CRIM1: Introduction to Criminology

Lesson 2: Developing Criminological Theory

1.1   Science and Theory

Criminological theory is based on science. Theories include a specific set of ideas that
are testable using a systematic method. This is what makes theories scientific.

Scientific investigation is based on empiricism. For something to be empirical, it has to

be observable and measurable. For something to be observable, it must be real. There are
three main epistemological frameworks that are important for criminology: (1)
objectivism, (2) constructivism, and (3) subjectivism.

 Objectivism - it is based on the orientation that there exists a “real world" outside
of people's consciousness. In other words, there are universal truths or facts about
the world, and it is the scientists' job to uncover and explain these truths.
 Constructivism - people construct or create their own reality. An example of a
social construct is the concept of crime or criminality.
 Subjectivism - the belief that reality is socially constructed, although so this
construction is not done consciously (as constructivism argues), but rather
unconsciously. It is the people's thoughts, dreams, and beliefs that construct the
work, and people impose these constructs upon others and upon society as a whole.
 
The Scientific Method
The modern understanding of the scientific method is that it is a process. It is not
always linear but bounces back and forth between coming up with large ideas, making
specific predictions called hypotheses, and testing those hypotheses using systematic
experiments. To conceptualize, the method starts with coming up with a broad or general
idea (or theory). This is followed by making observations. Based on observations,
interesting questions emerge, which are followed by hypotheses about what the researcher
believes to be true. The researcher then develops a way to test his or her ideas and gathers
information (called data) to test these predictions. Based on the outcome of the tests, the
researcher must decide to either come up with more questions (called refining a theory) or
revise hypotheses based on results that do not support their original predictions.
 
What is a Theory?
A theory is a set of logically interconnected propositions explaining how phenomena
are related and from which a number of hypotheses can be derived and tested (Walsh,
2012)

Walsh (2012) further added that theories should provide logical explanations of the
phenomena they address, correspond with the relevant empirical facts, and provide
practical guidance for researchers looking for further facts.
 All respected theories of crime in the modern era are based on science, thus it tries to
avoid buying into and applying theories that are inaccurate and continuously refines and
improve the theories (based on findings from scientific testing) to gain a better
understanding of what causes people to commit a crime. Criminology, as a science, always
allows and even welcomes criticism of its existing theoretical models. There is no emphasis
on authority, but rather on the scientific method and the quality of the observations that
take place in testing the predictions. All scientific theories can be improved, and they are
improved only through observation and empirical testing.

1.2   Theory Construction

Understand and counteract the phenomenon and for relating it to other phenomena.
Thus, theory construction needs a careful selection of data.

In the past, there was no systematic and organized method for the formulation and
verification of the sociological theory. Today, theorists are able to know if their theories are
valid or invalid because of the standard of verification of theories. The theory construction
process happens in a social situation and would depend on the environment of the thinker
and his/her personal inclination.

 Steps in Construction and Formulation of a Theory:

 1. Causal Relationship - Logical explanation of the causal relationship between
independent and dependent variables must be evident. The elements of universality and
uniformity with reference to time and space must be present in explaining the cause and
effect relationship.
2. Definition of Concepts - Concepts in a proposition must be defined and explained
clearly so that they may give a precise and meaningful characteristic. A proposition in
theory construction means a statement putting forth an idea.
3. Relationship Between Concepts - A logical relationship between the well-defined
concepts of the proposition must be evident. This means that concepts should be explained
with logic and reason, which should be clear from any confusion or contradiction.
4. Theoretical Concepts - These refer to the changing values or variables and are subject
to testing. They are considered to be an important component in theory construction
because the validity of sociological theory is based on the validity of the hypothesis to be
tested.
5. Hypothesis Testing- The proposed hypothesis is tested through scientific research
methods.
6. Data Analysis Collection- of data and its analysis are based on the tested and verified
hypothesis. Data analysis gives findings that are sometimes in favor and sometimes against
the hypothesis.
7. Generalization- Interpretation and generalization of collected data are then made to
develop a theory. This is considered to be a very crucial and critical stage of theory
construction because the findings may be interpreted in many ways, and there is danger of
misinterpretation in the findings.
8. Evaluation of Theory- A theory is then evaluated based on the collected facts
interpretation and when generalization has been made. A theory may be evaluated as true
or false, partially or fully. The first step of theory is called "postulates," and its
mathematical form is called "law."

1.3   Elements of a Theory
A theory explains how some aspect of human behavior or performance is
organized. It thus enables us to make predictions about that behavior. In general, a
theory is concerned with the systematic description and explanation of a particular
phenomenon.

              The elements of the theory are concepts, assumption, and generalization. A

concept is a symbolic representation of an actual thing, tree, chair, table, computer,
distance, etc. Concepts, being abstract and general, are ensured of their being independent
of any unique temporal or spatial setting

            The assumption is a statement that is accepted as true without proof and

without necessarily being self-evident. This is because an assumption may be definitional
in character-that is it is a definition of a given word.

            Generalization is a statement or proposition that indicates the mutual

relationship between two or more concepts. A generalization links concepts in a
meaningful fashion. Generalizations are of four kinds: (1) assumptions; (2) hypotheses; (3)
principles; and (4) laws.

             A principle expresses the relationship between two or more concepts or constructs.

        In the process of theory development, one derives principles based on one's

examining/questioning of how things/concepts are related.

Concepts and principles serve two important functions:

1. They help us understand or explain what is going on around us.
2. They help us predict future events (can be causal or correlational).
 
Theory: The summary and synthesis of what is known about a field. It is the reduction of
our knowledge to the basic ideas, presented in a way that shows their underlying patterns
and relationships (Moore, 1991:2).

Why Are Theories Important?

A theory is important because it provides concepts to name what we observe, and it

explains relationships between concepts. Through theory, it allows us explain what we see
and figure out how to bring about change. A theory is considered a tool that helps us
identify a problem and plan for ways of altering the situation.

A theory justifies reimbursement to get funding and support in order to explain

what is being done and to demonstrate that it works-theory and research.
 A theory guides research in enhancing the growth of the professional area to
identify a body of knowledge, thus the body of knowledge grows with the theory and
research.

The theory also helps us understand what we don't know and, therefore, is the only
guide to research. Relating to theory, it increases its ability to solve other problems in
different times and different places (Moore, 1991:2).

Development of Theories
When new knowledge is discovered through research, a theory is constantly
revised. There are three stages involved in theory development: speculative, descriptive,
and constructive.

Speculative attempts to explain what is happening. Descriptive involves the gathering

of descriptive data in order to explain what is really happening. Constructive involves the
revision of old theories and the development of new ones based on continuing research.

1.4   Theory Testing

A theory presents a systematic way of understanding events, behaviors, and/or

situations. A theory is a set of interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that
explains or predicts events or situations by specifying relations among variables. Theories
vary in the extent to which they have been conceptually developed and empirically tested;
however, "testability" is an important feature of a theory.

Theory testing is the process of testing whether a certain theory is a plausible

explanation of a phenomenon. The main focus of theory testing is to discover whether
there is evidence that supports (or does not support) a particular theory.

There are four ways to test a theory: (1) logical consistency, (2) explanatory power, (3)
falsifiability, and (4) parsimony.

 Logical Consistency - Are the theoretical constructs, propositions, boundary

conditions, and assumptions logically consistent with each other? If some of these
building blocks of a theory are inconsistent with each other (e.g., a theory assumes
rationality, but some constructs represent non-rational concepts), then the theory is
a poor theory.
 Explanatory Power - How much does a given theory explain (or predict) reality?
Good theories obviously explain the target phenomenon better than rival theories
do as often measured by variance explained (R-squared) value in regression
equations.
 Falsifiability - Is a theory potentially disprovable? Falsifiability ensures that the
theory is potentially disprovable if empirical data do not match with theoretical
propositions, which allows for empirical testing by researchers. Falsifiability
requires the presence of rival explanations.
 Parsimony - How simple is the explanation? The simplest theory (i.e., one that uses
the smallest number of variables or makes the fewest assumptions) is the best.