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2.3 The Class Equation

1) The document discusses the class equation, which is a formula that counts the number of elements in a group based on the number of conjugacy classes. 2) It provides the class equation for the symmetric group S3, which is 6 = 1 + 3 + 2, counting the number of elements with each cycle type. 3) The class equation for the symmetry group of the dodecahedron is proven to be 60 = 1 + 15 + 20 + 12 + 12, counting elements of different orders that comprise distinct conjugacy classes.

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195 views4 pages

2.3 The Class Equation

1) The document discusses the class equation, which is a formula that counts the number of elements in a group based on the number of conjugacy classes. 2) It provides the class equation for the symmetric group S3, which is 6 = 1 + 3 + 2, counting the number of elements with each cycle type. 3) The class equation for the symmetry group of the dodecahedron is proven to be 60 = 1 + 15 + 20 + 12 + 12, counting elements of different orders that comprise distinct conjugacy classes.

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KANTHAVEL T
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2.

3 The Class Equation


We now give some counting formulas and some applications.

Lemma 2.3.1 (Counting formula). Let G be a group acting on a set X. Let


B1 , . . . , Bp be the orbits that have length ≥ 2, and let xj ∈ Bj be a point in
the orbit for every j = 1, . . . , p. Then we have the formula
p
X
G
|X| = |X | + |G : Gxj |,
j=1

where |X G | is the cardinality of the fix points locus.

Proof. This is indeed true as X is the disjoint union of the orbits. The set
X G is simply the orbits of length one, and in any case the length of an orbit
Bj is |G : Gxj |.

Class equation
In the case that G acts on itself by conjugation, the above formula becomes
p
X
|G| = | Cent(G)| + |G : C(xj ))|,
j=1

where the sum is taken over conjugacy classes not in the center. The above
formula is called the class equation for G.

Example 2.3.2. Consider the group S3 . We have by Proposition 2.2.5 that


elements in S3 are conjugate if and only if they have the same cycle type.
The possible cycle types are a) (∗)(∗)(∗), all of length one, b) (∗)(∗∗), one
of length 2 and one of length one, (∗ ∗ ∗), one of length 3. Only the identity
permutation has three orbits, so the center of S3 is that element only. There
are 3 reflections in S3 , hence the length of the orbit with type (∗)(∗∗) is 3.
And finally there are two rotations in S3 . The class equation of S3 then reads

6 = 1 + 3 + 2.

Similarily, using the table (1.2.19) we get that the class equation for S4 is

24 = 1 + 3 + 8 + 6 + 6.

It can be complicated to get the class equation correct. Note that each
summand needs to divide the order of the group.

33
2.3.3 The Dodecahedron group
We have seen that the symmetry group G of a dodecahedron has 60 elements.
The group contains rotations of the pentagons that form the faces of the
dodecahedron, it contains rotations of order three around the vertices, and it
contains rotations of order two around the edges. There are twenty vertices,
and a line of rotation passes through two vertices. Each rotational line gives
two elements of order 2, and then 2×10 elements of order 2. There are thirty
edges, but again the line of rotation through the midpoint of an edge also
passes through the midpoint of the opposite edge. This gives 15 elements of
order 2. Each pentagon has an opposite pentagon, so the twelve faces of the
dodecahedron gives 4 × 6 elements of order 5. Now, as
1 + 15 + 20 + 24 = 60, (2.1)
we have managed to list all the elements. As 24 does not divide the order of
the group the anbove equation is not the class equation of the dodecahedron
group G.
Lemma 2.3.4. The class equation of the symmetry group of the dodecahedron
is
60 = 1 + 15 + 20 + 12 + 12.
Proof. As conjugate elements have the same order it follows that the class
equation of the dodecahedron is a refinement of the equation (2.1). For any
two edges on the dodecahedron there exists a symmetry taking one edge to
the other, and it then follows that all group elements of order 2 are conjugate.
The elements of order three are also conjugate. Indeed, an element of order
three is a rotation around a line passing through a vertex P . If Q is a vertex
we can find a symmetry taking the rotation line to the the rotation line
through P in two ways, either by sending P to Q or by sending P to the
opposite vertex of Q. This two symmetries shows that the two rotations
around Q of order three are conjugate to the fixed rotation around Q. The
same argument shows that rotations of order five are grouped into two classes.
The two elements rotating a pentagon with 2π/5 and −2π/5 radians are
conjugate, as well as the two rotations with 4π/5 and −4π/5 radians are
conjugate. Since 24 does not divide 60 it follows that these two groups can
not be conjugate, and we have proven the class equation.
Proposition 2.3.5. The symmetry group G of the dodecahedron has, apart
from the trivial ones N = {e} and N = G, no normal subgroups.
Proof. Let N be a non-trivial subgroup of G, and assume that N is nor-
mal. By Lemma 2.3.4 we have that N is a union of conjugacy classes. We

34
have listed the orders of the conjugacy classes in the class equation of the
dodecahedron group. This means that

|N | = 1 + a15 + b20 + c12 + d12

for some integers a, b, c, d ≤ 1, not all zero. Then |N | ≥ 13, and since the
order |N | should divide 60, the order of G, we have that |N | is either 15, 20
or 30. Clearly the sum of non-negative integers 15a + 20b + 12c + 12d can
not become 14, 19 or 29.

Theorem 2.3.6. The dodecahedron group is A5 .

Proof. The tricky thing is to realize that we have a morphism from the
symmetry group G of the dodecahedron to S5 . Each face of the dodecahedron
can be divided with an endge joining two vertices leaving one vertex on one
side, and the remaing two on the other. Such an edge will constitute the
edge of a unique cube inscribed in the dodecahedron, and this determines
therefore five different cubes. We number these cubes as 1, . . . , 5, and have
that any permutation g ∈ G gives a permutation of the cubes. This defines
a homomorphism
ϕ : G −→ S5 .
As the kernel of a group homomorphism is a normal subgroup it follows by
Proposition that the kernel of ϕ is trivial. Of the two possibilities it is clear
that it must be that ker ϕ = {e}. Therefore ϕ is injective and G is a subgroup
of S5 . The signature is a group homomorphism S5 −→ S2 , that composed
with ϕ gives a group homomorphism

ϕ2 : G −→ S2 .

If that homomorphism ϕ2 was surjective then the kernel N of ϕ2 would


be such that its index |G : N | would be two. The only indices of normal
subgroups in G that are possible are index one and sixty. This contradiction
implies that ϕ2 is not surjective, hence the image of ϕ2 = {1}. The conclusion
from that is that the subgroup G of S5 consists of elements of signature 1.
The order of |G| then shows that G contains all elements of signature 1. In
other words that G = A5 .

Example 2.3.7. We have that the tetraheder group is a subgroup of the


dodecaheder group, but neither D6 or D3 is.

Exercises. Class Equation.

1. Determine the class equation for S5 .

35
2. Determine the class equation for A4 .

3. Convince yourself that the symmetry group of the icosahedron equals


the symmetry group of the dodecahedron.

36

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