling or indirect cooling in which the heat from cylinder walls is
transferred to surrounding air through water

8.6. Air Cooling

 In order to increase the surface area the fins are provided on metal surfaces exposed to
cooling air.
 Cooling fins are either cast integral with cylinder and cylinder head or they may be fixed
separately with the cylinder block.
 The various types of cooling fins are shown in Fig.
 The length, spacing and thickness of the fins are represented by l, s and t respectively.
 The heat transfer capacity of the system depends upon the temperature difference
between cylinder and the cross-section of the fin and its length.
 The heat is gradually dissipated from the root of the fin up to its tip and to the
surroundings air, due to this a temperature gradient exists along its length from the
root to the tip.
 At the tip of the fin the heat transfer capacity becomes minimum due to least
temperature difference, and hence it is less efficient. Therefore, the thickness at the tip
can be reduced due to decrease quantity of heat flowing at this point.
 It is found that the rectangular fins are less efficient and heavier compared to
trapezoidal or triangular fins.

Figure 6 Air cooling

 The heat transfer rates can be increased by increasing the surface area i.e. by
increasing the number of fins. However, the increased number of fins will reduce the
spacing between them which results into decreased heat transfer rates due to
interference of boundary layer.
 A spacing of 2.5 to 5 mm is usually kept for the fins of length 25 to 50 mm.

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 Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 8. Engine Lubrication and Cooling

Advantages of Air Cooling System

 It is light in weight and simple in design due to absence of water jackets, radiator,
coolant and piping connections.
 It is almost maintenance free.
 No antifreeze solution is required and can operate at low temperatures.
 No problem of coolant leakage, corrosion and clogging of radiators etc.
 The system is cheap.
 Installation is easy.

Disadvantages and Limitations of Air Cooling System

 Heat transfer rates are less due to low heat transfer coefficient of air. Therefore, this
system can only be used for low capacity engines.
 Cooling is not uniform. It may cause the distortion of cylinder.
 Cylinder wall temperatures are high.
 If fan is used to improve heat transfer rates to lower the cylinder wall temperatures, 5 to
10 % of power is lost to run the fan.
 Specific fuel consumption is high.
 System is noisy.
 It limits the use of compression ratio.
 It's use is limited to scooters and motor cycles due to exposure of cylinder to air stream.

8.7. Types of Water Cooling Systems

 Following are the types of water cooling system :
a) Thermo-syphon cooling
b) Pump assisted thermo-syphon cooling ( Forced Circulation )
c) Cooling with thermostatic regulator
d) Pressurized water cooling
e) Evaporative cooling

8.8. Thermo-Syphon Cooling

 Fig. shows the schematic arrangement of an engine cooled on thermo-syphon principle.
 The system is so designed that the water may circulate naturally because of the density
difference of hot water and cold water.
 The system consists of a radiator having upper and lower tanks connected to upper and
lower water jackets of the cylinder respectively through pipes.
 The hot water in the jacket rises and flows into the upper tank due to lower density
compared to cold water and the cold water from radiator flows to lower water jacket to
replace the hot water
 From upper tank the water travels down the radiator tubes across which the cool air
passes drawn by the fan driven by the engine crankshaft.
 In order to increase the rate of heat transfer, the surface area of the radiator exposed
to the air blast is provided with fins.
 System is suitable for low capacity engines only.
 Limitation of system

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 8. Engine Lubrication and Cooling Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

 Radiator needs to be kept above engine cylinder level for flow of water to the engine
under gravity for its efficient functioning.
 Circulation of water is established only when engine becomes hot.
 Not suitable for heavy duty engines where very high heat transfer rates are required.
 Water level in radiator should be kept higher than delivery pipe, otherwise, circulation
of water may cease causing excessive temperature rise of cooling water with steam
formation. It causes formation of steam pockets, unequal heat flow and overheating of
engine components.
 Temperature of cooling water should not be allowed to exceed beyond 80C in this
system.

Figure 7 Thermo syphon cooling

8.9. Forced Circulation Cooling

 The drawbacks encountered with thermo-syphon system are overcome by introducing
a pump of centrifugal type to assist the water circulation in the water jackets.
 The pump is belt driven by the engine. Introduction of pump ensures the positive
circulation of water under all operating conditions.
 Since the cooling of the engine is independent of temperature difference of hot and
cold water, it may result into over cooling of the engine which affects the thermal
efficiency of the engine and its working. This is the disadvantage by working with this
type of system.
Cooling with Thermostatic Regulator
 In case of pump circulation method the operation of the pump is governed by starting
and stopping of the engine.
 As the pump starts, it will start circulating the cold water to water jackets surrounding
the cylinder and it absorbs heat at a faster rate from cylinder walls due to large
temperature differential. As a result the engine takes longer time to warm up to the

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 8. Engine Lubrication and Cooling

desired level of temperature particularly in cold weather. To overcome this difficulty

a thermostat is incorporated in the discharge line of the block to the radiator.
Thermostat
 A thermostat is shown in Fig. It consists of bellows usually made of copper or bronze
and sealed at both ends.
 The bellows are filled partially by a volatile liquid having low boiling point like ether.
 When the engine is started, the temperature of water is low; the valve is closed and
prevents the flow of water to the radiator. As such the water in the cylinder water
jackets is available for absorbing heat from the cylinder walls.
 The engine would take less time to warm up. However, when the temperature of water
exceeds the boiling point of the volatile liquid filled in bellows due to heating by
jacketed water, the bellows will expand in axial direction due to expansion of liquid in
bellows.
 The expansion of bellows will allow the valve to lift from its seat gradually and allows
the water to flow thereby establishing the circulation of cooling water into the system.

Figure 8 Thermostat
 Fig. shows the schematic diagram of a thermo-syphon system of water cooling with
pump and a thermostat.
 The cold water from lower tank of radiator is pumped to water jackets of the cylinder
of the engine.
 The heated water from cylinder is passed to upper tank of the radiator with a
thermostat installed in between.
 The thermostat controls the temperature of water as explained above.
 Hot water flows down the radiator tubes under gravity to lower tank. During its flow it
transfers heat to incoming air drawn by the fan mounted on the engine and driven by
belt.
 Radiator tubes are made of copper and brass because of their high thermal
conductivity.

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 8. Engine Lubrication and Cooling Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

Figure 9 Forced Circulation

8.10 Pressurized Water Cooling

Figure 10 Radiator cap for pressure cooling

 It is well known that the boiling temperature of water increases with the increase in
pressure. This fact is used to cool the heavy duty engines and the method is known as
pressurized water cooling.
 This system allows to keep the temperature of water above 100C and it results into
satisfactory operation of engine and in improved thermal efficiency.
 The schematic diagram of pressurized water cooling is shown in Fig. The pressure in the
system is built up by means of special type of radiator cap in the range of 1.5 to 2 bar
pressure.
 As the pressure is built up, the volume of water increases with the increase in
temperature and it allows the temperature to exceed beyond 100C without formation
of steam due to existing high pressure in the system.

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 Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 8. Engine Lubrication and Cooling

 If the pressure in the radiator falls below the atmospheric pressure due to cooling of
water when the engine is stopped, the radiator tubes will cripple and the radiator will
be damaged.
 To avoid the formation of vacuum, an additional vacuum valve is provided.
 When the pressure in the radiator falls below atmospheric pressure, the air from
surroundings enter through a side valve and prevents the drop of pressure below
atmospheric in the radiator.
 The advantage of pressurized water cooling is that the engine can run more efficiently
with high coolant temperatures and without the loss of water vapours and antifreeze
mixture to surroundings

8.11 Evaporative Cooling

 This type of cooling system is used for industrial engine applications.
 The cooling water in this system is allowed to be heated up to 100C with formation of
steam.
 During the process of steam formation it also absorbs latent heat of vaporization apart
from its sensible heat and due to this fact the requirement of cooling water for this
type of system is considerably reduced.

Figure 11 Evaporative cooling

 The steam formed in the cooling circuit is flashed off to a separate heat exchanger
where it is condensed. The same condensate is sent to the cooling system as make up
water.
 This cooling system is not very efficient.

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9
Measurement and Testing of IC engines

Course Contents
9.1. Introduction
IS Standard Code 10000 to 10004
9.2.
for Testing of Engines
9.3. Indicated Power (I.P.)
Measurement of Brake Power
9.4.
(B.P.)
9.5. Friction power
9.6. Fuel measurement
Measurement of Air
9.7.
Consumption
9.8. Measurement of Speed
Heat Balance Sheet or Energy
9.9.
Balance
Variables Affecting Engine
9.10.
Performance
Methods of Improving Engine
9.11.
Performance
Performance Characteristics of an
9.12.
Engine
Variable compression ratio
9.13.
(VCR) engine

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9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

9.1 Introduction
 The basic task in the design and development of I.C.Engines is to reduce the cost of
production and improve the efficiency and power output. In order to achieve the above
task, the engineer has to compare the engine developed by him with other engines in
terms of its output and efficiency.
 Hence he has to test the engine and make measurements of relevant parameters that
reflect the performance of the engine. In general the nature and number of tests to be
carried out depend on a large number of factors. In this chapter only certain basic as
well as important measurements and tests are described.
Objectives
 With the development of internal combustion and their testing procedures, an
Engineer's task is to reduce the cost and increase the power output and the efficiency of
the engine. The aims of the engine testing are:
1. To get the specified information which cannot be possibly determined by
calculation.
2. To justify the rating of the engine and the guaranteed specific fuel consumption.
3. To verify and confirm the validity of engine data used in designing the engine i.e.
to confirm that the actual performance matches with the design specifications.
 The BIS has published IS 14599(1999) as the standard for engine testing for
determination of power, specific fuel consumption and smoke capacity (for CI. engine).
The Indian standards for measurement of smoke IS 8118 (1998) and IS 14553 (1998) may
be referred.
Important performance parameters of ic engine
 Important performance parameters of ic engine are as follow:
i. Friction power
ii. Indicated power
iii. Brake power
iv. Fuel consumption
v. Air flow
vi. Speed
vii. Exhaust and coolant temperature
viii. Emissions
ix. Noise
9.2 IS Standard Code 10000 to 10004 for Testing of Engines
 IS standard code 10000 (Part I to Part XI) to 10004 specifies the Indian standards for
testing of vehicles.

Table 9. 1 IS Standard Code

IS Code Details
Part I Glossary of terms related to test methods
Part II Standard reference conditions
IS : 10000 Part III Measurements for testing, units and limit of accuracy
Declarations of power, efficiency specific fuel consumption and
Part IV
lubricating oil consumption

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines

Part V Preparation for tests and measurement for wear

Part VI Recording of test results
Governing test for constant speed engines. Also, the selection
Part VII
of engine for use with electrical generators.
Part VIII Performance test
Endurance test procedures both for constant speed and
variable speed engines. It is performed after tests specified in
part VIII Endurance test for constant speed engines is carried
and for 32 cycles in which each cycle is of 16 hrs continuous
running. Before start of next cycle the temperature of oil sump
is brought down to within 5°C of its initial temperature.
Part IX
Endurance test for variable speed engines is conducted for 10
cycles (100 hrs) in which each cycle is of 10 hrs with interval of
2 hrs between cycles 10 hrs duration is divided into 5 cycles of
each 2 hr duration.
Results obtained are corrected to standard reference
conditions and compared to results of part VI above.
Part X Test for smoke levels for variable speed engines.
IS 10000 Part XI Information supplied by manufacturer test certificates
Deals with specification for performance requirements for
IS : 10001
constant speed diesel engines up to 20 kW capacity.
IS : 10002 Same as above but for engines above 20 kW capacity
Deals with specification for performance requirement of
IS : 10003
variable speed diesel engine for automotive purposes.
Specifications for performance requirement for variable speed
IS : 10004
spark ignition (S.L) engines for automotive purposes.

9.3 Indicated Power (I.P.)

 The indicated power of an engine is the power developed within the cylinder. In
order to determine the indicated power it is necessary to plot (p-V) diagram
representing the actual conditions of the engine within the cylinder since the area of
(p-V) diagram gives the work developed by the engine per cycle.
 Knowing the speed and type of engine the rate of work developed can be evaluated.
 The apparatus used for drawing actual (p-V) diagram is called engine indicator shown
in Fig. 9.1.
 In order to estimate the indicated power of an engine the following methods are
usually followed.
1. Using the indicator diagram
2. By adding two measured quantities viz. brake power and friction power
3. From morse test

 Engine indicator consists of a cylinder, piston and piston rod. On the cylinder a
coupling nut is fitted.
 The coupling nut is connected to a gas hole tap which is fitted to the cylinder head of
the engine to be tested.

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9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

Fig. 9. 1 Engine indicator (Mechanical type)

 The gas tap connects through passages both to the cylinder of indicator and to the
combustion chamber of the engine cylinder.
 The piston slides in the cylinder and the piston rod is connected to straight line
linkage through a spring of proper stiffness.
 The straight line linkage is mounted on a swinging collar which can rotate on the top
of the indicator cylinder.
 The spring controls the movement of the piston according to the pressure of engine
cylinder.
 A stylus (pencil) is attached at the end of straight line linkage so that it moves in a
vertical line in proportion to the movement of piston by magnifying its movement.
 A drum, to which a paper or indicator card can be fixed, is mounted on a vertical
spring and shaft. It is rotated by a cord wound round it, the other end of which is
attached to a point on the engine whose motion is same as that the piston of the
engine cylinder.
 The vertical movement of the stylus and the horizontal movement of the cord
combines to produce a closed figure known as indicator diagram.
 The area enclosed on the indicator diagram measures the work developed during a
stroke to a definite scale.
 It should be noted that the stiffness of the spring is chosen appropriate to the
maximum pressure in the cylinder.
 These type of indicators are not suitable for measurement in case of high speed
engines due to its mechanical nature. Usually, these are found suitable up to a speed
of 1500 r.p.m.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines

Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (I.M.E.P.)

 It represents that constant pressure which if it is acted over the full length of the
stroke would produce the same amount of work done by the piston as is actually
produced by the engine cylinder during a cycle.

Fig. 9. 1 Indicator diagram

 i.m.e.p. can be determined with the help of indicator diagram shown in Fig. 9.2. The
area of indicator diagram can be measured with the help of planimeter.

Let, a = Net area of indicator diagram (cm2)

l = Length of indicator diagram (cm)
K = Spring constant, N/cm2 /cm

Therefore,
𝑎
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑕𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 =
𝑙
𝑎
𝑖. 𝑚. 𝑒. 𝑝. = × 𝐾 (𝑁 𝑐𝑚2 )
𝑙

Indicated power (I.P.):

Let, pm = Indicated mean effective pressure (N/cm2)
𝜋
A = Cross − sectional area of piston (cm2 ) = 𝑑 2
4

Where,
d = Diameter of piston or bore (cm)
L = Length of stroke (m)
n = Number of power strokes per minute
N = Speed of the engine (r.p.m.)
n = Power stroke /min
= N/2 for 4 S engine as one power stroke per 2 rev &
= N for 2S engine

Force on piston = p𝑚  A Newtons

Work done per cycle = (p𝑚  A) L (Nm)

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9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

I. P. = p𝑚 A Ln (Nm / min)
n
I. P. = p𝑚 A L (Nm 𝑠 or W)
60
p𝑚 A Ln
I. P. = ( kW)
60000

9.4 Measurement of Brake Power (B.P.)

 Measurement of brake power is an important test carried out in the test schedule of
an engine.
 It involves the determination of the torque and the angular speed of the engine
output shaft. The torque measuring device is called a dynamometer.

Fig. 9. 2 Principle of a dynamometer

 Figure shows the basic principle of a dynamometer. A rotor driven by the engine
under test, is mechanically, hydraulically or electromagnetically coupled to a stator.
For every revolution of the shaft, the rotor periphery moves through a distance 2R
against the coupling force, F. Hence the work done per revolution is
𝑊 = 2𝜋𝑅𝐹
 The external moment or torque is equal to S x L , where S is the scale reading and L is
the arm length. This moment balances the turning moment R x F, i.e.,
S × L = R × F

Therefore
Work done/revolution = 2πSL
Work done/minute = 2πSLN
 Hence brake power is given by
𝑏𝑝 = 2𝜋𝑁𝑇 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
Where, T is the torque and N is rpm.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines

Classification of dynamometers

1. Prony Brake Dynamometer:

 One of the simplest methods of measuring power output of an engine is to attempt
to stop the engine by means of a mechanical brake on the flywheel and measure the
weight which an arm attached to the brake will support, as it tries to rotate with the
flywheel. This system is known as the prony brake and from its use, the expression
brake power has come. The prony brake consists of a frame with two brake shoes
gripping the flywheel

Fig. 9. 3 Prony Brake Dynamometer

 The pressure of the brake shoes on the fly wheel can be varied by the spring loaded
using nuts on the top of the frame. The wooden block when pressed into contact
with the rotating drum opposes the engine torque and the power is dissipated in
overcoming frictional resistance. The power absorbed is converted into heat and
hence this type of dynamometer must be cooled.

Let, W = Weight on hanger (N)

L = Distance from centre to flywheel to the hanger called load arm (m)
N = Speed (rpm)
Torque = W  L
𝑊 × 𝐿 2𝑁
𝐵. 𝑃. = 𝑘𝑊
60000
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9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

2. Rope brake Dynamometer:

 The rope brake as shown in Fig. is another simple device for measuring bp of an
engine. It consists of a number of turns of rope wound around the rotating drum
attached to the output shaft.
 One side of the rope is connected to a spring balance and the other to a loading
device. The power absorbed is due to friction between the rope and the drum. The
drum therefore requires cooling.

Fig. 9. 4 Rope Brake Dynamometer

 Rope brake is quite cheaper and can be easily fabricated but not very accurate
because of changes in the friction coefficient of the rope with temperature.

Let, W = Dead weight (Newtons)

S = Spring balance reading (Newtons)
𝐷+𝑑
Rb = Radius of brake drum or flywheel (effective) =
2
Where, D = Brake drum diameter, and
d = Rope diameter
N = Speed in r.p.m.
Brake load or net load = (W – S)
Braking torque = (W – S) Rb
𝑊 − 𝑆 𝑅𝑏 × 2𝜋𝑁
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑘𝑊
60000
 With the help of brake power, the brake mean effective pressure (b.m.e.p.) can be
calculated from the following equation,
𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 𝐴𝐿𝑛 𝑃𝑚𝑏 𝐴𝐿𝑛
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = = 𝑘𝑊
60000 60000
3. Hydraulic Dynamometer:
 The hydraulic dynamometer was developed by Froude in 1877. This dynamometer is
useful for measuring brake power over wide range of power and speeds.
 These are accurate, simple in construction, and free from vibration and
maintenance.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines

 Fig. shows the part of a hydraulic dynamometer. It consists of a shaft supported in

shaft bearings. The casing is carried by the anti-friction trunions so that it is free to
swirl about the same axis as the axis of the shaft.
 The shaft carries a rotor in the form of semi-elliptical cross-section divided one from
another by means of oblique vanes.
 The internal faces of the casing are provided with liners which are pocketed in the
same way.

Fig. 9. 5 Hydraulic Dynamometer

 The pockets in rotor and liners together form an elliptical receptacles round which
the water runs across at high speed.
 The engine shaft is directly coupled to dynamometer shaft. The water is circulated to
the rotor to provide the hydraulic resistance and it carries away the heat developed
due to absorption of power by water.
 The water is discharged from the rotor at high speed from its periphery into pockets
formed in by the casing liners, by which it is then returned at diminished speed into
rotor pockets near the shaft.
 The output can be controlled by controlling the sluice gates which can be moved in
and out partially or fully to obstruct the flow of water between the rotor and casing.
 The resistance offered to motion of rotor reacts on the casing which tends to turn on
its antifriction roller supports. This tendency is countered by means of a lever arm
carrying weight ‘W’ which measures the torque.
𝑊. 𝑁
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝐾

Where, W = weight on lever arm (N)

N = speed (r.p.m.)
K = dynamometer constant

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9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

4. Swinging Field Dynamometer:

 This type of dynamometer is usually used to measure brake power of high speed
engines. It consists of an electric generator with its field system mounted on the
trunions.
 The casing of the generator can revolve due to unbalancing of the applied and
reactive torques.
 The torque supplied to the field of the dynamometer and the reaction of the
electromagnetic induction on frame causes it to revolve about its shaft.
 This is counterbalanced by applying the external dead load or by the spring force.
 The speed of rotation is measured.
 The product of the applied external load, the load arm and the speed will give the
power transmitted.
5. Eddy Current Dynamometer:
 Fig. represents the principle of working of an eddy current dynamometer. It consists
of a rotor disc made of steel or copper. The rotor shaft is supported in the bearings
and it is coupled to the engine shaft.
 Its stator is fitted with a number of electromagnets and the stator cradles in the
trunion bearing.
 When the rotor rotates, it produces the eddy currents in the stator due to magnetic
flux set up by the passage of field current in the electromagnets.

Fig. 9. 6 Eddy current dynamometer

 These eddy currents oppose the rotor motion, thus loading the engine.
 The torque is measured with the help of torque arm and the load as in the other
types of dynamometers explained above.
 This dynamometer also requires to be provided with some cooling arrangement
since the produced eddy currents are dissipated in producing heat.
Advantages of eddy current dynamometer:
1. It can measure high power output at all speeds therefore, these are suitable to test
automobile and aircraft engines.
2. Its size is small compared to other dynamometers.
3. The torque developed is smooth and continuous under all operating conditions.
4. These dynamometers can be produced in all sizes for measurement of power.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines

6. Transmission Dynamometer
 Transmission dynamometers, also called torque meters, mostly consist of a set of
strain gauges fixed on the rotating shaft and the torque is measured by the angular
deformation of the shaft which is indicated as strain of the strain gauge. Usually a
four-arm bridge is used to reduce the effect of temperature to minimum and the
gauges are arranged in pairs such that the effect of axial or transverse load on the
strain gauges is avoided.
 Figure shows a transmission dynamometer which employs beams and strain-gauges
for a sensing torque.

Fig. 9. 7 Transmission dynamometers

 Transmission dynamometers are very accurate and are used where continuous
transmission of load is necessary. These are used mainly in automatic units.

9.5 Friction power

 The difference between the indicated and the brake power of an engine is known as
friction power. The internal losses in an engine are essentially of two kinds, viz.,
pumping losses and friction losses. During the inlet and exhaust stroke the gaseous
pressure on the piston is greater on its forward side (on the underside during the
inlet and on the upper side during the exhaust stroke), hence during both strokes the
piston must be moved against a gaseous pressure and this causes the so called
pumping loss.
 The friction loss is made up of the friction between the piston and cylinder walls,
piston rings and cylinder walls, and between the crankshaft and camshaft and their
bearings, as well as by the loss incurred by driving the essential accessories, such as
the water pump, ignition unit etc.
 It should be the aim of the designer to have minimum loss of power in friction.
Friction power is used for the evaluation of indicated power and mechanical
efficiency. Following methods are used to find the friction power to estimate the
performance of the engine.
1. Willan’s line method
2. Morse test
3. Motoring test
4. From the measurement of indicated and brake power

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9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

5. Retardation test
1. Willan’s line method
 In Willan’s line method, gross fuel consumption vs. BP at a constant speed is plotted
and the graph is extrapolated back to zero fuel consumption as illustrated in Figure.
The point where this graph cuts the BP axis in an indication of the friction power of
the engine at that speed. This negative work represents the combined loss due to
mechanical friction, pumping and blow by.
 In petrol engine, we keep the air-fuel mixture constant and vary the amount of the
mixture intake for required torque or power. This is called quantitative governing. In
diesel engine, we draw a constant volume of air (compressed) and vary the fuel
injected. Technically, we alter the quality of the air - fuel mixture, this is called
qualitative governing.
 In SI engine, at low speeds, the air mixture intake is very low (quantitative
governing). Hence, there will be a low pressure region created inside the cylinder
due to which, there will be pumping losses. Therefore, there will be more friction
power than actual, we get erroneous output if we use Willan’s line test for SI engine.
 If we use the same test for CI engines, there is qualitative governing and hence,
there will be fixed amount of air entering the cylinder and no negative pressure and
pumping losses occurs. So, we get a relatively closer value of friction power, the
errors are greatly minimized.
 So, Willan's line method is applicable only to Diesel (C.I) engines.

Fig. 9. 8 Willan's line method

 The main drawback of this method is the long distance to be extrapolated from data
measured between 5 and 40% load towards the zero line of fuel input.
1. The directional margin of error is rather wide because of the graph which may
not be a straight line many times.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines

2. The changing slope along the curve indicates part efficiencies of increments of
fuel. The pronounced change in the slope of this line near full load reflects the
limiting influence of the air-fuel ratio and of the quality of combustion.
3. Similarly, there is a slight curvature at light loads. This is perhaps due to difficulty
in injecting accurately and consistently very small quantities of fuel per cycle.
4. Therefore, it is essential that great care should be taken at light loads to establish
the true nature of the curve.
5. The Willan’s line for a swirl-chamber CI engine is straighter than that for a direct
injection type engine.
6. The accuracy obtained in this method is good and compares favorably with other
methods if extrapolation is carefully done.
2. Morse test
 The indicated power (ip) of multi cylinder engine can be found out by this method, is
not possible to find ip for single cylinder that is the limitation of this method. Also, in
the method the indicator or indicator diagram is not required. For multi cylinder
engine, power developed in any one cylinder is cut off and output power (bp) is
measured. In case of petrol (S.I.) engines, each cylinder in turn is rendered
inoperative by shorting the spark plug of the cylinder and in case of diesel (C.I.)
engines by cutting off the fuel supply to cylinders successively.
 Consider a four cylinder spark ignition engine coupled to a dynamometer.
Throughout the test the engine is run at constant speed of N r.p.m. It is assumed
that the pumping and mechanical friction losses are the same whether the cylinder is
working or not. Also, the throttle position is kept constant throughout the test.
 Let :
B = B.P. of the engine when all the four cylinders are working
B1 = B.P. of the engine when cylinder - 1 is cut - off
B2 = B.P. of the engine when the cylinder - 2 is cut-off
B3 = B.P. of the engine when cylinder - 3 is cut-off
B4 = B.P. of the engine when cylinder - 4 is cut-off.

I1, I2, I3 and I4 be the indicated power (I.P.) developed by cylinder numbers 1, 2, 3 and
4 respectively and their corresponding friction power (F.P) be F1, F2, F3 and F4.

Total brake power (B) = (I1 + I2 + I3 + I4) – (F1 + F2 + F3 + F4)

B1 = (I2 + I3 + I4) – (F1 + F2 + F3 + F4)
On subtracting Equation
B – B1 = I1
Similarly, we could write the equations when the other cylinders are cut-off in turn
as follows:
B – B2= I2
B – B3 = I3
B – B4 = I4
On adding Equations
Total indicated power, I = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 = 4B – (B1 + B2 + B3 + B4)
Frictional power, F = I – B
F.P. = I.P. – B.P

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9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

Errors involved in measurement of F.P. by Morse Test:

 Though the measurement of frictional power is fairly accurate, however, the errors
involved in measurement of F.P. by this method are :
1. In petrol engines using common intake manifolds may affect the distribution of
mixture and the volumetric efficiency of each cylinder.
2. The use of common exhaust manifolds and the cutting off the cylinders may cause
pulsations in the exhaust system, which in turn will affect the performance of the
engine.
3. Motoring Test:
 In motoring test method of determining the frictional power, the engine is run up to
its rated power till steady state conditions are reached. The power developed by
engine is absorbed by a swinging field dynamometer connected to engine shaft.
Either the ignition of a petrol engine or the fuel supply of a diesel engine, as the case
may be, is then cut-off.
 By suitable changes in electric switching devices, the dynamometer is run as a motor
at the same speed at which the engine was run.
 The output of the motor is measured which would represent the frictional power
losses of the engine. In order to maintain the operating temperatures of the engine,
the cooling water system is also cut-off during the motoring test.
 Errors involved in measurement of F.P. by motoring test:
 However, the motoring test does not give the true friction losses at the test speed
and load for the following reasons :
1. Temperatures during the motoring test are lower than those in a firing engine
due to cooling by the incoming air and heat transfer to the surroundings.
2. Reduced temperatures reduces the lubricating oil temperatures and increases oil
viscosity, therefore, it increases friction power.
3. The pressure and load on bearings and piston rings are lower than firing engine,
it reduces frictional power.
4. The clearance between piston and cylinder is more due to reduced temperatures
in the cylinder. It reduces the friction losses.
5. Friction power is also affected due to air being drawn at a temperature lower
than firing engine since it is not heated from cylinder walls.
6. Back pressure is more than the firing engine since after expansion, the required
pressure difference is not available to impart kinetic energy to expel the exhaust
gases.
 However, motoring test gives fairly good results since the increased and reduced
friction losses almost balance each other.
 This method is very useful for finding the friction losses caused by various
components by progressively stripping off the engine component for research
purposes.
4. From the Measurement of Indicated and Brake Power
 This is an ideal method by which fp is obtained by computing the difference between
indicated power obtained from an indicator diagram and brake power obtained by a
dynamometer. This method is mostly used only in research laboratories as it is

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines

necessary to have elaborate equipment to obtain accurate indicator diagrams at high

speeds.
5. Retardation Test
 This test involves the method of retarding the engine by cutting the fuel supply. The
engine is made to run at no load and rated speed taking into all usual precautions.
When the engine is running under steady operating conditions the supply of fuel is
cut-off and simultaneously the time of fall in speeds by say 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% of
the rated speed is recorded. The tests are repeated once again with 50% load on the
engine. The values are usually tabulated in an appropriate table. A graph connecting
time for fall in speed (x-axis) and speed (y-axis) at no load as well as 50% load
conditions is drawn as shown in Fig.

Fig. 9. 9 Graph for Retardation Test

 From the graph the time required to fall through the same range (say 100 rpm) in
both, no load and load conditions are found. Let t2 and t3 be the time of fall at no
load and load conditions respectively. The frictional torque and hence frictional
power are calculated as shown below. Moment of inertia of the rotating parts is
constant throughout the test.

𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 × 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑑𝜔
 Let ω be the angular velocity and be the angular acceleration.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜔
𝑇=𝐼
𝑑𝑡
𝐵𝑢𝑡, 𝐼 = 𝑀𝐾 2
𝑑𝜔
∴ 𝑇 = 𝑀𝐾 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑑𝜔 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑀𝐾 2
 Now integrating between the limits ω1 and ω2 for time t1 and t2 ,
𝜔2 𝑡2
𝑇
𝑑𝜔 = 𝑑𝑡
𝜔1 𝑀𝐾 2 𝑡1

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9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

𝑇
∴ 𝜔2 − 𝜔1 = 𝑡 − 𝑡1
𝑀𝐾 2 2
 Let Tf be the friction torque and Tl the load torque. At no load the torque is only
friction torque Tf and at load the torque is Tf + Tl. Hence at no load
𝑇𝑓
∴ 𝜔2 − 𝜔1 = 𝑡 −0
𝑀𝐾 2 2

 The reference angular velocity ω0 is that at, say 1000 rpm, the time of fall for the
same range at load
𝑇𝑓 + 𝑇𝑙
∴ 𝜔0 − 𝜔1 = 𝑡3 − 0
𝑀𝐾 2

𝑇𝑓 + 𝑇𝑙 𝑡3 = 𝑇𝑓 𝑡2

𝑡2 𝑇𝑓 + 𝑇𝑙 𝑇𝑙
= =1+
𝑡3 𝑇𝑓 𝑇𝑓

𝑇𝑙 𝑡2 𝑡2 − 𝑡3
= −1 =
𝑇𝑓 𝑡3 𝑡3

𝑡3
∴ 𝑇𝑓 = 𝑇𝑙
𝑡2 − 𝑡3

 Tl is the load torque which can be measured from the loading t 2 and t3 are observed
values. From the above Tf can be calculated and there by the friction power.
Comparison of Various Methods
 The Willan’s line method and Morse tests are comparatively easy to conduct.
However, both these tests give only an overall idea of the losses whereas motoring
test gives a very good insight into the various causes of losses and is a much more
powerful tool.
 As far as accuracy is concern, the ip – bp method in the most accurate, if carefully
done. Motoring methods usually gives a higher value for fp as compared to that
given by the Willan’s line method. Retardation method, though simple, require,
accurate determination of the load torque and the time for the fall in speed for the
same range.

9.6 Fuel Measurement

 Fuel consumption of an engine may be expressed either in terms of volume or mass
of fuel supplied in a specified time. The two basic types of fuel measurement are :
i. Volumetric type flow meters
ii. Gravimetric type flow meters
1. Volumetric Type Fuel Flow meter:
 A simple arrangement for measurement of fuel supply in laboratory is shown in Fig.
It consists of two spherical shells of 100 cc and 200 cc capacity.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines

 These are connected to two-three way cocks so that one spherical shell feeds the
engine while the other is filled from the fuel tank.
 The time required to feed the given volume of fuel is noted.

Fig. 9. 10 Volumetric Type Fuel Flow meter

 The mass flow rate of fuels supply is,
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑚𝑓 = × 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
 Where, density of fuel ρf = Specific gravity of fuel density of water ρw
(But, ρw = 1000 kg / m3 )
 The disadvantage of this method is that it does not give exact mass flow rate due to
variation in density with temperature.
2. Gravimetric Fuel Flow meter:
 Fig. shows the arrangement for direct measurement of the mass of fuel supplied.
 When the measurement of fuel supply is not required, the valve B is closed and the
valve A is kept open so that the fuel from fuel tank is directly supplied to the engine.
 When the measurement of fuel flow is required, both the valves A and B are kept
open. The quantity of fuel in flask is weighed on the balance.
 After this the valve A is closed and the valve B is kept open so that the fuel from flask
flows into engine and the time is measured.
 The quantity of fuel in the flask is again weighed. In this way the mass flow rate of
fuel supplied to the engine can be determined.

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9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

Fig. 9. 11 Direct weighing of fuel flow

9.7 Measurement of Air Consumption

1. Air Flow Meter:
 The air flow meter is shown in Fig. for measurement of air consumption in a
laboratory. It consists of a surge tank of capacity (400-600) times to the
displacement volume of the engine so as to reduce pulsations. The surge tank is
connected to the intake side of the engine with an orifice of cross-sectional area A
and of known coefficient of discharge Cd.
 The pressure difference causing the air flow is measured with the help of a water
manometer.
 Let (H)w be the pressure difference measured in cm of water and (H)air the
corresponding pressure difference in cm of air. Based on unit area of manometer,
the head in terms of meters of air is given by,
( p) = (H)w  1 ρw = (H)air  1 ρair
𝜌𝑤
∆𝐻 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = × ∆𝐻 𝑤
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
where , ρw = 1000 kg / m3
 The volume flow rate of air is given by,

𝑉 = 𝐶𝑑 × 𝐴 × 2𝑔 ∆𝐻 𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝜌𝑤
𝑉 = 𝐶𝑑 × 𝐴 × 2𝑔 × ∆𝐻 𝑤
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑉. 𝜌𝑎
𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝐶𝑑 × 𝐴 × 2𝑔. 𝜌𝑤 . 𝜌𝑎 ∆𝐻 𝑤

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines

Fig. 9. 12 Air flow meter

2. Viscous Air Flow Meter:
 For accurate measurement of air flow, Alcock viscous air flow meter is shown in Fig.
 This meter uses an element where viscous resistance is the principal source of
pressure loss with negligible kinetic effects. Therefore, it gives a linear relationship
between the flow and the pressure drop.
 The air is passed through the air filter so as to remove any contamination in it.
 The air now passes over the viscous element consisting of very large number of
passages in the form of honeycomb; each passage being triangular size
(0.5 mm  0.5 mm  75 mm approx.)
 The pressure drop is measured with the help of a manometer.
 Felt pads are fitted in the manometer connections to damp out fluctuations.

Fig. 9. 13 Alcock viscous air flow meter

9.8 Measurement of Speed

 The speed of the engine can be measured with the help of techometers (mechanical
or electrical), mechanical counters and timers, stroboscope, electronic pulse
counters etc. However, mechanical and electrical techometers are affected by the
temperature variation and they are not very accurate.
 For accurate and continuous measurement of speed a magnetic pick up placed near
a toothed wheel coupled to the engine shaft can be used. The magnetic pick up will

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9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

produce a pulse every revolution and a pulse counter will measure the speed
accurately.

9.9 Heat Balance Sheet or Energy Balance

 Heat balance sheet represents an account of the heat supplied in fuel and released
in combustion and its utilization in the engine. Necessary information concerning the
performance of the engine is obtained from the heat balance sheet.
 In order to draw a heat balance sheet, a complete test on the engine must be carried
out while the engine is run at constant load.
 Heat supplied: Energy is supplied to the engine in the form of fuel supplied to the
engine, its heat being released during combustion.
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 = 𝑚𝑓 × 𝐶. 𝑉. 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑖𝑛
Where, mf = mass flow rate of fuel (kg/min)
C.V. = Calorific value of fuel in kJ/kg
Heat expenditure / Heat utilised:
 Heat energy of the fuel is partly converted into useful work equivalent to its B.P. and
the remainder is carried away by cooling water, exhaust gases and some of heat is
lost in radiation, incomplete combustion, lubricating oil, which remains unaccounted
for.
Note: Frictional power is not accounted in the heat calculations since friction work is
converted into heat which in turn is transferred partly to cooling water and remainder is
carried away by exhaust gases.
Calculations for expenditure of heat are as follows:
a) Heat equivalent to B.P.:
 Heat equivalent to brake power per min = B.P.  60 (kJ/min)
b) Heat rejected to cooling water:
 Heat carried away by cooling water per minute
= 𝑚𝑤 × 𝐶𝑝𝑤 × 𝑡𝑤𝑜 − 𝑡𝑤𝑖

Where, mw=mass of cooling water circulated in kg/min

Cpw = specific heat of water = 4.187 kJ/kg K
twi = cooling water inlet temperature (C)
two = cooling water outlet temperature (C)
Heat carried away by exhaust gases:
 Heat carried away by exhaust gases per minute
= 𝑚𝑔 × 𝐶𝑝𝑔 × 𝑡𝑔 − 𝑡𝑜
Where, mg=mass flow of flue or exhaust gases (kg/min)
mg=mass flow rate of air ma + mass flow rate of fuel mf
Cpg = specific heat of gases
tg = temperature of exhaust gases (C)
t0 = room temperature (C) or surrounding temperature

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines

Heat balance sheet

Table 9. 2 Heat balance sheet

9.10 Variables Affecting Engine Performance

 Important variables which affect the engine performance are as follows:
1. Compression ratio:
 The increase in compression ratio increases the thermal efficiency of the engine.
However, increased C.R. ratio increases the pressure and temperature which results
into higher friction losses of the engine.
 Moreover, increased C.R. tends to increase detonation in S.I. engines. Thus the C.R.
is limited to a certain value for better performance.
2. Air-fuel ratio:
 Lean mixtures are used for economic running of the engine while the stoichiometric
air-fuel ratios are used for development of maximum power and during acceleration
of the engine.
3. Rate of combustion and ignition timing:
 In case of S.I. engines the igniting timings are adjusted to provide the combustion
rates such that the maximum pressure occurs to the beginning of power stroke i.e. at
T.D.C. for smooth running of the engine.
 In case of C.I. engines, the fuel injection is so timed that it provides the half of total
pressure rise during combustion almost near to TDC. For optimum performance.
4. Engine speed:
 Increase in speed of the engine, increases the mass flow rate of air. It increases the
power output. However, the increased speeds also increase the friction losses.
 Thus the optimum of the engine should be adjusted so as to provide the optimum
performance.
5. Mass of intake charge and supercharging of engines:
 Higher the mass flow rates will provide better volumetric efficiency and power
output. Mass flow rates can be improved by supercharging the engine.

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9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

 But in case of S.I. engines, the supercharging is not employed due to increased
tendency of detonation whereas of supercharged C.I. engines run smooth.

9.11 Methods of Improving Engine Performance

 Basically, the engine performance can be improved either by increasing the energy
input to the engine or by improving the conversion efficiency of engine, following
methods are suggested to improve the engine performance:
1. By increasing mass flow rate of mixture.
2. Supercharging the engine.
3. Use of larger piston diameters.
4. Use of fuels of higher calorific value.
5. Increased engine speeds.
6. By improving its volumetric efficiency by reducing pressure losses in intake
manifolds and reducing the mixture flow restrictions.
7. Use of higher compression ratios.
8. Use of fuel additives, exhaust gas recirculation, positive crankcase ventilation etc.
9. Reduction in heat losses.

9.12 Performance Characteristics of an Engine

 Engine Performance Characteristics are the Graphical Representation of Engine
Performance.
 Laboratory tests are performed to determine I.P., B.P., mechanical efficiency,
thermal efficiency and specific fuel consumption. The performance characteristics of
S.I. and C.I. engines are being discussed below.

1. S.I. Engines:
 Fig. 9.14 (a), (b) and (c) represent the performance characteristic curves for a
variable speed S.I. engine.
 At full load the throttle is kept wide open and the speed is varied by adjusting the
brake load.
 The I.P., B.P. and fuel consumptions are measured as discussed earlier. Similar tests
can be carried out at half load by changing the brake load to half of full load at the
same speed.
 It can be observed that the I.P. increases when i.m.e.p or the speed or both of them
increase.
 The I.P. increases first with the increase in speed if the inlet conditions are kept
constant.
 However, after certain limit the rate of increase of I.P. is reduced with increase in
speed because of drop in pressure at intake and reduction in volumetric efficiency.
 Mechanical losses increase with increase in speed due to which the increase in I.P. is
offset by the increased losses; therefore, the mechanical efficiency reduces with
increase in speed as shown in Fig. (b).

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines

Fig. 9. 14 Performance curve for S.I. engine

 The effect on brake specific fuel consumption (b.s.f.c.) with variation in speed is also
represented in Fig. (b). At low speeds with increase in speed the b.s.f.c. reduces since
the volumetric efficiency and mechanical efficiency are high.
 After certain speed the b.s.f.c. increases because of reduction in volumetric
efficiency and increased mechanical losses.
 Point-X represents the economical speed for minimum fuel consumption for the
engine.
 Fig.(c) shows the variation of volumetric efficiency with speed. The volumetric
efficiency reduces with the increase in speed because of drop in pressure at suction
caused by increase in velocity of charge to be inducted.
 The suction valve will only open when pressure inside the cylinder is slightly below
the surrounding pressure, thus the effective suction stroke is reduced.
 It reduces the volume of mixture inducted lowering the volumetric efficiency.
2. C.I. Engines:
 Fig. 9.15 shows the performance curves for C.I.engine at various speeds.
 Fig. 9.15 shows the variation of brake fuel consumption Vs B.P. for S.I. and C.I.
engines when run at constant speed.
 The test is carried out by keeping the speed constant and by varying the throttling
from no load to maximum load in case of S.I. engines or by varying the fuel supply in
case of C.I. engines.

Fig. 9. 15 Performance curve for CI engine Fig. 9. 16 Performance curve for SI and CI
engine at constant speed
 It could be seen that in case of S.I. engines the b.s.f.c. first decreases with increase in
load while working at part loads upto a certain minimum value and then it starts
increasing rapidly with further increase in loads.

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9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

 Beyond full load the curve starts forming a loop backward beyond point - X which
shows that the output decreases but the fuel consumption increases. It is due to the
fact that the mixture supplied to the engine is too rich and lot goes as unburnt in the
exhaust.
 Such a condition of the engine is called choking. In case of C.I. engines the b.s.f.c. Vs
B.P. curve is more uniform and the specific fuel consumption is lower than S.I.
engines.

Fig. 9. 17 Brake thermal Vs Mixture strength

 It shows that the thermal efficiency of C.I. engine is higher than that of the S.I.
engine and the specific fuel consumption in case of C.I. engines is not much affected
with variation in load on the engine.
 Fig. 9.20 shows the performance curve between brake or overall thermal efficiency
(o) and mixture strength.
 It shows that with slightly weak mixtures the thermal efficiency is maximum since
the fuel supplied will be utilised to maximum extent.
 While the efficiency is low with very lean mixtures because of lower maximum
temperatures attained after combustion and also the efficiency is low with rich
mixtures due to incomplete combustion of fuel.
3. Effect of Load on Different Engine Parameters:
 The engine speed of an engine is maintained constant with the help of governor and
the load on the engine is varied. The variation of indicated thermal efficiency,
mechanical efficiency and brake specific fuel consumption vs percentage of load on
the engine is shown in Fig. 9.18(a), 9.18(b) and 9.18(c) respectively.

(a)I vs load (b)m vs load (c) b.s.f.c. vs load

Fig. 9. 18 Performance curves of S.I. and C.I. engines at constant speed

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines

 The conclusions are as follows :

a) Indicated thermal efficiency:
 The indicated thermal efficiency increases with the increase in load for S. I. engines.
While for C. I. engines, the indicated thermal efficiency first increases to maximum at
about 40% of load and then decreases with increase in load as shown in Fig. 9.21(a).
b) Mechanical efficiency:
 Referring to Fig. 9.21(b), it is observed that the mechanical efficiency increases with
load for both type of engines. Since friction power is less than the rate in increase in
B. P. of the engine.
 Mechanical efficiency of C. I. engine is more than the mechanical efficiency of S. I.
engine at the same load since friction losses in C. I. engines are less compared to S. I.
engines.
c) Brake specific fuel consumption:
 Referring to Fig. 9.21(c), it is observed that the b.s.f.c. reduces with load upto 70% to
80% of load since combustion is efficient but with further increase in load, the b.s.f.c.
reduces since at higher loads the friction losses increase considerably. While in case
of C. I. engines, the b.s.f.c. keeps on reducing upto 90% load.
4. Comparison of Performance of S. I. and C. I. Engines:
 It should be noted that higher indicated mean effective pressure results into higher
power developed for a given displacement. The comparison between S.I. and C.I.
engines is given below.
Table 9. 3 Comparison

5. Performance Maps:
 Major variables to evaluate the performance of an engine are :
i. Engine speed
ii. Brake power (B.P.) or load
iii. Piston speed
iv. Specific fuel consumption
 Therefore for the critical analysis of an I.C. engine under all conditions of load and
speed, a set of curves can be drawn which are independent of the size of engine.
Such a map of curves is called the performance map.
 These performance maps can be used to predict the performance of geometrically
similar engines because the performance parameters are used in generalized form
by converting rotational speed (N) into piston speed and power output as power
output per unit area of the piston.

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9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

 The performance map of a S.I. engine is shown in Fig. 9.19.

Fig. 9. 19 Performance map of a S.I. engine

 The minimum consumption in kg/kWh shows the point of maximum efficiency. It
could be seen from the map, it occurs at low piston speeds with high bmep.
 It is evident that b.s.f.c increases with decrease in bmep because of the reduced
mechanical efficiency at low loads since the frictional mean effective pressure almost
remains the same.
 Fig. 9.20 shows the performance map for a C.I. engine.

Fig. 9. 20 Performance map of a C.I. engine

 Following observations can be made:
i. b.s.f.c increases with increase in bmep (i.e. due to increase in load). It is due to
the fact that low A.F. ratio at high loads causes increased unburnt carbon.
Whereas, the b.s.f.c also increases at low loads because of the decreased
mechanical efficiency.
ii. Minimum b.s.f.c is attained at almost half the maximum bmep i.e. corresponding
to its maximum power.

9.13 Variable compression ratio (VCR) engine

 One of the successful methods of improving the specific output of the engine is the
use of VCR engine. It can solve the problem of high peak pressures by reducing the

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines

compression ratio (C.R.) at full loads by allowing the turbocharger to boost the
intake pressures and thus increasing the specific output. While at low and part loads
the specific power output can be increased by use of high compression ratios.
 Therefore, a VCR engine can improve the specific power output by use of low C.R. at
full loads and by use of high C.R. at part loads without facing the problem of peak
pressures.
 The concept of VCR engine can be used both for S.I. and C.I. engines. But this
concept is more suitable for C.I. engines since,
i. The part load efficiency of a C.I. engine is higher than S.I. engine and the concept
of VCR is beneficial at part loads only.
ii. Diesel engines have better multi fuel capabilities.
iii. It is believed that the variable C.R. may cause detonation problems in case of S.I.
engines in a short period of time.
1. Methods of Obtaining Variable Compression Ratio:
 Variable compression ratio in an engine can be obtained by the following methods:
1. By changing the clearance volume. In this method the compression ratio is
changed by lowering or raising the piston crown.
2. By changing both the clearance volume and the stroke length. This method
requires a variable throw crankshaft for changing the stroke length.
Various mechanisms for VCR engines are:
i. Fig. 9.21(a) shows a mechanism in which the stroke length is changed according to
load on the engine. Such a mechanism being too complex, this method is not
generally adopted in practice.

(a) (b)
Fig. 9. 21 (a) VCR engine by changing the stroke length
(b) Variman VCR engine using movement of crank shaft
ii. Fig. 9.21(b) shows a mechanism for variable compression ratio as developed by
Tecquiment Ltd. (U.K.) which uses the movement of the crankshaft for varying the
compression ratio in the range or 4.5: 1 to 20: 1.
 In this system, the crankshaft and the main bearing assembly is carried in a cradle
having two forged transverse members, its ends are connected by hollow pins on
each side of the crankshaft and in parallel direction to it.

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9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

 The cradle swings about one of the pivot formed by these pins and the other pivot is
used for adjustment. The adjustment rod has an eye at its lower end carrying the
hollow pin and its upper end is threaded to take a nut in the form of a worm wheel.
 In case the worm wheel is rotated, the crankshaft and its main bearings move up and
down thus charging the clearance volume and thus affecting the compression ratio
as mentioned above.
iii. The most promising VCR mechanism is as adopted and developed by British Internal
Combustion Engine Research Institute (BICERI) as shown in Fig. 9.22. The mechanism
uses a special piston to lower or raise the piston skirt.
 The mechanism consists of two main parts A and B called shell and
carrier respectively. The carrier B is mounted on the gudgeon pin and the shell A
slides on the carrier B. The movement of the shell causes the change in clearance
volume, hence changes the compression ratio.
 Parts A and B form two chambers C and D which are kept full by lubricating oil
supplied through the hole provided in the connecting rod and a non-return valve F
from the lubricating system.

Fig. 9. 22 VCR engines developed by BICERI

 The gas loads on the piston is carried by the lubricating oil in the chamber C. This gas
pressure increases with the increase in load on the engine. When gas pressure
exceeds the designed value, the spring loaded relief valve L opens and discharges oil
to the main sump. The piston shell A will slide down upto a position decided by the
relationship between the oil pressure in two chambers and the cylinder gas pressure.
Therefore, this movement of the shell will affect the change in C.R. of the engine.
2. Performance of VCR Engine:
1. Power output
 When VCR and fixed C.R. engines were tested of the same size at same speed it was
observed that :
i. b.m.e.p. and power output is high.
ii. b.s.f.c. remains the same.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 9. Measurement and Testing of IC engines

iii. Weight to power ratio reduces considerably.

2. Thermal loads
 With VCR engine as per the load on the engine, the duration of heat released is
decreased. It leads to smooth combustion both at low and high compression ratios.
 The low C.R. at high loads provides the following advantages :
i. Reduction in combustion chamber temperatures.
ii. Maximum pressure decreases and the ignition lag increases.
iii. Volumetric efficiency increases.
 Above points leads to overall decrease in thermal loads in VCR engines.
3. S.f.c.
 The reduced compression ratio at high loads decreases the thermal efficiency of the
engine with increase in specific fuel consumption (sfc). However, these effects are
counter balanced by the following factors.
i. F.P. remains constant irrespective of loads against the increased F.P. in case of
fixed C.R. engines with increase in loads on the engine.
ii. Lower rate of expansion permits the better combustion of fuel because of
availability of sufficient time for combustion.
4. Engine noise
 Noise from engines depend on the peak pressure in the cylinder and the rate of
pressure rise. The peak pressures affect the lower frequency noise and the rate of
pressure rise affects the high frequency noise. Therefore, VCR engines are more
silent compared to fixed C.R. engines since the VCR engines have lower peak
pressures which remain constant irrespective of the load on the engine.
5. Cold starting and idling
 Since VCR engine works at high compression ratio at low loads, it has very good
starting and idling performance at low ambient temperatures.
6. Multifuel capability
 It has good Multifuel capability particularly in case of opposed piston engine type
engine since it operates at higher C.R. at low and part loads.

********
“If you want to walk fast then walk alone but if you want to walk far then walk
together.”

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Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 9.29
10
ENGINE EMISSION
AND THEIR CONTROL
Course Contents
10.1 Pollutant Formation and Control
10.2 Global Warming Vs Climate
Change
10.3 Carbon Dioxide and Global
Warming
10.4 Emissions - Historical Perspective
10.5 EU Emission Standards for
Passenger Cars (g/km)
10.6 Regulation on Sulphur Content of
Diesel Fuels
10.7 Regulation on Sulphur Content of
Diesel Fuels
10.8 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
10.9 SI Engine In-cylinder NO
Formation
10.10 Hydrocarbons
10.11 Hydrocarbon Emission Sources for
SI Engines
10.12 Hydrocarbon Emission Sources
10.13 Hydrocarbon Exhaust Process
10.14 Hydrocarbon Emission Sources for
CI Engines
10.15 Particulates
10.16 Carbon Monoxide
10.17 Emission Control
10.18 Catalytic Converter
10.19 Three-way Catalytic Converter
10.20 Oxidation catalyst:
10.21 Emission Control

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10. Engine Emission And Their Control Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

10.1 Pollutant Formation and Control

- All IC engines produce undesirable emissions as a result of combustion, including
hydrogen fuelled engines.
- The emissions of concern are: unburned hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO),
nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and solid carbon
particulates (particulate matter).
- These emissions pollute the environment (smog, acid rain) that contributes to
respiratory and other health problems.
- HC emissions from gasoline-powered vehicles include a number of toxic substances
such as benzene, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
- 1, 3-butadiene and three aldehydes (formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, acrolein).
- Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an emission that is not regulated but is one of the primary
greenhouse gases; water vapor and methane are the others, believed to be
responsible for global warming.

10.2 Global Warming Vs Climate Change

- Global warming occurs because the greenhouse gases are transparent to the high
frequency solar radiation that heat up the earth’s surface but absorb the lower
frequency radiation from the earth’s surface.

Fig. 11.1 Global warming system

10.3 Carbon Dioxide and Global Warming

- CO2 is a gas in earth’s atmosphere and is currently at a globally averaged

concentration of approximately 383 ppm by volume.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 10. Engine Emission And Their Control

- Atmospheric concentration of CO2 has increased by about 31% since the beginning
of the industrial revolution (mid1700s).
- About three-quarters of this are due to the burning of fossil fuel, the other quarter is
mainly due to deforestation.
- Transportation accounts for about 14% of global greenhouse gas emissions and 19%
of the CO2 emissions.

Fig. 11.2 Gas Emission

- In the US a new law requires automakers to increase the average fuel economy of
their entire fleets by 40% by 2020 (motor vehicles would be required to meet an
average 6.7 L/100 km within 12 years). Canadian gov’t will soon follow suit.

10.4 Emissions - Historical Perspective

- During the 1940s air pollution as a problem was first recognized in the Los Angeles
basin. Problem is due to the large population density, geography, natural weather
pattern and affinity to cars.

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10. Engine Emission And Their Control Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

- Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area and is a mixture
of smoke and sulfur dioxide (London). Photochemical smog is due to chemical
reaction of sunlight, NOx and HC in the lower troposphere producing airborne
particles and ground-level ozone (O3).
- In 1966 California introduced HC and CO emission limits for new vehicles. These
limits were set nationally for vehicles in 1968 as part of Clean Air Act.
- By making more fuel efficient engines and with the use of exhaust after treatment,
emissions per vehicle of HC, CO, and NOx were reduced by about 95% during the
1970s and 1980s.
- Automobiles are more fuel efficient now (2x compared to 1970) but there are more
of them and the trend has been towards larger SUVs (e.g. Hummer, Navigator,
Escalade) as a result fuel usage is unchanged over this period.

10.5 EU Emission Standards for Passenger Cars (g/km)

10.6 Regulation on Sulphur Content of Diesel Fuels

- The average sulphur content in Canadian Diesel fuel in 2000 was 350 parts per
million (ppm).
- Starting 2009 ultra-low sulphur diesel (ULSD) with 15 ppm sulphur is mandatory in
North America for highway vehicles. This is a critical complement to the stringent
new Tier II emission standards.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 10. Engine Emission And Their Control

- Since 2005 EU standards require diesel fuel to have less than 50 ppm sulphur
content. In 2009 all vehicles will run on “Sulphur-free” 10 ppm sulphur diesel,
including off-road.
- EU also requires that diesel fuel have a minimum Cetane number of 48.

10.7 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)

- NOx includes nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), in SI engines the
dominant component of NOx is NO
- NOx forms as a result of dissociation of molecular nitrogen and oxygen.
- Zeldovich mechanism

- Since the activation energy (E) of the first reaction is very high the reaction rate, ω''′
~ exp (-E/RT), is very temperature dependent
- NO is only formed at high temperatures (>2000K) and the reaction rate is relatively
slow.

10.8 SI Engine In-cylinder NO Formation

- Since the cylinder temperature changes throughout the cycle the NO reaction rate
also changes.
- Each fluid element burns to its AFT based on its initial temperature, elements that
burn first near the spark plug achieves a higher temperature.
- Since the chemistry is not fast enough the actual NO concentration tends toward but
never achieves the equilibrium value.

If NO concentration is lower than equilibrium value – NO forms.

If NO concentration is higher than equilibrium value – NO decomposes.

- Once the element temperature cools to 2000K the reaction rate becomes so slow
that the NO concentration effectively “freezes” at a value greater than the
equilibrium value.
- The total amount of NO that appears in the exhaust is calculated by summing the
frozen mass fractions for all the fluid elements:
1
𝑥
̅̅̅̅̅
𝑁𝑂 = ∫ 𝑥𝑁𝑂 𝑑𝑥
0

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10. Engine Emission And Their Control Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

10.9 Hydrocarbons
- Hydrocarbon emissions result from the presence of unburned fuel in the engine
exhaust.
- However, some of the exhaust hydrocarbons are not found in the fuel, but are
hydrocarbons derived from the fuel whose structure was altered due to chemical
reaction that did not go to completion. For example: acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, 1,
3 butadiene, and benzene all classified as toxic emissions.
- About 9% of the fuel supplied to the engine is not burned during the normal
combustion phase of the expansion stroke.
- Only 2% ends up in the exhaust the rest is consumed during the other three strokes.
- As a consequence hydrocarbon emissions cause a decrease in the thermal efficiency,
as well as being an air pollutant.

10.10 Hydrocarbon Emission Sources for SI Engines

- There are six primary mechanisms believed to be responsible for hydrocarbon
emissions:

10.11 Hydrocarbon Emission Sources

- Crevices – these are narrow regions in the combustion chamber into which the flame
cannot propagate because it is smaller than the quenching distance.
- Crevices are located around the piston, head gasket, spark plug and valve seats and
represent about 1 to 2% of the clearance volume.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 10. Engine Emission And Their Control

- The crevice around the piston is by far the largest; during compression the fuel air
mixture is forced into the crevice (density higher than cylinder gas since gas is cooler
near walls) and released during expansion.

Fig. 11.3 Piston cylinder system

- Oil layers - Since the piston ring is not 100% effective in preventing oil migration into
the cylinder above the piston, an oil layer exists within the combustion chamber that
traps fuel.
- Deposits - Carbon deposits build up on the valves, cylinder and piston crown. These
deposits are porous with pore sizes smaller than the quenching distance so trapped
fuel cannot burn.
- Liquid fuel - For some fuel injection systems there is a possibility that liquid fuel is
introduced into the cylinder past an open intake valve. The less volatile fuel
constituents may not vaporize (especially during engine warm-up) and be absorbed
by the crevices or carbon deposits
- Flame quenching - It has been shown that the flame does not burn completely to the
internal surfaces, the flame extinguishes at a small but finite distance from the wall.

10.12 Hydrocarbon Exhaust Process

- When the exhaust valve opens the large rush of gas escaping the cylinder drags with
it some of the hydrocarbons released from the crevices, oil layer and deposits.
- During the exhaust stroke the piston rolls the hydrocarbons distributed along the
walls into a large vortex that ultimately becomes large enough that a portion of it is
exhausted.

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10. Engine Emission And Their Control Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

Fig. 11.4 Hydrocarbon exhausts system

- The first peak is due to blow down and the second peak is due to vortex roll up and
exhaust (vortex reaches exhaust valve at roughly 290o).

10.13 Hydrocarbon Emission Sources for CI Engines

- Crevices - Fuel trapped along the wall by crevices, deposits, or oil due to
impingement by the fuel spray (not as important as in SI engines).
- Under mixing of fuel and air - Fuel leaving the injector nozzle at low velocity, at the
end of the injection process cannot completely mix with air and burn.
- Over mixing of fuel and air - During the ignition delay period evaporated fuel mixes
with the air, regions of fuel-air mixture are produced that are too lean to Burn, some
of this fuel makes its way out the exhaust → longer ignition delay more fuel becomes
over mixed.
10.14 Particulates
- A high concentration of particulate matter (PM) is manifested as visible smoke in the
exhaust gases.
- Particulates are any substance other than water that can be collected by filtering the
exhaust, classified as:
1) Solid carbon material or soot
2) Condensed hydrocarbons and their partial oxidation products
- Diesel particulates consist of solid carbon (soot) at exhaust gas temperatures below
500oC, HC compounds become absorbed on the surface.
- In properly adjusted SI engines soot is not usually a problem

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 10. Engine Emission And Their Control

- Particulate can arise if leaded fuel or overly rich fuel-air mixture are used. Burning
crankcase oil will also produce smoke especially during engine warm up where the
HC condense in the exhaust gas.

 Particulates (soot)
- Most particulate material results from incomplete combustion of fuel HC for fuel rich
mixtures.
- Based on equilibrium the composition of the fuel-oxidizer mixture soot formation
occurs when x ≥ 2a (or x/2a ≥ 1) in the following reaction:

- I.e. when the (C/O) ratio of reactants exceeds 1. Experimentally the critical C/O ratio
for onset of soot formation is 0.5 - 0.8.
- The CO, H2, and C(s) are subsequently oxidized in the diffusion flame to CO2 and
H2O via the following second stage.

- Any carbon not oxidized in the cylinder ends up as soot in the exhaust!

 Particulates in CI Engines

- Particulates are a major emissions problem for CI engines.

- Exhaust smoke limits the full load overall equivalence ratio to about 0.7.

- In order to reduce NOx one wants to reduce the AFT but that has the adverse effect
of decreasing the amount of soot oxidized and thus increases the amount of soot in
the exhaust.
- An example of this dilemma is changing the start of injection, e.g., increasing the
advance increases the AFT.

10.15 Carbon Monoxide

- Carbon monoxide appears in the exhaust of fuel rich running engines, there is
insufficient oxygen to convert all the carbon in the fuel to carbon dioxide.

- The C-O-H system is more or less at equilibrium during combustion and expansion.

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10. Engine Emission And Their Control Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

- Late in the expansion stroke when the cylinder temperature gets down to around
1700K the chemistry in the C-O-H system becomes rate limited and starts to deviate
from equilibrium.
- In practice it is often assumed that the C-O-H system is in equilibrium until the
exhaust valve opens at which time it freezes instantaneously.
- The highest CO emission occurs during engine start up (warm up) when the engine is
run fuel rich to compensate for poor fuel evaporation.
- Since CI engines run lean overall, emission of CO is generally low and not considered
a problem.

10.16 Emission Control

- The current emission limits for HC, CO and NOx have been reduced to 4%, 4% and
10% of the uncontrolled pre-1968 values, respectively.
- Three basic methods used to control engine emissions:

1) Engineering of combustion process - advances in fuel injectors, oxygen sensors,

and engine control unit (ECU).
2) Optimizing the choice of operating parameters - two NOx control measures that
have been used in automobile engines since 1970s are spark retard and EGR.
3) After treatment devices in the exhaust system - catalytic converter.

10.17 Catalytic Converter

- The catalytic converter uses a reduction catalyst and an oxidation catalyst to remove
CO, NO, and HC from the exhaust stream.
- Both consist of a ceramic honeycomb coated with a metal catalyst, usually platinum,
rhodium and/or palladium.
- Lead and sulfur in the exhaust gas severely inhibit the operation of a catalytic
converter (poison).

-
- Fig.11.5 Three way catalytic converter
-

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 10. Engine Emission And Their Control

10.18 Three-way Catalytic Converter

- Three-way catalysts will function properly only if the exhaust gas composition
corresponds to nearly (±1%) stoichiometric combustion.
- If the exhaust is too lean – NO is not destroyed.
- If the exhaust is too rich – CO and HC are not destroyed.
- Since thermal efficiency is highest for slightly lean conditions it may seem that the
use of a catalytic converter is a rather severe constraint.
- The same high efficiency can be achieved using a near stoichiometric mixture and
diluting with EGR to reduce NOx.
- Reduction catalyst:
- In the first stage platinum and rhodium are used to remove NOx. The NO molecule
dissociates on the catalyst surface producing molecular oxygen and nitrogen that are
released.
2NO → N2 + O2 or 2NO2 → N2 + 2O2

10.19 Oxidation catalyst:

- In the second stage platinum and palladium are used to oxidize the CO and the
unburned hydrocarbon (HC) using the oxygen in the stream.

2CO + O2 → 2CO2
2CxHy + (2x+y/2) O2 → 2xCO2 + yH2O

10.20 Emission Control

- A closed-loop control system with an oxygen (lambda) sensor in the exhaust is used
to control the fuel delivery so that the A/F ratio is near stoichiometric.
- The narrow-band oxygen sensor when hot (800oC) produces a voltage that varies
according to the amount of oxygen in the exhaust compared to the ambient oxygen
level in the outside air.
- Sensor output is very nonlinear ranging from 0.2 VDC (lean) to 0.8 VDC (rich), a
stoichiometric mixture gives an average reading of around 0.45 Volts.
- The sensor can contain a heater to bring it quickly up to temperature and is located
before the catalytic converter.

Fig 11.6 Bosche LSU-4 wide band sensor

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10. Engine Emission And Their Control Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

- Wide-band sensor output is linear and can be used to measure the O2 in the gas
stream. Is used for tuning, only used in a few vehicles.

10.21 Diesel Exhaust Treatment

- Diesel engines run fuel lean (reduce soot) so a 3-way catalytic converter is not useful,
also particulate matter (PM) consisting of C needs to be removed.
- Oxidizer catalysts used for reducing HC and CO
- Diesel Particulate Filters (DPF) is used for removing PM.
- Active DPFs: raise temperature of the filter by periodically adding fuel to the exhaust
stream that combusts in the filter raising the DPF temp → cleans the
- DPF by oxidizing the collected PM with O2, requires >600 C (regeneration).

- Fig 11.7 Diesel Particulate Filters sensor

- NO can be reduced by retarding fuel injection from 20 to 5 degree before TC in order

to reduce the peak combustion temperature at the expense of efficiency.
- Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) used to convert NOx into N2 and H2O.
- In a lean burn engine, it is necessary to add a reluctant like ammonia (NH3) to the gas
stream to enable this reaction over a catalyst.
4NH3 + 4NO + O2 → 4N2 + 6H2O
2NH3 + NO + NO2 → 2N2 + 3H2O
8NH3 + 6NO2 → 7N2 + 12H2O
- Typically an aqueous solution of urea (NH2)2CO is added to the exhaust stream to
produce ammonia:
2(NH2) CO → HNCO + NH3
HNCO + H2O → CO2 + NH3

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11
DIESEL POWER PLANT

Course Contents
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Operating Principle
11.3 Basic Types of IC Engines
11.4 Advantage of Diesel Power
Plant
11.5 Disadvantage of Diesel
Power Plant
11.6 Application of Diesel Power
Plant
11.7 General Layout of Diesel
Power Plant
11.8 Performance of Diesel Engine
11.9 Fuel System of Diesel Power
Plant
11.10Supercharging System of
Diesel Power Plant
11.11Cooling System of Diesel
Power Plant
11.12Lubrication System of Diesel
Power Plant

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11. Diesel Power Plant Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

11.1 INTRODUCTION

̶ The oil engines and gas engines are called Internal Combustion Engines. In IC engines
fuels burn inside the engine and the products of combustion form the working fluid
that generates mechanical power. Whereas, in Gas Turbines the combustion occurs
in another chamber and hot working fluid containing thermal energy is admitted in
turbine. Reciprocating oil engines and gas engines are of the same family and have a
strong resemblance in principle of operation and construction. The engines convert
chemical energy in fuel in to mechanical energy.

̶ A typical oil engine has:

1. Cylinder in which fuel and air are admitted and combustion occurs.
2. Piston, which receives high pressure of expanding hot products of
combustion and the piston, is forced to linear motion.
3. Connecting rod, crankshaft linkage to convert reciprocating motion into
rotary motion of shaft.
4. Connected Load, mechanical drive or electrical generator.
5. Suitable valves (ports) for control of flow of fuel, air, exhaust gases, fuel
injection, and ignition systems.
6. Lubricating system, cooling system

̶ In an engine-generator set, the generator shaft is coupled to the Engine shaft. The
main differences between the gasoline engine and the diesel engine are:
1. A gasoline engine intakes a mixture of gas and air, compresses it and ignites the
mixture with a spark. A diesel engine takes in just air, compresses it and then
injects fuel into the compressed air. The heat of the compressed air lights the
fuel spontaneously.
2. A gasoline engine compresses at a ratio of 8:1 to 12:1, while a diesel engine
compresses at a ratio of 14:1 to as high as 25:1. The higher compression ratio of
the diesel engine leads to better efficiency.
3. Gasoline engines generally use either carburetion, in which the air and fuel is
mixed long before the air enters the cylinder, or port fuel injection, in which the
fuel is injected just prior to the intake stroke (outside the cylinder). Diesel
engines use direct fuel injection to the diesel fuel is injected directly into the
cylinder.
4. The diesel engine has no spark plug, that it intakes air and compresses it, and
that it then injects the fuel directly into the combustion chamber (direct
injection). It is the heat of the compressed air that lights the fuel in a diesel
engine.
5. The injector on a diesel engine is its most complex component and has been the
subject of a great deal of experimentation in any particular engine it may be
located in a variety of places.
6. The injector has to be able to withstand the temperature and pressure inside the
cylinder and still deliver the fuel in a fine mist. Getting the mist circulated in the
cylinder so that it is evenly distributed is also a problem, so some diesel engines
employ special induction valves, pre-combustion chambers or other devices to

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 12. Diesel Power Plant

swirl the air in the combustion chamber or otherwise improve the ignition and
combustion process.
7. One big difference between a diesel engine and a gas engine is in the injection
process. Most car engines use port injection or a carburetor rather than direct
injection. In a car engine, therefore, all of the fuel is loaded into the cylinder
during the intake stroke and then compressed. The compression of the fuel/air
mixture limits the compression ratio of the engine, if it compresses the air too
much; the fuel/air mixture spontaneously ignites and causes knocking. A diesel
compresses only air, so the compression ratio can be much higher. The higher
the compression ratio, the more power is generated.
8. Some diesel engines contain a glow plug of some sort. When a diesel engine is
cold, the compression process may not raise the air to a high enough
temperature to ignite the fuel. The glow plug is an electrically heated wire (think
of the hot wires you see in a toaster) that helps ignite the fuel when the engine is
cold so that the engine can start.
9. Smaller engines and engines that do not have such advanced computer controls
use glow plugs to solve the cold-starting problem. We recommend diesels due to
their:
a) Longevity-think of an 18 wheeler capable of 1,000,000 miles of operation
before major service)
b) Lower fuel costs (lower fuel consumption per kilowatt (kW) produced)
c) Lower maintenance costs-no spark system, more rugged and more reliable
engine

10. Today’s modern diesels are quiet and normally require less maintenance than
comparably sized gas (natural gas or propane) units. Fuel costs per kW produced
with diesels are normally thirty to fifty percent less than gas units.
11. 1800 rpm water-cooled diesel units operate on average 12–30,000 hours before
major maintenance is required. 1800 rpm water-cooled gas units normally
operate 6–10,000 hours because they are built on a lighter duty gasoline engine
block.
12. 3600 rpm air-cooled gas units are normally replaced not overhauled at 500 to
1500 hours.
13. Because the gas units burn hotter (higher but of the fuel) you will see
significantly shorter lives than the diesel units.

̶ Diesel engine power plants are installed where

1. Supply of coal and water is not available in desired quantity.
2. Where power is to be generated in small quantity for emergency services.
3. Standby sets are required for continuity of supply such as in hospital, telephone
center.
̶ It is an excellent prime mover for electric generator capacities of from 100 hp to
5000 hp. The Diesel units used for electric generation are more reliable and long -
lived piece of equipment compared with other types of plants.

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11. Diesel Power Plant Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

11.2 Operating Principle

̶ All the gas engines and oil engines operate in the same general way. The working
fluid undergoes repeated cycles. A thermodynamic cycle is composed of a series of
sequential events in a closed loop on P-V or T-S diagram. A typical cycle has following
distinct operations
1. Cylinder is charged
2. Cylinder contents are compressed
3. Combustion (Burning) of charge, creation of high pressure pushing the piston
and expansion of products of combustion.
4. Exhaust of spent products of combustion to atmosphere.
5. The route taken for these steps is illustrated conveniently on P-V diagram and
T-S diagram for the cycle.

̶ Various types of Gas Engines and Oil Engines have been developed and are classified
on the basis of their operating cycles. Cycles are generally named after their
Inventors e.g. Carnot Cycle; Diesel Cycle; Otto Cycle; Sterling Cycle; Bryton Cycle;
Dual Cycle, etc.
New cycles are being developed for fuel saving and reduction of pollution.
̶ Two principal categories of IC Engines are:
Four Stroke Engines
Two Stroke Engines
̶ In a Four Stroke Engine Cycle, the piston strokes are used to obtain the four steps
(intake, compression, expansion, exhaust) and one power stroke in two full
revolutions of crankshaft. In a Two Stroke Engine Cycle, one power stroke is obtained
during each full revolution of the crankshaft.

Fig 12.1 Operation inIC Engine

̶ This is achieved by using air pressure slightly above atmospheric to blow out exhaust
gases out of the cylinder and fill the fresh charge (scavenging). The methods of
scavenging include: Crankcase scavenging; blower scavenging. Other methods
include super Charging; Turbo Charging.

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11.3 Basic Types of IC Engines

̶ Although alike in main mechanical aspects, the oil engines differ from gas engines in
fuels and fuel handling i.e., when fuel and air are injected how much charge is
compressed and how ignited. Many variants exist.

12.3.1 Two-Stroke, Spark Ignition Gas Engines/Petrol Engines

̶ The well-known automobile engine fueled with petrol (also called Gas) and Natural
Gas Engine, Bio-gas Engine is of this category. The low compression gas engine
(petrol engine/natural gas engine) mixes fuel and air, outside the cylinder, before
compression. With the automobile engine, a carburetor is used for mixing the fuel
and air and the mixture is injected in the cylinder. In a Natural Gas Engine, a mixing
valve is used for the same purpose instead of the carburetor.
̶ In the mixture, the gas fuel and air proportion is almost perfect to produce complete
combustion without excess air. This mixture flows into the cylinder and is then
compressed. Near the end of the compression stroke, an electric spark ignites the
inflammable mixture, which burns rapidly. The pressure in the cylinder rises rapidly
and acts on the piston area and the piston is forced to move down on its power
stroke.
̶ Since the compressed gas mixture rises in pressure during the compression stroke,
the mixture may get pre-ignited before the sparking resulting in loss of power. Hence
compression pressure must be limited in this type of engine. Compression Ratio is
therefore an important parameter in establishing combustion without pre-ignition.
The compression ratio is the ratio of cylinder volumes at the start and at the end of
compression stroke.
̶ In general, higher the compression ratio, higher will be the maximum pressure
reached during combustion and higher is the efficiency of the engine.
̶ Although it is desirable to have a high compression ratio, the nature of fuel imposes
limits in engines where a nearly perfect mixture is compressed.
̶ With natural gas for example the compression ratio might be about 5:1 and
compression pressure of about 8 bar, pre-ignition being the limiting factor.

12.3.2 Diesel Engines/Heavy Oil Engines

̶ In contrast to the engines in which the fuel and air mixes before compression, in
diesel engines:
̶ Air is compressed as the compression stroke begins and the fuel enters the cylinder
at the end of compression stroke. Heat of compression is used for ignition of fuel.
̶ In a typical diesel engine, air is compressed to about 30 bars, which increases the
temperature when finely atomized diesel fuel oil is sprayed into the heated air, it
ignites and burns. High compression ratio is therefore essential for reliable
combustion and high efficiency. Compression ratios above those needed to achieve
ignition do not improve the efficiency.

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11. Diesel Power Plant Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

̶ The pressure ratio depends on engine speed, cylinder size and design factors.
Typical compression pressures in diesel engines range from 30 bar to 42 bar. Small
high-speed engines have higher compression pressures.

12.3.3 Duel Fuel Engines

̶ In a duel fuel engine, a small quantity of pilot oil is injected near the end of the
compression stroke. It is ignited by the compression and the mixture burns like
standard diesel fuel. The pilot oil burning provides enough heat to the mixture of
gas/air. Precise control of pilot oil injection and a separate set of fuel pumps and
nozzles are added. Means are provided to reduce air quantity at partial loads.

12.3.4 High Compression Gas Engines

̶ With operation solely on gas, without duel mixtures and pilot oil, the high
Compression Gas Engines of today use slightly richer mixtures of fuel and air, with
lower compression ratios than duel fuel engines. The compression ratios are higher
than conventional gas engines and lower than duel fuel engines. There is no need of
pilot oil.

11.4 Advantage of Diesel Power Plant

̶ The advantages of diesel power plants are listed below.

a. Very simple design also simple installation.
b. Limited cooling water requirement.
c. Standby losses are less as compared to other Power plants.
d. Low fuel cost.
e. Quickly started and put on load.
f. Smaller storage is needed for the fuel.
g. Layout of power plant is quite simple.
h. There is no problem of ash handling.
i. Less supervision required.
j. For small capacity, diesel power plant is more efficient as compared to steam
power plant.
k. They can respond to varying loads without any difficulty.

11.5 Disadvantage of Diesel Power Plant

̶ The disadvantages of diesel power plants are listed below.

1. High Maintenance and operating cost.
2. Fuel cost is more, since in India diesel is costly.
3. The plant cost per kW is comparatively more.
4. The life of diesel power plant is small due to high maintenance.
5. Noise is a serious problem in diesel power plant.
6. Diesel power plant cannot be constructed for large scale.

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11.6 Application of Diesel Power Plant

̶ Since there are many disadvantaging of diesel power plant, although the plant find
wide application in the following fields.
1. They are quite suitable for mobile power generation and are widely used in
transportation systems consisting of railroads, ships, automobiles and aero
planes.
2. They can be used for electrical power generation in capacities from 100 to 5000
H.P.
3. They can be used as standby power plants.
4. They can be used as peak load plants for some other types of power plants.
5. Industrial concerns where power requirement are small say of the order of 500
kW, diesel power plants become more economical due to their higher overall
efficiency.

11.7 General Layout of Diesel Power Plant

Fig. 12.2 General Layout of Diesel Power Plant

̶ ENGINE.
̶ FUEL SYSTEM.
̶ INTAKE SYSTEM.
̶ EXHAUST SYSTEM.
̶ COOLING SYSTEM.
̶ LUBRICATION SYSTEM.
̶ STARTING AND STOPING SYSTEM.
̶ GOVERNING SYSTEM.
̶ GENERATOR AND ALTERNATOR

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̶ Engine

̶ Engine is the main component of power plant the function of engine is

generates mechanical power for generator.
̶ The diesel engine used for diesel power plants may be two stroke or four
stroke engines.
̶ Two stroke engines is compact in construction simple in mechanical design,
cheaper in cost, smaller flywheel required and develops more power for
same speed and piston displacement.
̶ However a four stroke engine has lower specific fuel consumption and more
effective lubrication, moreflexibility, less noisy exhaust, simple and better
cooling better scavenging and higher efficiency then two stroke engines.
̶ Generally two stroke diesel engines are favored only for diesel power plants
due to high power output, uniform turning moments, compactness and less
capital cost.
̶ Due to high price of fuel (diesel) the 4 stroke engine used because it has low
specific heat.
̶ The diesel engines are available in sizes from 75kw to 40MW.
̶ The size and number of engines depends upon plant capacity.

̶ Fuel System

̶ It consists of fuel storage tank, daily consumption tank, fuel transfer pump,
strainers fuel filters and fuel injection pump.
̶ The functions of fuel system are..,
̶ To supply fuel from storage tank to daily consumption tank.
̶ To filter the fuel.
̶ To measure and control the fuel supply.
̶ To inject the fuel in to engine as per the requirement quantity.

̶ Intake system

̶ It consists of air supply pipe, air filters and super charger in case of
supercharging engine.
̶ Its functions to clean the air reduce noise of air intake.

̶ Exhaust system

̶ It consists of piping from engine to a point where exhaust gases may be

discharged without any danger.

̶ Cooling system

̶ The function of cooling system is to provide a proper amount of water

circulation all around the engines to remove the part of heat from engine and
maintain the requirement of cooling.

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Internal Combustion Engine (2161902) 12. Diesel Power Plant

̶ It consists of water jacket, jacket water pump, and surge tank, cooling tower,
water pump and heat exchanger.

̶ Lubricating system

̶ It consists of lubricating oil tank, pumps filters and lubricating oil cooler.
̶ Its functions to minimize the friction in between rubbing parts by providing the
proper amount the oil.
̶ Oil cooler is used to maintain the temperature of oil because due to high
temperature the properties of oil may change.

̶ Starting and stopping system

̶ The starting system is used to rotate the engine initially while starting until
firing starts and unit is runs in its own power.
̶ Small diesel engine plants are usually started manually by handles but for large
capacity engine the compressed air or battery driven motors also used.
̶ The engine can be stopped by stopping fuel supply to the injection pump or
stopping the action of injection pump.

̶ Governing Systems

̶ This system controls the air fuel ratio in to the engine as per the increase or
decrease the load on engine.
̶ The fuel supply stationary diesel engine is mostly controlled by centrifugal
governor.

̶ Electrical Generator

̶ The function of the generator is to convert mechanical energy in to the

electrical energy.
̶ The generator shaft is coupled with engine shaft and they are provided with
automatic voltage regulators.
̶ The alternators used in diesel electric power plants are of rotating fields,
salient pole construction, speed ranging from 214 to 1000 rpm (poles 28 to 6)
and capacities ranging from 25 to 5000KVA at 0.8 power factor lagging.

11.8 Performance of Diesel Engine

̶ The performance of the diesel engine means the power and efficiency. The engine
develops as the various parameters of the engine, e.g. piston speed, air-fuel ratio,
compression ratio; inlet air-pressure and temperature are varied.
̶ The two usual conditions under which I.C. engines are operated are:
(1) Constant speed with variable load, and
(2) Variable speed with variable load.

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11. Diesel Power Plant Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

̶ The first situation is found in a.c. generator drives and the second one in
automobiles, railway engines and tractors etc. A series of tests are carried out on the
engine to determine its performance characteristics, such as: indicated power (I.P.),
Brake power (B.P.), Frictional Power (F.P.), Mechanical efficiency, thermal efficiency,
fuel consumption and also specific fuel consumption etc. Below, we shall discussed
how these quantities are measured

12.8.1 Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (Imep)

̶ In order to determine the power developed by the engine, the indicator diagram of
engine should be available. From the area of indicator diagram it is possible to find
an average gas pressure that while acting on piston throughout one stroke would
account for the network done. This pressure is called indicated mean effective
pressure (I.M.E.P.).

12.8.2 Indicated Horse Power (Ihp)

̶ The indicated horse power (I.H.P.) of the engine can be calculated as follows:

I.H.P. = (PLAN n)/ (4500)

̶ Where
P= LM.E.P. In kg/cm2
L = Length of stroke in meters
A = Piston areas in cm2
N = Speed in R.P.M.
n = Number of cylinders
K = 1 for two stroke engine
= 2 for four stroke engine.

12.8.3 Brake Horse Power (B.H.P.)

̶ Brake horse power is defined as the net power available at the crankshaft. It is found
by measuring
̶ The output torque with a dynamometer.

̶ Where T = Torque in kg.m.

N = Speed in R.P.NT.

12.8.4 Frictional Horse Power (F.H.P.)

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̶ The difference of I.H.P. and B.H.P. is called F.H.P. It is utilized in overcoming frictional
resistance of rotating and sliding parts of the engine.
̶ F.H.P. = I.H.P. – B.H.P.

12.8.5 Indicated Thermal Efficiency

̶ It is defined as the ratio of indicated work to thermal input.

Where W = Weight of fuel supplied in kg per minute.

CV = Calorific value of fuel oil in kcal/kg.
J = Joules equivalent = 427.

12.8.6 Brake Thermal Efficiency (Overall Efficiency)

̶ It is defined as the ratio of brake output to thermal input.

12.8.7 Mechanical Efficiency

̶ It is defined as the ratio of B.H.P. to L.H.P. Therefore,

11.9 Fuel System of Diesel Power Plant

̶ The fuel is delivered to the plant by railroad tank car, by truck or by barge and tanker
and stored in the bulk storage situated outdoors for the sake of safety.
̶ From this main fuel tank, the fuel oil is transferred to the daily consumption tank by
a transfer pump through a filter.
̶ The capacity of the daily consumption should be at least the 8-hour requirement of
the plant.
̶ This tank is located either above the engine level so that the fuel flows by gravity to
the injection pump or below the engine level and the fuel oil is delivered to the
injection pump by a transfer pump driven from the engine shaft, Fig. 6.3. Fuel
connection is normally used when tank-car siding or truck roadway is above tank
level.

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11. Diesel Power Plant Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

̶ If it is below tank level, then, an unloading pump is used to transfer fuel form tank
car to the storage tank (dotted line).

Fig.12.3 Fuel system

̶ The five essential functions of a fuel injection system are

1. To deliver oil from the storage to the fuel injector.
2. To raise the fuel pressure to the level required for atomization.
3. To measure and control the amount of fuel admitted in each cycle.
4. To control time of injection.
5. To spray fuel into the cylinder in atomized form for thorough mixing and
burning.

̶ The above functions can be achieved in a variety of ways. The following are the
systems, which are usual on power station diesels:
1. Common Rail.
2. Individual Pump Injection.
3. Distributor.

Fig. 12.4 Common Rail System

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̶ A typical common rail injection system is shown in Fig. 8.4. It incorporates a pump
with built in pressure regulation, which adjusts pumping rate to maintain the desired
injection pressure. The function of the pressure relief and timing valves is to
regulatethe injection time and amount. Spring-loaded spray valve acts merely as a
check. When injection valve lifts to admit high-pressure fuel to spray valve, its needle
rises against the spring. When the pressure is vented to the atmosphere, the spring
shuts the valve.

11.10 Supercharging System of Diesel Power Plant

̶ The purpose of supercharging is to raise the volumetric efficiency above that value
which can be obtained by normal aspiration. Since the I.H.P. produced by an I.C.
engine is directly proportional to the air consumed by the engine. And greater
quantities of fuel to be added by increasing the air consumption permit and result in
greater power produced by the engine. So, it is, therefore, desirable that the engine
should take in the greatest possible mass of air.
̶ The supply of air is pumped into the cylinder at a pressure greater than the
atmospheric pressure and is called supercharging. When greater quantity of air is
supplied to an I.C. engine it would be able to develop more power for the same size
and conversely a small size engine fed with extra air would produce the same power
as a larger engine supplied with its normal air feed. Supercharging is used to increase
rated power output capacity of a given engine or to make the rating equal at high
altitudes corresponding to the unsupercharged sea level rating.
̶ Installing a super charger between engine intakes does supercharging and air inlet
through air cleaner super charger is merely a compressor that provides a denser
charge to the engine thereby enabling the consumption of a greater mass of charge
with the same total piston displacement.
̶ Power required to drive the super charger is taken from the engine and thereby
removes from over all engine output some of the gain in power obtained through
supercharging.
̶ Since the main object of supercharging is to increase the power output of these
engine without increasing its rotational speed or the dimensions of the cylinder. This
is achieved by increasing the charge of air, which results more burning of the fuel
and a higher mean effective pressure. So there are three possible methods that
increase the air consumption of an engine,
a. To increasing the piston displacement, but this increases the size and weight of
the engine, and introduces additional cooling problems.
b. Running the engine at higher speeds, which results in increased fluid and
mechanical friction losses, and imposes greater inertia stresses on engine parts.
c. Increasing the density of the charge, such that a greater mass of charge is
introduced into the same volume or same total piston displacement.

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11.11 Cooling System of Diesel Power Plant

̶ Based on cooling medium two types of cooling systems is in general use. They are
 Air as direct cooling system.
 Liquid or indirect cooling system.
̶ Air-cooling is used in small engines and portable engines by providing fins on the
cylinder. Big diesel engines are always liquid (water/special liquid) cooled.
̶ Liquid cooling system is further classified as
1. Open cooling system
2. Natural circulation (Thermo-system)
3. Forced circulation system
4. Evaporation cooling system

12.11.1 Open Cooling System

̶ This system is applicable only where plenty of water is available. The water from the
storage tank is directly supplied through an inlet valve to the engine cooling water
jacket. The hot water coming out of the engine is not cooled for reuse but it is
discharged.

12.11.2 Natural Circulation System

̶ The system is closed one and designed so that the water may circulate naturally
because of the difference in density of water at different temperatures. Fig. 8.14
shows a natural circulation cooling system. It consists of water jacket, radiator and a
fan. When the water is heated, its density decreases and it tends to rise, while the
colder molecules tend to sink. Circulation of water then is obtained as the water
heated in the water jacket tends to rise and the water cooled in the radiator with the
help of air passing over the radiator either by ram effect or by fan or jointly tends to
sink. Arrows show the direction of natural circulation, which is slow.

Fig. 12.5 Natural Circulation System

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12.11.3 Force Circulation Cooling System

̶ Fig shows forced circulation cooling system that is closed one. The system consists of
pump, water jacket in the cylinder, radiator, fan and a thermostat.
̶ The coolant (water or synthetic coolant) is circulated through the cylinder jacket with
the help of a pump, which is usually a centrifugal type, and driven by the engine.

Fig.12.6 Force Circulation System

̶ The function of thermostat, which is fitted in the upper house connection

initially, prevents the circulation of water below a certain temperature (usually
up to 85°C) through the radiation so that water gets heated up quickly.
̶ Standby diesel power plants up to 200 kVA use this type of cooling. In the case of
bigger plant, the hot water is cooled in a cooling tower and recalculated again.
̶ There is a need of small quantity of cooling make-up water.

11.12 Lubrication System of Diesel Power Plant

̶ Since frictional forces causes wear and tear of rubbing parts of the engine and
thereby the life of the engine is reduced. So the rubbing part requires that some
substance should be introduced between the rubbing surfaces in order to decrease
the frictional force between them. Such substance is called lubricant. The lubricant
forms a thin film between the rubbing surfaces. And lubricant prevents metal to-
metal contact. So we can say “Lubrication is the admission of oil between two
surfaces having relative motion”.

̶ The main function of lubricant is to,

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1. To reduce friction and wear between the parts having relative motion by
minimizing the force of friction and ensures smooth running of parts.
2. To seal a space adjoining the surfaces such as piston rings and cylinder liner.
3. To clean the surface by carrying away the carbon and metal particles caused by
wear.
4. To absorb shock between bearings and other parts and consequently reduce
noise.
5. To cool the surfaces by carrying away heat generated due to friction.
6. It helps the piston ring to seal the gases in the cylinder.
7. It removes the heat generated due to friction and keeps the parts cool.

̶ The various parts of an engine requiring lubrication are;

a. Cylinder walls and pistons.
b. Main crankshaft bearings.
c. Piston rings and cylinder walls.
d. Big end bearing and crank pins.
e. Small end bearing and gudgeon pin bearings.
f. Main bearing cams and bearing valve tappet and guides
g. Timing gears etc.
h. Camshaft and cam shaft bearings.
i. Valve mechanism and rocker arms.

̶ The various lubricants used in engines are of three types:

a. Liquid Lubricants or Wet sump lubrication system.
b. Solid Lubricants or Dry sump lubrication system.
c. Semi-solid Lubricants or Mist lubrication system

12.12.1 Liquid Lubricants or Wet Sump Lubrication System

̶ These systems employ a large capacity oil sump at the base of crank chamber, from
which the oil is drawn by a low-pressure oil pump and delivered to various parts. Oil
then gradually returns back to the sump after serving the purpose.

Splash system.

̶ This system is used on some small four strokes, stationary engines. In this case the
caps on the big ends bearings of connecting rods are provided with scoops which,
when the connecting rod is in the lowest position, just dip into oil troughs and thus
direct the oil through holes in the caps to the big end bearings.
̶ Due to splash of oil it reaches the lower portion of the cylinder walls, crankshaft and
other parts requiring lubrication. Surplus oil eventually flows back to the oil sump.
Oil level in the troughs is maintained by means of an oil pump which takes oil from
sump, through a filter. Splash system is suitable for low and medium speed engines
having moderate bearing load pressures.

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̶ For high performance engines, which normally operate at high bearing pressures and
rubbing speeds this system does not serve the purpose.

Semi-pressure system.

̶ This method is a combination of splash and pressure systems.

Fig.12.7 Semi pressure Lubrication System

̶ It incorporates the advantages of both. In this case main supply of oil is located in
the base of crank chamber.
̶ Oil is drawn from the lower portion of the sump through a filter and is delivered
by means of a gear pump at pressure of about 1 bar to the main bearings. The
big end bearings are lubricated by means of a spray through nozzles.
̶ Thus oil also lubricates the cams, crankshaft bearings, cylinder walls and timing
gears. An oil pressure gauge is provided to indicate satisfactory oil supply. The
system is less costly to install as compared to pressure system. It enables higher
bearing loads and engine speeds to be employed as compared to splash system.

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