GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS

OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASES

W O R K S H O P S UM MA R Y

Alison Mack, Rapporteur

Forum on Microbial Threats

Board on Global Health

Health and Medicine Division

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, NW Washington, DC 20001

Financial support for this activity was provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation;

American Society for Microbiology; Infectious Diseases Society of America; Johnson &

Johnson; MedImmune, Merck Company Foundation; Sanofi Pasteur; Skoll Global Threats
Fund; Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences; U.S. Department of Defense:

Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center, and Medical Research and Materiel Command;

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: National Institutes of Health, National
Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
and the Food and Drug Administration; U.S. Department of Homeland Security; U.S.
Agency for International Development; U.S. Department of Justice: Federal Bureau of
Investigation; and U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. Any opinions, findings, conclu­
sions, or recommendations presented in this publication do not necessarily reflect the
views of any organizations or agency that provided support for this activity.

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-37759-1

International Standard Book Number-10: 0-309-37759-5
Digital Object Identifier: 10.17226/21792

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Cover Credit: The cover image shows land surface temperature (LST) anomalies for
regions that experienced extreme droughts (hot and dry: red) and floods (cool and wet:
blue) during the 2010-2012 period overlaid on Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM)
shaded terrain model. Source: Data processing, analysis and interpretation: Jennifer Small,
Assaf Anyamba. This image was provided by Dr. Assaf Anyamba of the Universities Space
Research Association and NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, GIMMS Group.

Suggested citation: National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016.

Global Health Impacts of Vector-Borne Diseases: Workshop Summary. Washington, DC:
The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21792.
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 PLANNING COMMITTEE FOR THE WORKSHOP

ON VECTOR-BORNE DISEASES1

PETER DASZAK, EcoHealth Alliance, New York, New York

JACQUELINE FLETCHER, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater,
Oklahoma
JAMES M. HUGHES, Global Infectious Diseases Program, Emory
University, Atlanta, Georgia
RIMA KHABBAZ, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta,
Georgia
LONNIE J. KING, The Ohio State University, College of Veterinary Medicine,
Columbus, Ohio
MARY E. WILSON, Harvard School of Public Health, Harvard University,
Boston, Massachusetts

1 The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine’s planning committees are

solely responsible for organizing the workshop, identifying topics, and choosing speakers. The
responsibility for the published workshop summary rests with the workshop rapporteur and the
institution.

v
 FORUM ON MICROBIAL THREATS1

DAVID A. RELMAN (Chair), Stanford University, and Veterans Affairs

Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California
JAMES M. HUGHES (Vice Chair), Global Infectious Diseases Program,
Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
LONNIE J. KING (Vice Chair), The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
KEVIN ANDERSON, Biological and Chemical Defense Division, Science and
Technology Directorate, Department of Homeland Security, Washington, DC
ENRIQUETA C. BOND, Burroughs Wellcome Fund (Emeritus), QE
Philanthropic Advisors, Marshall, Virginia
LUCIANA BORIO, Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland
ROGER G. BREEZE, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore,
California
ARTURO CASADEVALL, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
ANDREW CLEMENTS, U.S. Agency for International Development,
Washington, DC
PETER DASZAK, EcoHealth Alliance, New York, New York
JEFFREY S. DUCHIN, Public Health–Seattle and King County, Seattle,
Washington
MARK B. FEINBERG, Merck Vaccine Division, Merck & Co., Inc., West
Point, Pennsylvania
JACQUELINE FLETCHER, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater,
Oklahoma
CLAIRE FRASER, Institute for Genome Sciences, University of Maryland
School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
JESSE L. GOODMAN, Georgetown University, Washington, DC
EDUARDO GOTUZZO, Instituto de Medicina Tropical–Alexander von
Humboldt, Universidad Peruaña Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
CAROLE A. HEILMAN, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious
Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
DAVID L. HEYMANN, Public Health England, London, United Kingdom
PHILIP HOSBACH, Sanofi Pasteur, Swiftwater, Pennsylvania
STEPHEN ALBERT JOHNSTON, Arizona BioDesign Institute, Arizona
State University, Tempe, Arizona
GERALD T. KEUSCH, Boston University School of Medicine and Boston
University School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts
RIMA F. KHABBAZ, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta,
Georgia

1 The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine’s forums and roundtables do

not issue, review, or approve individual documents. The responsibility for the published workshop
summary rests with the workshop rapporteur and the institution.

vi
MARK KORTEPETER, Uniformed Services University of the Health
Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland
STANLEY M. LEMON, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
MARGARET MCFALL-NGAI, University of Wisconsin—Madison,
Wisconsin
EDWARD MCSWEEGAN, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious
Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
PAULA J. OLSIEWSKI, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, New York, New York
STEPHEN OSTROFF,2 Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring,
Maryland
JULIE PAVLIN,3 Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center, Silver Spring,
Maryland
GEORGE POSTE, Complex Adaptive Systems Initiative, Arizona State
University, Scottsdale, Arizona
DAVID RIZZO, Department of Plant Pathology, University of California,
Davis
GARY A. ROSELLE, Veterans Health Administration, Department of
Veterans Affairs, Cincinnati, Ohio
KEVIN RUSSELL,4 Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center, Silver Spring,
Maryland
JANET SHOEMAKER, American Society for Microbiology, Washington, DC
JAY P. SIEGEL, Johnson & Johnson, Radnor, Pennsylvania
MARY E. WILSON, Harvard School of Public Health, Harvard University,
Boston, Massachusetts
EDWARD H. YOU, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Washington, DC

HMD Staff
EILEEN CHOFFNES, Scholar and Forum Director (until November 2015)
GURU MADHAVAN, Acting Forum Director (until May 2016)
V. AYANO OGAWA, Associate Program Officer (from November 2015)

DAVID GARRISON, Senior Program Assistant (from January 2016)

KATHERINE MCCLURE, Associate Program Officer (until July 2015)

REBEKAH HUTTON, Research Associate (until July 2015)

PRIYANKA NALAMADA, Senior Program Assistant (until March 2015)

JOANNA ROBERTS, Senior Program Assistant (until July 2015)

CARMEN MUNDACA-SHAH, Forum Director (from May 2016)

PATRICK KELLEY, Director, Board on Global Health (until August 2016)

2 Until March 2015.

3 Until April 2015.

4 Until April 2015.

vii
 Reviewers

This workshop summary has been reviewed in draft form by individuals

chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise. The purpose of this
independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the
institution in making its published workshop summary as sound as possible and
to ensure that the workshop summary meets institutional standards for objectivity,
evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft
manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the process. We wish
to thank the following individuals for their review of this workshop summary:

Jacqueline Fletcher, Oklahoma State University

Rima Khabbaz, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Dirk Pfeiffer, The Royal Veterinary College
David Rizzo, University of California, Davis

Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive com­
ments and suggestions, they did not see the final draft of the workshop summary
before its release. The review of this workshop summary was overseen by Melvin
Worth. He was responsible for making certain that an independent examination
of this workshop summary was carried out in accordance with institutional pro­
cedures and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility
for the final content of this workshop summary rests entirely with the rapporteur
and the institution.

ix
 Preface

The Forum on Emerging Infections was created in 1996 in response to a

request from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the National
Institutes of Health. The purpose of the forum is to provide structured opportuni­
ties for leaders from government, academia, and industry to regularly meet and
examine issues of shared concern regarding research, prevention, detection, and
management of emerging, reemerging, and novel infectious diseases in humans,
plants, and animals. In pursuing this task, the forum provides a venue to foster
the exchange of information and ideas, identify areas in need of greater attention,
clarify policy issues by enhancing knowledge and identifying points of agree­
ment, and inform decision makers about science and policy issues. The forum
seeks to illuminate issues rather than resolve them. For this reason, it does not
provide advice or recommendations on any specific policy initiative pending
before any agency or organization. Its value derives instead from the diversity
of its membership and from the contributions that individual members make
throughout the activities of the forum. In September 2003, the forum changed its
name to the Forum on Microbial Threats.

xi
 Acknowledgments

The Forum on Microbial Threats wishes to express its sincere appreciation

to the individuals and organizations who contributed their valuable time to pro­
vide information and advice to the forum. Their participation in the planning and
execution of this workshop made it greater than the sum of its parts. A full list
of presenters, and their biographical information, may be found in Appendix E.
The forum gratefully acknowledges the contributions of the members of
the planning committee. We would also like to thank the following Academies
staff—past and present—and consultants for their invaluable contributions to this
activity: Clyde Behney, Chelsea Frakes, Greta Gorman, Faye Hillman, Alison
Mack, Khaki McClure, and Bettina Ritter, among others.
Finally, the forum wishes to recognize and profusely thank the sponsors (see
page ii) that supported this activity and made it possible.

xiii
 Contents

Workshop Overview 1
References, 79

Appendixes

A Contributed Manuscripts
A1 Emerging Insect-Transmitted Plant Diseases:

The Bacterium Xylella fastidiosa as a Case Study, 91

Rodrigo P. P. Almeida and L. Nunney

A2 Genetic Control of Aedes Mosquitoes, 106

Luke Alphey, Andrew McKemey, Derric Nimmo, Marco Neira
Oviedo, Renaud Lacroix, Kelly Matzen, and Camilla Beech
A3 The Intensifying Storm: Domestication of Aedes aegypti,

Urbanization of Arboviruses, and Emerging Insecticide

Resistance, 126
Barry J. Beaty, William C. Black IV, Lars Eisen,

Adriana E. Flores, Julián E. García-Rejón, María Loroño-Pino,

and Karla Saavedra-Rodriguez

A4 Dengue, Chikungunya, and Other Vector-Borne Diseases (VBDs):

Surveillance and Response in Latin America and the Caribbean:
The Role of the Pan American Health Organization, 161
Luis Gerardo Castellanos
A5 Vector-Borne Diseases: Animals and Patterns, 167
Margot Stuchin, Catherine C. Machalaba, William B. Karesh

xv
xvi CONTENTS

A6 Drivers, Dynamics, and Control of Emerging Vector-Borne

Zoonotic Diseases, 182
A. Marm Kilpatrick and Sarah E. Randolph
A7 Climate Teleconnections, Weather Extremes, and Vector-Borne
Disease Outbreaks, 202
Kenneth J. Linthicum, Assaf Anyamba, Seth C. Britch,
Jennifer L. Small, and Compton J. Tucker
A8 Changing Paradigms for Tick-Borne Diseases in the Americas, 221
Christopher D. Paddock, Robert S. Lane, J. Erin Staples, and
Marcelo B. Labruna
A9 Emerging Vector-Borne Diseases in the United States:
What Is Next, and Are We Prepared?, 258
Lyle R. Petersen, Roger S. Nasci, Charles B. Beard, and
Robert F. Massung
A10 Arbovirus Evolution, Vector Competence, and Virulence Models—
Changing Patterns of Infection, 285
Corey W. Hecksel and Rebecca Rico-Hesse
A11 Vector-Borne Disease Emergence and Spread in the
European Union, 329
Jan C. Semenza
A12 Disruption of Insect Transmission of Plant Viruses,
Anna E. Whitfield and Dorith Rotenberg

B Agenda 347
C Acronyms 351
D Glossary 353
E Speaker Biographies 363
 Boxes, Figures, and Tables

BOXES
WO-1 Drivers of Emergence for Vector-Borne Pathogens, 8
WO-2 West Nile and Chikungunya Common Threads, 76

A6-1 Key Messages, 183

A6-2 Climate Change and Vector-Borne Disease, 192

FIGURES
WO-1 Vector-borne disease transmission: Humans as incidental hosts, 4
WO-2 Major taxonomic groups of pathogens causing plant emerging
infectious diseases, 7
WO-3 Key influences on vector-borne plant diseases, 7
WO-4 Epidemiological effects of urbanization and environmental
change, 9
WO-5 Average annual incidence of WNV severe neurological disease by
county, United States, 1999–2013, 12
WO-6 Distribution of key tick-borne diseases, 2012, 13
WO-7 Dengue incidence is rapidly increasing in the Americas, 14
WO-8 Chikungunya in the Americas and in the Western Hemisphere, 15
WO-9 Conceptual model of the socioecological relationships between
invasive species, farmer responses, pathogen spread, and
conventionalization of organic agriculture, 24
WO-10 EID drivers and plausible scenarios, 39

xvii
xviii BOXES, FIGURES AND TABLES

WO-11 ELC funding support for West Nile virus surveillance and
number of people with West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease,
2000–2012, 42
WO-12 Summary correlation map between monthly NINO3.4 SST and
rainfall anomalies, 1979–2008, 50
WO-13 Global sea surface temperature anomalies for April 2015
expressed in degrees Celsius with respect to the 1982–2014 base
mean period, 51
WO-14 Potential El Niño regional teleconnections with patterns of vector-
borne disease, rodent-borne disease, water-borne disease, and
environment-linked respiratory illness patterns, 52
WO-15 Anthropogenic processes that facilitate the introduction
and establishment of novel pathogens and increase their
transmission, 53
WO-16 Influence of temperature fluctuation on larval development and
survival of Anopheles stephensi, 56
WO-17 Vector density, herd immunity, and dengue transmission, 64
WO-18 Aedes aegypti feeding on a human, 65
WO-19 Classifying genetic control strategies, 70
WO-20 Vaccines against vector-borne diseases with potential for introduction
and spread into the United States, 75
WO-21 Chikungunya vaccine competitive landscape, 2014, 78

A3-1 Dengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever and shock syndrome in
Mexico, 134
A3-2 Breeding structure of Aedes aegypti in Mexico and the United
States, 137
A3-3 Infection rates of Aedes aegypti populations after per os challenge
with DENV-2 JAM 1409 virus, 138
A3-4 Dengue 2 American-Asian genotype viruses disseminate in Aedes
aegypti much more efficiently than an American genotype virus, 139
A3-5 DENV-2 American and American-Asian genotype viruses differ in
3’UTR sequences, 140
A3-6 Percentages of tested pools of Ae. aegypti females with dengue virus
RNA from different environments in Mérida schools during 2008
and 2009, 143
A3-7 Model of dengue epidemiology in Mexico—intradomiciliary and
extradomiciliary transmission cycles, 144
A3-8 Voltage-gated sodium channel kdr alleles in Aedes aegypti, 148
A3-9 Recent rapid rise of a permethrin kdr allele in Aedes aegypti in
Mexico, 149
BOXES, FIGURES AND TABLES xix

A5-1 Temporal patterns of select vector-borne disease emergence, 170

A5-2 Scaled number of zoonotic EID events, 171
A5-3 Basic reproduction number (R0) for Schmallenberg virus in (a) cattle
and (b) sheep, indicating a temperature-dependent relationship, 172
A5-4 Changes in WNV surveillance as of 2013 reported by 50 states and
6 county or city CDC-funded jurisdictions, 174
A5-5 Nonhuman (avian, sentinel, and veterinary) reported WNV infections
for 2003 and 2014, 175
A5-6 Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi) seroprevalence in dogs 2001–
2007 and 2010–2012, 176
A5-7 Annual costs per head of different tick-borne diseases in cattle
systems, 178

A6-1 Temporal patterns of reported cases for selected introduced vector-

borne pathogens and endemic or long-established diseases, 186
A6-2 The global aviation network, 187
A6-3 Interactions between economic status and disease risk, 190
A6-4 Seasonal patterns of tick-borne encephalitis cases and abundance of
questing nymphal ticks (Ixodes ricinus), 191

A7-1 Land surface temperature (LST) anomaly extremes composites for

June, July, and August 2010–2012 for various regions associated
with vector-borne diseases including West Nile virus disease
[WNV] (USA), Rift Valley fever [RVF] (Southern Africa), dengue
(East Africa), Murray Valley encephalitis [MVE], Kunjin, malaria
(Australia), and environment-linked respiratory illnesses (Russia), 203
A7-2 Summary map showing the correlation between monthly NINO3.4
sea surface temperatures (SSTs) and rainfall anomalies (1979 to
2008), 204
A7-3 Cumulative daily rainfall profiles for periods of Rift Valley fever
activity for selected outbreak sites in Africa, 206
A7-4 A-Left: Cumulative rainfall anomalies associated with Rift Valley
fever outbreaks for East Africa (September 2006–December 2006),
Sudan (June 2007–September 2007), Southern Africa (October
2007–April 2008, October 2008–April 2009, October 2009–April
2010, October 2010–April 2011), and Madagascar (October 2007–
November 2008); B-Right: Corresponding map depicting location of
RVF case reports from 2006 to 2011, 208
A7-5 Distribution of chikungunya outbreaks (2004–2010) in relation to
human population density, 210
A7-6 Frequency distributions of chikungunya outbreak events and 4-month
cumulative temperature anomalies for East Africa (A), Central Africa
(B), South Asia (C), and Southeast Asia (D), 211
xx BOXES, FIGURES AND TABLES

A7-7 Frequency distributions of chikungunya outbreak events and 4-month

cumulative precipitation anomalies in East Africa (A), Central Africa
(B), South Asia (C), and Southeast Asia (D), 212
A7-8 Global distribution of epidemics/epizootics of mosquito-borne
disease outbreaks during 2010–2012 associated with weather
extremes, showing the outbreak locations of West Nile virus disease
(United States, 2012), dengue (East Africa, 2011), Rift Valley fever
(Southern Africa, 2011), and Murray Valley encephalitis (Australia,
2011), 213
A7-9 Distribution of land surface temperature (LST) and normalized
difference vegetation index (NDVI) during periods of disease
outbreaks in selected regions, 214
A7-10 Potential El Niño regional teleconnections with patterns of vector-
borne disease, rodent-borne disease, water-borne disease, and
environment-linked respiratory illness patterns, 217

A8-1 Reported cases of spotted fever group rickettsioses (including Rocky

Mountain spotted fever, Rickettsia parkeri rickettsiosis, and 364D
rickettsiosis), ehrlichioses (including Ehrlichia chaffeensis, Ehrlichia
ewingii, and Ehrlichia muris-like ehrlichioses), and anaplasmosis in
the United States, 2000–2013, 224
A8-2 Reported cases of Lyme disease in the United States, 2000–2013, 225
A8-3 Reported cases of Powassan virus disease in the United States,
2000–2013, 225
A8-4 Reported cases of laboratory-confirmed Brazilian spotted fever in
São Paulo State, Brazil, 1985–2012, 226
A8-5 A. Electron photomicrograph of Heartland virus in cell culture. B.
Immunohistochemical staining of Heartland virus antigens in the
spleen of a patient who died in 2004, 233
A8-6 Borrelia burgdorferi spirochete identified by using Warthin-Starry
silver impregnation technique in heart tissue of a patient with sudden
cardiac death, 234

A9-1 Two general patterns of mosquito-borne arboviral disease

transmission, 260
A9-2 Average West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease incidence, by county,
1999–2014, 261
A9-3 West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease incidence, by year, 1999–
2013, United States, 262
A9-4 Incidence of ehrlichiosis and anaplasmosis (Eh/An), Rocky Mountain
spotted fever (RMSF), and babesia, 2004–2013, United States, 265
A9-5 Reported cases of Lyme disease, 1996–2013, 265
A9-6 Distributions of key tick-borne diseases, 2013, 266
BOXES, FIGURES AND TABLES xxi

A9-7 Cases of Lyme disease in 1996 and 2013, 267

A10-1 Phylogenetic tree of selected DENV-2 strains, using complete E gene

sequences, and representatives of the other three serotypes to root the
tree, 289
A10-2 DENV infectivity and output in human dendritic cells, 292
A10-3 Predicted folding patterns of the 3’UTR of DENV-2 viruses
representing each of the four genotypes, shown in order of
complexity, with many pseudoknots predicted for the first two, 293
A10-4 Preparation of humanized mice, using umbilical cord blood
hematopoietic stem cells (CB-hu-mice), and methods of infection
with DENV, 295
A10-5 Comparison of viremia levels in humanized mice (CB-hu-mice)
infected by inoculation of approximately six logs PFU of eight
different viruses, representing the four genotypes of DENV-2, 296
A10-6 Comparison of viremias (measured by RNA equivalents in serum, by
quantitative RT-PCR) in CB-hu-mice infected with DENV-2, strain
K0049, by each of two routes, 297
A10-7 Vectorial capacity of field-collected (McAllen, Texas) Aedes aegypti
mosquitoes for viruses belonging to the SE Asian genotype and
American genotype of DENV-2, 299
A10-8 Chikungunya virion and glycoprotein structures, including sites of
purported biological activities, 302
A10-9 Preparation of humanized mice, using fetal tissues and hematopoietic
stem cells (BLT-hu-mice: bone marrow, liver, and thymus), and
methods of infection with DENV or CHIKV, 303

A11-1 Number of observed infectious disease threat events (IDTEs) in

relation to number of drivers for each IDTE group, Europe, 2008-
2013, 310
A11-2 European Environment and Epidemiology (E3) Network, 312
A11-3 E3 geoportal of the European Environment and Epidemiology (E3)
Network, 313
A11-4 European Environment and Epidemiology (E3) Network, 314
A11-5 Areas latently hospitable and environmentally permissive for
persistent malaria transmission, Greece, 2009–2012, 316
A11-6 Distribution of WNF cases by affected areas, European region and
Mediterranean basin, 318
A11-7 Map of predicted probability of WNV infection based on
environmental predictors, Europe and neighbouring countries, 2012
and 2013, 320
A11-8 Country-level destination of international air travellers from dengue-
affected areas, by month, 2010, 322
xxii BOXES, FIGURES AND TABLES

A11-9 Airport-level final destination of international travellers from

dengue-affected areas by quarter for 2010, overlaid with the presence
of Ae. albopictus, 2010, 323

A12-1 The transmission cycle for insect-borne plant viruses, 330

A12-2 Viruses localize to different sites in the plant-feeding insect vector
depending on their modes of transmission, 331

TABLES
A3-1 Aedes aegypti—Behavioral and Biological Factors Contributing to
the Extraordinary Vectorial Capacity for Arboviruses, 129
A3-2 Ae. aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus Females in Dengue Patient
Homes, 141
A3-3 The Critical Epidemiological Need to Control Aedes aegypti in the
Indoor Environment, 142
A3-4 Proper Usage of Insecticide-Treated Curtains Reduces the Number of
DENV-Infected Aedes aegypti Females Detected in Homes, 145
A3-5 Homes with Insecticide-Treated Curtains Experience Fewer Multiple
Human DENV Infections (Reduced Intradomiciliary Transmission)
Than Homes with Nontreated Curtains, 145
A3-6 Temporal Increase in kdr in Aedes aegypti in Mérida City, 150
A3-7 Consumer Usage of Mosquito Control Products in Homes, 151

A5-1 Vector-Borne NIAID Priority Pathogens, 168

A6-1 Important Pathogen Threats for Introduction into New Regions and
Range Extensions within Endemic Regions, and Probable Sources
and Pathways for Introduction, 185

A7-1 Total Season Rainfall, Long-Term Means, and Anomalies for

Selected Periods from 2006 to 2011 Extracted from the Global
Precipitation Climatology Project, 209

A8-1 Tick-Borne Pathogens Affecting Humans in the Western

Hemisphere, 222
A8-2 Comparison of Selected Signs and Symptoms Reported for Patients
with Laboratory-Confirmed Brazilian Spotted Fever in the States of
São Paulo and Santa Catarina, Brazil, During 2003–2006, 230
A8-3 Candidate Tick-Borne Pathogens in the Western Hemisphere, 243
BOXES, FIGURES AND TABLES xxiii

A9-1 Capacities and Needs Required to Prepare for and Respond to

Vector-Borne Diseases in the United States, 272

A12-1 A Summary of Strategies Used to Disrupt Plant Virus–Vector

Interactions, 333

 Workshop Overview

GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASES1

Pathogens transmitted among humans, animals, or plants by insects and
arthropod vectors have been responsible for significant morbidity and mortality
throughout recorded history. Such vector-borne diseases—including malaria,
dengue, yellow fever, plague, trypanosomiasis, and leishmaniasis—together ac­
counted for more human disease and death in the 17th through early 20th cen­
turies than all other causes combined (Gubler, 1998). By the mid-20th century,
implementation of strategies to reduce populations of the mosquitoes that spread
malaria, yellow fever, and dengue effectively reduced the impact of these diseases
on human health—albeit temporarily.
Over the past three decades, previously controlled vector-borne diseases
have resurged or reemerged in new geographic locations, and several newly
identified pathogens and vectors have triggered disease outbreaks in plants and
animals, including humans. A variety of factors underlie this trend among emerg­
ing vector-borne diseases, including

• The rapid expansion of global travel and trade, enabling the geographic
spread of pathogens, vectors, and animals that serve as so-called reser­
voirs2 of disease;
1 The planning committee’s role was limited to planning the workshop, and the workshop sum­

mary has been prepared by the workshop rapporteur as a factual summary of what occurred at the
workshop. Statements, recommendations, and opinions expressed are those of individual presenters
and participants, and are not necessarily endorsed or verified by the National Academies of Sciences,
Engineering, and Medicine, and they should not be construed as reflecting any group consensus.
2 Defined in glossary, Appendix D.

2 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

• Recent, unprecedented, population growth associated with rampant and

unplanned urbanization in the tropics, and the resulting increased juxta­
position of humans, animal reservoirs of pathogens, and vector species in
geographically constrained environments;
• Societal, cultural, and behavioral practices that encourage disease trans­
mission; and
• Decreased support for and deterioration of the public health surveillance
and control infrastructure for infectious diseases in general, and specifi­
cally for vector-borne and zoonotic diseases.

Domestic and international capabilities to detect, identify, and effectively

respond to vector-borne diseases are limited. Few vaccines have been developed
against vector-borne pathogens. At the same time, drug resistance has increased
in vector-borne pathogens while their vectors are increasingly resistant to insec­
ticide controls. Furthermore, the ranks of scientists trained to conduct research in
key fields including medical entomology, vector ecology, and tropical medicine
have dwindled, threatening prospects for addressing vector-borne diseases now
and in the future.
In June 2007, as these circumstances became alarmingly apparent, the Forum
on Microbial Threats hosted a workshop to explore the dynamic relationships
among host, pathogen(s), vector(s), and ecosystems that characterize vector-
borne diseases. Revisiting this topic in September 2014, the forum examined
trends and patterns in the incidence and prevalence of vector-borne diseases in
an increasingly interconnected and ecologically disturbed world, as well as re­
cent developments to meet these dynamic threats. This public workshop featured
invited presentations and discussions that described the emergence and global
movement of vector-borne diseases, considered research priorities for under­
standing their biology and ecology, and assessed global preparedness for and
progress toward their prevention, control, and mitigation.
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 3

WORKSHOP CONTEXT

Disease Burden

Vector-borne diseases3 have long been associated with significant human

illness and death. Over half the world’s human populations are currently at
risk from vector-borne infections, which collectively account for 17 percent of
the human global infectious disease burden (CDC, 2014d). In April 2014, the
World Health Organization (WHO) devoted its annual World Health Day to
vector-borne illnesses, issuing a global brief that profiled key diseases and their
individual and collective impacts (WHO, 2014a). In her foreword to this report,
WHO Director-General Margaret Chan noted that vector-borne illnesses caused
more than one million deaths each year, but that “death counts, though alarming,
vastly underestimate the human misery and hardship caused by these diseases, as
many people who survive infection are left permanently debilitated, disfigured,
maimed, or blind.” These burdens are borne most heavily by the world’s poorest
people, communities, and countries.
Explosive epidemics have marked the recent resurgence of several previ­
ously controlled vector-borne diseases, including plague, dengue, and yellow fe­
ver. Less sensational—but equally destructive—infectious, vector-borne disease
outbreaks in plants, domestic animals, and wildlife have disrupted ecosystems
and reduced agricultural productivity. In addition to these acute impacts, persis­
tent vector-borne diseases impose a significant burden on plant, animal, and hu­
man health and are an impediment to socioeconomic development (IOM, 2008).
This is exacerbated by the chronic or long-term effects of diseases including
West Nile viral fever, dengue, chikungunya, and Chagas disease, which have also
been associated with chronic or long-term sequelae (Garcia et al., 2011, 2014;
Montgomery et al., 2014; Murray et al., 2014; Schilte et al., 2013).

3 A disease that is transmitted to humans, plants, or animals by an insect or other arthropod (see

next footnote) is called a vector-borne disease. (Plant pathologists refer to these as vector-associated
diseases.) From the perspective of infectious diseases, vectors—which can be either living (biologi­
cal) or nonliving (mechanical)—are the transmitters of disease-causing organisms; that is, they carry
pathogens from one host to another. By common usage, vectors are considered to be invertebrate
animals, usually arthropods. A broader definition of vector-borne disease recognizes that other animals
can serve in the role of infectious disease vector by harboring pathogens that cause disease only in
susceptible populations. These include invertebrates other than arthropods (e.g., snails, in the case of
schistosomiasis), rodents (which spread a variety of viral diseases, including hantavirus pulmonary
syndrome), fungi, plants, and even humans (in the case of sudden oak death), who may also serve as
vectors for a variety of plant diseases (IOM, 2008).
4 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE WO-1 Vector-borne disease transmission: Humans as incidental hosts.

SOURCE: As presented by Lyle Petersen on September 16, 2014.

Vectors and Pathogens

As illustrated in Figure WO-1, many vector-borne pathogens (viruses, bac­
teria, fungi, and parasites) are transmitted among and between their primary and
incidental hosts by arthropods such as mosquitoes, ticks, biting flies, and aphids.4
These pathogens include the mosquito-borne protozoans (Plasmodium spp.)
that cause malaria5 and the tick-borne parasite that causes babesiosis, Babesia
microti; the newly described beetle-borne fungus, Geosmithia morbida, that
causes thousand canker disease of black walnut trees6; the tick-borne bacterium

4 Arthropods (members of the phylum Arthropoda) are invertebrates with jointed limbs, segmented

bodies, and exoskeletons made of chitin. They include insects, spiders, crustaceans (e.g., shrimp,
lobsters), and centipedes.
5 There are many different types of plasmodium parasite, but only five types cause malaria in

humans. These are

• Plasmodium falciparum—Mainly found in Africa, it is the most common type of malaria
parasite and is responsible for most malaria deaths worldwide.
• Plasmodium vivax—Mainly found in Asia and South America, this parasite causes milder
symptoms than P. falciparum, but it can stay in the liver for up to 3 years, which can result
in relapses.
• Plasmodium ovale—Fairly uncommon and usually found in West Africa, it can remain in the
liver for several years without producing symptoms.
• Plasmodium malariae—This rare species is usually found only in Africa.
• Plasmodium knowlesi—This very rare species is found in parts of South East Asia.
Source: http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Malaria/Pages/Causes.aspx (accessed March 25, 2016).
6 See http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/seybold/psw_2010_seybold008(tisserat).pdf (accessed

March 25, 2016).

WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 5

that causes Lyme disease, Borrelia burgdorferi; and the mosquito-borne West
Nile and dengue viruses.
The arthropod-borne viruses, or arboviruses, are the largest class of vector-
borne human pathogens. More than 500 arboviruses have been described, of
which about 100 are known to cause diseases that include dengue, chikungunya,
and several types of encephalitis (Gray and Banerjee, 1999; Gubler, 1998; Weaver
and Reisen, 2010). Arboviruses circulate among wild animals, and many can be
transmitted to humans and agriculturally important domestic animals through
a process known as spillover (Weaver and Reisen, 2010). Infectious disease
outbreaks resulting from such spillover events include epidemics of West Nile
viral fever in the United States and of Rift Valley fever in Africa and the Middle
East. Arthropod vectors also transmit most identified plant viruses (Hogenhout et
al., 2008), as well as several important fungal and bacterial pathogens of plants
(Fletcher and Wayadande, 2002; Gergerich and Dolja, 2006; Weintraub and
Beanland, 2006).
Vector–pathogen relationships are central to the epidemiologies of many
important plant diseases (Gergerich and Dolja, 2006; Purcell, 1982; Weintraub
and Beanland, 2006). While only certain bacterial pathogens of plants require a
vector for transmission, most plant viruses are spread from infected to healthy
plants via a plant-feeding arthropod, nematode, or plant-parasitic fungus. Even
humans appear to serve as vectors of plant disease. Sudden oak death, an emer­
gent pathogen that has caused widespread dieback of several tree species in
West Coast forests, has been spread to new areas by hikers, mountain bikers, and
equestrians (COMTF, 2013). With sudden oak death, asymptomatic plants are
actually the more important vectors.
Several important bacterial pathogens are delivered directly into plants’
sugar-transporting phloem or water-transporting xylem networks by insects that
feed on plant vascular fluids (Fletcher and Wayadande, 2002). These unusual
pathogens and their multiple hosts provide fascinating examples of complex webs
of organismal interactions. They include

• Spiroplasmas and phytoplasmas, which are tiny bacteria transmitted

mainly by leafhopper insects. Pathogenic strains cause more than 700
distinct plant diseases, including corn stunt, coconut lethal yellowing, and
pear decline (ARS, 2013; Fletcher and Wayadande, 2002; Weintraub and
Beanland, 2006).
• Fastidious phloem-colonizing bacteria, so called because they cannot
be consistently cultivated from infected hosts (which include species of
herbaceous plants, trees, vegetables, fruits, grains, and ornamental plants)
(Fletcher and Wayadande, 2002). Diseases caused by this group include
citrus greening, which causes major losses in Asia and Africa and has
been introduced recently into the United States, and cucurbit yellow vine.
6 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

• Fastidious xylem-limited bacteria, transmitted by xylem-feeding sharp­

shooter insects and spittle bugs. The best studied among these pathogens,
Xylella fastidiosa, causes economically important damage in a wide range
of plant hosts. In grapevines, it causes Pierce’s disease, a significant threat
to California’s table grape and wine industries (Fletcher and Wayadande,
2002; NRC, 2004).

Viral infections of plants, such as the Citrus tristeza virus, stunt growth,
lower yield, reduce fruit quality, and thereby diminish agricultural productiv­
ity (Gergerich and Dolja, 2006). Aphids transmit Barley yellow dwarf virus,
the most widely distributed viral disease of cereals, among oats, wheat, maize,
triticale, and rice (Miller and Rascochova, 1997). Aphids also spread plum pox,
a severe disease of stone fruit trees that is easily spread from orchard to orchard
(Damsteegt et al., 2007).
As winters become warmer in northern latitudes, more bacterial and fungal
pathogens will likely survive through the winter, which may lead to more severe
plant diseases, and increases in their geographic range. A shift in climate may
also influence host resistance and growth, resulting in lowered resistance to
fungal and viral diseases in plants (Harvell et al., 2002). Figure WO-2 illustrates
major taxonomic pathogen groups causing emerging infectious disease in plants.
According to Harvell et al. (2002), if climate change modifies host or pathogen
geographic ranges, formerly separate species could converge, resulting in more
severe disease outbreaks.

Ecology and Evolution

Vector-borne pathogen transmission occurs when host, vector, and patho­
gen interact in space and time within a permissive environment, as illustrated
in Figure WO-3. Several environmental components (e.g., vegetation, climate,
geology) may define the geographic area within which transmission takes place
for a particular vector–host–pathogen system (Reisen, 2010).
Speaker Rodrigo Almeida (see Appendix A1), of the University of California,
Berkeley, dissected the ecological complexity of vector-borne diseases into the
following layers: the environment; the individual ecologies of pathogen, vector,
and host; the outcome of their various interactions; and the effects of disease
management. Local variation in the interplay among ecological forces shap­
ing vector-borne diseases may produce dramatic shifts in disease transmission
dynamics.
Similarly, several speakers described the effects of pathogen, vector, and host
evolution on the transmission of West Nile viral fever, dengue, and chikungunya,
among other vector-borne diseases.
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 7

FIGURE WO-2 Major taxonomic groups of pathogens causing plant emerging infectious
diseases: (a) viruses, fungi, and bacteria cause the most emerging infectious diseases in
plants; (b) introduction of pathogens causes the most plant emerging infectious diseases;
(c, d, and e) factors cited as the cause of disease emergence for bacteria (c), fungi (d), and
viruses (e). The percentage of plant emerging infectious disease driven by introduction
declines proportionately with the size of the pathogen (highest for viruses and lowest for
fungi). Weather conditions, although major drivers of bacterial and fungal plant diseases,
do not have as much impact on diseases caused by viruses.
SOURCE: Anderson et al., 2004. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.

FIGURE WO-3 Key influences on vector-borne plant diseases.

SOURCE: Reisen, 2010. Reproduced with permission of Annual Review of Entomology,

Volume 55, © by Annual Reviews, http://www.annualreviews.org.

8 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

Epidemics and Emergence

Emerging infectious diseases are caused by pathogens that (1) have in­
creased in incidence, geographic, or host range (Funk et al., 2013); (2) have
altered capabilities for pathogenesis; (3) have newly evolved; or (4) have been
discovered or newly recognized (Anderson et al., 2004; Daszak et al., 2000;
IOM, 1992). Recent epidemics of vector-borne disease have arisen from specific
conditions occurring within the context of the large-scale drivers of infectious
disease emergence listed in Box WO-1. Local surges in vector density, as well as
increased vector competence—a measure of a given vector’s intrinsic capacity to
be infected by a pathogen, to replicate it, and to transmit it—fuel outbreaks (see
Kilpatrick and Randolph in Appendix A6). Epidemics have also arisen in naïve
host populations, whose exposure to vector-borne diseases has increased with the
globalization of travel and trade, and with the decline of vector control efforts.
For viruses such as the West Nile virus (WNV) and dengue virus (DENV)
that have recently expanded their geographic range, increased transmission has
driven selection for strains with greater epidemic potential, while increased gene
flow among vector populations has been associated with higher viral transmission
rates. Figure WO-4 depicts the confluence of multiple drivers of vector-borne
disease emergence in humans, all of which were explored in detail in the forum’s
initial workshop on vector-borne diseases (IOM, 2008).
Many of these same factors, in particular the global expansion of travel and
trade, have driven the emergence of vector-borne plant diseases. Speaker Anna
Whitfield, of Kansas State University, noted many similarities among vector-borne
diseases of plants, animals, and humans, and in the health and research challenges

BOX WO-1
Drivers of Emergence for Vector-Borne Pathogens

• Globalization
o Pathogen introduction
o Vector introduction
o Host introduction
• Land use change
o Agriculture and urbanization
o Community ecology and transmission dynamics
• Climate and climate change
• Evolution
o Pathogens, vectors, hosts

SOURCE: As presented by Marm Kilpatrick on September 17, 2014.

WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 9

FIGURE WO-4 Epidemiological effects of urbanization and environmental change.

SOURCE: Adapted from Wilcox and Gubler (2005) with permission from the Japanese
Society for Hygiene.

they present (see Appendix A12). She described several emerging vector-borne
plant diseases that threaten U.S. agriculture and horticulture, including

• Citrus greening disease, also known as huanglongbing, is caused by the

bacterium Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus, which is transmitted by an
invasive insect, the Asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri). Since its first
appearance in Florida in 1998, it has become a major threat to that state’s
citrus crop, and it has spread across the southern continental United States
to California, as well as to Hawaii and Mexico (University of California
Agriculture and Natural Resources, 2013).
• An entirely new genus of viruses, Emaravirus, of which all known mem­
bers are transmitted by eriophyid mites, infects a broad variety of plants
including roses typically thought to be pest resistant, raspberries, pigeon-
pea, and the European mountain ash (Mielke-Ehret and Muhlbach, 2012).
• The soybean vein necrosis virus, transmitted by thrips, was first reported
in Arkansas and Tennessee in 2008. Soybean vein necrosis is now the
most widespread viral disease of soybeans in the United States (Zhou and
Tzanetakis, 2013).
10 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

Recent Developments
The vast and complex challenges identified in the forum’s 2007 workshop
on vector-borne diseases continue to preoccupy researchers and policy makers
(IOM, 2008). However, the field has undergone considerable change in the in­
tervening years. In its fall 2014 workshop, the forum chose to highlight recent
developments in the identification, emergence, and transmission of vector-borne
diseases, as well as the public health response to vector-borne infections; ad­
vances in our understanding of the epidemiology and ecology of vector-borne
diseases; and new insights on mitigating their effects. All of these topics, of
course, raised further questions to be explored.

OVERVIEWS: VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE IN

HUMANS, PLANTS, AND ANIMALS

The workshop opened with three presentations examining vector-borne dis­

ease systems that affect humans, plants, and animals. Speakers described dynamic
interactions among pathogens, vectors, hosts, and their ecosystems, relating them
to historic patterns of disease and patterns of emergence. Speakers also reviewed
efforts to halt vector-borne diseases, considered possible future initiatives, and
predicted possible future transmission patterns.

Emerging Human Mosquito- and Tick-Borne Diseases

Speaker Lyle Petersen from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) focused on mosquito- and tick-borne diseases that posed the greatest
threat to the health of the U.S. population. Many of these pathogens are transmit­
ted primarily among other animal species (reservoir hosts). For example, primates
are the natural reservoir hosts of DENV (Bean et al., 2013) and chikungunya
virus (CHIKV), and there is evidence that some animals, including nonprimates,
such as rodents, birds, and small mammals, may also act as reservoirs for CHIKV
(WHO, 2014b).

Vector-Borne Diseases of Concern in the United States

Humans are incidental hosts for most mosquito-borne viruses including
WNV, as well as for tick-borne pathogens, which include Borrelia burgdorferi
(the bacterial cause of Lyme disease), the recently discovered Heartland virus,7
and parasites of the genus Babesia (the agents of babesiosis). All such diseases

7 Heartland virus belongs to a family of viruses called Phleboviruses. Viruses in this family are

found all over the world. Some of these viruses can cause people to get sick. Most of the phlebovi­
ruses that cause people to become ill are passed through the bite of a mosquito, tick, or sandfly. http://
www.cdc.gov/ncezid/dvbd/heartland/ (accessed on October 5, 2015).
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 11

feature “incredibly complex” transmission cycles, and when herd immunity8

within the animal reservoirs becomes important in slowing transmission, it is of­
ten transient, Petersen observed. Mosquito-borne diseases that incidentally infect
humans may amplify quickly in response to any of a wide spectrum of factors
that are difficult to anticipate far in advance, he continued (see Petersen et al. in
Appendix A9). By contrast, pathogens amplify gradually in the longer-lived tick,
producing more predictable transmission patterns. Such “slow burn” epidemics
tend to garner little public attention in comparison to dramatic, sporadic out­
breaks of mosquito-borne illness, he pointed out.
WNV, which first emerged in the United States as a human pathogen in 1999,
is a prototypic arbovirus for which people serve as incidental hosts, according to
Petersen. “It had to be brought in [to this country] by man, probably by importa­
tion of an infected animal,” he said. “I think it is also important that it emerged
during a heat wave,” he added, because heat has been shown to increase the
transmission efficiency of WNV by increasing concentrations of WNV in vector
mosquitoes and shortening the time between an infected blood meal and when
they become infectious (extrinsic incubation period). Evolution has also played
a significant role: the emergent strain featured a key mutation that increased
transmissibility, which was further improved by a second mutation in a replace­
ment strain that arose in 2002. In addition, he explained, “There is continued co-
evolution both in birds [the reservoir host for WNV] and in the virus, where birds
are becoming less susceptible to illness and death following infection, but at the
same time, the viruses may be becoming more virulent by creating higher viremia
in birds. So, in essence, it is an arms race between the host and the pathogen.”
To date, it is possible that more than five million WNV infections have oc­
curred in the United States. The vast majority have been asymptomatic, Petersen
stated, but a fraction of a percent of them has progressed to severe neuroinvasive
disease, of which more than 17,000 cases have been reported. Many of these
cases occurred during three major outbreaks, which took place in 2002, 2003, and
2012—all during heat waves, he added. As illustrated in Figure WO-5, certain
geographic regions of the United States seem to be at higher ecological risk for
West Nile viral disease compared to other regions of the United States. “When
the virus came across the U.S., there [was] no way we could have predicted that
South Dakota would become the highest-incidence state for a tropical virus,” he
observed.
Some tick species serve as vectors for several different human diseases,
while some pathogens can be spread by several different tick species. Petersen
noted that ticks may be carriers of viruses, bacteria, and parasites that inciden­
tally infect humans. Over the past century, land use changes, combined with

8 Herd immunity occurs when a sufficient percentage of a population is immune to a pathogen to

prevent its transmission. The more efficiently a pathogen can spread between members of a “herd,”
the greater the percentage that must acquire immunity to stop its transmission. Human immunity is
inconsequential for pathogens that infect humans incidentally.
12 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE WO-5 Average annual incidence of WNV severe neurological disease by

county, United States, 1999–2013.
SOURCE: ArboNET, Arboviral Diseases Branch, CDC.

favorable environmental conditions, have enabled several tick species to increase

in numbers and expand their geographic ranges, according to Petersen (see
Figure WO-6). As a result, he observed, the incidence of essentially all tick-borne
human diseases reported in the United States has increased. In addition, several
novel tick-borne human pathogens have recently been identified, including rela­
tives of known bacterial disease agents, as well as the Heartland virus, which
Petersen characterized as a potential cause of hundreds to thousands of severely
debilitating (and occasionally lethal) cases of illness per year (see later discussion
in the section, “Changing Paradigms for Tick-Borne Diseases in the Americas”).
Humans serve as primary hosts for the mosquito-borne dengue and chikun­
gunya viruses, both of which are on the rise in the Americas. According to the
CDC, dengue is caused by any one of four related viruses transmitted by mosqui­
toes (CDC, 2015). Infection with any of the four Flaviviruses can cause a painful
febrile illness, dengue fever, or the life-threatening dengue hemorrhagic fever.
Dengue virus now infects about 400 million people each year, having resurged
after DDT-based vector control efforts were halted in the 1970s, according to
Petersen. Dengue’s expansion has also been abetted by the introduction of an
additional vector species, Aedes albopictus, from Asia to the United States in
1985 (in a shipment of used tires). Before this introduction 30 years ago, den­
gue’s geographic “footprint” was limited to a more range-restricted vector, Aedes
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 13

aegypti, in the Americas. Figure WO-7 illustrates the dramatic increase of the
incidence of dengue in the Americas, which accelerated after reaching an appar­
ent turning point around 2000. “The ecological factors all sort of aligned. The
creation of megacities in the tropical world and all of the problems that trended
with them have suddenly caused this incidence of dengue to go up and up and
up,” he observed.
Today, in tropical locations such as Puerto Rico, over 90 percent of residents
have already been infected by DENV, Petersen stated. Can dengue fever—once a
common illness in the southern United States—reemerge in this country? There
is certainly reason to worry that it might, he observed. Ae. aegypti is endemic in
the South and has expanded its geographic range to new areas, such as California,
while Ae. albopictus has spread throughout the East. At the same time, increasing
numbers of dengue-infected travelers are entering the United States. Yet, since
2009, only 10 dengue outbreaks (8 in Texas and 2 in Florida) have occurred in the
United States, and each involved limited numbers of cases within restricted areas.
“The U.S.–Mexico border is like the Berlin Wall of dengue,” he quipped. “You

FIGURE WO-6 Distribution of key tick-borne diseases, 2012.

NOTE: In 2012, no cases of tick-borne illness were reported from Hawaii. Alaska reported

10 travel-related cases of Lyme disease.

SOURCE: CDC.
14 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE WO-7 Dengue incidence is rapidly increasing in the Americas.

SOURCES: As presented by Lyle Petersen on September 16, 2014. Data from Pan Ameri­
can Health Organization.

find these huge outbreaks on the Mexican side of the border, just right across
the Rio Grande River.” His group’s investigation of this paradox revealed vastly
different human behaviors and environments in adjacent towns on either side of
the border, and suggested that the lack of air conditioning and more crowded liv­
ing conditions in Matamoros, Mexico, resulted in much higher rates of dengue
transmission in comparison to Brownsville, Texas (Ramos et al., 2008). For now,
it appears, lifestyle and living conditions help to protect the United States from
dengue becoming endemic.
CHIKV is an Alphavirus that, like DENV, is transmitted between humans by
both Ae. aegypti (its traditional urban vector) and Ae. albopictus, Petersen stated.
Yet, unlike dengue, chikungunya infection is usually symptomatic, causing fever,
debilitating joint pain, and often a rash. The virus emerged in the Americas in
late 2013, on the island of St. Martin, and quickly spread across the Caribbean,
as illustrated in Figure WO-8.
In May 2014, the Caribbean Public Health Authority declared that chikun­
gunya had reached epidemic status (Carribean 360, 2014). By September 2014,
more than 700,000 cases had been reported to the Pan American Health Orga­
nization (PAHO), with 113 deaths. As with dengue, these included only a few
isolated cases of locally acquired chikungunya in the contiguous United States,
all of them in Florida.
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 15

FIGURE WO-8 Chikungunya in the Americas and in the Western Hemisphere. Top:
Countries and territories in the Americas where autochthonous chikungunya cases have
been reported in the Western Hemisphere as of September 9, 2014; bottom: Chikungunya
cases in the Americas reported to PAHO as of September 12, 2014. There were 706,093
cases and 113 deaths reported.
SOURCES: Top, CDC; bottom, as presented by Lyle Petersen on September 16, 2014.
Data from Pan American Health Organization.
16 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

U.S. Outlook and Preparedness

Petersen offered the following general predictions of vector-borne disease
activity in the United States and its territories:

• Continued focal and regional outbreaks of West Nile viral disease;

• Significant public health effects of dengue (ongoing) and chikungunya
(until herd immunity is established) in U.S. territories;
• Increased incidence and distribution of tick-borne diseases;
• Discovery of additional novel tick-borne pathogens, some of public health
significance; and
• Importation and emergence of nonendemic pathogens, such as the Zika
virus.9

Are we prepared to meet these challenges? “In some instances, I think the
glass is reasonably full,” Petersen concluded. The ArboNET surveillance system,
developed to track WNV, is the only system in the world that simultaneously col­
lects human, animal, and vector data, he said. It can and has—in about a dozen
cases—been adapted to monitor additional emergent and endemic arboviruses.
Advanced molecular detection systems have proved extremely valuable in detect­
ing imported and novel vector-borne pathogens. Another important legacy of the
response to WNV is greatly improved communication capacity among physi­
cians, public health agencies, and medical centers regarding actual or potential
vector-borne disease outbreaks, he added. On the other hand, he warned that the
existing system for tick-borne disease surveillance is becoming overwhelmed by
the rising numbers of cases. More broadly, he observed, ecological parameters
of pathogen transmission remain largely unknown, which limits the usefulness
of disease models—as does the fact that many communities are not prepared to
respond to vector-borne disease threats owing to inadequate surveillance and/or
mosquito control capacity.
For prevention and treatment, “The glass is only half full,” Petersen noted.
While screening has—at great expense—nearly eliminated the risk of acquiring
blood-borne WNV or Trypanosoma cruzi (the protozoan agent of Chagas dis­
ease), the U.S. blood transfusion system cannot currently detect the pathogens
that cause dengue, babesiosis, chikungunya, ehrlichiosis, or anaplasmosis, or the
next novel or imported vector-borne pathogen, Petersen pointed out (see “Blood
Donation Screening for Vector-Borne Diseases”). Effective treatment regimens
are available for the vector-borne bacterial diseases, but these conditions often
go unrecognized, undiagnosed, or improperly treated, he observed. No such

9 Zika virus is a Flavivirus related to yellow fever, dengue, West Nile, and Japanese encephalitis

viruses. In 2007, it caused an outbreak of relatively mild disease characterized by rash, arthralgia,
and conjunctivitis on Yap Island in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. This was the first time that Zika
virus was detected outside of Africa and Asia (Hayes, 2009).
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 17

therapeutics exist for viruses, and while promising vaccines are in development
against DENV and WNV—and also against Borrelia burgdorferi, the bacterial
agent of Lyme disease—it is unclear when and if these will become commercially
available, in part, because they may lack a robust commercial domestic market
(see “Outlook for West Nile and Chikungunya Vaccines”).
Much the same can be said about promising pesticides in development for
vector control, Petersen stated. Of particular concern, he noted that no effective,
scalable, vector control method exists for Ixodes scapuarlis or Ae. aegypti, each
of which represents a major threat to public health throughout the Americas.

Lessons from a Model Plant Disease

As previously alluded to, after describing the ecological “layers” within
which vector-borne plant diseases occur and the multiple factors that influence
their transmission dynamics (see Figure WO-1), Almeida used the example of
the vector-borne bacterium Xylella fastidiosa to illustrate these concepts (see Ap­
pendix A1). Typically a benign colonist of more than 300 species of plant species,
X. fastidiosa is transmitted by insects that feed on the liquids transported within
the xylem of host plants.10 The bacterium can, under certain circumstances,
grow so profusely that it blocks the upward flow of fluids in the plant, resulting
in scorched leaves and shriveled fruit. This condition affects several impor­
tant woody crop plants and trees, most notably grapevines in the United States
(called Pierce’s disease of grapevines). Pierce’s disease escalated from a low-
level problem into a major threat to California’s viticultural industries following
the arrival of an alternate vector—the glassy-winged sharpshooter (Homalodisca
vitripennis)—to California in the late 1980s (Fletcher and Wayadande, 2002).
Since then, the geographic and host plant range—and the economic, political,
and social significance—of X. fastidiosa have expanded in the United States and
internationally.
The emergence of Pierce’s disease has paralleled significant changes in
the study of vector-borne plant diseases, as well as in their dynamics, Almeida
pointed out. Around the time that the glassy-winged sharpshooter invaded Cali­
fornia, plant pathologists relied on studies of pathogen host range, epidemiologi­
cal surveys, and the outcomes of vector control measures attempted in the field
to inform mitigation efforts. These ecologically based methods were sufficient
to manage diseases within a limited geographic area and time frame—a sensible
approach, prior to the global transmission of economically important diseases, he
said. Similarly, research priorities were short to medium term and were directed
toward managing disease, not toward understanding patterns of transmission or
factors of emergence.

10 Xylem is the conductive tissue in vascular plants through which water and nutrients flow upward

from the roots.

18 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

“The present is a little more complicated,” Almeida continued. Today,

significant vector-borne plant disease threats frequently involve pathogens and/
or vectors introduced to new ecosystems via international travel and trade, and
sequence-based identification methods allow researchers to trace the origins of
outbreaks. By these means, researchers determined that pathogenic subspecies of
X. fastidiosa occur with a distinct range within the Americas, and specific subspe­
cies now threaten olives and other important crops in Europe, as well as grapes
and the Asian pear in Taiwan.
Before it was identified in southern Italy for the first time in October 2013,
X. fastidiosa was not believed to be able to cause disease in olives, Almeida
noted. Given the olives’ economic and cultural significance in this region (as
both a source of oil and a tourism attraction), as well as the potential for pathogen
spillover to grapes and citrus, it is perhaps no wonder that the European agricul­
tural community is extremely concerned about it. Plant scientists are often not
trained to handle such situations where the disease has large economic, trade, and
social consequences at the international sphere; in this case it also included the
generation of conspiracy theories suggesting that Almeida himself had spread the
disease to Italy, as an agent of developers or agribusiness, or that X. fastidiosa
itself does not exist. “It is really an interesting problem that goes way beyond a
plant disease and how to manage it.”
How do plant diseases actually move to new ecosystems? In many cases
it occurs on ships, according to Almeida, as contrasted to their human counter­
parts, which move readily by air travel. Current data strongly suggest that the
epidemic in Italy originated from ornamental coffee plants imported from Costa
Rica. Pest and diseases also travel with “suitcase plant material,” such as the
anecdotal case of a grapevine cutting of Israeli origin smuggled into California
by a grower (which is supported by molecular data), along with what has become
a major insect pest, he noted. Vector introductions provide a second important
path to plant disease outbreaks, if they increase transmission of an existing patho­
gen. This occurred in California when the glassy-winged sharpshooter quickly
achieved large populations, which permitted more frequent encounters with X.
fastidiosa, more successful infections of various plant species, and, ultimately,
higher incidence of disease, he explained. New associations between the novel
vector and X. fastidiosa, coupled with the vector’s ability to transmit additional
pathogen strains among a broader range of host plants, may also have contributed
to the recent emergence of Pierce’s disease and other X. fastidiosa diseases in
California, he suggested.
In addition, complex insect–pathogen–plant interactions must be understood
at the molecular level in order to address vector-borne plant disease threats. Al­
meida observed that plant pathogen transmission hinges on complex interactions
among surface proteins and receptors in pathogens and vectors. Having identified
some of such moieties in X. fastidiosa, Almeida and coworkers are attempting
to inhibit bacterial attachment to insect tissues, which might be achieved by
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 19

genetically modifying host plants to produce molecules that block key interac­
tions. This approach has recently been shown to work for an insect-transmitted
plant virus (Whitfield and Rotenberg, 2015, reprinted in Appendix A12). Host
plants could also be genetically manipulated to produce molecules that kill spe­
cific insect vectors that feed on them, he added.
Another active area of current research examines how, over the course of
evolution, pathogens manipulate vector behavior directly, or through their effects
on host plants, so as to increase transmission efficiency. Many such interactions
have been identified, employing a broad range of mechanisms and strategies,
Almeida reported.

Vector-Borne Disease in Animals

“We are just barely getting a grasp on patterns of vector-borne diseases in
animals,” observed speaker William Karesh, of the EcoHealth Alliance, as he
introduced this topic. However, he continued, the importance of vector-borne
animal diseases is increasingly apparent. Vector-borne animal pathogens are
included in priority pathogen categories by the National Institute of Allergy and
Infectious Diseases, in the catalog of significant trade-related animal diseases by
the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), and among novel pathogens
listed by the United States Agency for International Development’s PREDICT
project, he reported. Nearly one-third of all known viruses that infect mammals
are vector borne, and a recent analysis of 86 emerging zoonotic viruses deter­
mined that, among those transmitted from wild animals to humans, 40 percent
were vector borne, including all viruses for which wild birds served as reservoir
species.
Recent studies of transmission patterns reveal potential strategies for ad­
dressing vector-borne animal diseases, Karesh noted (see Appendix A5). For
example, researchers have shown that while vector-borne mammalian viruses
tend to have a broad host range, they are generally transmitted among these hosts
by a single vector. In some cases where that is true, he suggested, controlling
vector populations and their ability to spread pathogens to humans or animals
offers relatively simple routes to reducing disease transmission, as compared
with pathogens that follow multiple transmission routes between animals and
people, and are therefore more prone to spillover. The identification of land use
change and international travel and trade as primary drivers of emergence of
vector-borne animal diseases should guide disease surveillance and prevention
efforts, he added.

Disease Patterns in Emerging Pathogens

Karesh described the state of knowledge regarding patterns of disease for the
notable emerging vector-borne animal pathogens in the following subsections.
20 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

Schmallenberg virus emerged suddenly in sheep in Germany in 2011—related

viruses had previously been identified only in Africa, the Middle East, and
Asia—and from there spread across Europe much as the West Nile virus moved
across the United States upon its emergence in 1999, Karesh recalled. The biting
midge (Culicoides species), considered the major vector of Schmallenberg virus,
is “extremely efficient in transmitting the virus to sheep,” he said. However, he
added, “Sheep are not so efficient in transmitting the virus back into midges.”
Nevertheless, the virus is highly contagious, with each infected animal produc­
ing as many as seven infections (European Food Safety Authority, 2014). These
infections—which last a few days and cause fever, reduced milk yield, diarrhea,
and abortion—have primarily been reported among ruminants (none have been
reported in humans).
Schmallenberg virus infection is not listed as a reportable disease by the OIE,
Karesh noted. “Currently, the disease does not meet the criteria for OIE listing,”
he explained. “If an animal is positive it means they are protected for life. If
they are negative it means they are free of the disease.” On the other hand, he
continued, the disease can be disastrous for individual farmers, who operate on
small economic margins. Vector control might seem a reasonable way to reduce
disease transmission, but it would not be an easy route to take, given our limited
understanding of the ecology of the widespread midge, he observed. Vaccines are
available but have not been widely used, he remarked, perhaps because the tran­
sient infection is not perceived as sufficiently burdensome to warrant prevention.

WNV, as Petersen noted, infects a wide range of bird species. Elucidating the re­
sulting patterns of disease has been difficult, according to Karesh, because “there
are so many variables at play.” While climate and weather likely influence disease
incidence, many additional factors vary across the geographic range of the virus,
he noted (Crowder et al., 2013). The number of avian WNV cases reported to
the CDC has varied widely from year to year, he stated (Lindsey et al., 2014).
Some of this variation may reflect the 60 percent decline in dead bird surveillance
that occurred between 2004 and 2012, and which occurred simultaneously with
a significant decrease of pathogen surveillance in trapped mosquitoes, Karesh
noted (Hadler et al., 2014). Thus, “It is very hard to say whether we are having a
changing pattern when we are changing the tools we are using to monitor patterns
. . . [and] we are investing less in surveillance,” he concluded.

Tick-borne pathogens threaten animal and human health worldwide. Ten percent
of tick species carry such pathogens, Karesh reported (Jongejan and Uilenberg,
2004). The resulting diseases affect 80 percent of the world’s cattle, at a cost of
up to $19 billion per year, which is borne disproportionately by resource-limited
countries in the tropics and subtropics (Minjauw and McLeod, 2003).
Once again, vector control is not a likely solution to this problem, Karesh
observed. Effective vector control to address tick-borne disease in livestock
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 21

would need to extend to wild animals that are part of transmission cycles, mak­
ing it prohibitively expensive, particularly for people earning less than 1USD
per day, which is common in India and Africa (Minjauw and McLeod, 2003). In
such circumstances, it can cost more to control disease in cattle than it does to
raise cows, he pointed out.

Multidisciplinary Research on Rift Valley Fever Virus

“We can’t really lump the vector-borne diseases together and say they are all
headed in the same direction,” Karesh concluded (Kilpatrick and Randolph, 2012,
reprinted in Appendix A6). Pathogen introductions, ecological shifts, and changes
in host immunity all affect patterns of disease, he noted. Thus, rather than tackle
vector-borne diseases as a whole, he proposed that researchers undertake multi­
disciplinary, long-term, broad-based studies of individual vector-borne diseases.
The EcoHealth Alliance and a large group of collaborating agencies are
currently attempting such a study of Rift Valley fever11 in South Africa. There,
according to Karesh, rainfall patterns are predictable as much as 3 months in
advance. This would in theory provide adequate warning to vaccinate animals
against the spread of Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV). But, according to Karesh,
partly because of sociological reasons that may be difficult to counteract, this
has not happened. Therefore, it may be equally important to develop a targeted,
effective approach to disease control that will enlist the support of people and
governments. A better strategy against Rift Valley fever in South Africa might
take advantage of herd immunity, which also appears to influence outbreak pat­
terns there, he observed.
To investigate this possibility in detail, Karesh and coworkers have embarked
on a plan to monitor changes in immunity to RVFV in individual animals, flocks,
herds, mixed-species populations, and mixed populations of wildlife and domes­
tic animals within a 40,000 km2 area to identify factors that influence immunity
at a population scale. The project, which began around the time of the workshop,
is expected to last 5 years, he said. It will track antibody levels in local domestic
animals (including cattle, goats, and sheep), free-ranging wildlife (including
several antelope species) and those on game ranches, mosquitoes, and people.
Those measurements will be integrated with data on vegetation and weather, in
order to accomplish the following series of objectives:
11 Rift Valley fever is a viral zoonosis that primarily affects animals but also has the capacity to

infect humans. Infection can cause severe disease in both animals and humans. The disease also
results in significant economic losses due to death and abortion among RVF-infected livestock. The
virus was first identified in 1931 after an epidemic struck sheep on a farm in the Rift Valley of Kenya.
Since then, outbreaks have been reported in sub-Saharan and North Africa. In 1997–1998, a major
outbreak occurred in Kenya, Somalia, and Tanzania, and in September 2000, cases were confirmed
in Saudi Arabia and Yemen, marking the first reported occurrence of the disease outside the African
continent and raising concerns that it could extend to other parts of Asia and Europe. Source: http://
www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs207/en (accessed March 25, 2016).
22 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

• To compare how immunity to RVFV changes over time in vaccinated and

unvaccinated sheep and antelope;
• To determine herd immunity in wildlife and domestic animals;
• To investigate the ecology of RVFV and its mosquito vector, with refer­
ence to soil types, vegetation, and climate; and
• To evaluate human behavioral practices and measure immunity among
people working on farms within the study area and detect new infections.

By collecting data at the individual, population, and meta-population levels,

among both domesticated and wild animals, the researchers expect to discover
useful distinctions in herd immunity to RVFV among different populations. Karesh
noted, for example, that herd immunity in cattle kept by pastoral farmers—which
tend to live longer than those raised in commercial feedlot systems—is likely to
be more persistent. Likewise, he said, long-lived wildlife such as buffalo might
also have high immunity to RVFV. Such information should allow these investi­
gators to better anticipate when particular animal populations are susceptible to
outbreaks of disease that could, in turn, spill over into humans—knowledge that
would support more efficient vaccination programs or other disease control mea­
sures, he concluded. Implementation will require social engagement which, he
said, means “making sure [the program] . . . is cost-effective, convincing people
that [it] is worth doing, and really understanding where they are coming from so
we can come up with some solutions that make sense.”

Common Ground
In her introduction to this workshop session, moderator Mary Wilson of
the Harvard School of Public Health (now at the University of California, San
Francisco), encouraged participants to recognize commonalities among the patho­
gen–vector–host–environment systems described by the three speakers, and to
consider research and policy issues that lie at these points of intersection. In the
course of their presentations, the speakers raised several such ideas that were fur­
ther explored in discussion immediately afterward, and throughout the workshop.

Need for Consistent, Comprehensive Surveillance

Both Petersen and Karesh noted that initially robust support for WNV sur­
veillance has declined with disease incidence following the 2002–2003 outbreaks.
Limited resources were available to respond to another peak outbreak in 2012.
While it is now possible to make accurate local predictions of WNV outbreaks
in time to prevent their occurrence, Petersen said, communities are not investing
in local surveillance, nor are they willing to implement vector control measures
in advance of human cases of the disease.
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 23

“By the time an effective response is mounted at a local level, the outbreak is
often well on its way and possibly on the downhill slope,” Petersen stated. “That
is exactly what we saw in the big outbreak in Dallas. By the time a widespread
response was mounted, three-quarters of the cases had already occurred. We were
able to show quite nicely that it did stop the outbreak, but it was done too late.
So there is really a problem with the intensity of surveillance and getting people
to actually respond effectively in a timely way.” Speaker James Hadler, of Yale
University, further explored this dilemma (see subsequent section, “Loss of Ar­
bovirus Disease Surveillance Capacity in the United States”).
Surveillance for most other vector-borne pathogens—including novel,
emerging ones—is less thorough than for WNV. Vector-borne plant diseases
pose an especially difficult problem for surveillance, according to several partici­
pants. Until a plant disease becomes epidemic, it is perceived as a problem only
to the farmers whose crops are infected, Almeida noted. “For a plant disease to
come to the radar you need thousands if not hundreds of thousands of plants to
be sick,” he said.
On the other hand, forum member David Rizzo of the University of Califor­
nia, Davis, noted that many plant pathogens are emerging as the result of eco­
system disturbance, much as are animal pathogens. “I can think of a half a dozen
in the United States right now with the potential to spill over into agriculture,”
he stated, such as laurel wilt, which now threatens avocado crops. “By the time
you see millions of dead plants, then it is too late to really do something,” he
warned. Unfortunately, he added, little such surveillance is occurring, especially
in natural ecosystems.

Gaps in Training and Their Consequences

All three speakers and several discussants expressed concerns regarding
the limited opportunities for the education and training of the next generation
of vector-borne disease researchers, coupled with the decline of certain key
disciplines. Training of scientists working with vector-borne diseases in plant
pathology fails to emphasize either quantitative work or field ecology, Almeida
noted. Petersen similarly criticized the public health community for its neglect of
research and training in ecology—as well as medical entomology—and warned
that insufficient funding and career opportunities for scientists in these disciplines
would diminish future capacity to address vector-borne disease threats. In a later
presentation, Christopher Paddock, of the CDC, added cartography to the list of
endangered core disciplines for vector-borne disease research. When mosquito
vectors of emerging pathogens cannot readily be identified by species owing to
a lack of skilled medical entomologists, Karesh observed, “it is going to be an
ugly world.”
Today’s investigators also lack the ability to connect the study of vector-
borne diseases—and emerging diseases in general—with their social, political,
24 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

and economical consequences. “I think there will be a push for incorporating

social sciences into what we do,” Almeida predicted, and offered as an example
the work of a postdoctoral researcher in his laboratory (Dr. Adam Zeilinger),
shown in Figure WO-9.

FIGURE WO-9 Conceptual model of the socioecological relationships between invasive

species, farmer responses, pathogen spread, and conventionalization of organic agricul ­
ture. Traditional social entities are represented by squares, traditional ecological entities
are represented by ovals, and co-constructed entities represented by octagons. Dashed lines

remain as poorly described, hypothetical links.

SOURCE: Figure created by Dr. Adam Zeilinger, University of California, Berkeley.

Reproduced with permission.

WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 25

Advantages of the One Health Approach

The narrow training of investigators both reflects and drives a specialized,
technology-centric approach to the study of vector-borne diseases. Speakers
and participants alike noted that as the field has become increasingly focused
on molecular-level interactions between pathogen, host, and vector, it has lost
sight of the ecological contexts of these interactions, as well the many benefits
of interdisciplinarity.
In plant pathology, Almeida observed, basic questions are being overlooked.
For example, in the case of citrus greening—a disease that threatens to decimate
Florida’s citrus industry—some of the most fundamental experiments have yet
to be performed. If “we still don’t know how long it takes for a plant to express
symptoms once it is infected by an insect,” inferences from epidemiological
models will suffer from lack of information, according to Almeida.
Moreover, solutions to specific disease problems are being studied in isola­
tion and in ignorance of the drivers of disease emergence, which might pro­
ductively be addressed interdisciplinarily. “Is plant pathology, as well as other
disciplines, willing to diversify and view agricultural systems in a more holistic
manner?” Almeida wondered. “That is not clear,” because there is limited re­
search of that kind currently going on—nor is it at all clear, he observed, whether
or how funding agencies would support such an approach to transdisciplinary
research.
Almeida, along with several other workshop participants, decried a funding
bias toward research in molecular biology in general, and specifically in support
of the use of transgenics to address vector-borne disease. In addition, lack of
funding has made programs highly competitive. “USDA funding rates for funda­
mental science [i.e., single Principal Investigator grants] are currently less than
10 percent,” Almeida observed. He also noted, however, that the National Sci­
ence Foundation recently revived the dwindling science of systematics through a
targeted training grant program. Petersen described a similar effort by the CDC to
boost medical entomology following the emergence of WNV in the early 2000s
that has since been discontinued.
Increasing recognition of the value of the One Health paradigm—defined
as “the collaborative effort of multiple disciplines—working locally, nationally,
and globally—to attain optimal health for people, animals, and the environment”
(AVMA, 2008)—offers hope that these trends may be reversed. Forum member
Kevin Russell of the Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center pointed out that
the Global Health Security Agenda emphasized a multisectorial approach to
global health security, which depends in part upon the economic ramifications of
plant, animal, and human diseases. Karesh noted that the Department of Defense
is funding the described long-term, broad-based RVFV project he discussed in
his presentation, which aligns with Global Health Security Agenda mandates for
a One Health approach to disease control encompassing humans, wildlife, and
livestock. “I think there are some cost-savings and efficiencies when we start to
26 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

pull together . . . thinking on animal and human and plant vector-borne diseases,”
Karesh predicted. “We have to really start interacting more at that level and using
that to leverage reducing budgets.”

Ecological Complexity
Underpinning the concept of One Health and influencing patterns of disease
is an understanding of the essential role of the environment to address vector-
borne diseases, both individually and collectively. Petersen observed, for exam­
ple, that WNV outbreaks cannot be predicted beyond the local scale because “the
ecology is incredibly complicated. It varies from place to place.” Some common
denominators, such as heat waves, are generally predictive of outbreaks, he con­
tinued, but ultimately, “If you start narrowing down the ecology, Phoenix is not
like Chicago.” Even within parts of Phoenix—which, in the middle of the desert,
is an unlikely but raging hot spot for WNV—there is variation in transmission
of the virus, he added. “The ecology of the whole United States is amazingly
complicated and varied,” Petersen observed. This point was illustrated again and
again over the course of the workshop, through the lens of various vector-borne
diseases in natural, agricultural, urban, and suburban contexts.

CHANGING DISEASE PATTERNS

Four speakers illustrated the dynamic nature of vector-borne diseases in
presentations describing the evolution and epidemiology of dengue and chikun­
gunya, shifting patterns of insect-borne parasitic infections closely associated
with poverty, leishmaniasis and Chagas disease, and the recent range expansion
of multiple tick-borne diseases in the United States.

Arbovirus Evolution in Humans and Mosquitoes

Speaker Rebecca Rico-Hesse, of Baylor College of Medicine, used the ex­
amples of DENV and CHIKV to illustrate how evolution influences dynamic
relationships among pathogens, vectors, and hosts (see Appendix A10). Consisting
of little more than a strand of RNA that encodes 8 to 10 proteins, these highly
mutable and adaptable arboviruses represent “the smallest, most simple organisms
that we know of that have changed history of humankind,” she pointed out. DENV
and CHIKV are transmitted to humans by the mosquito vectors Ae. aegypti and
Ae. albopictus, which have quite distinct habitats and biting habits.

Global Spread of a More Virulent Dengue Virus

Most human dengue infections produce the flulike illness known as dengue
fever, but some cases progress to the life-threatening dengue hemorrhagic fever
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 27

(DHF), with massive internal bleeding. Any of the four serotypes of DENV can
cause dengue fever, and it has been known for decades that the risk of DHF
increases if a person is serially infected by two different viral serotypes (Rico-
Hesse, 2009). The majority of dengue epidemics to date, and most cases of DHF,
have been linked to serotype 2 (DENV-2), which has been isolated in Asia,
Africa, and the Americas, Rico-Hesse reported (Cologna et al., 2005). A single
genotype within DENV-2, once limited to Southeast Asia, has been detected in
the majority of isolates from patients with DHF—including, in recent years,
patients in the Americas and West Africa, as well as in Southeast Asia. “This
genotype, the one that is more severe and more virulent, has displaced all of the
other ones,” she concluded. A similar displacement of less virulent genotypes
worldwide by a more virulent virus has occurred within the DENV-3 serotype
as well, she added.
How did the Southeast Asian genotype of DENV-2 outcompete native geno­
types? Comparative infection experiments in cultured human dendritic cells—the
cell type targeted by DENV—reveal that while the American genotype infects a
larger number of cells, the Southeast Asian virus replicates much more efficiently,
generating a larger number of viruses per cell infected, according to Rico-Hesse.
Experiments in mosquitoes showed that both genotypes were equally capable of
binding the insect’s midgut, but that the Southeast Asian virus was more prevalent
in the salivary glands, and therefore more available for transmission to humans,
she added. Both features contribute to the 60-fold-higher transmission efficiency
of the Southeast Asian genotype, which in turn explains its ability to displace the
American genotype, she concluded.
To investigate the source of heightened virulence in the Southeast Asian
genotype of DENV-2, Rico-Hesse and colleagues created “humanized” mice, in
which up to 80 percent of their white blood cells are of human origin (Brehm et
al., 2013). “What we have is a mouse that gets infected, gets viremic and gets
a rash, gets thrombocytopenic, and does all of the things just like humans do
with dengue fever,” she explained. By infecting these mice, via mosquito bite,
with selected viruses, the researchers were able to determine that the Southeast
Asian genotype remained longer in the bloodstream and achieved higher titers
than other genotypes. Subsequent theoretical studies of nucleotide folding among
genotypes of DENV-2 suggest that subtle structural differences may determine
virulence, she said; they plan to test these ideas in experiments with chimeric
viruses.
The researchers also discovered that infecting via mosquito, rather than by
inoculation, significantly increased DENV viremia in humanized mice, Rico-
Hesse reported (Cox et al., 2012). This, she said, likely resulted from immune
deficiencies that limit the mice’s ability to respond to infection as a human
would. Interestingly, the humanized mice also made antibodies to mosquito saliva
alone, and these, too, were very long lived. “We can’t say that mosquito saliva
is not important,” she insisted. “We have to start including this in any studies
28 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

of pathogenesis, control of vaccination strategies. The mosquito saliva is doing

things very unexpectedly in the human immune system.”

Chikungunya Expansion and Adaptation

Urban epidemics of chikungunya are characterized by rapid spread and
high infection rates, leading in most cases to symptoms that resemble those of
dengue: acute fever and debilitating joint pain (Nasci, 2014). These typically
resolve within a week; however, joint pain and fatigue may persist for 2 years
or longer in some individuals. In contrast to DENV, CHIKV infects endothelial
cells and fibroblasts, but how it interacts with the human immune system and the
mechanisms by which pathogenesis manifests remain a mystery, according to
Rico-Hesse. She and coworkers plan to investigate these processes—as well as
dengue pathogenesis—with a recently developed mouse model that better mimics
the human immune system.
CHIKV was first identified in Tanzania in 1952, and subsequently found
throughout Africa and Asia, where it caused periodic small outbreaks (Nasci,
2014). In June 2004, a chikungunya epidemic on Lamu Island, Kenya, spread to
other islands in the Indian Ocean. This epidemic produced nearly half a million
cases of chikungunya. A later epidemic resulted in more than 1.5 million cases in
India, which then continued on through Southeast Asia to islands in the Pacific
Ocean. Since then, CHIKV has been recognized as an important emerging vector-
borne pathogen. The first locally transmitted cases of chikungunya in the Western
Hemisphere were reported in October 2013, on the island of St. Martin; others
have since been reported on several more islands in the Caribbean.
The recent range expansion of CHIKV resulted from separate advances by
two of the three known viral genotypes, Rico-Hesse explained (Thiberville et al.,
2013). The East Central South African genotype of CHIKV, which caused the first
wave of epidemics, has not yet reached the Americas, but the Asian genotype has,
she said. Recent evidence shows that the Asian genotype can be transmitted with
equal efficiency by both mosquito vectors, one of which—Aedes albopictus—is
well adapted to temperate climates (Vega-Rua et al., 2014). She concluded by
observing that, “We [now] have a chikungunya virus that can be spread in Aedes
albopictus—which, by the way, is everywhere in Houston.”

Dengue and Chikungunya in the Americas

Building on Petersen’s update on dengue and chikungunya emergence,
Harold Margolis, of the CDC, described how rapid increases in their incidence
in the Americas has prompted changes in diagnostic methods and protocols for
all febrile disease syndromes.
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 29

Dengue
Since around 2000, as Petersen noted, dengue case reports have risen rapidly
in the Americas. Margolis pointed out, however, that when considered on a coun­
try-by-country basis, this trend has been far from uniform. Rather, he observed,
case rates have increased sharply in countries most affected by urbanization and
migration. “Part of this increase is how we are recognizing the disease and what
we are measuring and what we are diagnosing,” he suggested.
The symptoms of dengue fever can resolve within a week, or during the same
period it can progress to severe hemorrhagic disease or death, Margolis noted.
Many of dengue’s symptoms resemble those of several other febrile diseases,
such as leptospirosis. In Puerto Rico, for instance, the diagnostic testing of pa­
tients meeting WHO criteria for suspect dengue typically finds that only about
half of them are actually infected with the virus, he reported. On the other hand,
researchers in Thailand determined that among a group of nearly 400 school­
children who tested positive for DENV infection, only half exhibited symptoms
that met WHO criteria for clinical diagnosis (Sabchareon et al., 2012). Clearly,
he concluded, “The only way you know if somebody has dengue is diagnostic
testing.”
Margolis reported that major changes in dengue diagnostics in recent years
are improving this situation. Once a slow and complicated process requiring both
acute and convalescent samples for immunoglobins (IgM) testing, diagnosis by
specific DENV subtype or by IgM can now be performed quickly on a single
acute-phase sample through rRT-PCR, he explained. It is now possible to detect
about 90 percent of cases that will seroconvert through molecular diagnostic
testing. In the United States, where most molecular diagnostic tests like these are
performed commercially, routine testing for DENV occurs only in public health
laboratories, he said, although guidelines promoting DENV testing are under
development by the CDC and the Association of Public Health Laboratories.
Meanwhile, PAHO has established a network of dengue diagnostic laboratories,
where the disease is endemic, throughout tropical and subtropical South and
Central America and the Caribbean (PAHO, 2014a).
Because most of the United States is nonendemic for dengue, the majority of
current cases involve returning travelers, Margolis noted. Dengue is the leading
cause of acute febrile illness in travelers returning from the Americas, the Carib­
bean, and Asia (Freedman et al., 2006). Between 2000 and 2007, the number
of such cases requiring hospitalization tripled in the United States (Streit et al.,
2011). With thousands of travelers returning from dengue-endemic areas, coupled
with the presence of Ae. aegypti in Florida, Texas, and Arizona, it is not surprising
that a few episodes of limited local transmission have recently occurred in the
United States, he remarked. The potential for more widespread local transmis­
sion, particularly involving Ae. albopictus, remains to be determined (Eisen and
Moore, 2013).
30 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

Chikungunya
Like dengue fever, chikungunya is an acute febrile illness that can be reliably
diagnosed only through molecular diagnostic testing, preferably by polymerase
chain reaction (PCR),12 according to Margolis. Only supportive treatment (typi­
cally with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) is available for chikungunya,
and it is important to rule out dengue before proceeding, given the risk of
hemorrhage, he pointed out.
The rapid geographic expansion and rise in chikungunya cases in the
Americas, since its emergence in 2013, will continue, Margolis predicted, echo­
ing Petersen’s earlier observations. Locally acquired cases have been confirmed
in many countries throughout the Americas (CDC, 2014c), with the first such
case in the United States reported in Florida in July 2014 (CDC, 2014b). This
development was anticipated, and is expected to be repeated, given the large
numbers of U.S. travelers returning from locations where major outbreaks have
occurred (including Puerto Rico, as Margolis noted), coupled with the presence
of both competent mosquito vector species—Ae. albopictus and Ae. aegypti—in
this country (CDC, 2014a; Fischer et al., 2014; Khan et al., 2014).
At the time of the workshop, about 1,400 cases of chikungunya per week
were being reported in Puerto Rico, mainly in the metropolitan San Juan area,
Margolis stated.
The introduced virus has been traced to the Dominican Republic, he said, and
many of these early cases have arisen in the city’s Dominican community. For
such a “virgin soil” epidemic, it is difficult to predict how many epidemic cycles
will occur before herd immunity is established. CHIKV’s rapid expansion clearly
demonstrates that its mosquito vector, Ae. aegypti, is not controlled, he observed.

Dynamics of Leishmaniasis and Chagas Disease

Two vector-borne parasitic diseases, leishmaniasis and Chagas disease, are
strongly associated with poor living conditions that expose people to the insect
vectors that carry them. “These are diseases of poverty,” observed speaker James
Maguire, of the Harvard Medical School. “In some senses the vector is poor. I
think the poor vectors are picking on poor people.” This is also true of African
sleeping sickness, which, like leishmaniasis and Chagas disease, is caused by a
member of a group of flagellated protozoa known as kinetoplastids.13 Members
of this group parasitize a broad range of animals and plants (Wiser, 2013).

12 PCR is a laboratory technique used to amplify DNA sequences. The method involves using short

DNA sequences called primers to select the portion of the genome to be amplified. The temperature
of the sample is repeatedly raised and lowered to help a DNA replication enzyme copy the target
DNA sequence. The technique can produce a billion copies of the target sequence in just a few hours
(http://www.genome.gov/Glossary/?id=159).
13 The major distinguishing feature of this group is a subcellular structure known as the kinetoplast,

a distinct region of the mitochondria (Wiser, 2013).

WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 31

Leishmaniasis
The more than 20 species of Leishmania capable of causing leishmaniasis
can be vectored by nearly 100 species of sand flies, according to Maguire. Cases
have been reported on every continent except Antarctica and Australia, and about
1.5 million new infections occur each year. All except two species of Leishma­
nia that infect humans are zoonotic, and most species tend to cause subclinical
disease. Clinical leishmaniasis presents in three main forms: cutaneous, mucosal,
and visceral. All three are treatable to some degree, he said (Antinori et al., 2012).
While Leishmania have existed for at least 80 million years, they have only
coexisted with humans for several millennia—an association that has produced
tremendous diversity, he continued. “This is still a very dynamic set of organ­
isms,” he observed. “They are emerging. They are reemerging. They are expand­
ing their geographic range. This is a parasite that is definitely on the move.”
Maguire presented the following examples to illustrate the spectrum of
drivers that influence leishmaniasis’ transmission patterns and geographic range:

• Cutaneous leishmaniasis, present in the Americas prior to human arrival,

has recently exhibited increased incidence and broadening geographic
range in response to human incursions into the forest (e.g., chicle harvest­
ing) and the expansion of human settlement to formerly forested areas.
Its complex transmission patterns involve multiple parasite and sand fly
species, reservoir hosts, and varied ecology.
• Cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by a parasite that was once apparently
sylvatic has become adapted exclusively to the domestic environment in
a Brazilian community, with dogs and humans serving as its sole hosts.
• The range of locally transmitted cutaneous leishmaniasis in Oklahoma
and Texas has moved northeast with increasing temperature, as predicted
by models (Clarke et al., 2013). Similar predictions of expanded range
with increasing temperature have also been borne out for visceral leish­
maniasis in Europe.
• Most cases of cutaneous leishmaniasis in the United States have occurred
among travelers, including significant numbers of military personnel. As
a result, that sector has greatly advanced the prevention, diagnosis, and
treatment of leishmaniasis, Maguire said.
• An apparently non-vector-borne outbreak of visceral leishmaniasis in
a kennel of fox hounds in New York state spread to 18 other states as
infected dogs traveled to participate in hunts. No human cases resulted,
despite the presence in the area of a competent vector species.
• Visceral leishmaniasis in Brazil, long a rural disease, shifted around
1980 to a primarily urban or peri-urban disease, coincident with drought-
induced mass migration from rural to urban areas. Epidemics occurred in
several major cities, and incidence and geographic range increased, un­
abated by reactive spraying and campaigns to cull infected dogs (current
32 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

strategies under investigation include insecticide-impregnated collars for

dogs, and a canine vaccine).
• At the same time, as HIV has moved into more rural regions of Brazil,
co-infection with visceral leishmaniasis—which tends to produce severe
disease—is on the increase. Moreover, co-infected individuals were found
to be highly infectious to sand flies.
• In Europe, co-infection with HIV and leishmaniasis has occurred most
frequently via shared needles, rather than insect bite.
• A recent large outbreak of leishmaniasis in Madrid was probably related
to the development of a park within the city, which altered the ecology of
hares, which served as a reservoir for the parasite (Carrillo et al., 2013).
• An explosive and lethal outbreak of visceral leishmaniasis occurred in
East Africa during the early years of a civil war in southern Sudan, after
refugees migrated through a region with high concentrations of sand flies.
• Eighty percent of visceral leishmaniasis cases occur in Bangladesh, India,
Nepal, and South Asia, where humans are the sole hosts. Nearly extin­
guished by indoor insecticide spraying in the 1960s, leishmaniasis re­
surged in this region after malaria eradication efforts were abandoned.

Chagas Disease
Several species of blood-sucking triatomine bugs native to the American
continents (but not the Caribbean) transmit Trypanosoma cruzi, which is known
to infect over 100 species of mammals, Maguire stated. The first human hosts
encountered and displaced the bug when clearing forests several thousand years
ago. Some species adapted to the domestic environment and are today respon­
sible for most human infections, he explained. About eight million people are
permanently infected with this parasite that, decades after infection, can provoke
life-threatening heart or gastrointestinal disease. Available treatments are “not
satisfactory” and “toxic,” and it is uncertain whether they prevent the develop­
ment of heart disease, he noted (Rassi et al., 2010).
Maguire described several settings in South and Central America where he
and coworkers had investigated transmission of Chagas disease since the 1960s.
Each illustrated one or more factors that supported disease transmission. In one
community, only about half of the population was infected—those who could not
afford a house with plaster walls and a tile roof to prevent colonization by bugs.
Other outbreaks coincided with the introduction of a new vector species as roads
were built, and as religious pilgrims visited the area. Researchers accidentally
introduced a domesticated vector prevalent in one region into El Salvador. The
introduced vector spread through Central America along the Pan American high­
way and beyond, becoming more important in this new territory than the native
vector for Chagas disease. Maguire recalled that when poor migrants from rural
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 33

areas to cities supported themselves by selling their blood, a major outbreak of

transfusion-associated cases of Chagas occurred.
In the early 1990s, the six southernmost countries in South America—which
accounted for the majority of cases in the hemisphere—collaborated in an effort
to knock out parasite transmission by the major vector in the Southern Cone
region, Triatoma infestans, and to end blood-borne transmission of Chagas dis­
ease. “It cost $30 million to $50 million dollars a year versus billions of dollars
of economic losses from the disease,” Maguire reported, and “it was incredibly
successful.” As a result, Uruguay and Chile are now free of parasite transmission,
Brazil is free of transmission by T. infestans, and the other countries have only
low transmission rates. Additional initiatives in the Andean and Central American
regions used similar tactics to target different vectors of Chagas disease. Together,
these efforts have lowered the prevalence of infection from as high as 18 million
in the 1980s to its current level of about 8 million.
A number of obstacles stand in the way of eliminating Chagas disease alto­
gether in these regions, Maguire noted:

• the re-infestation of houses with sylvatic T. infestans or other sylvatic

triatomine bugs that can adapt to domestic environments;
• passive transport of alternative vectors from other regions;
• the development of insecticide resistance by vector species; and
• ongoing migration from rural to urban areas.

In the Amazon region, which is particularly rich in reservoir and vector species,
outbreaks of acute Chagas disease have been traced to the ingestion of juice
contaminated with vector feces, he noted.
Maguire observed that in the United States, there are as many people infected
with T. cruzi—about 300,000—as in 8 of the other 20 countries where Chagas
disease is endemic (Montgomery et al., 2014). An estimated 30,000 cases of
chronic Chagas-related heart disease and hundreds of cases of congenital disease
remain undiagnosed, he added. Nearly half the states in the United States are in­
habited by several species of the triatomine bug vector and mammals—including
dogs—that are heavily infected with T. cruzi. Both acute and asymptomatic
disease have been reported, mostly among immigrants from South and Central
America, but there have also been 23 locally transmitted cases, 5 transfusion-
associated cases, and a single case of congenital disease, he reported.
A similar situation exists in Europe and Japan, where such nonvectorial
routes of transmission have outstripped vector-borne Chagas disease, Maguire
observed. This is increasingly true in South and Central America as well. To
control transmission through this diversity of routes will require infected people
to be identified, served by the health care system, and treated with effective drugs,
he concluded.
34 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

Changing Paradigms for Tick-Borne Diseases in the Americas

Ticks rank second only to mosquitoes as arthropod vectors of medical im­
portance, according to speaker Christopher Paddock of the CDC. In the United
States, tick species in four genera—Amblyomma, Ixodes, Dermacentor, and
Rhipicephalus—transmit the majority of human pathogens. Each of these has
three different feeding stages and wide host ranges, so their potential to transmit
zoonotic disease is “really tremendous,” he said—and it has been increasingly
realized in this country over the past century, during which nearly every recog­
nized tick-borne disease emerged (see Paddock et al. in Appendix A8). “It has
been a century of discovery and change,” he observed. “There have been lots of
newly recognized diseases. There have also been dramatic shifts in the incidence
and distribution of certain historically recognized disease like Rocky Mountain
spotted fever . . . [as well as] paradigm changes in terms of vector and ecology
associations with these pathogens.” In particular, he noted, human activity has
profoundly affected tick-borne infections, which continue to shift in scope and
magnitude.
As an example of this trend, Paddock described recent changes in the epide­
miology of Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF), recognized as the first tick-
borne disease of humans in this country more than 100 years ago. Until a decade
ago, only two vectors were believed to transmit the bacterial pathogen, Rickettsia
rickettsii, the Rocky Mountain wood tick in the East, and the American dog
tick—Dermacentor variabilis—in the West. Neither species inhabits Arizona, yet
in 2003 a boy there died of RMSF, and soon afterward, 14 members of his small
mountain community were found to be infected. Upon investigation, the brown
dog tick—which typically does not bite humans but is present throughout the
Americas and on other continents as well—was identified as the vector in these
cases. The local population of those ticks had exploded, driving them to expand
their host range.
This situation has been duplicated in other Arizona communities such that
Paddock described it at this meeting as the “new normal” of RMSF epidemiol­
ogy in the western United States. In 2011, for example, 77 cases of RMSF were
reported in Arizona, including 6 deaths. Tragically, he added, children less than
10 years of age comprise the majority of RMSF cases vectored by the brown dog
tick, because young children typically share dogs’ habitats more than do other age
groups. More severe outbreaks involving this vector have occurred in Northern
Mexico, he added, resulting in significant mortality. “This may become a border
health issue,” he warned. Increasing numbers of cases are being reported from
cities like Calexico, California, and Nogales, Arizona, involving people who trav­
eled to endemic regions within Mexico and then returned to the United States,
where their symptoms caused them to be hospitalized.
Over the last decade, additional rickettsial diseases have been identified as
distinct from RMSF, Paddock added. Cases of milder R. parkeri rickettsiosis
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 35

(inferred to exist in 1948 by the eponymous R. R. Parker) have been confirmed

in several states since 2004 (Cragun et al., 2010; Paddock et al., 2008). In Cali­
fornia, discovery of the first cases of 364D rickettsiosis has led to the sugges­
tion that this pathogen is behind most cases of “RMSF” in that state (Johnston
et al., 2013). Another relatively mild—and distinct—rickettsiosis was recently
identified in Brazil where RMSF is also present (Angerami et al., 2009). All of
these rickettsioses respond to treatment with doxycycline, Paddock noted, but it
is nevertheless important to distinguish one from another. “If you are going to
accurately describe the clinical features and the epidemiology of these diseases
you really have to know . . . what is causing them,” he insisted.
An analogous situation exists with Borrelia miyamotoi, a tick-borne patho­
gen closely related to the Lyme disease bacterium, Borrelia burgdorferi, Paddock
continued. Patients infected with B. miyamotoi can have antibodies that cross-
react with B. burgdorferi antigens. B. miyamotoi was first associated with human
disease in 2011, and has been detected in ticks in areas where Lyme disease is
endemic in both the northeastern and western United States. The seroprevalence
of B. miyamotoi infection among residents of New England, for example, has
been determined to be as high as 4 percent. Its clinical spectrum remains to be
determined, but the few cases that have been evaluated range from fever to very
severe meningoencephalitis, he said. Meanwhile, novel clinical manifestations
of Lyme disease have been identified, including sudden cardiac death among
patients in their 20s and 30s (CDC, 2013).
The Heartland virus, previously described by Petersen as an emerging
tick-borne disease of newly recognized importance, was first isolated in 2009
from two patients in Missouri who were initially suspected to have ehrlichiosis
(McMullan et al., 2012). All confirmed infections with this virus that have oc­
curred were in men older than 50 years of age, in whom it is a life-threatening
infection, Paddock stated. Cases have been sporadically identified throughout the
range of its vector, the Lone Star tick, he noted, so there are probably many more
unrecognized infections. “It is going to be wherever this tick exists in the United
States, which is also expanding in its range,” he observed.
Explosive population growth among white-tailed deer has surely driven the
expansion and emergence of tick-borne disease in the United States, Paddock
remarked (Paddock and Yabsley, 2007). As many as 30 million deer now inhabit
this country, as compared with an estimated 300,000 animals at the beginning
of the 20th century. Deer are keystone hosts for the two most important vector
species of tick-borne pathogens in the United States, namely black-legged ticks
(Ixodes scapularis), known to transmit at least seven different human diseases,
including Lyme, and Lone Star ticks (Amblyomma americanum), which carry
Heartland virus and two species of Ehrlichia known to cause human disease.
36 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

THE PUBLIC HEALTH RESPONSE

Four speakers described the considerable challenges encountered by public

health organizations in the Americas and Europe as they attempt to identify and
adapt to changing patterns of vector-borne diseases.

Vector-Borne Disease Surveillance and Response

in Latin America and the Caribbean
Many countries in the Americas are endemic to both vector-borne and ne­
glected tropical diseases, which present similar public health challenges, ac­
cording to speaker Luis Gerardo Castellanos of PAHO. PAHO, founded with
the First General International Sanitary Convention of the American Republics
in 1902, is the world’s oldest continually functioning international public health
agency. Today PAHO represents 35 countries that make up nearly one-third of
the world’s land mass, and 14 percent of its population. The organization also
includes associate members, observer states, and participating states representing
territories in the region. PAHO’s initial mission of controlling epidemic diseases
has broadened to include noncommunicable disease control, health education,
and environmental improvements designed to help all people, especially those
in need, he explained.
Yellow fever was the first vector-borne disease to be battled in the Americas,
Castellanos noted. PAHO coordinated 11 countries in an attempt to eliminate
yellow fever and malaria from the Panama Canal Zone, following identification
of their common vector, Ae. aegypti (see section on “History and Current Chal­
lenges of Dengue Vector Control” for a detailed account of this effort and its
aftermath). Currently malaria is endemic in 21 countries represented by PAHO,
and more than 430,000 cases and 82 deaths were reported in 2013—a 64 per­
cent reduction in cases since 2000, he reported. Fourteen member states are free
of local malaria transmission today, he added, and according the WHO, seven
additional countries may soon qualify as malaria free. PAHO has supported this
progress by preparing strategic plans of action that, once approved by a coun­
try’s minister of health, become binding and are documented by annual progress
reports, he explained.
All four serotypes of DENV, also spread by Ae. aegypti, are present and caus­
ing disease throughout Latin America and the Caribbean, according to Castel­
lanos. In 2003, PAHO undertook an integrated management strategy14 to control
the spread of dengue which, in turn, informed the WHO’s Global Strategy for
Dengue Prevention and Control, launched in 2012. That the Americas currently
report more dengue cases, but lower case fatality, than any other global region he

14 See http://www.paho.org/hq/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4501&Itemid=

41038&lang=en (accessed March 25, 2016).

WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 37

attributed to “a very robust surveillance system across all countries” (see Castel­
lanos in Appendix A4).
The emergence of chikungunya in the Americas in late 2013 was anticipated
by PAHO which, in 2010, began developing preparedness plans for the Caribbean
region in collaboration with partners including the CDC and the Institut Pasteur,
Castellanos said. Although these plans were in place by 2012, as of November
2014, more than 900,000 suspected and nearly 16,000 confirmed locally transmit­
ted cases of chikungunya have been reported in the Americas (PAHO, 2014b).
PAHO and its partners have established a network of referral laboratories located
in Argentina, Brazil, Cuba, French Guyana, and the United States to support the
entire region in responding to this challenge.
In the meantime, PAHO continues to pursue elimination of several infectious
diseases throughout the Americas, including onchocerciasis (river blindness) in
Ecuador, which is soon to be declared free of the disease by WHO, according
to Castellanos; Mexico and Guatemala are expected to gain that designation by
2016. He also noted the following vector-borne diseases expected to achieve
elimination: trachoma in Mexico; lymphatic filariasis in Brazil; schistosomiasis
in Suriname, the Dominican Republic, and St. Lucia; malaria in Argentina and
Paraguay; and Chagas disease within several cities, provinces, or departments
of Argentina, Columbia, Mexico, and Peru. Despite these gains, he observed,
“Vector-borne diseases will continue to be a dynamic public health threat to
countries in the Americas.” Governments and international stakeholders must
therefore commit themselves to preventing the further spread of these diseases,
he concluded.

Vector-Borne Disease Emergence and Spread in Europe

The European Union is a hot spot for infectious disease emergence, and
it is highly interconnected with other hot spots internationally, according to
speaker Jan Semenza of the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
(ECDC). Based on a foresight study conducted by ECDC in 2008, Europe is at
risk of vector-borne disease threats owing to anticipated changes in drivers of
infectious diseases by 2020. These predictions were validated in 2013 with an
analysis of the infectious disease threats (and their contributing drivers) that oc­
curred over the preceding 5 years that were identified by epidemic intelligence
at ECDC. Semenza described these studies and their results in more detail (see
Appendix A11) and elaborated on the ECDC’s strategy to tackle these threats
from vector-borne disease emergence.
For their prospective study of infectious disease threats to Europe through
2020, the ECDC first assembled expert panels to identify major drivers of infec­
tious disease in the region, Semenza reported. These were determined to fall into
one of three broad categories: globalization and environmental change; social and
demographic change; and public health systems (Suk and Semenza, 2011). Based
38 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

on the results of an extensive literature review structured around these disease

drivers, the researchers created scenarios to anticipate their influence on eight
likely, significant near-term infectious disease threats to Europe as illustrated
in Figure WO-10. Among them, introductions of vector-borne diseases or shifts
in their transmission were predicted to be driven primarily by trends subsumed
under the category of globalization, migration, and environmental change, as well
as by social inequality (Suk and Semenza, 2011).
To validate the conclusions of this “thought experiment,” as Semenza de­
scribed it, the investigators conducted a retrospective analysis of ECDC epidemic
intelligence data on infectious disease threats to European member states of the
ECDC between July 2008 and December 2013. Among the 116 qualifying public
health events they analyzed, nearly one-quarter involved vector-borne diseases,
Semenza reported. Sixty-one percent of these vector-borne disease threats were
attributed to global and environmental change, he added.
Given the disproportionate contribution of global and environmental change
drivers to vector-borne disease threats in Europe, the ECDC turned to infectious
disease experts for advice in crafting strategies to meet these challenges. Many of
these experts considered climate change to be of particular concern as a driver of
selected vector-borne disease such as Lyme disease, West Nile viral fever, tick-
borne encephalitis, and leishmaniasis, Semenza stated (Semenza et al., 2012).
The arrival and dispersal of tropical pathogens commonly associated with warmer
temperatures is a potential threat to the safety of the blood supply. A ranking of
emerging infectious diseases that can be a threat to substances of human origin
(such as blood cells, tissues, or organs) in the European Union was compiled,
based on an assessment of experts in the field (Semenza and Domanovic, 2013).
The majority of these infectious disease experts also expressed concern that
their national disease surveillance and health systems were unprepared to deal
with the effects of climate change on infectious disease dynamics, Semenza noted
(Semenza et al., 2012). To prioritize surveillance improvements in light of these
public health challenges, ECDC evaluated both notifiable and non-notifiable
infectious diseases in terms of the strength of their link with climate change and
the potential severity of their consequences to society, he said (Lindgren et al.,
2012). Top-ranked diseases, in need of more surveillance activities, included
Lyme disease, dengue fever, tick-borne encephalitis (TBE), Rift Valley fever,
chikungunya, and leishmaniasis, he reported.
To address gaps in surveillance and preparedness, ECDC has built the
European Environment Epidemiology (E3) Network. The E3 Network is built
to monitor environmental precursors of epidemic events, including vector-borne
disease outbreaks, to facilitate a more effective public health response, Semenza
said. “We have compiled and processed a large number of environmental data
that are now available for epidemiologic analysis such as prediction modeling,”
he explained. These data and prediction models are hosted at the E3 Geoportal
(Semenza et al., 2013). The following examples illustrate how data from the
FIGURE WO-10 EID drivers and plausible scenarios.
NOTE: R&D = research and development.

39

SOURCE: Suk and Semenza, 2011. Reproduced with permission from the Sheridan Press, on behalf of the American Public Health Association.

40 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

E3 Geoportal have been used to inform effective public health action to address
vector-borne diseases:

• Following the reintroduction and autochthonous transmission of malaria

to Greece in 2009–2012, environmental data from the E3 Geoportal were
used to develop a multivariate model to identify areas at risk for trans­
mission based on environmental and climatic conditions. These insights
were used to enable targeted pesticide spraying, dedicated surveillance,
and public outreach. Disease transmission was subsequently interrupted,
ending the outbreak in 2013 (Sudre et al., 2013).
• The risk for transmission of TBE in certain areas of southern Sweden was
characterized with environmental data from the E3 Geoportal. By delin­
eating these areas environmentally suitable for transmission, residents
and tourists can be alerted to the risks and targeted with vaccination cam­
paigns; the same approach could potentially be expanded to other areas
at risk for TBE in northern Europe.
• The relationship between temperature deviations from the mean and
WNV infections were assessed during the WNV outbreaks in Europe in
2010. Environmental and meteorological data (July temperature) from the
E3 Geoportal were used to develop a predictive model of WNV that can
now be used to predict outbreak areas in the future (Paz et al., 2013; Tran
et al., 2014).
• The risk for dengue importation into Europe was modeled for 2010 with
air passenger volume from dengue active areas internationally. These
analyses can be used in the future to predict the airports most at risk and
the timing of potential onward transmission in the destination country
(Semenza et al., 2014).
• Similarly, these data were also used to identify spatiotemporal risk param­
eters for chikungunya importation into Europe from the Americas.

In addition to these applications of the E3 Network, the ECDC has compiled

a handbook with practical climate change adaptation measures for infectious dis­
eases: Climate Change and Communicable Diseases in the EU Member States15
(Ebi et al., 2013). “By monitoring the environmental precursors of disease we
hope to be able to help forecasting and predicting these patterns of disease emer­
gence in order to enhance preparedness and reduce human and economic costs,
particularly in resource strapped regions in Europe,” Semenza concluded.

15 See http://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications/Publications/1003_TED_handbook_climatechange.

pdf (accessed March 25, 2016).

WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 41

Loss of Arbovirus Disease Surveillance Capacity in the United States

Before discussing the findings of a recent assessment of national capacity
for arbovirus surveillance, speaker James Hadler of Yale University described
the structure of public health surveillance in the United States. His review em­
phasized that surveillance for diseases of public health importance is a state
function. Even in the case of nationally notifiable conditions, states collect and
transmit information to the CDC as they see fit. He also noted that 80 percent of
all surveillance by state health departments is federally funded (mainly through
the CDC) and that, as a condition of funding, the CDC can require standardized
surveillance methods and reporting.
Hadler noted that arboviruses such as WNV are of particular interest to
public health—and therefore candidates for surveillance—for several reasons.
Some cause severe morbidity and death; they are associated with large, rapidly
developing outbreaks with the potential to overwhelm the health care system;
they can be transmitted through the blood supply (or via organ transplant) as well
as by insects; and both the infections and outbreaks they cause are potentially
preventable if we know which arboviruses are present and the level of threat as­
sociated with them.
Before the emergence of WNV in the United States in 1999, no federal
funding supported state or local surveillance for arboviral infections, which was
limited largely to the voluntary reporting of human and animal cases of several
types of encephalitis—and in several states was nonexistent, Hadler stated. That
year federal funding for WNV surveillance was distributed from the CDC to the
affected states through a cooperative agreement program known as Epidemiology
and Laboratory Capacity (ELC). By 2004, WNV had reached every state except
Washington, Alaska, and Hawaii, and ELC funding and guidance were extended
to all 50 states and six major cities or counties. Also, by 2004, the ArboNET
electronic national reporting system (previously discussed by Petersen) was
collecting information from every state on avian mortality and surveillance of
sentinel birds, horses, mosquitoes, and human infections. A 2005 Council of State
and Territorial Epidemiologists (CSTE) survey of state and selected local health
departments found that federal funding had enabled the development of broad-
based, multisectorial WNV surveillance capacity in all states and recommended
that states be permitted to expand the use of ELC funding to more broadly address
vector-borne disease surveillance (CDC, 2006).
This recommendation was implemented, Hadler said, but as neuroinvasive
cases declined rapidly after peaking in 2003, annual ELC funding for WNV
surveillance gradually shrunk from $24 million in 2004 to $9 million in 2012, as
shown in Figure WO-11. In 2012, however, neuroinvasive West Nile viral disease
cases spiked to levels not seen in nearly a decade. “It was clear that WNV still
had the potential to cause large-scale outbreaks, measurable not just locally, but
nationwide,” he observed. In response to this development, and also to the threat
of other emerging arboviruses such as DENV and CHIKV, CSTE—in partnership
42 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE WO-11 ELC funding support for West Nile virus surveillance and number of

people with West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease, 2000–2012.

NOTE: WNV = West Nile virus.

SOURCE: Hadler et al., 2014 (CDC).

with state health departments and additional public health organizations—set

out to examine how arbovirus surveillance capacity had changed through years
of lean ELC funding. Their follow-up assessment found that since 2004, while
nearly all states continued to conduct at least passive human disease surveillance,
22 percent of jurisdictions had stopped conducting active human surveillance,
13 percent had stopped mosquito surveillance, 70 percent had reduced mosquito
trapping and testing, and 64 percent had eliminated avian mortality surveillance
(Hadler et al., 2014).
Hadler reported that state surveillance capacity has decreased substantially
since 2004, particularly with respect to conducting active human surveillance (in­
cluding offering testing), mosquito surveillance, and laboratory resources. “From
our perspective this has really reached a tipping point in some states,” he said.
Due in part to decreases in ELC funding, he observed, “The ability to rapidly
detect emerging and outbreak level threats and thus initiate prevention activities
has clearly been compromised.” The CSTE report recommends that the CDC
examine national arboviral surveillance capacity and secure additional support
as needed to ensure mosquito surveillance occurs in all metropolitan areas with
historically high West Nile viral disease burden (Hadler et al., 2014).
Hadler characterized current national capacity to conduct surveillance for
vector-borne pathogens other than WNV as “very patchy,” partly because of
limited laboratory capacity at the state and local levels. CSTE estimates that a
50 to 60 percent increase in full-time employees will be required to enable state
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 43

and local health departments to meet their criteria for “full capacity” arbovirus
surveillance (Hadler et al., 2014). According to Hadler, public health jurisdictions
at “full capacity” for arbovirus surveillance meet the following three criteria:

1. They have the ability to complete a standard case report form on every
suspected/confirmed case and report it to ArboNET.
2. They have the ability to test by IgM for all relevant arboviruses on any
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)/serum specimen submitted on a suspected case
of arboviral disease.
3. They have a surveillance system that includes mosquito surveillance to
routinely monitor both larval and adult arboviral activity in all parts of
the jurisdiction in which there is the potential for human outbreaks of
arboviral disease based on past experience.

In subsequent discussions, workshop participants considered how to address

the issue of inadequate surveillance for mosquito-borne diseases in particular.
Both Petersen and Margolis noted that while mosquito surveillance proved a good
early indicator of outbreaks of West Nile fever, that is not the case for dengue, nor
might it be for chikungunya. Petersen noted that surveillance for mosquito-borne
diseases in the continental United States is limited largely to Culex mosquitoes,
which are very different from the Aedes species.
Moreover, Petersen said, mosquito-based surveillance is useful for prevent­
ing or controlling outbreaks only if it generates a speedy response. “Really, we
want to aim to build local capacity for mosquito-based surveillance. They are
the ones making the decisions. They need to make them quickly.” To this end,
forum member Roger Breeze of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory rec­
ommended that health departments take advantage of technological advances,
such as multiplex PCR, to expedite pathogen analysis. “We are still stuck in a
very 1990s paradigm, and bemoaning the fact that we don’t have lots of people
doing 1990s technology that you can do with a machine,” he observed. He also
noted that the Department of Defense is attempting to develop “a completely
autonomous system to analyze what [pathogens are] . . . flying around in the
mosquito and report to you.”

Blood Donation Screening for Vector-Borne Diseases

Beginning with syphilis testing in 1938, and increasingly since the emer­
gence of HIV in the early 1980s, blood donations in the United States have
been screened for a growing number of pathogens, according to speaker Susan
Stramer, of the American Red Cross. Many vector-borne disease agents have
been shown to be, or suspected to be capable of, transfusion transmission, which
is important because of the large, explosive nature of outbreaks caused by these
agents. Few interventions for such agents are available, and treatments can be
44 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

costly with the development of new therapeutics likely to be slow, she observed.
Thus, vector-borne diseases figure prominently among those infectious diseases
deemed threats to the U.S. blood supply,16 as determined by the AABB (formerly
the American Association of Blood Banks). To estimate the magnitude of such
a threat, she explained, researchers attempt to answer a series of key questions
about the pathogen and the disease it causes, including

• Does the disease have an asymptomatic blood-borne phase, enabling

donors who feel and appear well to transmit it?
• Does the pathogen survive through blood component preparation, distri­
bution, and storage?
• How severe is the disease? What is the outcome in those who are
immunosuppressed?
• Is the disease treatable?
• Is the pathogen present in the donor population? If so, is it increasing or
decreasing?
• Does the public fear this pathogen (whether or not that fear is justified)?
• What intervention(s) would effectively protect the blood supply from this
pathogen? (Dodd, 2012)

Such questions have been incorporated into models such as one Stramer
described called the European Upfront Risk Analysis Tool,17 which estimates
transmission risk in blood. In her presentation to the workshop, she described
recent and current attempts to assess and address the transfusion-associated trans­
mission risk posed by several emerging vector-borne pathogens. Each of these
pathogens, she noted, has been addressed on a case-by-case basis. Collectively,
they illustrate the need to create decision-making processes for protecting the
blood supply from the wide range of vector-borne pathogens.

Lessons from WNV

The response to WNV serves as a model of success in recognizing and pre­
venting transfusion-associated transmission of a vector-borne disease, Stramer
said. Although most WNV infections are asymptomatic, interventions introduced
less than 1 year after the first transfusion-associated cases were identified greatly

16 The August 2009 issue of Transfusion included a supplement on emerging infectious disease

(Stramer et al.) agents and their potential threat to transfusion safety. Members of AABB’s Transfu­
sion Transmitted Diseases Committee identified 68 infectious agents and described them in detail,
providing background information about each agent, along with a variety of assessments such as the
clinical features of the agent and those characteristics specifically related to transfusion transmission.
New fact sheets on emerging threats and updates to previously published fact sheets are also available.
See http://www.aabb.org/tm/eid/Pages/default.aspx for details (accessed March 25, 2016).
17 See http://eufrattool.ecdc.europa.eu.
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 45

reduced exposure to the virus, she stated. Continued refinement of testing pro­
cedures has further decreased “breakthrough” transmission. To date, more than
3,700 WNV-positive donations have been removed from the blood supply, she
reported.
WNV taught stewards of the U.S. blood supply several important lessons,
Stramer noted. It was their first experience in dealing with a transfusion-
transmissible infection that was an acute, rather than chronic infection, like
HIV, or hepatitis B or C viruses. While recognizing the potential of nucleic acid
testing to provide rapid results, they also discovered that testing pooled blood
samples—which can save both time and cost—may be insufficiently sensitive to
low levels of virus, she said.

The DENV Conundrum

Like WNV, DENV frequently produces asymptomatic infections, Stramer
observed. There is as yet no Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-licensed
screening test for DENV. Investigational testing under way in Puerto Rico since
2010, however, has produced comparable results to established WNV protocols,
she reported. In retrospective tests of more than 15,000 blood donations acquired
at the peak of the Puerto Rican dengue epidemic, about 1 in 500 samples tested
positive for DENV (Stramer et al., 2012).
On the other hand, only three clusters of transfusion-associated DENV
transmission have been reported, in Hong Kong, Puerto Rico, and Singapore
(updated data, however, indicate seven clusters). This does not appear to be an
artifact of inadequate surveillance, Stramer said. She noted, however, that it is
often difficult to distinguish mosquito-borne from blood-borne cases of dengue
in developing countries, where even hospitalized patients may be significantly
exposed to mosquito bites. It is also possible that either immunosuppression or
the simultaneous receipt of antibodies to DENV in transfused blood may reduce
apparent transfusion-associated infections, she added. Lastly, recognition of den­
gue symptoms in severely ill patients may be difficult against the background
of underlying disease in the recipient. Alternatively, as Rico-Hesse suggested,
amplifying factors in mosquito saliva may significantly increase the effectiveness
of vector-borne transmission.

Responses to CHIKV
Like DENV, blood donated within the United States is not presently being
routinely screened for CHIKV RNA, Stramer reported. However, unlike DENV
infection, which CHIKV resembles in terms of the progress of viremia and anti­
body development, approximately three in four cases of chikungunya infection
are symptomatic, she noted. This would tend to reduce the number of infected
donors, and also theoretically make it possible to intercept donations from people
46 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

who report postdonation symptoms within a few days. To date, there have been
no documented CHIKV transmissions associated with blood transfusions, but
this may also be caused by the limitations noted above for DENV, she reported.
Blood screening and other preventive measures have been taken in response
to epidemic chikungunya elsewhere in the world, most notably after an explo­
sive outbreak on the Indian Ocean island of Réunion between 2005 and 2007,
in which more than 40 percent of the island’s inhabitants became infected with
CHIKV. This viral strain—which acquired a mutation that increased its ability
to replicate in Ae. Albopictus—was eventually introduced to northern Italy, and
from there spread through Europe. Upon recognition of this introduction, blood
collection was halted in at-risk areas of northern Italy, and in France, donors who
had recently traveled to Réunion were deferred and nucleic acid testing for the
virus was instituted, she said. The French also used this crisis to test a process
known as platelet pathogen inactivation, which employs a broad-spectrum agent
to prevent blood-borne transmission, which they found to be both safe and effec­
tive (Rasongles et al., 2009). The local collection of platelets, with an interven­
tion, was required because of the short shelf life of platelets. Similar processes
have since been shown to inactivate other pathogens, including DENV, in plasma
and other blood products (Musso et al., 2014). Subsequent to this report (Decem­
ber 2014), the FDA cleared the process for use in the United States.
CHIKV was detected in blood samples from Caribbean donors within a few
months of its emergence there (Gallian et al., 2014). Concerns about the blood
supply in Puerto Rico, which has become endemic for CHIKV, and in the United
States at large, have been discussed and are summarized below (Katz, 2014):

• Do nothing and watch, as we did before the emergence of WNV in

summer 2002, responding if and when transfusion-transmission risk is
demonstrated.
• Enhance our ability to identify the approximately 80 percent of donors
who would be expected to have symptoms, by effectively eliciting call­
backs by donors who get sick after a donation, so that we can recall their
products.
• Understand donor travel and temporal donation patterns following travel,
allowing us to model the effects of a short-term deferral for travel to af­
fected areas. While operationally challenging, this may mitigate many
acute tropical virus “sins.” (Stramer added, “We can temporarily stop
collections in areas where we see focal outbreaks”; however, this is not
sustainable and is costly.)
• Engage our test builders to have “on-the-shelf” nucleic acid assays to
detect CHIKV using available test platforms. (Stramer characterized this
option as cost prohibitive.)
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 47

An option not listed above could use pathogen inactivation systems as used by the
French in Réunion to inactivate CHIKV as well as other emerging arboviruses.
In August 2014, under administrative order by the Puerto Rican Ministry of
Health, blood donation centers began asking potential donors whether they or
anyone in their neighborhood had experienced either symptoms or a diagnosis
of CHIKV and/or DENV, and they told donors repeatedly to report postdonation
symptoms within 3 days (and in the case of platelet or plasma donors, to confirm
their symptom-free status if contacted, or their donation would be discarded).
This order was subsequently modified to allow the use of pathogen-reduction
systems available as licensed or through treatment-use studies.
Like CHIKV, no transmission of the recently emerged Zika virus has
been reported to date, even though it is very closely related to DENV, accord­
ing to Stramer; however, similar interventions have been taken to prevent its
transfusion-associated transmission. In Oceana, she observed, “They have multiple
outbreaks ongoing simultaneously: there is Zika, dengue viruses -1, -2, and -3, and
chikungunya [virus], so the three can occur quite successfully together.” Because
of these risks, several research blood donation screening interventions and patho­
gen reduction have been introduced in remote settings where importing blood
components is not feasible, she explained.

Low Threat for Chagas

Few cases of blood-borne Chagas disease have occurred in the United States,
Stramer reported, and blood-borne transmissions have only been documented
by platelets, due to the fragility of the parasite (platelets are stored at room tem­
perature and agitated to promote oxygen availability, likely enhancing survival
of the parasite over their 5-day shelf life). Those transmission-associated cases
that have occurred involved long-infected donors who came from endemic areas,
she said. An extensive incidence study that followed over 4 million donors and
greater than 6 million person-years of observation over the course of 4 years
did not find any cases of incident infection, thus supporting a policy of selective
testing involving testing each donor only once. The risk of missing a new case of
infection was estimated 0.61 per million. Meanwhile, among more than 24 mil­
lion donations screened between 2007 and 2014, the American Red Cross found
about 1 in 36,000 positive donors, she stated.

Documenting and Preventing Transfusion-Associated Babesiosis

Of several tick-borne pathogens of concern to the blood supply, parasites of
the genus Babesia—which infect red blood cells—are the most important, ac­
cording to Stramer. General mortality for babesiosis, a malaria-like illness, ranges
from 6 to 9 percent, but it is much higher for transfused recipients with underly­
ing comorbidities and for other typically vulnerable patients, she observed.
48 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

There are hundreds of apparent transfusion-associated cases of babesiosis

primarily confined to the northeastern United States and upper Midwest, she
said, but fewer than 170 cases have been well documented. There is no FDA-
licensed screening test for Babesia microti, the agent responsible for nearly all
transfusion transmissions. Current interventions are limited to questions asked of
donors, such as “Have you had babesiosis?” Potential improvements should not
include questioning patients about their history of tick bites, since most donors
do not know if they have been bitten, and if they have, which includes up to 9
percent of donors in endemic areas, such donors likely removed attached ticks
during the grace period prior to B. microti infection. The only currently realistic
intervention is to test all donations in endemic U.S. states for B. microti using
both antibody and DNA tests. Investigational testing, including a retrospective
study of donated blood, supports the use of these tests as an intervention against
further blood-borne transmission of B. microti (Moritz et al., 2014).

ASSESSING AND ADDRESSING DRIVERS

OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASES

Three workshop speakers described diverse research efforts to investigate

a spectrum of factors that potentially influence the transmission dynamics of
vector-borne diseases, and to elucidate their mechanisms of action.

Weather, Agriculture, Climate, and Outbreak Patterns

Recent weather extremes have influenced agricultural production and created
conditions conducive to outbreaks of certain vector-borne diseases, according
to speaker Ken Linthicum of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (Anyamba
et al., 2014; see adaptation, Linthicum et al., in Appendix A7). He described
how he and coworkers investigated a series of extreme weather events between
2010 and 2012 that strongly affected agricultural production in major growing
regions of Australia, East Africa, Russia, Southern Africa, and the continental
United States—and where, sometimes simultaneously, outbreaks of vector-borne
diseases (including dengue, Rift Valley fever, and West Nile virus disease) oc­
curred. Using satellite data that track both vegetation density and land surface
temperature, along with data on rainfall during the growing season, the research­
ers mapped anomalous conditions in these areas in detail, and compared these
locations with places where major vector-borne disease outbreaks occurred dur­
ing this period.
Linthicum and coworkers observed, for example, that when Texas experi­
enced a 100-year drought in 2012, the overall vegetation index declined by 66
percent, production of cotton—a major crop—was cut in half, and a record-
setting outbreak of West Nile virus disease erupted, he said. Drought in East
Africa resulted in a loss of sorghum production at the same time as a large dengue
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 49

outbreak. Meanwhile, in areas where there was increased rainfall during this
period, as occurred in southern Africa and southeast Australia, corn and cotton
production increased coincident with outbreaks of Rift Valley fever in south­
ern Africa, and Murray Valley encephalitis18 outbreaks took place in Australia
(Anyamba et al., 2014).
In addition to these acute, short-term impacts of weather anomalies, shifts in
climate affect vector-borne disease patterns over the long term, Linthicum stated.
There is a close link between the climate fluctuation phenomenon known as the
El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO)—as illustrated in Figure WO-12—and
global rainfall anomalies.
Global patterns of floods and droughts influence the emergence, propagation,
and survival of mosquito vectors and ultimately the transmission of mosquito-
borne pathogens associated with diseases that include Rift Valley fever, dengue
and dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF), and chikungunya, he explained (Anyamba
et al., 2012; see adaptation, Linthicum et al., in Appendix A7). The result, he
observed, is “episodic patterns of disease outbreaks that are in tune with climate
variability.” For example, he noted:

• Hot and dry periods that occur during El Niño events in Southeast Asia
have preceded significant peaks in DHF cases.
• Chikungunya outbreaks occurring between 2004 and 2010 were in some
locations associated with extremely hot temperatures and/or drought, but
in others with extremely wet conditions (Anyamba et al., 2012).
• In the Horn of Africa, recent outbreak clusters of chikungunya (2004−2006)
were associated with severe drought, and Rift Valley fever (2006−2009)
with heavy rainfall (Anyamba et al., 2012).
• Plasmodium vivax malaria reemerged in the Republic of Korea (post-
eradication in the late 1970s) in 1993 during an extremely hot and dry
period, and gained in incidence during subsequent periods of similar
conditions (Linthicum et al., 2014).
• Global sea surface temperatures and rainfall patterns during the spring,
summer, and fall 2014, and winter-spring of 2015, suggested that an El
Niño event was imminent (see Figure WO-13). Figure WO-14 illustrates
predicted regions of elevated risk for outbreaks of several vector-borne
diseases if such an event occurred in 2014–2015.

18 Murray Valley encephalitis (MVEV) is caused by a mosquito-borne virus that is found across

Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Irian Jaya. MVEV is endemic to northern Australia and causes
occasional outbreaks across southeastern Australia. 2011 saw a dramatic increase in MVEV activity
in endemic regions and the reemergence of MVEV in southeastern Australia. This followed significant
regional flooding and increased numbers of the main mosquito vector, Culex annulirostris, and was
evident from the widespread seroconversion of sentinel chickens, fatalities among horses, and several
cases in humans, resulting in at least three deaths. The last major outbreak in Australia was in 1974,
during which 58 cases were identified and the mortality rate was about 20 percent (Knox et al., 2012).
50 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE WO-12 Summary correlation map between monthly NINO3.4 SST and rainfall
anomalies, 1979–2008. Correlation of sea surface temperatures and rainfall anomalies
illustrate ENSO teleconnection patterns. There is a tendency for above (below) normal
rainfall during El Niño (La Niña) events over East Africa (Southern Africa, Southeast
Asia). Similar differential anomaly patterns were observed for other regions, especially
within the global tropics. These extremes (above or below) in rainfall influence regional
ecology and consequently dynamics of mosquito disease vector populations and patterns

of mosquito-borne disease outbreaks.

SOURCE: Anyamba et al., 2012. Available from PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases under

Creative Commons license.

While extremes of temperature and precipitation have significant implica­

tions for the emergence and spread of vector-borne diseases, the magnitude
of ENSO influence on some of these extremes cannot currently be predicted,
Linthicum cautioned. Disease transmission dynamics in different environments
and populations may vary widely, he observed, reflecting a broad spectrum of
influences on vector species, vector population sizes, and vectorial capacity.
Nevertheless, he continued, “There’s obviously a need to invest in early ground
surveillance during periods of unusual weather conditions”—including rapid field
diagnostics for vector identification and virus isolation.
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 51

FIGURE WO-13 Global sea surface temperature anomalies for April 2015 expressed in
degrees Celsius with respect to the 1982–2014 base mean period. Positive anomalies in
the equatorial eastern Pacific Ocean are a manifestation of the late maturing 2014–2015
El Niño event and may portend continued El Niño conditions through the summer and
fall of 2015.

SOURCES: NOAA, 2015; Reynolds et al., 2002.

Globalization, Land Use, Global Warming,

and the Invasion of West Nile Virus
Continuing the discussion on WNV, A. Marm Kilpatrick of the University
of California, Santa Cruz, described its emergence in the United States as a case
study in the intersection of multiple disease drivers, including novel pathogen
introductions, land use, climate change, and the evolution of pathogen, host, and
vector, as illustrated in Figure WO-15 (Kilpatrick, 2011) (see also Appendix A6).
While West Nile viral disease patterns are often characterized as complex, he
noted, “I think it’s actually our job as scientists to take that complexity and
distill it down to those factors that matter the most.” Hence in his presentation,
he posed—and to a large extent, answered—a series of questions intended to
accomplish this goal.
How might WNV have arrived in North America? There are five main
vehicles for such zoonotic vector-borne pathogens, Kilpatrick stated: infected
humans, wind-transported mosquitoes, human-transported mosquitoes (e.g., on
planes or boats), human-transported nonhuman hosts (e.g., poultry), and migra­
tory hosts (e.g., birds). Using mathematical models of these scenarios, Kilpatrick
and coworkers projected that WNV was most likely to be introduced to Hawaii
(Kilpatrick et al., 2004) and the Galapagos (Kilpatrick et al., 2006) by mosquitoes
 52

FIGURE WO-14 Potential El Niño regional teleconnections with patterns of vector-borne disease, rodent-borne disease, water-borne disease,
and environment-linked respiratory illness patterns.
NOTE: CHIK = chikungunya; CHOL = cholera; DENG = dengue fever; HFRS = hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome; HPS = hantavirus

pulmonary syndrome; MAL = malaria; PL = plague; RI = respiratory illness; RVF = Rift Valley fever.

SOURCE: Chretien et al., 2015. Available from PLoS Current Outbreaks under Creative Commons license.

WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 53

FIGURE WO-15 Anthropogenic processes that facilitate the introduction and establish­
ment of novel pathogens and increase their transmission. Trade, travel, and animal move­
ment introduce new pathogens. Climate, hosts, and the abundance and feeding ecology
of vectors determine establishment and transmission intensity. Land use modifies animal
communities that serve as hosts and vectors for pathogens, and climate change alters
pathogen and vector demographic rates. [Image credits: Google and Tele Atlas (aerial
photos); Edward Canda (rice paddy); Photos8.com (cornfield); L. Hufnagel (air traffic
map); Dori (dori@merr.info) (smokestacks); Joe Hoyt (left mosquito); Andrew Flemming
(right mosquito); Richard Kuhn, Purdue Department of Biological Sciences (virus); NASA
(clouds); Marm Kilpatrick (others)].
SOURCE: Kilpatrick, 2011, © AAAS.

that arrived on airplanes, but that migratory birds would provide an easier entry
for WNV into the Caribbean (Douglas et al., 2007), he explained.

Key WNV Vectors and Hosts

What are the important vectors and hosts for WNV in the United States?
Taking a quantitative approach, Kilpatrick and coworkers determined that in
New York—where the epidemic began—only two of the more than 170 species
of North American mosquitoes—Culex pipiens and Culex restuans—dominated
WNV transmission among both birds and humans (Kilpatrick et al., 2005). These
54 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

two species were similarly dominant vectors of WNV in the Washington, D.C.,
area (Kilpatrick unpublished data, 2004−2012); in Colorado, C. pipiens and Cu-
lex tarsalis are the primary vectors of WNV (Kilpatrick and Pape, 2013). Such
information is crucial to targeted vector control, he observed.
Kilpatrick also noted several reasons for identifying the primary hosts of
an introduced vector-borne disease: in order to direct wildlife vaccination or
cull host species, should those measures be adopted; to predict hot spots for
epidemic disease; and to map temporal-spatial variation in transmission. In the
case of WNV, that means identifying which among hundreds of North American
bird species are likeliest to transmit the virus. Their quantitative approach led
them to the American robin, which proved both highly infectious to WNV, and
highly preferred by mosquitoes, he reported (Hamer et al., 2011; Kilpatrick et
al., 2006). Thus, he concluded, “It turns out that really there are relatively few
mosquito [species] involved in any given place in West Nile Virus transmission,
and even relatively few bird [species] involved as well, and I think that’s actu­
ally quite good news.” Kilpatrick quickly noted that he and coworkers found
that WNV has evolved since its introduction to be transmitted more efficiently
by mosquitoes (Kilpatrick et al., 2008), and also to more efficiently infect birds
(Duggal et al., 2014).

Urbanization and WNV Transmission

Briefly summarizing a large body of research on factors influencing spatial
variation in West Nile transmission, Kilpatrick noted abundant evidence that
transmission intensity is higher in urban areas; however, he added, the mecha­
nisms driving that pattern remain to be determined. His own investigations sug­
gest that one reason is an increase of larval habitat for mosquitoes in urban areas,
which increases the density of vectors that transmit WNV. Another reason is that
vector species in the forests differ from those in urban settings, and the urban
vector, C. pipiens, feeds on an especially infective host, the American robin, he
stated.
This research also led Kilpatrick to conclude that spatial variation in WNV
transmission must be understood on a smaller scale. In the Washington, DC, area,
for example, he and coworkers found that mosquito traps placed as close as 100
meters will vary widely both in the number of mosquitoes they capture, and the
percentage of those mosquitoes infected with WNV. Based on these observations
he concluded, “The proper scale for analyzing transmission is probably in the
tens of meters.” Castellanos of the PAHO came to a similar conclusion based on
PAHO’s surveys of malaria transmission in Latin America. “We have made the
analysis down to a house unit, and we have houses producing malaria repetitively
and houses not producing malaria,” he reported. On the other hand, Kilpatrick
noted, there is significant variation at higher scales as well—encompassing dif­
ferent types of land uses, such as open fields versus parking lots. It may actually
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 55

be possible to predict patterns in WNV transmission at the small scale based on

an understanding of both spatial and temporal drivers, he observed.

Environmental Influences on Malaria Transmission

Speaker Matt Thomas of Pennsylvania State University expanded upon
the discussion of small-scale variations in vector-borne disease transmission by
considering the effects of temperature. Far more immediate than the anticipated
effects of climate change, daily temperature ranges and extremes in temperature
influence pathogen transmission, he stated, and these effects are tempered by
other environmental factors—claims he illustrated with examples from his work
on malaria.

Diurnal Temperature Range

Malaria, Thomas observed, is the most important and longest studied of all
vector-borne diseases, yet there remain “massive gaps in our knowledge.” Tak­
ing what he termed a mechanistic approach, he began his remarks by explaining
the components of vectorial capacity, a measure of the transmission potential
of a vector population (a specific mosquito species, in the case of malaria). The
vectorial capacity equation incorporates variables representing the density of vec­
tor species in a given area, their rate of biting and of feeding, their longevity as
compared with the developmental period of the pathogen (the malarial parasite),
and the degree of vector competence: in this case, how effectively the mosquito
picks up the parasite, harbors it and supports its development, and transmits it to
the host (humans or experimental animals).
Temperature has long been considered a key driver of malaria transmis­
sion because the ecology, physiology, and behavior of the mosquito vector—an
ectoderm—are strongly influenced by variations in temperature, Thomas said. All
of the previously noted contributors to malarial vector capacity are strongly and
differently affected by temperature in nonlinear ways, he reported (Mordecai et
al., 2013). Despite this fact, experiments examining the effects of temperature on
various aspects of vector capacity have been conducted over a range of tempera­
tures, but at constant temperature within each experimental cohort. For example,
he said, researchers measuring the effect of temperature on mosquito develop­
ment rate might measure that trait in separate mosquito populations in incubators
set constantly at 20°C, 25°C, 30°C, and 35°C, to represent the possible range of
mean monthly temperatures in the mosquito’s natural environment. However,
recent studies comparing malaria transmission within traditional mud huts and
modern brick and tin homes in Tanzania found significant differences that were
ascribable not to the mean temperature (which was largely equivalent between the
two dwelling types), but to the diurnal temperature range, which could be much
broader in the tin-roofed huts (von Seidlein et al., 2012).
56 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

As a result of this finding, Thomas and coworkers have been studying the
effects of diurnal variation on vector competence in the Asian malaria vector
Anopheles stephensi. Using incubators programmed to run at a constant tempera­
ture, or at that same temperature as its mean, but with variable diurnal highs and
lows around it, the researchers monitored the development rate and survivorship
of mosquito larvae (Paaijmans et al., 2013). The results, shown in Figure WO-16,
reveal that while diurnal temperature variation did not have a significant effect
on survivorship under optimum mean temperature conditions, similar variation
under high average temperature conditions slows development, he reported—and
“the bigger the daily temperature variation the worse things get,” he said. “This is
rather an important result,” he added, because these effects would not be discern-
able in an experiment that did not feature variations in temperature. Moreover,
he added, “You get the reverse effect at the cold end: temperature variation
matters there too, but actually it makes things better.” For example, he noted,
at a constant temperature of 18°C, few larvae survive, but many more do if the
temperature varies diurnally around that mean. Thus, he concluded, “You can’t
define the upper or lower limit for this mosquito’s survivorship simply based on

FIGURE WO-16 Influence of temperature fluctuation on larval development and survival

of Anopheles stephensi.
NOTE: DTR = daily temperature range.

SOURCE: © Paaijmans et al., 2013. Published in Global Change Biology, John Wiley

& Sons Ltd.

WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 57

mean temperatures. [Yet] all the models, all the studies that we do, nearly all of
them use mean temperatures.” Those include recent, apparently promising at­
tempts to stably infect mosquitoes with the endosymbiotic bacterium, Wolbachia,
and thereby interrupt transmission of the malarial parasite to humans (Murdock
et al., 2014).
Thomas also shared results of recent experiments examining additional ef­
fects of temperature on vector competence in A. stephensi, as well as in A. gam­
biae, the most important African mosquito vector for P. falciparum, the most
important human malarial parasite. Given a meal of infected blood, they asked,
how did temperature affect the proportion of mosquitos that became infectious?
At the standard temperature for raising mosquito vectors of malaria, 27°C, about
half of the mosquitoes of both species became infected, he reported; if the mean
temperature increases, fewer mosquitoes become infected. Diurnal temperature
range exaggerates this effect, and at high temperatures and broad range, inhibits
infection altogether, they found. Thomas and coworkers found a similar pattern of
temperature effects on the proportion of A. stephensi that actually harbored sporo­
zoites in their salivary glands following an infected blood meal—the mosquitoes
that, Thomas noted, “are the ones that can actually transmit the disease . . . the
ones that are going to kill you.” However, in this case, A. gambiae responded
far less strongly to both mean temperature and to diurnal temperature variation.
It would be very informative to collect microenvironmental data in many
different locations actually inhabited by mosquitoes, rather than in insectaries or
other artificial settings, Thomas suggested—for example, within houses. “What’s
the temperature in the house? We don’t actually know,” he acknowledged. “We
need to go out and do the leg work.”

Larval Nutrition
The quality of habitat available to mosquito larvae can vary greatly within
a short time (e.g., whether it is a wet or dry year) and also within a small geo­
graphic space, as the result of land use changes that may affect larval nutrition.
Little work has been conducted to measure the effects of such variations in larval
habitat quality on the ability of adult mosquitoes to transmit malaria, according to
Thomas—a question he and colleagues are now attempting to address.
In their recently completed study of A. stephensi infected with P. falciparum
malaria, larvae were raised in either “high-food” or “low-food” environments that
differed threefold in the quantity of available food. Adult mosquitoes emerging
from the “high-food” environment were significantly more likely than the “low-
food” adults to be infected with the parasite, particularly at the sporozoite stage,
Thomas reported. “That’s just the vector competence component of the vectorial
capacity equation,” he noted. The investigators also measured the impact of food
availability on additional variables including vector density, biting rate, survival,
and how quickly the malaria parasite developed within them. When compared on
58 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

the basis of complete vectorial capacity, they found a 45-fold difference in trans­
mission potential between the two groups, favoring the high-food mosquitoes.
Could these findings be applied to vector control? Perhaps, Thomas re­
marked, in the sense that habitat manipulation strategies—already a keystone
of integrated vector management—should target larval habitats. However, he
added, the main purpose of these nutritional studies is to better understand how
changes in the quality of larval habitats influence patterns of seasonality in ma­
laria transmission.

Small Changes with Large Effects?

In contrast to climate change, with its event horizon measured in decades,
the environmental changes Thomas described can happen overnight, he ob­
served—and their impacts on the risk for vector-borne disease transmission can
be dramatic. Very few of the many modeling and empirical studies that have
been conducted in an attempt to predict future patterns of disease, or to explain
current variations in transmission risk, take such short-term effects into account,
he observed.
Reflecting on earlier speculation by Kilpatrick that many small-scale effects
on transmission either cancel each other out or amount to little more than noise
as compared with a very few important influences in a given disease system,
Thomas observed that without measuring such effects, we cannot be certain of
their magnitude. Moreover, he later noted, “If we’re going to understand local
transmission and understand better the consequences of change in a local con­
text, then we really need to think about understanding the local ecology and the
sympatric pairings between those vectors and the parasites.”

Perspectives on Disease Drivers

Global Change and Transmission Risk

In the discussion that followed these presentations, and also in comments
raised in earlier sessions, several participants expressed concern that dispropor­
tionate attention was being paid to the potential influence of climate change on
transmission risk for vector-borne diseases, and particularly for West Nile viral
disease, where evidence for climate and temperature effects appears particularly
thin. “Are we really focusing on the right type of global change by doing so
much work on issues around climate change, when really the impact of WNV
in the United States may vary with temperature, or it may not?” asked forum
member Peter Daszak, of EcoHealth Alliance. Instead, he suggested, it seems
that trade routes, travel, globalization, and land use change issues may be the
most potent drivers of vector-borne disease transmission over the next two to
three decades.
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 59

Kilpatrick agreed, asserting that the total number of West Nile viral disease
cases driven by changes in either temperature or precipitation is orders of mag­
nitude lower than those driven by changes in land use—and that the same could
be said about many vector-borne diseases, because land use changes increase
humans’ exposure to biting vectors and, thereby, to disease. Climate does have
an impact on transmission, he explained, and climate change may increase trans­
mission in certain circumstances, such as at the geographical limits of vector
distribution (Siraj et al., 2014). Mercedes Pascal’s group has been looking for
climate links to malaria and other pathogens for a while, and the message that
comes relatively clearly from both that work as well as the larger body of work
is that climate at the distributional edges of a pathogen or a vector can have a
huge role in changing the geographic distribution of a disease, but in the middle
of a pathogen’s range it appears that other variables are much more important
(Gething et al., 2010; Rogers and Randolph, 2000; Siraj et al., 2014).
So, for example, Pascal’s article was suggesting that at the upper altitudinal
limits of malaria, climate could drive it up and down for Lyme disease. There
has been some nice work by Nick Ogden and candidates showing that in fact the
vector is kind of moving north more in warmer years than other years, and there
are a number of cases like that (Ogden et al., 2008).
Many environmental parameters are changing faster than the climate, Lin­
thicum acknowledged, “But I think we have to also keep in mind the long-term
impacts of climate change,” he advised. Thomas described his work with climate
modelers to attempt to anticipate how transmission pattern effects of diurnal tem­
perature range might change with predicted shifts in mean temperature. While
there seems to be a narrow range of responses to a mean change in temperature,
it is unclear whether that change will occur equally across the temperature
spectrum, he observed. “Perhaps we’ve done a pretty good job with the climate
models,” he suggested. Far less is understood about how environmental changes
predicted by climate models would affect pathogens, vectors, hosts, and their
interactions, Thomas said. Solid empirical data are needed to characterize these
relationships.

From Models to Mitigation

Impressed with the variety and depth of models of vector-borne disease
transmission risk, and with Linthicum’s Rift Valley fever model in particular,
forum member Julie Pavlin of the Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center
asked to what extent these models were being translated into actions that ben­
efited public health. The responses she received were mixed. While Linthicum
expressed frustration at initially having tried and failed in part to initiate timely
responses from public health and agriculture officials to mitigate predicted Rift
Valley fever activity that then occurred, they later were able to achieve better
communication and ultimately better response. Kilpatrick said that some of his
60 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

group’s work had been used by many local health departments to guide vector
control activities.
Thomas noted that implementing studies of malaria transmission risk is
very challenging. “Early warning systems might be useful in terms of allowing
for some level of preparedness,” he explained, but studies of transmission driv­
ers might more productively be used to analyze trends in malaria cases in order
to determine the effects of specific preventive measures, such as bed net use on
transmission rates, separate from environmental variables, including seasonal
precipitation (Aregawi et al., 2014).
What does one do when there is disagreement among multiple models of
transmission risk for a vector-borne disease? Both Kilpatrick and Thomas rec­
ommended that all models be tested with rigorous local studies. “I personally
won’t be confident in the mechanisms we think are driving . . . [variations in
vector-borne disease transmission] until we have both broad scale correlational
patterns and local-scale studies that support the actual mechanisms,” Kilpatrick
asserted. For example, he noted, links between remotely sensed climate and hu­
man cases of malaria are well established, but the mechanisms that connect those
phenomena have not been defined. “If you can actually open up that black box
and show that . . . when we have a higher temperature that does lead to an earlier
transmission season, higher mosquito abundance, higher mosquito infection rates,
and then more human cases, then I’ll start to believe,” he said. “Short of that I
think we’re just waving our hands, and we can get it completely wrong.”
On the other hand, Linthicum noted, such high-resolution information may
not be necessary to have a significant impact on public health. In Africa, for
example, where Rift Valley fever occurs over very large geographic areas affect­
ing many hundreds of thousands of animals, “There’s no point in becoming very
specific; what you need to do is to warn people when those risks are going to be
elevated,” he argued, “and then there are a number of things that could be done
on a large scale to really mitigate that [threat].”
“One could spend forever doing elegant research with exquisite temperature
fluctuations in the lab,” Thomas imagined, “but ultimately we need to get that
out in the real world, we need to have it . . . inform practice.” In the real world,
there will be broad patterns and significant variation and context dependence, he
observed. Only by examining what actually happens, by analyzing case histories,
can we discern the most important drivers of transmission risk in a given situ­
ation. He therefore advocated in favor of focal studies of disease transmission
at sentinel sites, with the goal of trying to identify and understand the drivers
involved and their interactions, and to gauge the effectiveness of possible inter­
ventions. “The best way of progressing is to learn by doing,” Thomas insisted.
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 61

NOVEL APPROACHES AND INTERVENTION STRATEGIES

In the final workshop session, speakers reviewed past efforts to address
vector-borne diseases and described a range of strategies and methods to tackle
key obstacles in their prevention, diagnosis, and treatment.

History and Current Challenges of Dengue Vector Control

(Or, Why Did Gorgas Succeed? And Why Have We Failed?)
Vector control has an important role in addressing vector-borne diseases,
observed speaker Paul Reiter of the Institut Pasteur. In recounting the history
of this approach, he began with Carlos Finlay’s hypothesis that yellow fever is
transmitted by Aedes aegypti. This was experimentally confirmed on the arrival
of Walter Reed. With this knowledge, William Gorgas19 had spectacular success
in eliminating yellow fever from Havana, Cuba, and later during the construc­
tion of the Panama Canal. Fred Soper, director of the Pan American Sanitary
Bureau (later PAHO) between 1947 and 1959, implemented Gorgas’s approach
throughout Latin America (Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health,
1991)—a contribution to public health that Reiter deemed “quite exceptional.”
Fast-forward to the mid-1970s in Singapore. From the late 1960s until the
mid-1980s, dengue—also transmitted by Ae. aegypti and once a major cause of
illness in that country—had been drastically reduced by vector source reduction
but began to rise thereafter until it became a major public health problem once
again. As consultant to the Singapore government, Reiter hypothesized that
suppression of the disease had been so successful that half the population was
now nonimmune; i.e., the herd immunity had been greatly reduced in the host
populations so that, even in low numbers, mosquitoes were now more efficient
in transmission. “We made certain recommendations, and things looked like they
were getting better,” he recalled—until a massive epidemic struck in 2005. Again
Reiter was consulted, along with Duane Gubler (“sort of the emperor of dengue
epidemiology worldwide”), and after their suggestions were implemented, case
numbers declined—“until 2013, when, despite major control efforts, dengue sud­
denly took off again,” he reported.
Singapore spends some $60 billion a year on Ae. aegypti control yet in­
cidence continues to rise. For decades, government sources state that Havana
(about the same size as Singapore) was the only country in the New World that
was free of dengue but despite official statistics it is well known that dengue is
rampant there. In truth, there is nowhere on this Earth where dengue is under
control. . . . If they can’t do it in Singapore, no one is going to be able to do it
with the weapons that we have at present.

19 Later Sir William Gorgas. Although an American citizen, he was knighted by King George IV

for his achievements and given a funeral in St. Paul’s Cathedral upon his death.
62 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

Why not? Reiter outlined his response in the form of this poem, entitled “Ode
to Ae. aegypti Control”:

Those golden days . . . .

The perfect way . . . .

Let us-(s)pray

The mess today!

Source Reduction
The “golden days” began with Gorgas, whose military pursuit of Ae. aegypti
through “source reduction”—the elimination of breeding sites—purged Havana
of yellow fever within 5 months, Reiter stated. Mosquito habitats were eliminated
by various means: water storage vessels and wash basins were covered, water
in horse troughs was exchanged regularly, gutters were made to drain properly,
and so on. The results were certainly impressive but it is important to note this
was an entirely different era from today: breeding sites were much less common;
there were few motor vehicles, so used tires, a classic mosquito breeding site,
were absent; cities were much smaller; and there were no plastics or other dis­
posable items that could serve as water collection breeding sites. Moreover, fear
of yellow fever increased acceptance of the intrusive measures used to enforce
control, he added.
When Gorgas was subsequently assigned to combat yellow fever and ma­
laria during construction of the Panama Canal (mosquito-borne disease was an
important reason why the French canal project had failed), he first attempted to
rely on the insecticide pyrethrum to do the job, Reiter said. Three attempts failed
before he returned to source reduction, with which he finally achieved success.

Insecticides
Insecticide treatment would not become “the perfect way” to combat mos-
quito-borne diseases until after World War II, when DDT became available. Soper
employed it to eradicate Ae. aegypti from 22 countries in less than 10 years, or so
it has been claimed, Reiter noted. Certainly, dengue and yellow fever transmis­
sion was brought to a halt.
With the banning of DDT, beginning in the 1960s, a new era of insecticide-
based vector control began. While DDT had been applied directly to infested
containers and their immediate (50 cm) perimeter, post-DDT insecticides were
broadcast as aerosols—“let us spray”—by hand-held foggers, road vehicles, or
aircraft, Reiter stated. Ae. Aegypti, however, is an indoor mosquito; this, among
other behavioral traits, may explain why spraying has not effectively reduced
the diseases they carry (Reiter, 2007). Nevertheless, he pointed out, “There’s a
noisy machine with a nasty smell with a big loud noise and the flashing lights.
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 63

So that really persuades people that they’re being looked after.” But, he added,
“the bottom line is that many countries are trying to control dengue, and they
fail . . . if you look at any of the public health data it’s absurd to say that we are
actually controlling it.”

Now What?
Our cities are huge, human populations are dense and mobile, public health
funding is scarce—“It’s a perfect paradise for the mosquito,” Reiter lamented. It
is often difficult to access areas that should be treated to reduce populations of Ae.
aegypti, insecticide resistance is a problem, and public participation in cleanup
campaigns is inadequate to achieve source reduction, he noted. How does one
face “the mess today?”
There are a lot of things we don’t know about the biology and ecology of
Ae. aegypti, Reiter observed, and that missing information may provide routes
to effective vector control. For example, he said, “We don’t know how many
[water] containers we have to reduce in order to stop transmission, how many
mosquitoes, the comparative economics of the different approaches to control,
or their sustainability.” According to his group’s mathematical models, a 90 per­
cent reduction in the numbers of mosquitos would still produce very little on the
overall transmission rate for dengue.
The same model demonstrated that only a few mosquitoes could effec­
tively transmit dengue in a human population that has low herd immunity (see
Figure WO-17). This, he concluded, reveals why Gorgas and Soper succeeded
where we are now failing: their effective reduction of the vector occurred in hu­
man populations with high herd immunity (Reiter, 2014).
If that is indeed the key to successful dengue control, we need to better
understand how to build and exploit herd immunity, Reiter insisted. “I don’t be­
lieve that vector control on its own is going to be the answer, even though I’m a
medical entomologist. But I do believe that augmentation of the herd immunity
by vaccination, in combination with vector control, may prove more effective
than either approach on its own.”
Reiter was emphatic that new and novel approaches to vector control are
urgently needed. These may include a return to focal insecticide application; the
use of Wolbachia to reduce mosquito infectivity, as mentioned by Thomas; and
the use of juvenile hormone mimic—a compound that disrupts mosquito meta­
morphosis, and which can be distributed by female mosquitoes among multiple
breeding sites. In his opinion, however, the method that shows the most promise
is based on transgenics: males of a strain of Ae. aegypti that carry a dominant
lethal gene are released to mate with “wild” females but the gene ensures that the
resulting progeny cannot survive to adulthood. Studies in a number of countries
have demonstrated remarkable results.
64 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE WO-17 Vector density, herd immunity, and dengue transmission. Effective
dengue control will reduce herd immunity, thereby increasing the transmission efficiency
of residual mosquito populations.
SOURCE: Reiter, 1992. Reproduced with permission from CAB International.

The Public Health Imperative for Improved Ae. aegypti Control

According to Barry Beaty from Colorado State University, “it has been hu­
mankind’s great misfortune to share time and space with Aedes aegypti (see Fig­
ure WO-18). Following domestication of this mosquito in Africa, it traveled with
humans throughout the tropical and subtropical world (Powell and Tabachnick,
2013). Beaty describes Ae. aegypti as the Norway rat of mosquitoes. Because
of its intimate association with humans in homes, schools, and work places and
its extreme preference for feeding on humans, it is an excellent vector of yel­
low fever, dengue, and chikungunya viruses, and this mosquito has caused and
continues to cause inestimable morbidity and mortality in humans (García-Rejón
et al., 2008, 2011). The same biological and behavioral attributes that allowed
domesticated Ae. aegypti to colonize the tropical world via sailing ships have
served the vector well in the modern era.
Aedes aegypti is uniquely adapted to the modern urban environment, exploit­
ing new breeding sites such as septic systems and storm drains, and it has proven
intractable to sustainable control in large urban areas. Classically used control
methods such as environmental source reduction and space spraying have not
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 65

sustainably stemmed the pandemics of dengue and chikungunya. Indeed, Ae. ae­
gypti is essentially now hyperabundant throughout the tropical world, and notably
in areas where it had previously been eliminated or greatly reduced in abundance
(Gubler, 2011). Large urban areas, with their sizeable Ae. aegypti populations,
are now very receptive to the introduction, spread, and trafficking of arboviruses
(see Beaty et al. in Appendix A3). The introduction of chikungunya virus in 2013,
and its explosive spread throughout Latin America (Nasci, 2014) in a very short
time, is testimony to the epidemic potential of Ae. aegypti–transmitted pathogens.
Unfortunately, our ability to intervene in such epidemics is likely to worsen.
The alarming and rapid emergence of pyrethroid resistance in Ae. aegypti
threatens the efficacy of many of the chemical control efforts for this important
vector. The emergence of knockdown resistance (kdr) in Ae. aegypti in Mexico
(Garcia et al., 2009) has been mirrored in Ae. aegypti throughout much of the
tropical and subtropical world. Similarly kdr has exploded in Anopheles gambiae
threatening the efficacy of long-lasting insecticide-treated nets for malaria con­
trol. Pyrethroids are also the insecticide of choice for control of vectors of other
globally important diseases such as Chagas, lymphatic filariasis, and leishmani­
asis, and they are widely used by public health agencies for control of other insect
vectors, such as for those that transmit West Nile virus, and other insect vectors
of globally important pathogens. The evolution of kdr has been associated with
dramatic increases in metabolic resistance in important vector species. Evidence

FIGURE WO-18 Aedes aegypti feeding on a human.

SOURCES: James Gathany/CDC, 2006.
66 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

is accumulating that pyrethroid resistance is becoming operationally significant,

which could lead to the loss of this key class of insecticides in the armamentarium
for vector control.
According to Beaty, this would be a public health catastrophe on the order
of emerging antibiotic resistance in bacteria and parasites. For the foreseeable
future, chemical insecticides will remain critically important for controlling vec­
tor populations. Development of new, environmentally sensitive insecticides with
new modes of action from existing insecticides is a public health imperative. One
novel approach in this regard has been the development of the Innovative Vector
Control Consortium (IVCC). The IVCC partners with industry to develop new
insecticides with different modes of action than pyrethroids, which will permit
rotational or mosaic applications of insecticides to minimize development of
resistance and to provide improved stewardship of existing and new insecti­
cides. New insecticides as well as new innovative strategies for vector control
are needed, including insecticide resistance blocking strategies (Devine et al.,
2009), Wolbachia interruption of DENV transmission by Ae. aegypti mosquitoes
(Moreira et al., 2009), genetic strategies to reduce vector populations (Black et
al., 2011), and other innovative approaches to be vigorously pursued to prevent
and control Ae. aegypti transmitted diseases. The burden of these diseases is too
great to bear, and it is clearly time to declare “war” on Ae. aegypti and to sustain-
ably control this enemy of humankind.

Strategies for Malaria Eradication

As recently as 1998, it seemed quite unrealistic that malaria could be eradi­
cated, according to speaker Alan Magill of The Bill & Melinda Gates Founda­
tion. That year, malaria killed two million people and infected half a billion.
Resistance had developed to key therapeutics, and insecticide-treated bed nets—a
preventive measure recently proven in clinical trials—were not yet widely dis­
tributed. Epidemic HIV in East Africa led to co-infection, increasing the burden
of both diseases.
By 2013, however, the picture had changed drastically (White et al., 2014).
As compared with 1998, acute malaria cases had declined by about 60 percent,
and mortality by nearly 70 percent, Magill reported. Massive increases in donor
funding spurred the implementation of new preventive measures—long-lasting
insecticide-treated bed nets and indoor residual insecticide spraying—along with
rapid diagnostic tests and targeted interventions for vulnerable populations. This
turnaround demonstrates how adequate resources in support of effective tools can
produce significant gains in public health, he concluded—and it offers hope that
the next step, the eradication of malaria, can be achieved by both applying current
interventions continuously and at high coverage, and by applying current inter­
ventions with new strategies. “There’s really no backing off on this,” he insisted.
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 67

But Magill also noted daunting challenges to continued progress against

malaria, including emerging resistance to drugs and insecticides, and maintaining
current levels of support of funding required for malaria eradication. The disease
has been controlled many times in many locations, but resurgence predictably has
occurred because efforts were not sustained (Cohen et al., 2012). Therefore, he
argued, global eradication is the only permanent solution for malaria. Moreover,
he pointed to evidence that complete eradication has been stable in 46 out of 50
countries where it has been achieved (Smith et al., 2013). “The trick here is get­
ting to zero,” he emphasized. “What often happens is you get to very low levels,
you have many residual pockets of transmission, and if you don’t actually finish
the job then resurgence is pretty much inevitable.” Taking that final step from
control to eradication is both difficult and expensive, he added, “but if you really
do get parasites out of people . . . then maintaining that state is a little easier.”

Interrupting Transmission
In 2007, Melinda Gates described the foundation’s commitment to eradicat­
ing malaria as a quest for equity. “It’s about a recognition that those areas of the
world that suffer from malaria really can’t get ahead,” Magill explained. The
debate as to whether poverty causes malaria or vice versa isn’t useful, he added,
since eradicating malaria will surely advance some of the world’s poorest people.
Malaria has three possible futures, Magill observed: resurgence, control (sus­
taining and slowly improving progress against the disease to date), or accelerat­
ing toward eradication. To achieve the latter outcome, the Gates Foundation has
defined a strategy called Accelerate to Zero, intended to focus current and future
tools in an intensive effort to interrupt malaria transmission. The cornerstones
of this strategy are the detection of the human parasite reservoir, the elimination
of that reservoir, and the effective prevention of transmission, he explained. “If
you can’t cure people and prevent transmission concurrently, then both of those
approaches will ultimately fail,” he insisted.
Because the malaria parasite biomass resides almost entirely in humans, it
must be diagnosed and treated in infected people in order to be reduced, Magill
stated. Thus the Gates Foundation supports current efforts to test, treat, and track
malaria infections. Every person who presents with a fever in a malaria-endemic
country should have a reliable diagnostic test, and if proven to be infected,20
20 In the discussion that followed this session, forum member Lonnie King of The Ohio State Uni­

versity asked what would be done for those patients who tested negative for malaria. Magill responded
that unfortunately, there are not good point-of-care diagnostics for other common febrile diseases,
such as Q fever and leptospirosis; however, an initiative is under way to address nonmalarial febrile
diseases collectively, with antibiotics for suspected or confirmed bacterial infections, and supportive
care in other cases. Moreover, he said, even people who test positive for malaria may actually be
suffering from another infection. Forum member Gerald Keusch, of Boston University, noted that a
rapid diagnostic test capable of differentiating between malaria and pneumonia in children was shown
to reduce the use of antimalarial drugs by about two-thirds, with excellent survival rates.
68 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

get treatment with best available therapy, he said—and then, their case should
be tracked along with others in a surveillance system. However, not all malarial
infections are symptomatic, he noted; “This is the classic iceberg . . . there is a
vast reservoir of infected people out there in the community who are happily
carrying their parasites and their gametocytes, and they are going on in this un­
interrupted circle of transmission with their mosquito vectors, and we’re doing
absolutely nothing about that today” (Lindblade et al., 2013). To address this
problem, the Gates Foundation advocates the complete cure of asymptomatic
fathers and mothers as a way to save their children’s lives. This will demand new
rapid diagnostic tests that can identify asymptomatic people in communities, as
well as mass “screen and treat” campaigns, he said.
These efforts will be most effective if they are targeted toward communities
that serve as sources for widespread malaria transmission, Magill continued. The
Gates Foundation supports efforts to map malaria transmission patterns, analyses
to determine the most strategic areas to focus treatment efforts, and the creation
of databases for use by ministries of health in affected countries, he reported.
The goal of malaria eradication is the interruption of transmission, Magill
emphasized. But today, while many people with malaria get treated and recover,
they may continue to carry viable P. falciparum gametocytes for the next 4 to
8 weeks, and therefore continue to transmit the disease. “There’s never been a
single attempt to actually interrupt transmission by targeting the gametocyte,”
he asserted. “What we need is what we call complete cure, which is complete
parasitologic cure. We need a drug regimen that will not just make you better . . .
but we also need them to get rid of the parasites that transmit.” Thus, he said, the
Gates Foundation is working with partners to develop drugs that will kill malaria
gametocytes. Two lead candidates “have extremely significant and very promis­
ing transmission-blocking and gametocidal effects,” he reported; ultimately, it
is hoped that they can be delivered as a single pill, along with drugs that cure
clinical disease—and that this would be achieved for both P. falciparum and P.
vivax malaria.

Situational Solutions
In 1937, malariologist Lewis Hackett observed,
Everything about malaria is so molded and altered by local conditions that it
becomes a thousand different diseases and epidemiological puzzles. Like chess,
it is played with a few pieces, but is capable of an infinite variety of situations.

Recognizing the enduring truth of this depiction, the Gates Foundation sup­
ports a variety of means to tackling malaria, and to applying them as targeted,
locally adapted solutions, Magill explained. For example, despite the deployment
of insecticide-treated bed nets and indoor residual spraying of insecticides, sig­
nificant residual malaria transmission occurs as mosquito populations adapt both
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 69

genetically and behaviorally, he reported (Killeen, 2014). Vector control could,

in theory, reduce these problems, but rigorous field trials are rarely conducted
on these measures, he noted (Vontas et al., 2014). To meet this need, the Gates
Foundation initiated and supports the UK-based IVCC,21 a group of experts who
partner with agrichemical companies worldwide to develop novel insecticides to
address a broad range of vector-borne diseases.
The pairing of insecticide-treated bed nets with artemisinin-based combina­
tion treatment for malaria has proven extremely effective in reducing cases, as
shown in a long-standing epidemiological study in Senegal (Trape et al., 2014).
However, resistance to artemisinin has emerged in Southeast Asia (Ashley et
al., 2014), while in Haiti, where the primary vector for malaria is the outdoor-
dwelling mosquito Anopheles albimanus, bed nets are not a useful preventive
measure. There, in partnership with PAHO, The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation
is working to eradicate the disease through the identification of transmission hot
spots, with a combination of focal indoor residual insecticide spraying and drug
treatment to eliminate the human parasite reservoir, Magill said.
The Gates Foundation also supports vaccine development, but with the
emphasis on preventing infection to interrupt malaria transmission, rather than
targeting disease prevention, Magill stated. An antidisease focus for vaccination
could actually enable the continuation of asymptomatic parasitemia, he asserted.
In conclusion, Magill emphasized that eradicating malaria will require new
concepts, tools, and strategies, and an end to a “one size fits all” approach to
addressing this complex and varied disease. “The next decade will be a period
of intense experimentation and learning, leading to a rapidly evolving policy
environment for new tools and technologies,” he predicted.

Transgenic Insects for Vector Control

Effective control strategies for arboviral diseases can target their insect
vectors, observed speaker Luke Alphey of the United Kingdom’s Pirbright Insti-
tute. He described work under way to create and deploy genetically modified
Ae. aegypti mosquitoes, designed to reduce dengue transmission by this species,
which also transmits the chikungunya and Zika viruses (see Alphey et al. in Ap­
pendix A2).
The number of people becoming infected with dengue each year is now
approaching that for malaria, Alphey noted, although far fewer people die of
dengue. There are no drugs that specifically treat it, nor are bed nets effective
deterrents, since the mosquitoes that carry the virus do not bite at night. Thus
dengue control has focused on reducing mosquito populations—with varying
degrees of success, as previously described by Reiter.

21 See www.ivcc.com (accessed March 25, 2016).

70 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

As an alternative to vector control through source reduction or insecticide

treatments, genetic strategies involve changing the mosquito genome so as to
spread a repressible developmental defect that would interfere with reproduc­
tion or a modification that would interfere with disease transmission, Alphey
explained (Alphey et al., 2010). This is not a new idea, he noted: irradiated sterile
insects have been used for more than 50 years, on very large scales, to control
several agricultural pests. Since then, several additional genetic control strategies
have been developed that could be used to combat dengue or other mosquito-
borne diseases (see Figure WO-19).
There are two possible goals of genetic control strategies, Alphey explained:
to reduce the size of a vector population or to change it in a way that reduces dis­
ease transmission—that is, by somehow reducing vector competence throughout
the population. The genetic changes introduced to accomplish these goals may
either be self-limiting—they will eventually be washed out by lethality or by
natural selection—or they may be self-sustaining, becoming established in the
target vector population and possibly spreading to other populations, he added.
Genetic control strategies share several key features, Alphey stated, including
the fact that they protect every person within the area where they are deployed.
By way of contrast, human-directed disease control programs often dispropor­
tionately favor the wealthy, powerful, and educated. All genetic control strate­
gies exploit insect mate-seeking behavior to disperse the control agent, and also
to ensure species-specific effects. Thus, he reassured the audience, “We are not
talking about eliminating all mosquitoes.”

FIGURE WO-19 Classifying genetic control strategies.

NOTE: HEG = homing endonuclease gene; RIDL = release of insects carrying dominant
lethal.
SOURCE: As presented by Luke Alphey on September 17, 2014.
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 71

RIDL Technology
Alphey’s presentation focused primarily on a genetic control strategy known
as “release of insects carrying dominant lethal” (RIDL), which features geneti­
cally engineered male mosquitoes carrying repressible dominant lethal transgenes
that are released to mate with wild females, producing doomed progeny (Alphey,
2014b). For example, he described one transgene with a promoter that is ex­
pressed only in female flight muscle tissue and which, when passed to the female
offspring of genetically engineered male mosquitoes, compromises the females’
ability to fly (Fu et al., 2010). “Of course flightless mosquitoes can’t survive
in the wild,” he observed. “They can’t move away from the breeding site, they
can’t find a host, they can’t avoid predators. Actually they can’t mate, even in
the laboratory.” Male offspring, on the other hand, can fly and mate, and thereby
spread the lethal gene through the population.
Alphey reported that another type of RIDL system—in which the repressible
transgene kills all of the progeny from the engineered father and wild mother
(Phuc et al., 2007)—has proven effective in suppressing Ae. aegypti populations
throughout a series of phased tests, culminating in a successful field release in the
Cayman Islands, which achieved an 82 percent reduction in the target mosquito
population (Harris et al., 2012). The researchers have also conducted field trials
with RIDL mosquitoes in Malaysia, Brazil, and Panama, he added. In Brazil,
Alphey observed, target mosquito populations in different settings were reduced
by 94 to 99 percent.
To gain public support for these potentially controversial experiments, the
researchers used informal presentations in a variety of settings—door-to-door vis­
its, television, radio, and print media—to explain their work and to demonstrate
its safety. “Dengue control is widely recognized as desirable, and it’s also recog­
nized that current methods aren’t adequate and new methods are needed,” Alphey
said, explaining the high levels of public approval these projects received. At the
time of the workshop, a proposal for a field trial in the Florida Keys was under
consideration, he added. While there has been some objection to this trial by en­
vironmental activists, an independent pollster found that 61 percent of residents
questioned supported the use of genetically engineered mosquito technology, as
compared with 18 percent who did not (Florida Keys Mosquito Control District,
2013). Moreover, 81 percent of respondents considered genetically engineered
mosquito technology safe, as compared with 73 percent who considered the use
of chemicals and insecticides to be safe.

Appropriate Application
While not a “magic bullet,” RIDL technology is appropriate for certain disease
vectors in certain settings, Alphey said. For example the two mosquito species
Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus (for which RIDL technology has also been devel­
oped)—which spread DENV, CHIKV, and Zika, among other pathogens—could be
72 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

specifically targeted with the technology. Ae. aegypti eggs are dry and easily stored,
he added. “They could just be shipped out in packets for people to rear at the bottom
of their yard.” Likewise, Kilpatrick’s narrowing of the mosquito species most likely
to transmit WNV suggests that RIDL could also be brought to bear on that disease.
Because Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus are alien invasive species in the
Americas, “If you could eliminate them, then that might be seen as ecologically
desirable rather than undesirable thing,” Alphey observed. Indeed, he added,
when Ae. aegypti was eliminated from about 20 South American countries dur­
ing the DDT era, no adverse ecological effects were reported. On the other hand,
a native vector species could serve an important ecological role; in that case, he
advocated using methods that make vectors less able to transmit pathogens but
without reducing their populations. “There are different options, and you look at
this on a case-by-case basis,” he concluded.

Exploiting Virus–Vector Interactions

Arthropod-borne plant pathogens—and plant viruses in particular—present a
major threat to global food security, according to speaker Anna Whitfield of Kansas
State University. The viruses she studies, tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) and
maize mosaic virus (MMV), are related to viruses that infect animals, and their
transmission cycles resemble those of other vector-borne animal and human viruses
such as CHIKV, she noted. TSWV and MMV are acquired by their insect vectors
when they feed on infected plants. The viruses then infect the insect’s gut, and
eventually move to its salivary glands, where they replicate, and from which they
are transmitted to naïve host plants during feeding (Blanc et al., 2014).
Each step in this transmission cycle can potentially be disrupted, Whitfield
said; thus her group and other researchers are exploring many opportunities to
control plant disease (see Whitfield and Rotenberg in Appendix A12). “We don’t
view these strategies as a silver bullet,” she explained. Managing plant diseases
generally requires an integrated approach; therefore, she characterized the meth ­
ods she described as “just another tool in the toolbox for plant production.”

Viral Acquisition
TSWV, a Bunyavirus, is related to RVFV and other members of the genus
Hantavirus, Whitfield noted. TSWV is globally distributed, has an exception­
ally wide host range of more than 1,000 plant species, and annually contributes
to more than $1 billion in losses of crops that include tomatoes, peanuts, and
peppers. There is no single effective control strategy for TSWV, as it easily
overcomes genetic resistance bred into crop plants, and its thrips vector develops
resistance to pesticides. By pursuing the interruption of TSWV transmission by
molecular means, she and coworkers are trying to provide another tool to add to
their current integrated pest management system.
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 73

Whitfield described a glycoprotein known as GN that projects from the

membrane surface of TSWV and mediates viral attachment to the thrips vector’s
midgut tissue. The researchers made GN in soluble form, fed it to thrips, and
found that it not only specifically bound their midgut tissue, but that it inhibited
TSWV transmission—presumably by blocking its binding site, she explained.
They then made transgenic plants that expressed the GN protein, infected them
with TSWV, and let thrips feed on them; compared with insects fed on equivalent
nontransgenic plants, the thrips fed on GN plants had significantly lower TSWV
titers and rates of viral transmission, she reported (Montero-Astúa et al., 2014).
The transgenic GN plants sustain an initial infection with TSWV, she said, but
because they are expressing the viral attachment protein, they block subsequent
transmission of the virus. “We think that these could be a promising tool for
control of TSWV spread from secondary infection,” she concluded.
A similar strategy has been demonstrated in another vector-borne plant virus
system, Whitfield noted. Bonning and coworkers (2014) produced transgenic
plants that expressed a soluble luteoviral coat protein fused to a spider toxin.
Aphids fed on these plants internalized the chimeric protein as if it were a virus,
delivering the toxin to its body cavity and killing the insect. This approach pro­
vides much-needed options for controlling aphids, a major transmitter of plant
viruses—and it could be applied to other virus–insect systems, employing a range
of potential toxins (Whitfield et al., 2014).

Viral Dissemination and Transmission

Whitfield’s laboratory is also exploring vector proteins that interact with
TSWV and MMV, enabling these viruses to traverse multiple barriers and reach
the vector’s salivary glands, where they replicate and from which they are dis­
seminated. The researchers have identified a suite of proteins consistent among
members of the Rhabdovirus genus like MMV and among members of the
Tospovirus genus like TSWV that appear to interact with or respond to the insect
vectors of several types of plant viruses, she reported. “These are the type of
proteins that we would like to follow up on by targeting and disrupting vector
acquisition and transmission,” she stated.

RNAi for Vector Control

Viral-vector interactions could be further exploited as a means of vector
control through the use of RNA interference (RNAi),22 Whitfield observed
(Kupferschmidt, 2013). Research in several different insect species has

22 The term RNA interference was coined to describe a cellular mechanism that uses the gene’s own

DNA sequence to turn it off, a process that researchers call silencing. In a wide variety of organisms,
including animals, plants, and fungi, RNAi is triggered by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). http://
www.umassmed.edu/rti/biology/how-rnai-works (accessed August 12, 2016).
74 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

demonstrated the effectiveness of this method for silencing expression of the

crucial enzyme, vacuolar ATPase (v-ATPase) (Yao et al., 2013). When Whitfield
and coworkers delivered double-stranded RNA fragments either orally or by
microinjection to nymphs of the insect vector of MMV, the corn planthopper
Peregrinus maidis, it experienced higher rates of mortality, as well as reduced
egg production (apparently due to abnormal development of female reproductive
organs). Similar decreases in survival and fecundity were achieved with thrip
vectors when treated with dsRNA of v-ATPase (Badillo-Vargas et al., 2015).
Studies are currently under way to treat plants, including crops threatened by
citrus greening disease, with double-stranded RNA to control its insect vector,
the Asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri).
RNAi techniques have also been developed to control arthropod vectors
of animal viruses, Whitfield noted. For example, Kang and coworkers (2014)
showed that silencing v-ATPase and another gene (inhibitor of inosine-5′­
monophosphate dehydrogenase) in Ae. aegypti not only reduced mosquito sur­
vival and egg production, but it also suppressed host factors for DENV-2, thereby
decreasing infectivity. The successful results with RNAi to silence the v-ATPase
genes of plant and animal disease insect vectors highlight not only the similarities
in basic vector biology but also that of emerging vector control strategies. These
commonalities suggest that increased communication and collaboration between
investigators working with plant and animal vectors could be beneficial for the
control of vector-borne diseases.

Outlook for West Nile and Chikungunya Vaccines

Vaccines represent the most cost-effective means of controlling many infec­
tious diseases, and they offer significant prevention against zoonotic vector-borne
diseases for which humans serve as a dead-end host, observed speaker Thomas
Monath of Hookipa BioTech AG and PaxVax, Inc. Repeated vaccination of hu­
mans can prevent them from contracting such diseases, which he said cannot be
eradicated due to the size or persistent infection of animal reservoirs.
Figure WO-20 provides an overview of the state of vaccine development for
vector-borne diseases. “Yellow fever vaccine is probably the closest to a silver
bullet that we have,” Monath said. “The Nobel Prize was awarded for it, and it
really has driven that disease nearly to extinction, though it still remains a threat.”
He highlighted vaccines against WNV and Japanese encephalitis virus as good
examples of prevention against diseases that pose an ongoing threat to human
hosts. By contrast, he noted, vaccines against vector-borne pathogens that can
be transmitted by humans, such as dengue and chikungunya, could potentially
contribute to the eradication of those diseases.
Focusing on vaccines to prevent West Nile viral disease and chikungu­
nya, Monath suggested that lessons learned in the process of developing the
WNV vaccine could inform the development of vaccines against other emerging
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 75

FIGURE WO-20 Vaccines against vector-borne diseases with potential for introduction
and spread into the United States.
NOTE: TBE = Tick-borne encephalitis; VEE = Venezuelan equine encephalitis.
SOURCE: As presented by Thomas Monath on September 17, 2014.

pathogens—most notably CHIKV, with which WNV shares several common

threads, as shown in Box WO-2.

A Vaccine Against WNV?

The first vaccine initiative against WNV started within months of its emer­
gence in New York in 1999, Monath recalled. “The first vaccine for horses was
approved in 2001,” he said. “By that time there were at least six companies en­
gaged in vaccine development for humans,” he added—all of which have since
halted their efforts. Today, only the National Institutes of Health (NIH) continues
to pursue a vaccine against WNV—and without industry involvement, he ex­
pressed doubt that such a candidate would reach advanced stages of development.
Technical obstacles to developing a WNV or CHIKV vaccine are minimal,
Monath stated. “These are fairly straightforward targets.” The real problems, he
continued, are economic: uncertain market size, high development costs, a chal­
lenging regulatory pathway, and the risk that the disease will be controlled by
natural immunity before the vaccine is developed (a possibility for any emerging
infection, he pointed out, and for chikungunya in particular).
76 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

BOX WO-2
West Nile and Chikungunya Common Threads

• Cyclical or intermittent epidemics

• Absent for a long period and then reappear in explosive form
• Changing geographical distribution, rapid spread
• Overwintering, transovarial transmission
• Potentially severe, life threatening
• Sequelae, chronic disease syndrome in 20–30 percent
• Threat to blood supply
• No specific treatment
• Regulatory pathway challenging
• Uncertain recommendations and sustainable market for vaccines
• High cost of vaccine development, limited access to capital

SOURCE: As presented by Thomas Monath on September 17, 2014.

Given these hurdles, who is developing vaccines for emerging diseases? “It’s
mostly biotech companies,” Monath said. “They’re cash constrained,” he noted,
and to pursue a vaccine, they must invest a significant amount [of capital] with­
out guarantee of return—which tends to discourage investors. Due to this reality,
small companies with candidate vaccines have partnered with large ones to de­
fray the expenses associated with late-stage development. Large pharmaceutical
companies, Monath observed, have limited interest in vaccines. “They were, as
you saw, engaged in West Nile at the beginning, but they’ve put a tiny fraction
of their treasure to work on these kinds of targets, and they’re basically watching
and waiting to see what happens,” he noted.
Monath was part of the effort to develop a WNV vaccine at his former
employer, Acambis, now owned by Sanofi Pasteur. Their product, ChimeriVax-
WN, is a live, attenuated, virus vaccine based on the yellow fever vaccine, which
they produced within months of the 1999 outbreak (Dayan et al., 2013). A single
inoculation provided long-lasting immunity in nearly everyone who received it,
he reported. It was shown to be safe, even in elderly people, and it couldn’t be
transmitted by mosquitoes (and thus would not stimulate antivector immunity).
“It really looked like an ideal vaccine,” he observed.
In 2001, Acambis began advanced preclinical studies in nonhuman primates
and demonstrated the vaccine’s effectiveness in horses, he said. The horse vac­
cine was licensed in 2002 to a large company, Intervet. With Phase 1 clinical
trials completed, ChimeriVax-WN was manufactured at final scale by 2004—but
by then, the epidemic had peaked, and soon afterward, market surveys revealed
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 77

a public wary of a live viral vaccine for a disease they and their physicians
perceived as low risk. Acambis also learned that primary care physicians, who
would be primarily responsible for administering the vaccine, would likely not be
mandated to provide it. Nevertheless, in 2007, Sanofi licensed ChimeriVax-WN.
The next year, Sanofi bought Acambis. Development of ChimeriVax-WN
stalled during the next 2 years of declining disease incidence and unfavorable
market and regulatory conditions, Monath recalled. In 2010, Sanofi ceased fur­
ther development of the vaccine. Other companies made the same decision, he
noted. By the time of the next WNV outbreak in 2012, few vaccines were in
development. “Arbovirologists understood that this was going to come back and
we would have a problem, and it would be nice to have a vaccine as part of the
armamentarium against a reemerging disease,” he observed, “but it’s very hard to
rekindle or restart a program that’s become dormant in a company.”
“I think we can conclude that if past is prologue, we’ll have more episodes
like 2012,” Monath continued. Nevertheless, taking into account a variety of
regulatory issues and the cost of a Phase 3 trial, Sanofi concluded that it still did
not make financial sense to develop the vaccine. Given that decision, should the
U.S. government fund the development of a WNV vaccine stockpile in order
to respond to future outbreaks? Even a stockpile restricted to immunizing the
elderly, who are most susceptible to neuroinvasive disease, would cost about
$156,000 per case averted, Monath warned.
Moreover, he wondered, “How are you going to use a vaccine like this in an
emergency? These epidemics tend to evolve quite quickly . . . [and] in the United
States we really don’t have any experience with mass immunization campaigns,
especially those involving adults.” On the other hand, a growing burden of
long-term symptoms associated with WNV could tip the scales to justify further
vaccine development, Monath observed (Garcia et al., 2014; Maxmen, 2012;
Murray et al., 2014).

What About Chikungunya?

Fifteen years after the emergence of WNV in the United States, the threat
of chikungunya is déjà vu, Monath observed (Morens and Fauci, 2014). As was
illustrated in Box WO-2, the two diseases are quite similar in terms of epidemi­
ology, clinical impact, and apparent long-term sequelae (Weaver et al., 2012).
However, there are some important differences in the challenges these viruses
present for vaccine development, he added. For example, humans are a dead-end
host for WNV, but they participate in the transmission of chikungunya. “I think
that could actually help us develop a vaccine, speed up the clinical development
in part, and be a driver for an intervention,” he observed. The rarity of asymp­
tomatic CHIKV infections as compared with WNV could also expedite vaccine
development, he added.
78 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

Much has occurred with the emergence of WNV in the United States: the
emergence of CHIKV in the Americas has spurred several companies and gov­
ernment institutes to pursue development of a vaccine using a broad range
of approaches, as shown in Figure WO-21. NIH researchers have produced a
CHIKV-like particle that so far has proven safe and immunogenic, Monath re­
ported (Akahata et al., 2010; Chang et al., 2014). “This is a real potential product,
and I think there are a number of companies interested in licensing it,” he said.
As with WNV, the obstacles to developing a CHIKV vaccine are not techni­
cal, but economic, Monath said. Once again, key issues involve target popula­
tion, regulatory pathway, timing, and funding sources. Chikungunya’s dramatic
emergence has raised the profile of a potential vaccine, as does the likelihood
that CHIKV will persist for decades in a large human population with abundant
mosquito vectors, through which many travelers pass, he noted. There is also the
potentially significant burden of chronic, long-term disease. Whereas the WNV
vaccine was relatively feasible but had low market interest, a CHIKV vaccine,
though potentially more difficult to develop, could have a larger potential market
both in the United States and worldwide if chikungunya continues to spread,
Monath predicted.

FIGURE WO-21 Chikungunya vaccine competitive landscape, 2014.

SOURCE: As presented by Thomas Monath on September 17, 2014.

WORKSHOP OVERVIEW 79

Protecting Humans with Animal Vaccines

Monath briefly discussed prospects for immunizing animal species that are
reservoirs for emerging human pathogens, a strategy that is being investigated to
prevent several vector-borne diseases, including Rift Valley fever (in livestock),
Venezuelan equine encephalitis, and leishmaniasis (in dogs). Some innovative
approaches to animal vaccines include oral bait vaccines for Lyme disease,
as well as “generic” immunization against ticks, according to Monath. Given
Kilpatrick’s indictment of robins as a key reservoir for West Nile virus, he noted,
“An intriguing idea now obviously has to be a recombinant worm that robins
eat,” he observed.
Monath remarked that the work of Ken Linthicum (see Appendix A7) and
others demonstrates that if you can predict Rift Valley fever activity and immu­
nize the hosts that contribute to amplification of the virus, you can prevent human
disease and prevent direct animal-to-human transmission, which may provide a
model for other vaccine-preventable diseases. He noted that the approval process
for animal vaccines is less onerous than for human vaccines, and therefore poten­
tially a more attractive investment for pharmaceutical companies.
Both WNV and CHIKV vaccines present obstacles to industry that could
be reduced through push/pull incentives, Monath suggested, as well as direct
government funding for advanced development. The accumulation of a govern­
ment stockpile, which could begin when the vaccine was still under emergency
use authorization or not yet licensed, would also boost development. Ultimately,
he concluded, “We need a faster, easier, less expensive way to get these kinds
of vaccines through the regulatory process, reduce the cost of development, and
improve the return on the investment for industry.”

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 A1

EMERGING INSECT-TRANSMITTED PLANT DISEASES: THE

BACTERIUM XYLELLA FASTIDIOSA AS A CASE STUDY1

Rodrigo P. P. Almeida2* and L. Nunney3

Introduction
Emerging vector-borne plant diseases may have severe economic, social,
environmental, and cultural impacts. Factors driving the emergence of these
diseases include vector and/or pathogen introductions into new areas where sus­
ceptible plant host species occur, the adaptation of pathogens and their vectors
to management strategies such as pesticides or pathogen resistant plant varietal
selections, the emergence of novel pathogens, as well as human-mediated en­
vironmental changes such deforestation and climate. Unlike animal and human
emerging diseases, however, there is no recent large scale analysis of global
trends of the types of emerging diseases affecting plants, or what are the main
factors driving the emergence of these diseases (the last analysis being Anderson
et al., 2004). For this reason, we chose to address the issue of the emergence of
plant diseases by choosing one representative pathogen, and exploring some of
the factors responsible for its rise from relative obscurity one or two decades ago
(Hopkins and Purcell, 2002; Purcell, 2013). Thus, in this Chapter we address in
detail the factors affecting the emergence of one important insect-transmitted
plant pathogen, the bacterium Xylella fastidiosa.

Biology of a Plant and Insect Colonizer

Xylella fastidiosa is a bacterium that colonizes two distinct habitats, the
xylem network of host plants and the foregut of xylem-sap feeding insects
(Chatterjee et al., 2008). Processes leading to plant colonization are yet to be fully
understood. Movement from vessel to vessel occurs through intact and damaged
pit membranes, and is a necessary process for successful X. fastidiosa movement
within plants (Baccari and Lindow, 2011; Chatelet et al., 2006; Newman et al.,
2003). The specific mechanisms leading to disease remain poorly understood, but
recently studies addressing this question from a host plant perspective suggest

1 This article has been accepted for publication in the peer-reviews journal Plant Disease and was

slightly modified for inclusion in this Workshop Summary.

2 Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Management, University of California, Berkeley.
3 Department of Biology, University of California, Riverside.

* Corresponding author: e-mail: rodrigoalmeida@berkeley.edu.

91

92 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

that symptom development is, initially, a consequence of physiological responses

commenced by water deficit responses (Choi et al., 2013; Daugherty et al., 2010b;
Sun et al., 2013).
Research on X. fastidiosa focuses on its role as a plant pathogen; however, to
understand its ecology and evolution we propose that a broader view is necessary,
recognizing that disease is the outcome of interactions between specific pathogen
genotypes and host species (Casadevall and Pirofski, 2014). Infection dynamics of
X. fastidiosa will be influenced by the extensive list of host plants species that can
be infected (at least temporarily), the plant-host specificity of different genotypes,
and the wide range of potential insect vectors. In 1995 Hill and Purcell (1995)
compiled published data and concluded that plants in 29 families were hosts of this
bacterium. More recently, a report listed 309 plant species in 63 families as hosts
of X. fastidiosa (EFSA PLH Panel, 2015). This bacterium is capable of persisting
at the inoculation site in many plant species under greenhouse and field conditions
when either insect or mechanically inoculated (Purcell and Saunders, 1999). It can
also be recovered from a wide range of weedy plants in infected agricultural areas
(e.g., Lopes et al., 2003). X. fastidiosa does not appear to cause disease in most of
these species; however the available data suggest that these asymptomatic infec­
tions typically declined over time (Purcell and Saunders, 1999). Thus, X. fastidiosa
colonization of plants does not equal disease development.
Even though X. fastidiosa is a plant pathogen of considerable economic
importance, mechanisms of host plant-pathogen specificity remain unknown and
a major question in the field. The limited genomic structural variability within
X. fastidiosa suggests phylogenetic groups colonizing different host plants have
similar pathogenicity machineries (van Sluys et al., 2003). The only study to
address the mechanisms of host plant specificity experimentally showed that an
isolate could expand its host range if a cell-cell signaling-based gene regulation
system was disrupted, suggesting that alleles or gene regulation, but not loci,
were associated with specificity (Killiny and Almeida, 2011). But the approach
used did not allow for the identification of candidate loci for future testing, and
therefore the question remains largely open.
Disease is the outcome of complex X. fastidiosa-plant interactions and is ob­
viously important, but it is not known what proportion of the interactions X. fas­
tidiosa engages in within natural ecosystems result in plant disease. This leaves
open the possibility that disease may represent a relatively small proportion of
these interactions, leading to the suggestion that X. fastidiosa may be considered
primarily an endophyte rather than a pathogen (Chatterjee et al., 2008). It may
be notable that in X. fastidiosa cell-cell signaling regulates limited virulence to
plants while promoting vector plant-to-plant transmission (Newman et al., 2004).
Transmission rates can also be directly affected by vectors responding to disease
symptoms. In two X. fastidiosa disease systems studied, sharpshooter leafhop­
pers do not avoid infected yet asymptomatic plants, but discriminate against
infected and symptomatic plants, or healthy plants painted to simulate disease
APPENDIX A 93

symptoms (Daugherty et al., 2011; Marucci et al., 2005). This behavior may be
advantageous for these insects: water stressed- and X. fastidiosa-infected plants
have some shared physiological characteristics, of which xylem sap under high
tension is of paramount relevance. Increased tension in the water column leads
to a food source that is energetically expensive, resulting in the ingestion of less
xylem sap (Andersen et al., 1992; Miranda et al., 2013) and possibly promoting
the movement of vectors to another host. Since symptomatic plants are heavily
colonized by X. fastidiosa (Newman et al., 2003), vector avoidance may act to re­
duce transmission rates (Zeilinger and Daugherty, 2014) and select for decreased
bacterial virulence. This effect could be important when transmission rates are
low; however, if vectors are common and transmission rates high, rapid bacterial
growth leading to increased virulence may be favored, a pattern often observed in
diseases that are transmitted between hosts (e.g., malaria; de Roode et al., 2005).
Experimentally identified insect vectors of X. fastidiosa belong to two insect
groups, the sharpshooter leafhoppers (Cicadellidae, Cicadellinae) and spittlebugs
(superfamily Cercopoidea, with five species of Aphrophoridae and two species
of Clastopteridae identified) (Almeida et al., 2005; EFSA PLH Panel, 2015). In
addition, there are two reports of cicadas (Cicadidae) transmitting X. fastidiosa
(Krell et al., 2007; Paião et al., 1996), which need to be confirmed through larger
experiments. Colonization of these insects by X. fastidiosa occurs in a non-
circulative yet persistent manner (Purcell and Finlay, 1979), with the bacterium
colonizing the foregut on insect vectors (Purcell et al., 1979). Consequently,
there is no transovarial or transtadial transmission (Almeida and Purcell, 2003;
Freitag, 1951; Purcell and Finlay, 1979). Colonization of regions in the foregut
called cibarium and precibarium were first shown microscopically (Brlansky et
al., 1983; Purcell et al., 1979), and later correlated with insect inoculation of plant
hosts during feeding (Almeida and Purcell, 2006). So far, no other plant patho­
gen is known to be transmitted in a similar manner, with the possible exception
of Ralstonia syzigii, which is transmitted by spittlebugs in the Machaerotidae
(Eden-Green et al., 1992).
Transmission efficiency of X. fastidiosa increases with both the time an in­
sect feeds on an infected host plant (acquisition) and the subsequent time it feeds
on an uninfected host (inoculation), up to 48-96 hours (Almeida and Purcell,
2003; Purcell and Finlay, 1979). Presumably a longer feeding time increases
the likelihood of insect vectors reaching colonized xylem vessels in the case of
acquisition, and performing specific probing behaviors in the case of inoculation.
The colonization of a vector by the bacteria is a critical part of acquisition and
is a complex process, similar to biofilm formation on surfaces, which has been
explored in some detail (e.g., Killiny and Almeida, 2009a, b, 2014). Specific
probing behaviors involved in inoculation are yet to be determined; however
the inoculation of X. fastidiosa into dormant grapevines with positive xylem sap
pressure (positive root pressure) indicates that vector behaviors are required for
the inoculation of bacterial cells into plants (Almeida et al., 2005).
94 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

One important aspect of X. fastidiosa transmission relevant to the emergence

of new diseases is that it lacks vector specificity (Almeida et al., 2005). The insect
groups that transmit X. fastidiosa are distributed worldwide in tropical and tem­
perate climates, and all insect species belonging to the above-mentioned groups
should be considered as potential vectors until proven otherwise. For example,
one vector species has been shown to transmit X. fastidiosa isolates belonging to
four different X. fastidiosa subspecies (Almeida and Purcell, 2003; Purcell et al.,
1999; Sanderlin and Melanson, 2010; Saponari et al., 2014). And a X. fastidiosa
subspecies originally from South America has been transmitted by various vec­
tors in South America, one in North America, and another in Europe (Brlansky et
al., 2002; Damsteegt et al., 2006; Marucci et al., 2008; Saponari et al., 2014). This
lack of specificity increases the likelihood that newly introduced X. fastidiosa
isolates, when reaching a novel environment, will be transmitted by an endemic
vector species. However, while the ability to transmit X. fastidiosa is widespread,
transmission efficiency is highly variable and dependent on a range of vector-
plant-pathogen interactions (Lopes et al., 2009). Transmission efficiency may
vary for different vector species on the same host plant (Daugherty and Almeida,
2009; Lopes et al., 2009), or the same vector species feeding on different tissues
of the same plant (Daugherty et al., 2010a); however, observations suggest that
the general mechanisms of transmission are conserved. The one caveat is that
most of the research on X. fastidiosa transmission has been conducted with two
vector species (Graphocephala atropunctata and Homalodisca vitripennis) and
one X. fastidiosa subspecies (subsp. fastidiosa), so it is important that a broader
range of taxa be studied to confirm these results. Until that is done, the effective­
ness of individual sharpshooter leafhopper species in transmitting X. fastidiosa
should not be extrapolated from epidemic to epidemic without considering the
novel ecological context.

A Plant Generalist or Not: Revisiting Xylella fastidiosa Systematics

Xylella fastidiosa currently is the sole species in the genus Xylella; Xan­
thomonas spp. are sister taxa to X. fastidiosa (Retchless et al., 2014). As noted
earlier, X. fastidiosa has traditionally been referred to as a having a “wide host
range” or as a “generalist”. This is accurate in the sense that a very large number
of plant species have been demonstrated to sustain X. fastidiosa infections; how­
ever, there is mounting evidence suggesting that while this description is accurate
it is misleading. Specifically, very few of these plants sustain long-term infections
and become symptomatic. Furthermore, it is now clear that specific symptomatic
hosts are only susceptible to isolates in one or a limited number of X. fastidiosa
phylogenetic clades, with the result that specific clades of X. fastidiosa have a
small number of symptomatic host plant species (Nunney et al., 2013). Such
insights are of great relevance in understanding disease outbreaks.
APPENDIX A 95

We revisit X. fastidiosa taxonomy in face of new findings and, consequently,

novel questions, with two important caveats. First, it is fully expected that new
clades of X. fastidiosa will be reported in the future (e.g., Nunney et al., 2014a).
Second, many of the plant species listed as hosts of X. fastidiosa should in fact
be considered putative hosts since most associations studied so far are derived
from symptomatic plant tissue, but without experimental work to confirm the
pathogenicity of isolates. Although associations are relevant, the fulfillment of
Koch’s postulates is a requirement to demonstrate that individual genotypes are
pathogenic to specific host plant species. The importance of experimental work to
determine the host range of pathogens remains paramount. It is possible that eco­
logical conditions limit the host range and/or virulence of pathogens, which may
be ‘released’ in new environments where other vector species and host plants are
present, or abiotic factors such as climate and precipitation vary. In summary, we
emphasize the importance of experimentally determining plant species suscepti­
bility to X. fastidiosa, as there are plant species-pathogen genotype associations
that do not lead to disease. Moreover, even when symptoms eventually develop,
a delay of several months following infection is not uncommon. These issues are
especially relevant given the economic and quarantine importance of this bacte­
rial species. In this context, it is important to note that so far no native plant hosts
of X. fastidiosa in South and Central America have been identified. In contrast, a
number of native hosts (primarily trees) of the North American subsp. multiplex
have been identified, including several oak species (Quercus spp.), American
elm (Ulmus Americana), American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), sweetgum
(Liquidambar styraciflua), and pecan (Carya illinoinensis) (for a more complete
list see Table 2 in Nunney et al. [2013]).
Studies of X. fastidiosa genetic and phenotypic diversity have historically
been confusing and inconclusive, despite the efforts of a small and dedicated
group of scientists. Purcell (2013) made a case for the importance of researchers
naïve to a new field of science being able to address old questions, and the ad­
vent of DNA sequencing has facilitated studies of X. fastidiosa diversity and host
range that were until recently technically intractable. As a result, we can argue
that the main drivers of conflicting results can be summarized under four head­
ings. First, isolates from a small range of host plants and geographical distribution
have been used for studies, over-representing a limited and narrow sampling of
genetic diversity. Second, procedures for typing have relied on within-study com­
parisons of the above-mentioned small number of available isolates with methods
that provided inadequate phylogenetic resolution. Third, methodological differ­
ences in the typing of isolates limited comparisons among studies, a problem that
is disappearing now that sequencing technology is easily available worldwide.
Lastly, X. fastidiosa is naturally competent (Kung and Almeida, 2011); gene flow
deeply impacts the systematics and evolution of bacteria (Polz et al., 2013).
The current view of X. fastidiosa genetic diversity has overcome most of
these limitations, largely through the use of a portable multi-locus sequence
96 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

typing (MLST) approach (Maiden et al., 1998). MLST for X. fastidiosa was first
introduced by Scally in 2005 (Scally et al., 2005) and refined by five years later
into the form currently employed (Yuan et al., 2010). MLST has been success­
fully used to study X. fastidiosa diversity at the species/subspecies level, and to
infer the phylogenetic placement of newly identified isolates. These data have
resulted in a robust taxonomy for the species. Furthermore, the MLST classi­
fication of isolates into sequence types (STs) (unique genotypes based on the 7
loci used in MLST) has provided insights about X. fastidiosa evolution and host
specificity. For example, comparing subsp. pauca STs found on coffee and citrus,
it has been shown that in general they are reciprocally host specific (Almeida et
al., 2008; Nunney et al., 2012).
Based on current knowledge, X. fastidiosa is primarily a species of the
Americas. A distant relative is found in Taiwan (Su et al., 2014), but should
probably be classified as a separate species. Two other exceptions that must yet
be confirmed and for which no genetic information is available, are reports from
Iran (Amanifar et al., 2014) and Turkey (Guldur et al., 2005). Lastly, the recent
introduction of X. fastidiosa into Italy is an important change to its geographical
distribution (Saponari et al., 2013). The American representatives were initially
divided into three subspecies subsp. fastidiosa, multiplex and pauca based on
DNA-DNA hybridization data (Schaad et al., 2004). MLST sequence data con­
firmed the status of these subspecies, and suggested a fourth, subsp. sandyi,
which was not present among the earlier strains that were tested (Scally et al.,
2005). Subsequent sampling and analysis based on MLST has indicated that these
subspecies evolved in geographical isolation with subsp. pauca native to South
America (Nunney et al., 2012), subsp. multiplex native to temperate and subtropi­
cal North America (Nunney et al., 2012, 2014b), subsp. fastidiosa is found in
Costa Rica and is presumed to be native to southern Central America (Nunney
et al., 2010), and subsp. sandyi has only been detected in southern regions of
the USA (Yuan et al., 2010). Subspecies morus represents a new proposal and is
discussed below. Historical geographical isolation of the original four subspecies
is consistent with the known biology of X. fastidiosa: this bacterium can only
invade a new region by long-distance dispersal of infected insects or infected
plants. In the absence of human intervention, the former is very unlikely and the
latter is close to impossible. However, it has become apparent that in the recent
past human-mediated invasion is the primary driver of economically costly X.
fastidiosa introductions. We discuss three main pathways leading to the emer­
gence of X. fastidiosa diseases, following examples available in the literature.

Introduction of Exotic Genotypes

The most common pathway leading to X. fastidiosa epidemics is the intro­
duction of exotic genotypes into environments that are ecologically prone to the
maintenance of the bacterium in the plant community. Although the introduction
APPENDIX A 97

of insect vectors carrying X. fastidiosa represents a potential pathway, only one

vector species is considered invasive (Homalodisca vitripennis, Cicadellidae,
a sharpshooter leafhopper), and another is distributed beyond its region of ori­
gin (Philaneus spumarius, Aphrophoridae, a spittlebug). The expansion in the
geographical range of these species has not been associated with the spread of
X. fastidiosa, therefore we consider this an unlikely route. The main dispersal path­
way would then be the movement of infected, and potentially asymptomatic, plant
material from areas where the pathogen occurs. A recent report by the European
Food Safety Authority evaluation on the risk of X. fastidiosa introductions into
the European Union reached similar conclusions (EFSA Panel on Plant Health,
2015) with a much more detailed and systematic analysis of potential pathways.
Here we discuss examples with conclusive evidence from the available literature.
The most recent case of an introduction is the outbreak of rapid olive decline
in the Apuglia region in southern Italy, first reported in October 2013 (Saponari
et al., 2013). While the distribution and consequences of this introduction are
yet to be determined, it is known that this outbreak is associated with a strain of
X. fastidiosa subsp. pauca classified as ST53 (Elbeaino et al., 2014). Subspecies
pauca is of South American origin but this sequence type so far has not been
found in South America; however, it has been detected in Costa Rica infecting
primarily oleander (Nunney et al., 2014a). Thus, this particular ST of subsp.
pauca has now been introduced into two new regions, and infecting novel hosts.
While olive is currently considered the primary host in the Italian outbreak,
infection of oleander has also been observed, illustrating a common feature of
X. fastidiosa: oleander and olive are hosts of the same strain, and yet they are in
different Orders (Gentianales vs. Lamiales). As a result, given our current knowl­
edge, it is not possible to predict potential hosts following an invasion.
Yet another introduction involved the best studied X. fastidiosa disease,
Pierce’s disease of grapevines. It had been first proposed that the Gulf Coast Plain
area of the USA was the center of origin of the etiological agent of the disease
based on the fact that species of grapevines (Vitis spp.) native to the USA were
tolerant to infection, while the exotic European grapevine (Vitis vinifera) was
susceptible (Hewitt, 1958). With the recent availability of larger datasets on the
genetic diversity of X. fastidiosa, we now know that the genotype causing disease
in grapevines in the USA originated from Central America (Nunney et al., 2010).
The lack of genetic diversity among isolates belonging to this clade in the USA
is evidence of a relatively recent introduction (Yuan et al., 2010), and it has been
proposed that the introduction into the USA of a single genotype was via an in ­
fected coffee plant, a known host of X. fastidiosa in Central America (Nunney et
al., 2010). Isolates derived from this single genotype are now widely distributed
through grape-growing regions of the USA, from Florida to California. Interest­
ingly, an isolate from this same almost monomorphic clade found in the USA
has now been reported causing Pierce’s disease of grapevines in Taiwan (Su et
al., 2013), suggesting that X. fastidiosa infected-plant material originating from
98 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

the USA was inadvertently introduced into the country, eventually leading to an
epidemic.
A similar scenario appears to have occurred with the emergence of plum leaf
scald in Argentina, Paraguay, and Brazil (French and Kitajima, 1978; Kitajima
et al., 1975). The disease in plum and other Prunus species were known in the
southeast USA, but the origin of the X. fastidiosa genotype(s) causing plum leaf
scald in South America remained unidentified until Nunes et al. (2003) studied
the gene content of several isolates. They determined that the tested plum isolate
from Brazil grouped with North instead of South American isolates (i.e., belong­
ing to subsp. multiplex), demonstrating yet another introduction, this time from
the USA to South America. These examples illustrate the challenges of limit­
ing the inadvertent transportation of X. fastidiosa-infected plant material from
one country, or continent, to another. For a detailed risk assessment analysis of
X. fastidiosa introductions we direct readers to a recent review by the European
Food Safety Authority (EFSA Panel on Plant Health, 2015).

Introduction of an Invasive Vector

To our knowledge there is only one example of a X. fastidiosa vector being
considered invasive, spreading over vast geographical distances and reaching
large populations at various environmental conditions (Grandgirard et al., 2006;
Petit et al., 2008). Homalodisca vitripennis (Cicadellidae, Cicadellinae) is na­
tive to the southeastern USA (Turner and Pollard 1959; Young, 1958); in 1989
it was first detected in California (Sorensen and Gill, 1996), but only in the late
1990s it became a problem as the vector of X. fastidiosa driving the oleander
leaf scorch epidemic in Southern California (Purcell et al., 1999), and at the
same time a Pierce’s disease epidemic in the grape-growing region of Temecula,
also in Southern California (Hopkins and Purcell, 2002). Estimates suggested
1−2 million insects per hectare in the region (Coviella et al., 2006), populations
which are thought to have allowed for its transportation to French Polynesia
(Grandgirard et al., 2006), where biological control successfully controlled very
large populations that developed in those tropical regions (Grandgirard et al.,
2008). It is notable that these invasions were not associated with the introduction
of X. fastidiosa, supporting our view that the primary mechanism of X. fastidiosa
invasions is the movement of infected live plants. In the case of California, the
introduction of H. vitripennis had several important consequences; we focus here
on the emergence of X. fastidiosa diseases alone. Newton Pierce, after whom
Pierce’s disease was later named, studied the first known outbreak of the disease
that was in Southern California (Pierce, 1892). Since that time, X. fastidiosa has
been regularly reported in grapevines, almonds, and alfalfa, indicating it has
been continuously present. However, disease outbreaks were primarily limited to
small areas, apparently due to habitat specific of endemic vectors and the broader
ecological context.
APPENDIX A 99

There were two main consequences associated with the extremely large
populations of H. vitripennis in southern California in the two decades subse­
quent to its introduction (see Almeida, 2008, for further discussion). The first
was the development of a Pierce’s disease epidemic, where very large popula­
tions of a relatively inefficient vector (H. vitripennis is not an efficient vector on
grapevines when compared to other species), (Daugherty and Almeida, 2009)
led to the effective spread of the pathogen to a focal crop under new ecological
conditions, decimating the vineyards of the Temecula region (Hopkins and Pur­
cell, 2002). Chemical control of H. vitripennis populations in the region has led
to the restoration of the local wine industry to economically profitable levels (M.
Daugherty personal communication). The second consequence is based on asso­
ciations rather than conclusive epidemiological data; yet, the contention is well
supported by field observations. We contend that the introduction of the highly
polyphagous H. vitripennis, led to the establishment of various X. fastidiosa
diseases in Southern California, notably oleander leaf scorch (Purcell et al.,
1999) and scorch diseases of a range of ornamental trees (Hernandez-Martinez
et al., 2007, 2009). A large list of diseases associated with X. fastidiosa has been
generated, albeit Koch’s postulates have only been fulfilled for a few of them
(e.g., Hernandez-Martinez et al., 2009; Purcell et al., 1999). We suggest that
X. fastidiosa genotypes had been widely established in Southern California ahead
of the H. vitripennis invasion, albeit restricted to disease cycles with endemic
vectors and asymptomatic hosts or associated with species where it caused dis­
ease rarely enough to be overlooked. The presence of H. vitripennis resulted in
increments of such rare events due to its large populations, or in the displacement
of genotypes from endemic cycles to disease cycles that incorporated hosts of this
invasive vector. The lack of vector-pathogen specificity is the trait most respon­
sible for this outcome. In fact, H. vitripennis is the only vector species shown to
transmit X. fastidiosa belonging to all currently accepted subspecies (fastidiosa,
multiplex, sandyi, and pauca), although this should be expected from all known
and potential X. fastidiosa vector species.

Recombination and Adaptation to New Plant Hosts

The anthropogenic introduction of X. fastidiosa subspecies into new regions
can have two effects: the emergence of a known disease in a new area, and/or
the emergence of a new disease involving a new plant host. In this section we
focus on the second of these possibilities. One example of X. fastidiosa invad­
ing a new host is the case of mulberry leaf scorch. It was first noted in the early
1980s in Washington DC, and subsequent sampling revealed infected trees (the
native Morus rubra) along the eastern seaboard as far north as southern New
York (Kostka et al., 1986). Within a few years the disease was found on the west
coast with infected trees (the introduced Morus alba) observed in California
(Hernandez-Martinez et al., 2007). Initial genetic typing showed that the mulberry
100 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

isolates always grouped together, but their relationship to the other subspecies was
marker dependent. The reason for this ambiguity was revealed using MLST: the
genome is a roughly equal mix of genetic material from subsp. fastidiosa and mul­
tiplex, such that an examination of the 7 MLST loci revealed 3 alleles from subsp.
fastidiosa, 3 from subsp. multiplex, and one chimeric allele containing sequence
from both subspecies and consequently a recombination breakpoint (Nunney et
al., 2014c). All other forms of X. fastidiosa are genetically very distinct from the
mulberry type, which themselves show almost no genetic variability. Since they do
not group with any pre-existing subspecies, and since they appear to be unique in
naturally infecting mulberry, it’s been proposed that they define a new subspecies
(subsp. morus), that was created by one or more massive genetic exchanges
between subsp. fastidiosa and multiplex that created a chimeric genome via inter­
subspecific homologous recombination (IHR) (Nunney et al., in preparation).
The genetic exchange that created subsp. morus has also resulted in a group
of genotypes (recombinant multiplex) that cluster with subsp. multiplex, presum­
ably due to repeated backcross exchanges with the native subspecies (multiplex)
(Nunney et al., 2014b). Of interest is that the isolates from diseased blueberry
plants (from Georgia and Florida) were all of only two sequence types, both of
which were recombinant subsp. multiplex. No non-recombinant subsp. multiplex
have yet been isolated from blueberry strongly suggesting that we have a second
example of genetic mixing between an introduced and native subspecies resulting
in the infection of a new host. The involvement of IHR in the genesis of subsp.
morus, and the subsequent formation of the group of recombinant subsp. multi­
plex, might seem like a special event unlikely to be repeated; however, we now
have evidence that a similar genetic exchange occurred in South America. Studies
of citrus and coffee X. fastidiosa isolates from Brazil have provided evidence of
IHR from subsp. multiplex to subsp. pauca (Almeida et al., 2008; Nunney et al.,
2012). Based on MLST data, Nunney et al. (2012) estimated that about half of
the genome was polymorphic for subsp. multiplex sequence, suggesting that, as
in the case of subsp. morus, one or more major genetic exchanges had occurred.
However, non-recombinant subsp. pauca has not been found, although it seems
probable that it will eventually be isolated by more thorough sampling away from
agricultural areas. These examples highlight the important question of the conse­
quences of gene flow on the emergence of X. fastidiosa diseases. We propose that
the introduction of novel allelic diversity into countries/regions where X. fastidi­
osa is already present poses a significant risk and should be a major concern to
regulatory bodies around the world.
In addition to host species switches induced by IHR, genetic exchange within
subspecies occurs (Almeida et al., 2008; Nunney et al., 2013). This, together with
IHR, may be highly relevant in determining the ability of X. fastidiosa to adapt to
resistant plant genotypes. Specifically, the breeding programs that are developing
resistant plant material for various X. fastidiosa hosts (notably wine grapes) should
take into account the potential for X. fastidiosa to adapt. The groups of bacterial
APPENDIX A 101

genes that are frequently exchanged and maintained in a population and those that
are quickly purged have not been identified. Similarly, general patterns of short-
and long-term genome evolution have so far not been analyzed. These are essential
components for the robust deployment of resistant plant material, transgenic or
not, as the strong selective pressure on X. fastidiosa populations due to the usage
of new technologies will eventually lead to the selection of novel pathogen vari­
ants that are capable of breaking down resistance. This process is equivalent to
antibiotic resistance strains of human pathogens, such as tuberculosis, or loss of
Bacillus thuringiensis derived plant resistance to pests. Our argument is not that
new technologies will not be successful; our argument is that the evolution of
X. fastidiosa needs to be considered and incorporated into management practices
aimed at prolonging the utilization of such plant lines. That, however, cannot be
done with the very superficial and limited knowledge currently available.

Last Thoughts
Xylella fastidiosa is no longer a plant pathogen limited to a few countries in
the Americas, where its geographical distribution ranges from Canada to Argen­
tina. The long-term presence of X. fastidiosa in Taiwan raises questions about
its potential distribution in Asia, and its introduction into Europe and recent
report from Iran will dramatically and permanently change its geographic range.
Is this bacterium present elsewhere, or where is it not present? And, as shown
recently in Central America (Nunney et al., 2014a), how much of the genetic di­
versity of X. fastidiosa remains to be described? Old and unaddressed questions
are now more relevant than ever, especially for Europe and the Mediterranean
basin, where the plant community has, as far as we know, not been exposed to
X. fastidiosa. Among those is what drives host specificity in this pathogen, in
other words, why do genotypes cause disease in one plant species and not another,
while still being able to colonize various plant species with different degrees of
success without inducing symptom expression. Finally, we still know very little
about X. fastidiosa outside of its crop hosts. We are strong believers that much
would be gained from studies of X. fastidiosa in natural environments, no only in
regards to its biology, ecology, and evolution, but also on how to better manage
diseases it causes in crops of economic importance.

Acknowledgments
We thank collaborators and colleagues with whom interactions helped shape
our views on many of the topics discussed here. However, we are solely re­
sponsible for omissions and opinions expressed in this article. Xylella fastidiosa
research in our groups has been funded primarily by the United States Depart­
ment of Agriculture and California Department of Food and Agriculture Pierce’s
Disease Program.
102 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

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A2

GENETIC CONTROL OF AEDES MOSQUITOES1

Luke Alphey,2,3 Andrew McKemey,2 Derric Nimmo,2 Marco Neira

Oviedo,2,4 Renaud Lacroix,2 Kelly Matzen,2 and Camilla Beech2

Abstract
Aedes mosquitoes include important vector species such as Aedes aegypti,
the major vector of dengue. Genetic control methods are being developed
for several of these species, stimulated by an urgent need owing to the poor

1 Reprinted with permission from Maney Publishing. Originally printed as Alphey et al., 2013.

Genetic control of Aedes mosquitoes. Pathogens and Global Health 107(4):170−179.

2 Oxitec Limited, 71 Milton Park, Oxford OX14 4RX, UK.
3 Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PS, UK.
4 Center for Infectious Disease Research, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Quito,

Ecuador. Keywords: Aedes, Genetic engineering, RIDL, SIT, IIT, Wolbachia, Dengue.
APPENDIX A 107

effectiveness of current methods combined with an increase in chemical pes­

ticide resistance. In this review we discuss the various genetic strategies that
have been proposed, their present status, and future prospects. We focus par­
ticularly on those methods that are already being tested in the field, including
RIDL and Wolbachia-based approaches.

Introduction
Aedes mosquitoes transmit a range of pathogens that cause substantial human
morbidity, mortality, and suffering. Dengue, the most important mosquito-borne
viral disease with 50–400 million infections per year worldwide (Bhatt et al.,
2013; WHO, 2012), is transmitted primarily by Ae. aegypti. Several other Aedes
species are competent vectors for dengue in the laboratory and Ae. albopictus
in particular has been responsible for some transmission in the field, though it
appears much less epidemiologically significant than Ae. aegypti (Lambrechts
et al., 2010). The common name of Ae. aegypti is the yellow fever mosquito,
indicating another major arbovirus transmitted by mosquitoes of this genus, and
there are many more; chikungunya has come to prominence more recently with
a major outbreak in the Indian Ocean in 2005–6 (Gérardin et al., 2008; Delatte et
al., 2008) and some transmission in Italy in 2006 (Bonilauri et al., 2008). Patho­
gen transmission is not confined to viruses—lymphatic filariasis in the South
Pacific is vectored by Ae. polynesiensis; specific characteristics of this vector may
have contributed to the failure of drug-based control programmes in the region
(Chambers et al., 2011; O’Connor et al., 2012).
A vaccine has long been available for yellow fever, but remains some way off
for dengue, following disappointing results from a recent large trial of the leading
candidate (Halstead, 2012; Sabchareon et al., 2012). With no licensed vaccine or
specific drug (whether prophylactic or therapeutic), dengue control focuses on
the major mosquito vector, Ae. aegypti—and vector control is expected to remain
essential even when drugs or vaccines eventually become available. However,
current mosquito control methods have limited effectiveness against some key
species which breed in small dispersed bodies of water. For Ae. aegypti, these
might be water storage containers or rain-water filled artificial containers such
as buckets, vases, general refuse, or blocked rainwater gutters. Both private
properties and public spaces will have large numbers of such potential breeding
sites. Each one may be treated easily by tipping out the water or treating with a
chemical or biological toxin, however finding and treating a high enough propor­
tion for effective control is extremely difficult and impractical in most settings.
Adulticides are also of limited effectiveness, compounded by increased resistance
and the relative ineffectiveness of bednets against day-biting mosquitoes. The
inadequacy of current technology is clear: for example, the efficient and well-
resourced programme in Singapore, working with a cooperative citizenry, has
not been able to prevent epidemic dengue (Egger et al., 2008; Ooi et al., 2006;
108 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

National Environment Agency, 2012). This, combined with recent enabling tech­
nical advances in mosquito genetics, provides the underlying motivation for the
development of new genetics-based approaches.
Genetics-based approaches have several features in common.5 Since they
depend on vertical (mating-based) transmission of heritable elements,6 they are
extremely species-specific. Populations can only be affected by the genetic sys­
tem if they can interbreed with carriers of that genetic system; other populations
will not be directly affected. This species-specific aspect is very attractive from an
environmental perspective, as it means that these approaches are exquisitely tar­
geted to the pest or vector species of interest. On the other hand, this feature may
be a limitation where multiple pest species are transmitting the same pathogen,
in which case a more broad-spectrum approach may be preferred. An additional
advantage of genetic control methods is that the control agent, modified insects,
will actively disperse and seek mates, so the methods are “homing” or actively
target-seeking, as well as specific.
Though some genetic strategies have been developed using classical genetics,
such as the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) (see section below: Population Suppres­
sion Strategies—Sterile Males Section), recombinant DNA methods provide a
step change in our ability to design and build highly specified, versatile, powerful
genetic systems. Several key Aedes species have now been transformed, either by
recombinant DNA methods using transposon vectors (Labbé et al., 2010; Coates
et al., 1998; Jasinskiene et al., 1998; Rodrigues et al., 2006; Fraser, 2012), or by
artificial infection with various Wolbachia, a diverse group of intracellular bac­
teria (Chambers et al., 2011; Xi et al., 2005, 2006). This opens the door to the
development of powerful new genetics-based tools with which to control major
vector-borne diseases.

Classifying Genetic Control Strategies

A bewildering variety of genetic control strategies have been proposed;
these can be categorised according to the intended outcome, or according to
the expected dynamics of the genetic element in the target population. Regard­
ing intended outcome, this may be to reduce the number of individual vector
mosquitoes—population suppression—or to reduce the ability of individual mos­
quitoes within the population to transmit the pathogen. This latter approach is
5 Genetic control may be defined as “Dissemination, by mating or inheritance, of factors that

reduce pest damage” and area-wide control as “Reducing pest damage using measures whose effec­
tiveness depends on application over large expanses” (Mark Benedict, pers. comm.). All proposed
genetic strategies are intended for area-wide use, though the minimum useful area varies by species
and strategy.
6 One exception might be “paratransgenesis,” the use of modified microbes to change the pheno­

type of insects with which the microbes associate. Depending on the microbe, horizontal transfer of
the modified microbe between insects might be possible. Paratransgenesis is not discussed further
in this review.
APPENDIX A 109

known as “population replacement” or, because the mosquitoes are made re­
fractory to transmission of the pathogen, “refractory insect strategy” (Braig and
Yan, 2001; James, 2000; Alphey et al., 2002; Alphey, 2009). However, the target
population is not really replaced; rather a genetic element is introduced into it
through breeding of released modified mosquitoes with wild individuals, thereby
changing the phenotype of some or all individuals in that population—those that
carry the new genetic element.
Regarding the expected dynamics of the genetic element in the target popula­
tion, the element may be intended to persist indefinitely in the target population,
potentially also increasing in frequency within the target population and spread­
ing to invade additional populations. These are termed “self-sustaining” genetic
systems. The alternative is systems which will not spread or persist, rather they
will decrease in prevalence over time and can be maintained in the target popu­
lation only by periodic release of additional carriers. These are known as “self-
limiting” genetic systems.

Population Suppression Strategies—Sterile Males

The most familiar genetics-based population suppression strategy is SIT.
This relies on the release of large numbers of sterile males to seek, court, and
mate wild females, thereby reducing the reproductive potential of the target wild
population. If enough of the wild females mate sterile males then the target
population will decline and collapse. SIT has been used successfully for more
than 50 years against several major agricultural pests, using radiation-sterilised
insects (Dyck et al., 2005; Knipling, 1955). However, the use of radiation im­
poses several undesirable limitations, including logistical issues, and the somatic
damage unavoidably caused by the sterilising dose of radiation used (Andreasen
and Curtis, 2005; Helinski et al., 2006, 2009; Helinski and Knols, 2008). Several
field trials using radiation- or chemo-sterilised mosquitoes have been conducted,
with some success, but there are also problems including poor performance of
irradiated mosquitoes (Dame et al., 2009). Though classical methods have recently
been revisited for Ae. albopictus (Bellini et al., 2007; Boyer et al., 2011) and An.
arabiensis (Helsinki et al., 2008), several alternatives have been explored to avoid
the need for irradiation, and to provide additional enhancements, while retaining
the many attractive aspects of classical SIT (Alphey et al., 2010). Though “sterile”
may strictly indicate agametic sterility, meaning that no gametes are produced, for
SIT agametic sterility is not intended or used as it is important that spermatozoa
are in fact produced. If aspermic males were used, sperm competition in remating
females would likely lead to fertile sperm winning over (non-existent) sperm from
sterile males. This would lead to most or all of the eggs from females that mate
more than once being fertilised by unmodified sperm and therefore being viable,
unless all of their mates are sterile. Increased remating might therefore represent
a form of selectable behavioural resistance. However, the barriers to remating
110 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

vary; where physical barriers such as mating plugs occur selection for increased
remating may be less likely. Instead of “agametic,” in the context of SIT and this
review “sterile” simply means that some or all of the offspring die. For instance,
Wolbachia can induce a form of sterility known as Cytoplasmic Incompatibility
(CI), in which embryos from uninfected females fertilised by sperm from in­
fected males fail to develop. Infected males are therefore sterile when mated with
uninfected females, though fertile when mating with infected females. This can
potentially be used as a sterilising principle for SIT, this variant being called the
Incompatible Insect Technique, IIT (Brelsfoard et al., 2008). In classical SIT, the
radiation doses used induce dominant lethal mutations in the irradiated sperm
such that most eggs die after being fertilised by such sperm. About 95–99% ste­
rility is typical for Mediterranean fruit fly SIT programmes (Bakri et al., 2005;
Mumford, 2012); higher sterility can be achieved with more radiation, but at the
cost of further damaging the insects. Wolbachia achieve a similar effect—death
of offspring of incompatible crosses—in IIT, though the biochemical and genetic
mechanism is unknown.
Sterility—death of most or all offspring—can also be achieved by using
dominant lethal alleles introduced into the genome by recombinant DNA methods,
rather than by irradiation. In the most direct analogous system, so far described
only in Anopheles, a nuclease is expressed in the male germline (Windbichler
et al., 2008). This gives a sterilising effect much like radiation—and presum­
ably by a similar mechanism, induction of double-stranded breaks in the insect’s
chromosomes. Interestingly, the system was designed to cut the X chromosome
exclusively, and thereby selectively kill female offspring, though this was not
achieved and would in any case be difficult in Aedes mosquitoes that lack a
Y chromosome. The underlying molecular system, using sequence-specific nucle­
ases called homing endonucleases (HEGs), is remarkably flexible depending on
the precise design. In theory, both self-limiting systems like this SIT example and
invasive, self-sustaining genetic systems can be developed with these tools (Burt,
2003; Deredec et al., 2008). Furthermore, although the SIT-like systems described
here are clearly self-limiting, self-sustaining population suppression strategies
using HEGs have been described, in which reduced-fitness traits are driven into
the target population using the super-Mendelian inheritance property of HEGs; in
principle this could drive a population or even a species to extinction (Burt, 2003;
Deredec et al., 2008).
We have developed a SIT-like system called RIDL (Release of Insects carry-
ing a Dominant Lethal) (Thomas et al., 2000). Here, rather than inducing domi­
nant lethals when required, as with radiation, a dominant lethal transgene is
inserted, but its expression is artificially repressed to allow the insects to be
reared. One advantage of this approach over the use of DNA damage or CI is the
ability to select the time of death of the offspring. Radiation and CI kill affected
individuals as embryos, but where there is significant larval density-dependence,
a later lethal period can be considerably preferable (Phuc et al., 2007; Atkinson
APPENDIX A 111

et al., 2007; Yakob and Alphey, 2008; White et al., 2010; Alphey et al., 2011;
Barclay, 2005; Bax and Thresher, 2009).
All control interventions place pressures on the target population that may
select for various forms of resistance, and genetic control methods are no excep­
tion. As mating-based systems, one obvious potential mode of resistance is as­
sortative mating, whereby females are selected to avoid the engineered males. In
practice, in decades of use of radiation-based SIT there have been few examples
of this, a melon fly control programme in Okinawa being perhaps the only well-
documented example (Koyama et al., 2004). Even then, control was successfully
achieved simply by releasing more sterile males. Other genetic strategies may
have additional potential resistance modes. The use of zygotically active lethal
genes in RIDL provides flexibility in terms of engineering the time—and/or sex,
see in the following section—of death. In principle, it also allows the possibil­
ity of resistance to the zygotic killing mechanism (Alphey et al., 2011b) though
this has not yet been observed. Given the large number of effector molecules
available, one might expect that new strains could be developed faster than such
resistance would emerge; other approaches such as stacking traits may also be
useful should this type of resistance prove an issue in practice.

Large-Scale Separation of Males and Females—Genetic Sexing Strains

A further issue is that of sex separation. This is not essential for efficacy—
the New World screw-worm was eliminated from a continent by a classical SIT
programme releasing both males and females—but it is highly desirable (Dyck
et al., 2005). Female mosquitoes will bite and potentially transmit disease even if
sterilised. The lifespan of released mosquitoes will likely be reduced by labora­
tory rearing and handling, significantly reducing their capacity to transmit disease
in addition to any effect of the modification itself, nonetheless the possibility of
deliberate or accidental release of females may adversely affect public accep­
tance. Sterile-male methods (e.g., SIT, IIT, RIDL) do not require the release of
females, however self-sustaining releases of Wolbachia do require the release of
some females because Wolbachia is maternally inherited. Therefore it has been
proposed that special strategies using male-biased release should be used to
minimise the number of females released (Hancock et al., 2011), though in fact
no sex separation was used for the first such release trial (Hoffman et al., 2011).
For some strategies there are additional reasons to remove females beyond
their potential to bite. For SIT, large-scale field experiments with Mediterranean
fruit flies showed that male-only releases were 3–5 times more effective per male
than mixed-sex releases; the sterile females are thought to “distract” the sterile
males from seeking out wild females (Rendón et al., 2004). For the Wolbachia­
based IIT specifically there is an additional requirement for sex separation—the
infected females are fully fertile with both infected and uninfected males, further­
more all their progeny inherit the infection. This means that release of even a
112 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

single infected female could potentially lead to the alien Wolbachia spreading in
the target population. Where the target species is naturally infected with a differ­
ent, incompatible, strain of Wolbachia, the resulting bidirectional incompatibility
will likely limit the spread of the new infection beyond the target area, at least
for small target areas. However, if the target species is naturally uninfected, this
could lead to the spread of the infection throughout the species. The natural his­
tory of Wolbachia, which indicates many independent invasion events, shows
this is possible, but not the likelihood, which may be very low per female. This
is likely to be seen as an undesirable outcome and therefore a significant risk,
unless species-wide invasion is the intent of the release.
Sex separation can be efficiently achieved for some species of mosquitoes,
including Ae. aegypti, using physical methods based on the size difference be­
tween male and female pupae (Ansari et al., 1977; Focks, 1980; Harris et al.,
2011, 2012). Strains that allow genetics-based automated separation of males
and females are known as “genetic sexing strains.” Several have been developed
using classical genetics, notably the “MACHO” strain which contributed greatly
to the success of an SIT programme against An. arabiensis in El Salvador (Dame
et al., 2009; Kaiser et al., 1978). However, modern genetics provides more op­
tions and also allows such systems to be transferred more readily from one spe­
cies to another. Several have been developed (Papathanos et al., 2009; Catteruccia
et al., 2005; Fu et al., 2007, 2010; Ant et al., 2012; Jin et al., 2013). In principle,
any selectable induced sexual dimorphism could be used, but in practice two
approaches have been followed, either sex-specific expression of a fluorescent
marker allowing automated sorting (Catteruccia et al., 2005; Marois et al., 2012),
or sex-specific conditional lethality allowing facile elimination of one sex from
a cohort during rearing (Fu et al., 2007). It is possible to use a repressible
female-killing system both for sex separation and also for field control (Thomas
et al., 2000; Alphey, 2002; Alphey and Andreasen, 2002; Alphey et al., 2008).
Insects are reared with the lethal system repressed to provide a colony. Cohorts
for release are then reared without the repressor, so that females are eliminated.
The resulting males, homozygous for a dominant female-specific lethal gene are
released to mate with wild females. All offspring from such a mating inherit one
copy of the female-lethal transgene, so daughters die. These are both the vectors
and the reproductive potential of the population. Heterozygous sons will pass
the transgene on to half of their offspring, resulting in some additional control,
though the high fitness cost of a female-lethal trait means that the transgene will
be rapidly eliminated from the target population unless maintained by periodic
release of additional homozygous males. This is female-specific RIDL, fsRIDL,
which has some similarities to the classical field female-killing (FK) systems
developed in Lucilia cuprina (Black and Alphey, 2011) and is in principle more
efficient than SIT (Schliekelman and Gould, 2000). Furthermore, the use of
female-lethal systems may provide additional benefits in terms of resistance
management for other approaches used in an integrated vector management
APPENDIX A 113

programme (Alphey et al., 2007, 2009). fsRIDL strains have been developed
for Ae. aegypti (Fu et al., 2010; Wise de Valdez et al., 2011), and Ae. albopictus
(Labbé et al., 2012), using flightlessness as a lethal trait.

Refractory Insects
Several approaches have been described for making mosquitoes refractory to
malaria, including the expression of specific antibodies (Isaacs et al., 2012), pep­
tides (Ito et al., 2002), or manipulating cell signaling (Corby-Harris et al., 2010).
For the arboviruses transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes, RNAi seems an attractive
mechanism for suppressing virus replication. Transgene-based expression of a
hairpin RNA corresponding to part of the DEN2 virus in either the midgut (Franz
et al., 2006) or salivary glands (Mathur et al., 2010) has been shown to provide a
strong block to virus transmission. However, for the midgut-expressing line, ex­
pression of the anti-DEN2 hairpin and the associated refractory phenotype were
lost after about 13 generations (Franz et al., 2009), suggesting that expression
may impose a significant fitness cost, and also perhaps that the unusual inverted
repeat structure involved may be subject to some form of epigenetic silencing.

Gene Drive Systems

A refractory gene will only have an epidemiologically useful effect if it is
present in a significant fraction of the target population. It will probably also
have to keep both prevalence and effectiveness high for many vector generations.
How can this be achieved? Getting to a high prevalence by simple introgression
is difficult in a numerically large population, though not necessarily impossible
(Rasgon, 2009). However, since the refractory gene is likely to impose a fit­
ness cost on the mosquitoes, it is likely that both be selected against in terms of
prevalence, and also perhaps in terms of loss of function (Marrelli et al., 2006).
A system is therefore required which will increase the prevalence within the
population over time, despite a selective disadvantage. Such systems are termed
“gene drive systems.” Selfish DNA systems (Burt and Trivers, 2006), which have
this property of spreading despite not providing an individual fitness benefit,
are the main source of inspiration for the design of gene drive systems. Several
systems have been proposed (Sinkins and Gould, 2006), but none developed
even to proof-of-principle stage in a mosquito. However, a Medea-like system
has been demonstrated in Drosophila melanogaster (Chen et al., 2007), using a
design which should in principle be transferable to mosquitoes (Hay et al., 2010).
One interesting proposal is the “killer–rescue” system (Gould et al., 2008).
By using a lethal transgene and an unlinked repressor, this provides an initial in ­
crease in allele frequency of the repressor, but over time both the lethal transgene
and the repressor decline in frequency. Though having some gene drive proper­
ties, this is therefore still a self-limiting system, which helps to illustrate that there
114 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

is a spectrum of invasiveness or persistence in genetic systems. At one extreme

we have high-penetrance dominant lethal systems killing both males and females,
where the transgene is not expected to persist beyond the immediate progeny of
the released individuals. Then there are female-lethal systems, where the sons
survive but the transgene will still disappear rapidly due to its high fitness cost.
Refractory genes that are designed to be neutral will also decline in frequency,
but much more slowly due to their much lower fitness cost (some fitness penalty
seems inevitable). A transient gene drive system like killer–rescue can provide
some boost beyond the initial allele frequency, but still eventually declines. Then
on the other side of the self-sustaining/self-limiting divide—which is a very real
and significant divide, notwithstanding the shades of persistence and invasiveness
on either side of it—we have frequency-dependent systems like underdominance
(Davis et al., 2001; Magori and Gould, 2006; Curtis, 1968). This has a high in­
vasion threshold making it relatively unlikely to invade non-target populations
well isolated from any target populations. Medea-like systems have a much lower
invasion threshold and so are much more likely to spread aggressively into distant
populations (Chen et al., 2007; Hay et al., 2010; Marshall et al., 2011), though
modifications can in principle be made to reduce this (Marshall et al., 2011).
Transposons, long proposed as the basis for gene drive systems though not yet
demonstrated, are also potentially highly invasive (James, 2000).
While the relationship of IIT and RIDL with the well-known SIT is clear,
there are not such obvious analogies with current methods to guide the testing,
deployment, and use of gene drive systems. Some affinity may be found with
classical biological control, where the intention is to introduce a parasitoid or
predator to control a pest population, expecting that the biocontrol agent will
establish and provide long-lasting control, albeit usually incomplete, for the in­
definite future. As with classical biological control, there are concerns regarding
the lack of control over the gene drive system once released, its unknown evolu­
tionary trajectory post-release, and the essentially irreversible nature of a release,
at least in the case of large-scale releases. For these reasons, self-sustaining sys­
tems are seen as higher-risk (FAO/IAEA, 2002; Beech et al., 2012; Alphey and
Beech, 2012; Benedict et al., 2008, 2010). On the other hand, while sterile-male
control looks economically attractive (Atkinson et al., 2007; Alphey et al., 2011a)
self-sustaining systems in principle have an even lower cost to deploy as fewer
mosquitoes are required, at least after the initial introduction. This theoretical
cost advantage depends on being able to use the gene drive system as a “fire-
and-forget” weapon; the more expensive the post-release monitoring required,
for example to assure the ongoing prevalence, stability, and effectiveness of the
modification, the lower the cost differential is likely to be.
A further issue is the possibility that success may lead to decreased vigilance
or the loss of capacity to implement previously effective measures if such existed.
While this applies to all control methods, whether genetic or not, it may be a
significant concern in respect of the use of long-term self-sustaining systems. The
APPENDIX A 115

“forget” part of “fire-and-forget” should therefore not be taken literally—such

methods would still require careful ongoing monitoring for field efficacy, and the
development of replacement strains prior to breakdown. This is likely to require
significant ongoing resource expenditure.

Can Wolbachia Provide Both Refractoriness and a Gene Drive System?

One striking exception to the slow progress with refractoriness and gene
drive systems has come from work on Wolbachia in Ae. aegypti. Though origi­
nally developed for IIT and life-shortening strategies, it was observed that infec­
tion with certain strains of Wolbachia dramatically reduced susceptibility to a
range of pathogens (Hedges et al., 2008; Kambris et al., 2009; Moreira et al.,
2009), though potentially increasing susceptibility to others (Hughes et al., 2012).
Wolbachia are capable of spreading through insect populations as a heritable
modification by manipulating the host’s reproductive biology (Burt and Trivers,
2006; Hancock et al., 2011)—in other words, Wolbachia has the properties of a
gene drive system. This raised the possibility that certain strains of Wolbachia
might provide a complete gene-drive-plus-refractory-gene package. Attention
has focused on wMel, a strain of Wolbachia from Drosophila melanogaster
and a laboratory-isolated pathogenic derivative wMelPop. Interestingly—and
highlighting the diversity of Wolbachia—wMel infection has a similar dengue-
blocking effect in Ae. albopictus, even though Ae. albopictus is naturally infected
with two further strains of Wolbachia that do not have this effect (Blagrove
et al., 2012). As with cytoplasmic incompatibility, the molecular basis of this
pathogen-blocking phenotype is not known, though various studies have impli­
cated upregulation of immune genes or production of reactive oxygen species,
or competition for a limited resource such as cholesterol (Kambris et al., 2009;
Moreira et al., 2009; Pan et al., 2012; Brennan et al., 2008).
In principle, therefore, a suitable strain of Wolbachia could provide an inva­
sive refractoriness phenotype. Though such invasive genetic systems are seen as
relatively risky for reasons outlined above, Wolbachia is not especially invasive,
particularly for a strain that has a significant fitness cost, as appears to be the case
for wMelPop (Hancock et al., 2011). Introduction of a single infected female can
still lead to Wolbachia invading that population, especially if the effective popula­
tion size is low (Jansen et al., 2008).
Since Wolbachia are naturally occurring, albeit not in Ae. aegypti and the
relevant strains are from rather distantly related insects, this use of Wolbachia
escapes the regulatory structures and oversight put in place for recombinant DNA
technology (De Barro et al., 2011). This may seem rather odd if one considers
that addition of any single gene, or less, of DNA from Wolbachia would trigger
such an oversight, but the addition of the whole genome does not. However, it
is clear that here, as for conventional genetic engineering of mosquitoes, the
relevant research groups have worked hard to clarify and then to comply with all
116 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

applicable regulations (O’Connor et al., 2012; Harris et al., 2012; De Barro et

al., 2011; Subramaniam et al., 2012; Beech et al., 2009; Mumford et al., 2009).
For any self-sustaining genetic system, key questions relate to the initial
ability to spread and confer the desired phenotype, and the possibility that evo­
lutionary responses will compromise this, or have some other undesirable effect.
Though in principle the large-scale use of such systems may be reversible by
further genetic intervention, restoring the status quo ante is at best uncertain;
this irreversibility has been a major discussion point in respect of gene drive
systems. In the case of Wolbachia, one may predict that the introduced strain
will co-adapt with Ae. aegypti, reducing the fitness cost of infection but perhaps
correspondingly reducing the extent of refractoriness, as both may have the same
underlying cause of overproliferation in somatic cells (Lu et al., 2012). However,
while the direction seems clear, the rate of decay is very hard to predict, and many
generations of protection may be provided. Lack of permanent effect is hardly a
reason not to act, but might this tapering protection have some negative aspect?
Consequences might include selection for resistant strains of virus. Though initial
experiments suggested that wMel infection gave strong refractoriness (Walker
et al., 2011), subsequent data using blood from human patients indicated titre-
dependent breakthrough (O’Neill, 2011). This suggests that a Wolbachia strain
with refractoriness that is incomplete—either as its initial phenotype or arising
through co-adaptation with the mosquito—could select for virus strains with
higher titre in humans, an undesirable trait. It is also striking that, unlike normal
uninfected mosquitoes, Ae. aegypti infected with wMelPop require human blood
to produce viable eggs (McMeniman et al., 2011). This would appear to provide
strong selection for increased human biting preference, a trait which is central
to the transmission of human-specific pathogens, as well as to biting nuisance.
Unlike the more catholic Ae. albopictus, Ae. aegypti has a strong preference for
anthropophagy, but this is far from absolute and could presumably be increased
by such selection (Scott et al., 1993; Siriyasatien et al., 2010; Valerio et al., 2010;
Barrera et al., 2012).
These issues illustrate the difficulty of predicting the consequences of releas­
ing a self-sustaining genetic system relating to future evolutionary responses. The
use of a “black box” system such as Wolbachia has advantages and disadvantages
relative to genetic engineering using well-characterised components. On the one
hand Wolbachia is arguably natural—though this may also be true of the elements
of an engineered system; in both cases the association with Aedes aegypti is
artificially induced, a product of modern biotechnology. To further blur the lines,
gene transfer from Wolbachia to insect nuclear genomes is well known, and this
can lead to stable transfer of expressed genes (Klasson et al., 2009). Nonethe­
less, this “natural” aspect is somewhat reassuring, in that Wolbachia strains are
already widespread in the environment without known negative effects—though
that many strains are harmless does not imply that all are; one could not sus­
tain such an argument for E. coli, for example. On the other hand, a complex
APPENDIX A 117

uncharacterised system is by definition less well understood and correspondingly

more likely to throw up surprises. wMel has an estimated 1,270 protein-coding
genes in 1.3 Mb of DNA121—vastly more complex than the 1–4 genes in about
10–20 kb typical for current transgenic insertions. The refractoriness phenotype
was a major, beneficial surprise; the human blood requirement was also entirely
unexpected, and less welcome. The future evolutionary trajectory of such a com­
plex system may reveal additional surprises—positive or negative.
However, it is a fallacy, sometimes called the nirvana fallacy, to compare
actual things with idealised alternatives, for example the risks of future action
with a hypothetical risk-free world. Both inaction and alternative actions have
risks of their own. Nonetheless, it may be difficult both for regulatory authorities
and the general public to compare the relatively well-known risks and hazards of
inaction with the unknown aspects of a new technology, even when—as for ge­
netic control—the technology seems likely to offer potentially large net benefits.

Not a “Magic Bullet”

The above discussion has focused on genetic control methods alone. How­
ever, current control methods have some strengths as well as weaknesses; an op­
timal programme is therefore likely to integrate the best of current methods with
new technology to achieve the goal of improved control. For example, short-term
suppression by conventional methods is likely to be a desirable prelude to either
sterile-male or refractory-insect methods as it will reduce the number of modified
insects required to achieve a given effect. As further tools become available, such
as drugs and vaccines, this integrated vector management approach will naturally
expand to integrated disease management—again using an optimal mix of avail­
able tools. While there may be a certain inclination simply to “wait for the vac­
cine,” in practice both vaccine and vector control experts anticipate an ongoing
requirement for vector control even when a cheap, effective vaccine is generally
available (WHO, 2012)—a hoped-for but perhaps rather distant prospect.

Progress to the Field

In fact, after due consideration, national regulators in several countries have
approved small-scale field trials as the next step in an incremental testing and
scale-up process. Several self-limiting and one self-sustaining genetic system
have been tested in the field to date (Hoffman et al., 2011; Harris et al., 2011,
2012; Lacroix et al., 2012; Brelsfoard and Dobson, 2011). Public perception
has generally been positive, though these are early days. The use of Wolbachia,
presented as “natural,”7 has largely avoided public concerns relating to the use of
recombinant DNA methods. Public response to genetic control, either in general

7 http://www.eliminatedengue.com/, accessed October 18, 2012 and April 17, 2013.

118 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

or relating to specific applications, may vary considerably depending on a wide

range of social, political, epidemiological, presentational, and cultural factors, of
which the genetic element is only one; furthermore, this response may vary over
time. Even for a well-established approach such as vaccination, participation
rates are rarely as high as programme managers would wish, and scare stories
such as that regarding MMR vaccine in the UK can still shake public confidence.
However, regulatory and social factors, while crucial to the adoption of any new
technology, are not the main focus of this review.

Field trials of genetic control methods known to the authors are:

1. 2009–2010 Cayman Islands: males of a RIDL strain of Ae. aegypti,

OX513A,43 were shown to be able to compete successfully for mates
with wild mosquitoes; 58 sustained release of these “sterile” males led to
strong suppression of the target wild population (Harris et al., 2012).
2. 2010 Malaysia: OX513A males were shown to have similar longevity and
maximum dispersal to an unmodified comparator (Lacroix et al., 2012).
3. 2010 French Polynesia: sustained release of Ae. polynesiensis males in­
fected with a Wolbachia strain from Ae. riversi for IIT trial (O’Connor et
al., 2012; Brelsfoard and Dobson, 2011).
4. 2011–present: Brazil: sustained release of OX513A males led to strong
suppression of a target wild population.8
5. 2011–present Australia: release of wMel-infected male and female Ae.
aegypti led to the invasion and establishment of wMel Wolbachia in two
target wild populations (Hoffman et al., 2011); releases underway in three
further areas.
6. Australia: release of wMelPop-infected male and female Ae. aegypti
undertaken in two target areas; present status unknown.9
7. 2013–present Vietnam: release of wMelPop-infected male and female Ae.
aegypti on an island (Delatte et al., 2008).

To our knowledge, each of these trials has been successful in accomplishing

its experimental objectives, and in no case have any negative consequences to
human health or the environment been identified.

Prospects for the Future

One may anticipate that each of the programmes described above will de­
velop further over the coming years, though there will doubtless be numerous
technical, legal, and social challenges. In addition, one may anticipate that some

8 http://www.moscamed.org.br/2012/index.php, http://www.oxitec.com, accessed October 18, 2012.

9 http://www.eliminatedengue.com, accessed April 17, 2013.
APPENDIX A 119

of the many approaches at earlier stages of development will progress towards

field trials and use. In this regard one may particularly look to synthetic biology
approaches to engineered refractoriness and gene drive systems—an approach
that has been long heralded and where the daunting technical obstacles are slowly
being overcome.
A specific technical question relating to both genetic and conventional vector
control is “how low do you have to go?” What is the relationship between the
number and competence of vectors and disease transmission? Current dengue
control methods rely on population suppression. Genetics-based population sup­
pression has the same aim, so can reasonably be evaluated on the same terms,
looking for mosquito suppression, i.e., entomological endpoints. But what about
refractory-insect methods, or indeed novel non-genetic methods such as spatial
repellents? One would need to show an ability to reduce dengue—an epidemio­
logical endpoint. However, this is extremely difficult for an area-wide interven­
tion, as dengue is highly variable in time and space. Consequently, a trial to
show disease suppression would likely need to have many separate treatment
and control sites, each of a significant size and with many inhabitants. This is
problematic in terms of scale but also in terms of funding—despite the potential,
and outstanding early results, funding for genetic control has been extremely low
relative to the resources devoted to drugs, vaccines, and insecticides.
Given adequate resources, the future for genetic control looks bright. Nu­
merous research groups are developing exciting approaches; the first of these
have successfully completed their first field trials. Genetic control may soon be
deployed on a large scale, delivering clean, affordable, sustainable, scalable solu­
tions to major human vector-borne diseases.

Acknowledgments
We thank Stephen Dobson, Hervé Bossin, and Mark Benedict for helpful
comments on the manuscript and Pam Gray for proof-reading. Final content
remains the responsibility of the authors.

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126 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

A3

THE INTENSIFYING STORM: DOMESTICATION OF

AEDES AEGYPTI, URBANIZATION OF ARBOVIRUSES,

AND EMERGING INSECTICIDE RESISTANCE

Barry J. Beaty,1 William C. Black IV,1 Lars Eisen,1 Adriana E. Flores,2

Julián E. García-Rejón,3 María Loroño-Pino,3 and Karla Saavedra-Rodriguez1

Summary
It has been and continues to be the great misfortune of humankind to share
time and space with the Aedes aegypti mosquito. Domestication of Ae. aegypti,
urbanization of arboviruses, and globalization have created a super nidus for
Ae. aegypti-transmitted diseases that spans the pantropical world. Ongoing pan­
demics of dengue and chikungunya are testimony to the threat posed by the super
nidus. The burdens and threats of Ae. aegypti-transmitted diseases are too great
to tolerate and are likely to worsen due to emerging insecticide resistance. The
situation is grim; it is time to initiate a “war” on Ae. aegypti and to exploit new
knowledge, tools, and approaches to control this enemy of humankind.

Introduction
As an epidemiological group, vector-borne diseases (VBDs), e.g., malaria,
leishmaniasis, filariasis, onchocerciasis, trypanosomiasis, and dengue, continue
to cause inestimable misery, morbidity, and mortality in humans. VBDs are major
impediments to social and economic development in areas of the world that can
least afford them. For the most part, there are no vaccines or therapeutics for
these diseases. Thus, vector control is the principal tool to prevent and control
these threats. The vectors have proven to be intractable to sustainable control, and
emerging resistance to insecticides is of great concern. Notable recent successes
in reducing the burden of some of these diseases, such as malaria, are now threat­
ened by the emergence of resistance, most notably to pyrethroid insecticides, in
their vectors (Strode et al., 2014; Hemingway et al., 2013). The situation is fur­
ther complicated by the concomitant reduction in medical entomologists, vector
biologists, and vector control personnel available to address VBD emergencies.
This situation was addressed in a previous IOM publication (IOM, 2003a, 2008).
Unfortunately little progress has been made in this area (IOM, 2008).

1 Colorado State University.

2 Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León.

3 Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán.

APPENDIX A 127

Arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) continue to emerge and spread

throughout the world. The introduction of West Nile virus into New York and
its rapid spread throughout the Western Hemisphere is a textbook example of
arbovirus epidemic potential (Petersen et al., 2013). Another great threat to
humankind is the urbanization and spread of arboviruses, such as dengue virus
(DENV) and chikungunya virus (CHIKV). Historically these viruses and yellow
fever virus (YFV) emerged from sylvatic foci in Africa or Asia, were transported
with the Aedes aegypti mosquito through much of the tropical world in sailing
ships, and caused epidemics principally in port cities (Weaver, 2013; Weaver and
Reisen, 2010; Nasci, 2014; Halstead, 2015). However, the ability of these viruses
to emerge and to become established in tropical urban areas has increased dra­
matically in the past 50 years. The emergence and spread of epidemic dengue and
dengue hemorrhagic fever/dengue shock syndrome (DHF/DSS) in the Americas
in the 1980s and the emergence of CHIKV in the Caribbean in 2013 and its rapid
spread throughout tropical America are examples of the extraordinary potential of
urbanized, Ae. aegypti-transmitted arboviruses to traffic and to emerge as public
health threats in pantropical urban areas.
Many reviews have addressed factors that have contributed to the emer­
gence and resurgence and public health importance of VBDs. Clearly, lack of
vaccines and therapeutics, erosion of public health infrastructure, poverty and
social inequalities, population growth, unplanned urbanization, and globalization
are major factors for emergence and continued importance of most VBDs. These
have been discussed in detail elsewhere (Gratz, 1999; Gubler, 2005, 2011; IOM,
2003a; Weaver and Reisen, 2010). In a recent review, Gubler (2011) proposes
three principal drivers that have conditioned the emergence and expansion of
dengue and DHF/DSS as major threats to public health in the tropics: (1) urbani-
zation, (2) globalization, and (3) lack of effective mosquito control. Human
population growth and urbanization provide unprecedented availability of sus­
ceptible amplifying human hosts and an environment conducive to propagation
of Ae. aegypti, which live in intimate association with humans. These factors in
conjunction with nonsustainable mosquito control have conspired to create ideal
conditions for transmission and maintenance of urbanized viruses. Globalization
further fuels the flames of the epidemic potential of urbanized viruses, resulting in
unprecedented trafficking of virus-infected humans and mosquitoes through the
pantropical world. The combination of hyperabundant Ae. aegypti, cocirculation
of multiple DENV serotypes, and increased evolution and trafficking of new
virulent genotypes have led to dengue hyperendemicity and the global dengue
pandemic (Gubler, 2011).
VBD specialists think in terms of the nidus of infection, in which a pathogen,
susceptible hosts, and vectors intersect temporally and spatially in an environ­
ment conducive to pathogen transmission and maintenance (Weaver and Reisen,
2010). This concept has great utility, for example, in understanding the factors
that maintain zoonotic virus endemic sylvatic cycles and the potential approaches
128 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

for preventing human infections. Pantropical urban areas now constitute a “super
nidus” for Ae. aegypti transmitted pathogens. The large human and mosquito
populations in tropical urban areas provide the ideal conditions or nidus for
Ae. aegypti transmitted arbovirus maintenance, transmission, evolution, and traf­
ficking. The large urban areas are interconnected by travel and commerce, which
promote movement of viruses to new areas both within and between urban areas.
Jet travel is especially efficient in moving people, viruses, and vectors around the
world (Gubler, 2011).
The super nidus is certainly a key factor in the dramatic increase in impor­
tance of dengue and chikungunya in the Americas. Both DENV and CHIKV can
be transmitted by other mosquito vectors, most notably Ae. albopictus, which can
cause significant outbreaks of disease (Nasci, 2014). However, transmission of
these viruses by Ae. aegypti in the tropical urban super nidus is an even greater
threat for these diseases. Reduced efficacy of insecticides to control Ae. aegypti
will likely exacerbate this situation.
In the following, we will principally focus upon entomological factors in the
super nidus that conditioned emergence of epidemic dengue and DHF/DSS and
chikungunya in Latin America. We will also address the implications of emerging
insecticide resistance in Ae. aegypti for continued emergence, resurgence, and
control of arboviruses in the super nidus. This is not a review of the literature.
Rather the emphasis will be on selected examples from our long term studies
of the epidemic potential of dengue and the control of Ae. aegypti in Mexico to
illustrate the problems and complexity of controlling Ae. aegypti and urbanized
arbovirus diseases. However, the lessons learned can certainly be extrapolated to
most urban areas in the tropical world.

The Origins of the Super Nidus:

Domestication of Aedes aegypti and Urbanization of Arboviruses

Domestication of Aedes aegypti

One of the great misfortunes of humankind has been the domestication
and subsequent urbanization of Ae. aegypti. The ancestral form of Ae. aegypti
is found in Africa; it is a sylvatic mosquito that feeds on nonhuman primates
and other forest mammals and oviposits in tree holes and other natural water-
containing sites (Powell and Tabachnick, 2013, Tabachnick, 2013). The mosquito
is dark in color and is designated as a subspecies—Ae. aegypti formosus. A lighter
colored subspecies, Ae. aegypti aegypti (hereafter called Ae. aegypti for simplic­
ity) has adapted to feed on humans and to live and breed in and around human
habitation. Domestication has likely occurred multiple times (Brown et al., 2013;
Moore et al., 2013, Powell and Tabachnick, 2013). Ae. aegypti has expanded from
Africa and colonized most of the pantropical world with disastrous public health
consequences. Historically, the introduction of Ae. aegypti and of YFV, DENV,
APPENDIX A 129

and CHIKV into the New World resulted in large epidemics of the respective
diseases typically in port cities (Powell and Tabachnick, 2013; Weaver, 2014).
Similarly, introduction of Ae. aegypti into Asia in the mid-20th century led to
spillover of DENV from its sylvatic cycles resulting in large urban epidemics of
dengue (Smith, 1956).
Behavioral and genetic changes associated with domestication of Ae. ae­
gypti dramatically impacted the vectorial capacity of the species for arbovirus
transmission (Table A3-1). Ae. aegypti is anthropophilic (feeds on humans) and
endophilic (lives in homes). Thus the mosquito is intimately associated with
humans, thereby dramatically increasing its potential to transmit pathogens to
humans. Ae. aegypti formosus is zoophilic (feeds on nonhuman hosts), exophilic
(lives outdoors), and sylvatic, thereby limiting its potential to transmit pathogens
to humans. However, domestication of Ae. aegypti formosus may still be occur­
ring in West Africa, where the subspecies enters huts to feed on humans. Both
Ae. aegypti and Ae. aegypti formosus occur in Senegal with the former occurring
mostly in coastal urban environments (Sylla et al., 2009; Moore et al., 2009;
Dickson, et al., 2014). Ae. aegypti in coastal West Africa may have resulted from
a reintroduction of Ae. aegypti or may be the harbinger of a new domestication of
Ae. aegypti formosus (Brown et al., 2013). Either scenario poses increased threats
of arbovirus urbanization in West Africa.
Domestication of Ae. aegypti has also resulted in changes in vector compe­
tence for YFV and DENV. Vector competence is a component of the vectorial

TABLE A3-1 Aedes aegypti—Behavioral and Biological Factors Contributing

to the Extraordinary Vectorial Capacity for Arboviruses
Anthropophily: Feeds preferentially on humans, and when humans are available, zoophily is
minimal. In addition, sugar feeding is very limited.
Endophily: Prefers to live and feed indoors in homes and other structures.
Extraordinarily close association with humans. Will oviposit in homes/
structures if larval development sites are available. Readily lays eggs in
cans, tires, refuse, and other manmade larval development sites surrounding
homes. Endophily protects mosquitoes from outdoor insecticide-based space
spraying in settings where the typical housing type is “closed” and thus
prevents ingress of the spray.
Interrupted feeding: May only take a partial blood meal before being disturbed and may
complete feeding on other hosts. Evolved defensive behavior of the
mosquito may promote mechanical and biological transmission of
arboviruses.
Multiple feeding: May feed multiple times during a gonadotrophic cycle, greatly promoting
the potential for arbovirus transmission.

SOURCES: Selected papers documenting the behavioral and biological factors that contribute to the
vectorial capacity of Ae. aegypti: Edman et al., 1992; Harrington et al., 2001, 2014; Gubler, 2011;
Garcia-Rejon et al., 2008, 2011; Hemingway et al., 2006; Reiter et al., 2003; Reiter and Gubler, 1997;
Scott et al., 1993, 2000; Scott and Takken, 2012.
130 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

capacity of a mosquito population; it is more narrowly defined as the permis­

siveness of a mosquito for infection, replication, and subsequent transmission
of a pathogen (Black et al., 2002). Genetic and environmental determinants of
Flavivirus infection and transmission by Ae. aegypti and of the distribution of
vector competence in natural populations have been reviewed elsewhere (Black
et al., 2002; Tabachnick, 2013). Early studies revealed that Ae. aegypti formosus
is less able to become infected with and to transmit YFV than Ae. aegypti (Beaty
and Aitken, 1979; Tabachnick et al., 1985). Subsequent studies also revealed that
Ae. aegypti formosus is also a less effective vector for DENV; however, this is
dependent upon the origin of the DENV isolates used to challenge the mosquitoes
(e.g., Sylla et al., 2009; Dickson et al., 2014). There also is considerable genetic
variability among Ae. aegypti populations in their vector competence for DENV
(Bennett et al., 2002). This will be addressed in detail below in the context of Ae.
aegypti vector competence for DENV in Mexico.

Urbanization of Arboviruses
Arboviruses have the potential to spill out of their enzootic or sylvatic
transmission cycles into cycles in which humans become the vertebrate amplify­
ing hosts for the virus; such spillovers can have devastating public health con­
sequences (Weaver and Reisen, 2010; Weaver, 2013). Spillover can take many
forms; for example, humans may simply encroach upon new environments and
become more frequently exposed to enzootic vectors that are willing to take
human blood. Urbanization of sylvatic arboviruses is by far the greatest threat.
In such scenarios, humans may become the dominant vertebrate host, eliminating
the need for amplifying sylvatic hosts. YFV, DENV, and CHIKV have emerged
from their respective zoonotic sylvatic cycles involving forest mosquitoes and
nonhuman primates into transmission cycles involving Ae. aegypti and humans,
resulting in global pandemics. The super nidus with its hyperabundant Ae. aegypti
and burgeoning susceptible human populations provides unprecedented receptiv­
ity to arbovirus spillover into the urban cycle and also promotes opportunities
for spillback into sylvatic cycles. Spillback is epidemiologically significant; es­
tablishment of the virus in a sylvatic cycle in a newly invaded region effectively
limits opportunities for virus eradication in that region.

Yellow fever virus YFV is the archetypical virus in terms of spillover and
urbanization. YFV originated in Africa and was maintained in cycles involving
principally canopy dwelling mosquitoes and nonhuman primates (Mutebi and
Barrett, 2002; Beck et al., 2013). Spillover of YFV into the urban transmission
cycle involving humans and Ae. aegypti resulted in yellow fever epidemics that
decimated cities, especially port cities, in the Americas and Africa (Weaver and
Reisen, 2010). YFV is also the archetypical example of arbovirus spillback into a
sylvatic cycle involving nonhuman primates and forest mosquitoes. YFV spilled
APPENDIX A 131

back into sylvatic cycles in the Americas, posing an ongoing threat of urbaniza­
tion of YFV from these sylvatic foci. The lack of reurbanization of YFV from
sylvatic cycles in South America is a mystery (Barrett and Higgs, 2007). Another
great mystery has been the lack of emergence of YFV in Asia, which would be
a public health catastrophe. Early studies revealed that the vector competence of
Asian Ae. aegypti mosquitoes was lower than that of Caribbean populations of the
vector, which may in part condition the lack of emergence in Asia (Tabachnick et
al., 1985). However, dengue hyperendemicity first in Asia and now in the New
World could provide cross-protective herd immunity in humans and ironically
thereby restrict urbanization of YFV in both regions.

Dengue virus DENV originated in Southeast Asia where the four DENV serotypes
(DENV1–4) diverged and are maintained in cycles involving canopy-dwelling
mosquitoes and nonhuman primates (Hanley et al., 2013; Messina et al., 2014).
Spillover of all four DENV serotypes from sylvatic cycles has occurred and
continues to occur into human cycles with anthropophilic vectors, including Ae.
aegypti and Ae. albopictus. There is apparently no need for adaptation for human
transmission and virulence (Vasilakis et al., 2007, 2010; Weaver, 2013). Clearly
the expanding super nidus is even more receptive to emergence and urbaniza­
tion of DENV from sylvatic cycles. Spillback of DENV-2 into a sylvatic non-
human primate and forest mosquito cycle has occurred in West Africa (Weaver
and Reisen, 2010; Weaver, 2013), but thus far, spillback of DENV into sylvatic
cycles in Latin America has not been detected. Epidemic dengue and DHF/DSS
emerged in Southeast Asia following the introduction of Ae. aegypti and the rapid
urbanization following World War II, highlighting the importance of the urban
transmission cycle for dengue hyperendemicity (Smith, 1956; Gubler, 2011).
Dengue is the most important arthropod-borne viral disease of humans with
more than 3 billion people living in dengue endemic areas (Guzman and Harris,
2014). Worldwide, more than 390 million infections, 100 million DF cases, and
500,000 cases of the more severe DHF occur each year (Bhatt et al., 2013).
Infection with one of the four antigenically related DENV serotypes confers
long-term protection to that serotype but no or very short-lived cross-protection
to the other serotypes. Dengue disease severity ranges from asymptomatic to fatal
(Srikiatkhachorn et al., 2011). Most symptomatic cases are classified as dengue
fever (DF), an acute and self-limited condition characterized by fever, generalized
pains, rash, lymphadenopathy, and minor hemorrhages. Even the asymptomatic
infections are likely to be epidemiologically significant; these silent infections
can prime patients for the more serious forms of the disease. People who experi­
ence secondary infections with a heterologous serotype of the virus are primed
for the more serious forms of the disease—DHF/DSS, which is characterized by
hemostatic disorders, hepatic involvement, and plasma leakage resulting from
increased vascular permeability. DSS is potentially fatal. In Mexico and much
of Latin America, almost 30 percent of patients are now progressing to severe
132 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

dengue disease (see Figure A3-1). The surge of patients experiencing severe den­
gue disease has overwhelmed the public health infrastructure in many cities and
countries. The emergence of epidemic dengue and DHF/DSS in the pantropical
world has been a public health disaster.

Chikungunya virus CHIKV has emerged from its sylvatic nidus in Africa mul­
tiple times, causing major epidemics in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Histori­
cally, CHIKV emerged from its enzootic cycle involving forest mosquitoes and
nonhuman primates and was transported around the world in sailing ships with
Ae. aegypti, as with YFV and DENV (Weaver and Reisen, 2010; Carey, 1971). In
the 1950s, epidemics of chikungunya were reported in India and Southeast Asia,
but the virus disappeared in India. The situation changed dramatically in recent
years. Major epidemics caused by different strains of CHIKV have occurred with
millions of cases reported (Nasci, 2014, Weaver, 2014). The recent reintroduction
of CHIKV into the Caribbean (Halstead, 2015) and its explosive spread through­
out Latin America are the latest manifestations of urbanization and spread of the
virus. Considering the size of the super nidus in Latin America, it is likely that
CHIKV will become endemic in the tropical Americas as it has in Asia following
its emergence there (Nasci, 2014; Weaver, 2014). It will be of great interest to see
if CHIKV spills back into a sylvatic cycle in the Americas. In Southeast Asia, the
virus has been endemic for many years in the Ae. aegypti–human cycle, yet there
is no evidence of spillback into a sylvatic cycle.
Virus infection can cause a febrile disease with severe, debilitating arthri­
tis, which can last for several weeks, and in some cases may become chronic.
Historically, chikungunya was thought to be a serious but self-limiting disease.
However, mortality rates in the range of 1 per 1,000 cases have been reported in
epidemics in India and Asia, likely due to comorbidities (Renault et al., 2008;
Tandale et al., 2009). CHIKV exerts a major socioeconomic burden during epi­
demics (Soumahoro et al., 2011). Following CHIKV introduction into India in
2006, millions of cases occurred and transmission continues (Mohan et al., 2010).
The explosive nature of the epidemic of chikungunya in the New World has been
amazing. More than 850,000 cases have been reported since its introduction early
in 2013 (http://www.cdc.gov/chikungunya), and it is likely that all of pantropical
America will soon experience the burden of chikungunya.

Other arbovirus threats Arboviruses maintained in cycles involving nonhuman

primates clearly pose a great threat for urbanization. Mayaro virus, a relative
of CHIKV, is maintained in a forest mosquito–nonhuman primate cycle in the
Americas and Zika virus, which is presumably maintained in enzootic cycles
involving nonhuman primates and forest mosquitoes in Africa and Asia recently
caused an outbreak of febrile disease in a Pacific Island in which humans were
the amplifying hosts, are clear candidates for urbanization (Weaver and Reisen,
2010; Weaver, 2013). Other non-Ae. aegypti vectored viruses have the potential
APPENDIX A 133

to adapt to Ae. aegypti and to become urbanized. The dramatic expansion of the
super nidus and its increasing encroachment on sylvatic cycles of other important
arboviruses provides unprecedented opportunities for arbovirus urbanization.
For example, Ae. aegypti has been demonstrated to be a competent vector of
Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) in laboratory studies, and humans
develop a significant viremia (Weaver and Reisen, 2010). The expanding super
nidus in South America ensures that VEEV and Ae. aegypti will overlap; urban­
ization of VEEV would be a public health catastrophe.

Comment We are entering new territory in terms of urbanization of arboviruses;

the pantropical super nidus and globalization combine to provide (1) unprec­
edented opportunities for spillover of arboviruses from sylvatic cycles, (2) extra-
ordinary potential for viruses and vectors to be transported rapidly throughout
the world, and (3) major threats of ongoing epidemics in the super nidus, with
enormous public health and economic consequences. Some of the causes, threats,
and needs for control of the super nidus will be addressed in the context of our
studies of epidemic dengue and DHF/DSS and control of Ae. aegypti in Mexico.

Epidemic Dengue and Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever in Mexico

Epidemic DHF/DSS emerged in the Americas in the 1980s (Gubler, 2005;
Guzman and Harris, 2014). Since then dengue has emerged as a major public
health problem and is considered to be hyperendemic in most of Latin America. In
Mexico, Ae. aegypti has resurged and is hyperabundant in most urban areas in the
country (with the exception of those at higher altitudes in the central plateau), all
four serotypes of DENV now cocirculate in endemic areas, more virulent viruses
and genotypes have been introduced, and the number of secondary infections and
severe disease manifestations are greatly increased (see Figure A3-1). Indeed,
dengue epidemics are annual occurrences and can overwhelm public health capac­
ity in the affected areas. As mentioned above, CHIKV has exploded throughout
much of Latin America since its introduction in 2013. The Ministry of Health of
Mexico reported the first autochthonous (locally contracted) case of chikungunya
on November 7, 2014, in Chiapas State (http://www.cenaprece.salud.gob.mx/
programas/interior/emergencias/descargas/pdf/Declaratoria_Emergencia_Chiapas_
Chikungunya.pdf). There is great concern about a major epidemic of chikungunya
in Mexico in 2015. In the following, we will focus upon selected factors that have
resulted in Ae. aegypti hyperabundance in Mexico and contributed to the dengue
hyperendemicity.

Collaborative Studies of Dengue Hyperendemicity and Control in Mexico

In the early 1990s, before the emergence of DHF/DSS, we embarked upon
collaborative studies with Mexican scientists that focused upon viral, vector,
134 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A3-1 Dengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever and shock syndrome in
Mexico.
Top: Laboratory-confirmed dengue fever cases in Mexico.

Bottom: Ratio of DHF/DSS (dengue hemorrhagic fever/dengue shock syndrome) to DF

(dengue fever) laboratory-confirmed cases.

SOURCE: Beaty et al. Data from Mexican Ministry of Health (http://www.epidemiologia.

salud.gob.mx/dgae/infoepid/inicio_anuarios.html).

and epidemiological determinants of the lack of DHF/DSS in Mexico, which

was occurring elsewhere in the Americas. The collaborations then evolved to
develop innovative approaches to control Ae. aegypti and DENV transmission
to humans in homes. Mérida City in Yucatán State became a major field site and
focus of many of our studies. Some of the studies and lessons learned will be
briefly reviewed here.

Viral Determinants of Dengue Hyperendemicity

Molecular epidemiological studies were conducted to investigate the viral
determinants of the emergence of epidemic dengue and DHF/DSS as major pub­
lic health problems in Mexico (Diaz et al., 2006). Phylogenetic analyses were
APPENDIX A 135

conducted to determine the origin, persistence, and geographical dispersion of the

four serotypes of DENV isolated in Mexico between 1980 and 2002. Changes in
the incidence and severity of dengue were temporally associated with the intro­
duction and circulation of different serotypes and more virulent genotypes of
DENV into the Yucatán State of Mexico in 2002 (Loroño-Pino et al., 2004). This
was associated with increased incidence of DHF/DSS. Nucleotide sequencing
and phylogenetic analyses identified isolates from patients with severe disease
as DENV-2 viruses of the American-Asian genotype, which was the first report
of this genotype in Yucatán State. Ominously, 31 percent of the patients met the
World Health Organization criteria for DHF. The majority (77 percent) of the
patients experienced secondary infections in this epidemic. The new virus geno­
types supplanted the DENV-2 American genotype viruses in Mexico. The reasons
for these genetic sweeps remain to be determined, and this is an important area
of research. The introduction of new virulent virus genotypes resulted in a dra­
matic increase in severe dengue cases (see Figure A3-1). Increased surveillance
for such introductions is critical to allow public health authorities to intervene in
impending epidemics.

Vector Determinants of Dengue Hyperendemicity

Many entomological factors have contributed to dengue hyperendemicity
and Ae. aegypti resurgence in Mexico:

1. The collapse of sustainable vector control

2. Introduction and trafficking of vectors
3. Presence and distribution of highly competent vectors
4. The extreme endophily of the vector in concrete housing and buildings
typical of Latin America
5. The emergence of the throw-away society providing inexhaustible breed­
ing sites for the vector
6. Behavioral changes permitting Ae. aegypti to more effectively exploit the
urban environment

Selected investigations and lessons learned concerning these entomological

factors follow to illustrate the threats and complexities of controlling Ae. aegypti­
transmitted arboviral diseases in the super nidus.

Ineffective or nonsustainable Ae. aegypti control Ae. aegypti control in the

super nidus is a major challenge to public health. It is noteworthy that in the
mid-20th century, countries in the Western Hemisphere including Mexico as well
as the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) waged an effective campaign
to control Ae. aegypti. In the early 1900s, Ae. aegypti and dengue were widely
distributed, but a successful hemispheric campaign against yellow fever led by
136 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

Fred Soper of PAHO that was initiated in 1947 and continued to the early 1970s
resulted in Ae. aegypti and DENV being eliminated from most of Central and
South America. This campaign was based on spraying of larval development
sites and indoor environments with DDT. The campaign was quite effective,
and Ae. aegypti presence and/or abundance was dramatically reduced in the
Americas (Gubler, 2005; Gratz, 1999). Ironically, the success of the program led
to its demise. The resources devoted to vector control, which is quite expensive,
were diverted to other programs. This resulted in an astounding reemergence
of Ae. aegypti and also of DENV with dengue outbreaks and the emergence of
DHF/DSS across the Americas in the following decades (Gubler, 2005, 2011).
The measures used in Soper’s campaign would likely not be as effective today
(IOM, 2008). The urban super nidus vastly increases the difficulty of controlling
Ae. aegypti, and current vector control programs have not stemmed the rising tide
of the dengue pandemic.
These control programs typically include activities to control both immature
and adult stages of Ae. aegypti. Chemical or biological larviciding and physical
source reduction are widely used to control immatures and to try to maintain
mosquito populations below threshold levels thought to interrupt DENV trans­
mission (Gubler, 2005; Eisen et al., 2009). This overall strategy has not proven to
be sustainable. Programs were often poorly funded or did not receive long-term
support by government agencies. Indeed, source reduction may no longer be a
practically sustainable control strategy because of the emergence of the “throw­
away society” where breeding sites for Ae. aegypti accumulate rapidly and are
almost ubiquitous. Chemical or biological larviciding can be effective, but it is
tremendously labor intensive and costly, and locating breeding sites can be dif­
ficult as described below. The extreme endophily of female Ae. aegypti compli­
cates efforts to control adults (Edman et al., 1992; Harrington et al., 2001; Bonds
2012). Outdoor spraying of insecticides during dengue outbreaks is likely to be
ineffective in most situations because of poor penetration of the insecticide into
cement housing, but it is still routinely used in many control programs (Gubler,
2005). Ironically, exposure of mosquitoes to sublethal doses of insecticides dur­
ing outdoor spraying may increase evolution of resistance. Indoor space spray­
ing can be an effective dengue outbreak intervention strategy; recent studies in
Iquito, Peru, have demonstrated that indoor space spraying three times reduces
Ae. aegypti populations and the number of dengue cases (T. Scott, personal com­
munication). Although effective, the approach is laborious, expensive, and needs
to be targeted to be cost-effective.
Thus despite the tremendous efforts and resources expended by public health
organizations in dengue-endemic countries, it has proven difficult to achieve sus­
tainable control of Ae. aegypti and to prevent or disrupt dengue outbreaks (Eisen
et al., 2009). Ae. aegypti control in the super nidus is very difficult and complex
as illustrated by some of the following examples.
APPENDIX A 137

Trafficking of vectors Globalization is predicated upon commerce and rapid and

efficient transport of goods and people, and it provides great threats of traffick­
ing of Ae. aegypti between and within super nidus regions (IOM, 2003a; Gubler,
2011). The mosquito can be transported as eggs in tires and other containers into
new regions and hatch upon exposure to water, or as adults in vehicles and even
in airplanes (Lounibus, 2002; Whelan et al., 2012). Such trafficking potential
threatens sustainability of vector control. Understanding the breeding structure and
trafficking potential of Ae. aegypti in a country is critical for developing effective
vector surveillance, monitoring, and control strategies and for understanding spatial
heterogeneities in DENV transmission. To characterize the breeding structure of Ae.
aegypti in Mexico, we conducted a population genetic analysis of 38 collections of
Ae. aegypti from throughout coastal regions of Mexico (Gorrochotegui-Escalante
et al., 2002). Single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis was used to screen
for variation in a 387-bp region of the ND4 mitochondrial gene, and 25 haplotypes
were detected. Northeastern Mexico collections were genetically differentiated
from and had lower genetic diversity than southern Yucatán and western coastal
Pacific collections (see Figure A3-2). Yucatán and Pacific collections were geneti­
cally homogeneous. Regression analysis of geographic and genetic distances indi­
cated that collections were genetically isolated by distance in the Pacific and the
Yucatán, but not among collections in the northeast. Free gene flow occurred among
all collections within 130 km of one another in the northeast and within 180 km in
the Yucatán. F(ST) values were never large among Pacific collections, suggesting
extensive gene flow along the Pacific coast (see Figure A3-2).

FIGURE A3-2 Breeding structure of Aedes aegypti in Mexico and the United States.
SOURCE: Gorrochotegui-Escalante et al., 2002, with permission from American Journal
of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.
138 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

The extraordinary gene flow in Ae. aegypti populations along the western
coast of Mexico was presumed to be attributable to trafficking of Ae. aegypti in
the extensive commerce and tourism trade routes located there. The reasons for
limited gene flow between Ae. aegypti populations in the northeast of Mexico and
the Yucatán in the south were investigated (Lozano-Fuentes et al., 2009). Targeted
population genetic studies revealed that the intersection of the neovolcanic axis
(NVA) with the Gulf of Mexico coast in the state of Veracruz acts as a discrete
barrier to gene flow among Ae. aegypti populations north and south of the NVA,
presumably because of the lack of commerce and tourism routes through this re­
gion of eastern Mexico. The breeding structure of Ae. aegypti in Mexico is com­
plex and dynamic. Vector (and vector gene) trafficking into previously controlled
areas will clearly complicate sustainable control efforts by public health officials.

Competence of vectors for virus transmission Vector competence is a criti­

cal component of the transmission potential of an arbovirus and may contribute
significantly to the heterogeneities seen in DENV transmission. Concomitantly
with our breeding structure studies, we characterized heterogeneities in vector
competence of Mexican populations of Ae. aegypti from 24 collections in Mexico
and the United States (see Figure A3-3). Mosquitoes were challenged orally
with DENV-2 JAM1409, an American-Asian genotype isolated during one of
the initial epidemics of DHF/DSS in the New World (Bennett et al., 2002). The
presence or absence of a midgut infection barrier (MIB) and a midgut escape
barrier (MEB) was determined for mosquitoes in each population. The percent­
age of mosquitoes exhibiting a MIB ranged from 14 percent to 59 percent, and
those exhibiting a MEB ranged from 4 percent to 43 percent in the collections.
Midgut infection rates were dose dependent. Thus new, more virulent genotypes

FIGURE A3-3 Infection rates of Aedes aegypti populations after per os challenge with
DENV-2 JAM 1409 virus.

SOURCE: Adapted from Bennett et al., 2002.

APPENDIX A 139

of DENV that cause higher titered viremias in humans would likely be more
infectious for mosquitoes. The vector competence rate of examined collections
(i.e., the number of mosquitoes with disseminated DENV infections/number of
mosquitoes orally challenged with the virus) ranged from 24 percent to 83 per­
cent (see Figure A3-3). Considerable genetic variability in vector competence for
DENV occurs in Ae. aegypti collections in Mexico, with mosquitoes from the
Yucatán Peninsula being highly competent vectors (Bennett et al., 2002).
The mosquito populations north and south of the NVA also differed in their
vector competence for DENV-2 (Lozano-Fuentes et al., 2009). The average
vector competence rate for Ae. aegypti from populations north of the NVA was
55 percent, as compared with 20 percent south of the NVA. Most of this variation
was attributable to midgut infection and escape barriers. In Ae. aegypti north of
the NVA, 22 percent failed to develop midgut infections and 30 percent of those
with an infected midgut failed to develop a disseminated infection. In contrast,
45 percent of the mosquitoes from south of the NVA failed to develop a midgut
infection, and 63 percent of those with an infected midgut failed to develop a
disseminated infection.

Mexican vector and virus interactions We also conducted studies to understand

heterogeneities in dengue prevalence and mechanisms conditioning the genetic
sweeps of virus genotypes. For example, Ae. aegypti from Chetumal were orally
challenged with American and American-Asian genotype viruses isolated from
severe dengue patients in Mérida City (Loroño-Pino et al., 2004). The American-
Asian DENV-2 isolates were much more fit in their ability to be transmitted by
Ae. aegypti (see Figure A3-4). The American genotype virus was dramatically
less efficient than the American-Asian genotypes in escaping the midgut to infect

FIGURE A3-4 Dengue 2 American-Asian genotype viruses disseminate in Aedes aegypti

much more efficiently than an American genotype virus.

NOTES: American-Asian genotype viruses—Yuc11936, Yuc12914, Yuc14497, Yuc14757;

American genotype virus—94QRoo.

SOURCE: Salazar et al., 2010. Reproduced with permission from Revista Biomédica.

140 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

salivary glands. The American-Asian genotype DENVs could be detected in sali­

vary glands of the Chetumal strain of Ae. aegypti as early as 4 days post oral
challenge (Salazar-Sanchez et al., 2007), a dramatically shorter incubation than
previously reported. The infection and replication efficiency of the American-
Asian viruses was attributable in part to mutations in the 3′UTR of the virus (see
Figure A3-5; Salazar et al., 2010). The 3′UTR contains motifs that are critical for
translation and RNA synthesis, and secondary structure of the 3′UTR is a deter­
minant of virus replication efficiency. Efficient and rapid productive infection of
vectors could be major determinants of the genetic sweep of the newly introduced
genotypes. Identification of genetic markers for vector competence in mosquitoes
could be exploited as a marker for risk assessment and surveillance programs for
improved and targeted vector control.

FIGURE A3-5 DENV-2 American and American-Asian genotype viruses differ in 3’UTR
sequences.
NOTES: The secondary structure of the 3′UTR and the different functional domains are
shown. Arrows point out the sites where the principal secondary structures were affected
by mutations. The 3′UTR consists of: (1) a variable region (VR) adjacent to the stop codon
of the viral polyprotein that encloses 2 hairpin structures (HP), (2) a core region contain­
ing two predicted secondary structures, the DB1 (containing CS2) and DB2 (containing
RCS2), and (3) a 3′-terminal region enclosing the CS1 and the 3′SL (formed by SLA and
SLB).
SOURCE: Salazar et al., 2010. Reproduced with permission from Revista Biomédica.
APPENDIX A 141

Extreme Endophily and Hyperabundance of Ae. aegypti in Human Structures

The domicile Domestication of Ae. aegypti and its consequent close association
with humans in their domiciles is one of the major factors promoting efficient
DENV transmission. A classic epidemiological investigation of dengue in Laredo,
Texas, and Nuevo Laredo, Mexico, revealed the seminal importance of protecting
the home to reduce DENV transmission (Reiter et al., 2003). In the U.S. city there
were minimal DENV infections, but Ae. aegypti breeding sites were common. In
contrast, in the Mexican City, there were many DENV infections, but mosquito
breeding site control was more effective than in the U.S. city. The reduction in
dengue in the United States was attributed to screens and air conditioning pro­
tecting the home from Ae. aegypti and thus dramatically reducing indoor DENV
transmission.
Following publication of these results and in anticipation of initiating mos­
quito control efforts, we investigated the abundance of Ae. aegypti and presence
of DENV in females collected from within and around homes of laboratory-
confirmed dengue patients over a 12-month period in Mérida City (Garcia-Rejón
et al., 2008). Backpack aspiration from 880 homes produced 1,836 females
indoors (predominantly from bedrooms) and 102 females (< 5 percent of the
females collected) from patios or backyards. The mean weekly indoor catch rate
per home peaked at 8 females in late August. In some homes, up to 40 Ae. aegypti
females were collected in one visit (see Table A3-2). Clearly these highly infested
homes are threats to both the occupants and visitors for transmission of DENV
and CHIKV. Other important outcomes of these investigations are provided in
Table A3-3. DENV-infected Ae. aegypti females were recovered from 34 homes,
and up to 7 DENV-infected females were collected in a home. DENV-infected
females were collected from homes of dengue patients up to 27 days after the
onset of symptoms. The epidemiological significance of the long-term persistence
of DENV-infected mosquitoes in homes cannot be overstated. Ae. aegypti feeds
multiple times during a gonadotrophic cycle, is an efficient interrupted feeder,
and can survive for more than a month in the protective confines of the home.
Obviously, all the members of the household, visitors, and nearby neighbors are

TABLE A3-2 Ae. aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus Females in Dengue

Patient Homes
No. Range for No. (%) of Homes
Species Collected % of Total Individual Homes with Females
Aedes aegypti 1,836 41 0–40 332 (37.7)
Culex quinquefasciatus 2,641 59 0–59 312 (35.5)
Total 4,477 100

SOURCE: Adapted from Garcia-Rejon et al., 2008.

142 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

TABLE A3-3 The Critical Epidemiological Need to Control Aedes aegypti in

the Indoor Environment
• 38 percent of homes yielded Ae. aegypti females based on a very limited collection effort; up to
40 females per home were collected.
• Mosquito pools from 34 dengue patient homes were positive for DENV.
• 60 percent of Ae. aegypti females were collected in bedrooms, even though Ae. aegypti is a
daytime feeder.
• Sick individuals are more likely to be in bedrooms where they can infect more mosquitoes that
can then infect other home occupants and visitors.
• The DENV serotype from the mosquito pool matched the patient serotype in all five cases where
the patient serotype was known (4 DENV-1; 1 DENV-2).
• Dengue virus-infected Ae. aegypti females were collected from homes of dengue patients up to
27 days after the onset of symptoms in index case.

SOURCE: Adapted from Garcia-Rejon et al., 2008.

at great risk for being infected by these mosquitoes. Clearly the domicile is one
of the most epidemiologically significant points of contact between infected vec­
tors and humans, making it a key target for interventions. For example, indoor
insecticide application in homes of suspected dengue patients could be used to
reduce intradomiciliary transmission of DENV and prevent their homes from
becoming sources for dispersal of DENV by persons visiting and being bitten by
infected mosquitoes.

The school Following the results of the domicile studies, we decided to deter­
mine the abundance of Ae. aegypti mosquitoes and presence of DENV in females
collected from schools in Mérida City (Garcia-Rejón et al., 2011b). Backpack
aspiration from 24 schools produced 468 Ae. aegypti females and 1,676 Culex
quinquefasciatus females, another human biter (see Figure A3-6). Ae. aegypti
females were collected most commonly from classrooms, followed by offices
and bathrooms. DENV RNA was detected in 19 of 118 pools (16 percent) of
Ae. aegypti females (total of 415 females). The overall rate of DENV infection
per 100 Ae. aegypti females was 4.8. DENV-infected pools were detected from
11 of 24 schools (46 percent) and came from different room types, including
classrooms, offices, and bathrooms (see Figure A3-6). Clearly, schools in Mérida
City and elsewhere in tropical areas are a risky environment for students, teach­
ers, and other personnel to be exposed to DENV-infected Ae. aegypti females.
Children infected at school could in turn introduce the virus into their respective
domiciles, infect Ae. aegypti, and initiate an intradomiciliary cycle. Schools are
clearly an important target for dengue vector control.
Based upon the results of the home and school studies, we have proposed a
new model of dengue epidemiology in urban areas in Mexico (see Figure A3-7).
There is an intradomiciliary cycle in which DENV is transmitted in the home
or peridomestic environment. There is also an extradomiciliary cycle in which
APPENDIX A 143

FIGURE A3-6 Percentages of tested pools of Ae. aegypti females with dengue virus RNA
from different environments in Mérida schools during 2008 and 2009.

NOTE: Numbers above the bars indicate numbers of positive pools per total tested pools.

SOURCE: Garcia-Rejon et al., 2011b. Reproduced with permission from American Jour­
nal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.

individuals can be infected outside of the home, such as in schools and work
places. DENV can be introduced into and amplified in either cycle by transmis­
sion to susceptible individuals and noninfected mosquitoes. Effective dengue
control will require reducing Ae. aegypti abundance in both cycles.
Because the home is such a critical environment for transmission of DENV
between humans and mosquito vectors and because community-wide distribu­
tion of insecticide-treated curtains (ITCs) showed promise in reducing DENV
infections (Kroeger, et al., 2006), we conducted a Casa Segura study in Mérida
City to determine the potential to reduce intradomiciliary DENV transmission
through ITC use in individual homes (Loroño-Pino et al., 2013). Windows of
homes were covered with ITCs, and humans and mosquitoes were monitored
for DENV infections. DENV infections in mosquitoes and in humans were re­
duced in homes with ITCs in one of two study subareas. Overall, ITCs reduced
intradomiciliary DENV transmission. DENV-infected Ae. aegypti females were
144 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A3-7 Model of dengue epidemiology in Mexico—intradomiciliary and extra-

domiciliary transmission cycles.

reduced within the ITC homes where the treated curtains were used most appro­
priately (see Table A3-4). Indeed, no infected Ae. aegypti were detected in homes
where the curtains were used most appropriately (4th quartile use index). In these
homes, curtains were present, covered the window, and not tied up or covered
by a privacy curtain (nontreated), all of which would aid mosquitos in entering
or exiting homes (Loroño-Pino et al., 2013). ITC homes were also significantly
less likely to experience multiple DENV infections in humans than control homes
(see Table A3-5), indicating interruption of the intradomiciliary transmission
cycle. Some homes yielded up to nine infected Ae. aegypti females, emphasizing
again the potential importance of highly infested homes in DENV transmission
(Loroño-Pino et al., 2013). The studies were promising and revealing of best
practices for protecting the homes from intradomiciliary transmission. However,
APPENDIX A 145

TABLE A3-4 Proper Usage of Insecticide-Treated Curtains Reduces the

Number of DENV-Infected Aedes aegypti Females Detected in Homes
Curtain Use Index (CUI) Mean DENV-Infected Ae. aegypti Females per Home
CUI quartile Nontreated Curtain Homes Insecticide-Treated Curtain Homes
1st to 3rd quartile (limited, 0.13 (34)* 0.09 (16)
low and medium use)
4th quartile (high use) 0.23 (16) 0.00 (0)

*Total number of infected females collected.

SOURCE: Adapted from Loroño-Pino et al., 2013.

TABLE A3-5 Homes with Insecticide-Treated Curtains Experience Fewer

Multiple Human DENV Infections (Reduced Intradomiciliary Transmission)
Than Homes with Nontreated Curtains
Percentage of Homes with Single or Multiple DENV Infections
in Humans
Dengue Infections in Humans

by Individual Home Nontreated Curtain Homes Insecticide-Treated Curtain Homes

Single infection 51 (40/78) 49 (38/78)

Multiple infection 71 (24/34) 29 (10/34)

SOURCE: Adapted from Loroño-Pino et al., 2013.

the potential for ITCs for DENV vector control remain to be determined, espe­
cially in the face of emerging insecticide resistance, which could reduce ITC
efficacy (see Table A3-4).

Breeding site identification and source reduction The emergence of our throw-
away society and rapid urbanization have greatly complicated vector control, es­
pecially in urban areas. Larval development sites, such as tires, cans, bottles, and
other water-holding containers are now ubiquitous breeding sites for Ae. aegypti.
In addition, the urban environment provides multiple other breeding sites that
Ae. aegypti may exploit and that sometimes are difficult to locate and to control.
Detection of Ae. aegypti breeding in sewer systems (Barrera et al., 2008) and
demonstration that the mosquitoes obtained from these cryptic breeding sites
were genetically the same as those collected from conventional breeding sites, is
clear evidence of the plasticity of Ae. aegypti behavior in the super nidus (Somers
et al., 2011).
In our Casa Segura studies, breeding sites around and near premises in
Mérida City were identified, using the classification scheme of Servicios de Salud
de Yucatán, and characterized for productivity (Garcia-Rejón et al., 2011a). The
146 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

most productive breeding sites for Ae. aegypti immatures included small and
larger discarded water-holding containers, tires, and so on. The importance of
different container types varied between dry and wet periods. Such information
is important for targeting productive containers in source reduction campaigns.
Entomological investigations also revealed the presence of two categories of
extremely productive but uncontrolled breeding sites in the city: storm water
drains and vacant lots.

Storm water drains Storm water drains near some of the homes contained large
numbers of mosquito immatures. This prompted a survey of storm water drains
and catch basins in Mérida City for production of Ae. aegypti and Cx. quinque­
fasciatus (Arana-Guardia et al., 2014). We examined 1,761 storm water drains
located in 45 different neighborhoods spread across the city over dry and wet
seasons; 262 (14.9 percent) held water and 123 yielded mosquito immatures. In
total, we collected 64,560 immatures representing nine species, including 39,269
Cx. quinquefasciatus and 23,313 Ae. aegypti. Clearly storm water drains produce
massive numbers of potential vector mosquitoes across Mérida City, both in the
wet and dry seasons, and are nonresidential development sites that should be
included in mosquito surveillance and control programs.

Vacant lots We also assessed the potential for vacant lots and other nonresidential
settings to serve as source environments for Ae. aegypti (Baak-Baak et al., 2014).
Mosquito immatures were collected from residential premises (n = 156 site visits)
and nonresidential settings represented by vacant lots, parking lots, and streets
or sidewalks. Collections totaled 46,025 mosquito immatures of 13 species.
Ae. aegypti was the most commonly encountered species accounting for 81.0
percent of total immatures, followed by Cx. quinquefasciatus (12 percent). Site
visits to vacant lots (74 percent) were more likely to result in collection of Ae. ae­
gypti immatures than residential premises (36 percent). Tires accounted for 75.5
percent of Ae. aegypti immatures collected from vacant lots. Vacant lots should be
included in mosquito surveillance and control efforts; they often are located near
homes and frequently harbor numerous small and large discarded water-holding
containers that serve as development sites for immature mosquitoes.

Comment Vacant lots, storm water drains and sewer systems, and other cryptic
breeding sites clearly must be included in the efforts to control Ae. aegypti in
source reduction and larviciding control programs. The plethora and rapid accu­
mulation of breeding sites in the throw-away society certainly complicate vector
control. Even if homeowners clear their own patios and surroundings of breeding
sites (for example as in the Patio Limpio program in Mexico and/or in the Recicla
por tu Bienestar program in the state of Yucatán; Mendoza-Mezquita et al., 2014),
their homes can be inundated by mosquitoes from sites on uncontrolled storm
drains, vacant lots, or neighboring patios and yards.
APPENDIX A 147

Human mobility complicates Ae. aegypti and dengue control studies Human
mobility in the urban environment can confound dengue control studies target­
ing the home or other indoor environments. Human movement is extensive, thus
complicating identification of where individuals become infected with DENV
(Stoddard et al., 2013; Vazquez-Prokopec et al., 2013). In the Casa Segura study
(Loroño-Pino et al., 2013) and other studies involving protection of the domicile,
it is difficult to ascertain whether or not the individual was infected in the home
or outside of the home during movement around the city. Thus, if epidemiological
outcomes are being measured (e.g., human infections or seroconversions), it is
difficult to determine if that infection occurred in the home or outside the home.
Consequently, we feel that monitoring homes for DENV-infected Ae. aegypti,
which are more restricted to the specific home environment than humans, may be
a better measure of the protective effect of the intervention than human infection,
because the latter may well have occurred elsewhere.

The Threat of Emerging Insecticide Resistance for Ae. Aegypti Control

Insecticides are critical now and for the foreseeable future to control
Ae. aegypti and the pathogens it transmits. Pyrethroids and temephos for adult
and larval control, respectively, are the cornerstones of Ae. aegypti control in
Mexico and much of the pantropical world. Numerous studies have now docu­
mented resistance in Ae. aegypti to these commonly used pesticides, most notably
to pyrethroids (e.g., Flores et al., 2013). The increases in insecticide resistance
are of great concern. Although the operational significance of these forms of re­
sistance need to be determined, there is the frightening possibility that these tools
may be removed from the armamentarium used by mosquito control officials to
control dengue. Here the main focus will be upon one form of resistance, “knock­
down resistance” (kdr), which has exploded in Ae. aegypti in Mexico and the Yu­
catán, a pattern that is being documented throughout the pantropical super nidus.

Knock Down Resistance

In mosquitos, kdr is caused by mutations in the voltage-gated sodium chan­
nel transmembrane protein (para) that reduce pyrethroid binding (Kasai et al.,
2014). Insect sodium channels contain four homologous repeats (domains I–IV)
each with six transmembrane segments (S1–S6); interestingly, the majority of
pyrethroid-resistance associated mutations occur in the IIS5, IIS6, and IIIS6
segments (see Figure A3-8). In Ae. aegypti, many point mutations associated
with pyrethroid resistance had been identified in different geographical mosquito
populations (see Figure A3-8). We screened the IIS6 segment in para in 1,318
mosquitoes in 30 strains from throughout Latin America (Saavedra-Rodriguez
et al., 2007) and identified two alternate nonsynonymous mutations in codon
Ile1,011 in exon 20, and one nonsynonymous mutation at codon Val1,016 in
148 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A3-8 Voltage-gated sodium channel kdr alleles in Aedes aegypti.

NOTES: Pyrethroid resistance-associated mutations identified in the voltage-gated
sodium channel of Aedes aegypti. Point mutations are designated based on the house
fly sodium channel gene (GenBank accession number X96668). Replacements G923V,
L982W, I1011M and V1016G were first identified by Brengues et al., 2003; S989P was
first described by Srisawat et al., 2010; Replacements I1011V and V10161 are described
in Saavedra-Rodriguez et al., 2007; F1534 was identified by Yanola et al., 2011; and
D1763Y mutation was identified in Chang et al., 2009.

exon 21 of Ae. aegypti. From these point mutations, a transition in the first posi­
tion of codon 1,016 encoding an Ile replacement (Ile1,016) rapidly increased in
frequency in two separate selection experiments, one with deltamethrin on a field
strain from Santiago de Cuba and another with permethrin on a strain from Isla
Mujeres in Mexico.
The frequency of the kdr-conferring allele, Ile1,016, was then determined
in Mexico (Garcia et al., 2009; see Figure A3-9). A total of 81 field collections
containing 3,951 Ae. aegypti were made throughout Mexico from 1996 to 2009.
These mosquitoes were analyzed for the frequency of the 1,016 mutation using a
melting-curve PCR assay. Dramatic increases in frequencies of Ile1,016 were re­
corded from the late 1990s to 2006–2009 in several states including Nuevo León
in the north, Veracruz on the central Atlantic coast, and Yucatán, Quintana Roo,
and Chiapas in the south. From 1996 to 2000, the overall frequency of Ile1,016
was 0.04 percent. The earliest detection of Ile1,016 was in Nuevo Laredo on
the U.S. border in 1997. By 2003–2004 the overall frequency of Ile1,016 had
increased approximately 100-fold to 3 percent. When checked again in 2006, the
frequency had increased slightly to 4 percent. This was followed in 2007–2009
by a sudden jump in Ile1,016 frequency to 33 percent. There was spatial hetero­
geneity in Ile1,016 frequencies among 2007–2008 collections, which ranged from
46 percent in the state of Veracruz to 51 percent in the Yucatán Peninsula and 15
percent in and around Tapachula in the state of Chiapas. Spatial heterogeneity
was also evident at smaller geographic scales. For example, within the city of
Chetumal, Quintana Roo, Ile1,016 frequencies varied from 38 to 88 percent.
This dramatic and rapid increase in kdr frequencies has also been documented in
Ae. aegypti populations from throughout the world. This may be related to heavy
APPENDIX A 149

FIGURE A3-9 Recent rapid rise of a permethrin kdr allele in Aedes aegypti in Mexico.
SOURCE: Garcia et al., 2009. Available from PLoS Neglected Tropical Disease under
Creative Commons license.

use of permethrin-based insecticides in mosquito control programs. A simple

model of positive directional selection predicted rapid fixation of Ile1,016 unless
there is negative fitness associated with Ile1,016 in the absence of permethrin. If
so, then spatial refugia of susceptible Ae. aegypti or rotational schedules of dif­
ferent classes of adulticides could be established to slow or prevent fixation of
Ile1,016 (Garcia et al., 2009).
There was also a dramatic increase in kdr-conferring allele frequencies in
Mérida City during the last decade. Previous analyses (Saavedra-Rodriquez et
al., 2007) revealed that the kdr allele was absent in Ae. aegypti in Mérida City in
1999. By 2010 the kdr allele was approaching fixation in mosquitoes in the urban
center of Mérida City (see Table A3-6). Our model had predicted this rapid fixa­
tion in the absence of refugia (Garcia et al., 2009). The operational significance
of fixation of the kdr allele remains to be determined. In An. gambiae, kdr alleles
have become fixed and have had limited impact upon vector control; however,
there continues to be evolution of metabolic resistance mechanisms in the mos­
quito, which may increase resistance by 1,000 fold (Hemingway, 2014). The
same may be true for metabolic resistance in Ae. aegypti (Donnelly et al., 2009).
150 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

TABLE A3-6 Temporal Increase in kdr in Aedes aegypti in Mérida City

Ile/Ile Ile/Val Val/Val Ile1,016 Ile1,016 Allele
Year Generation AA AG GG n Frequency
1999 F1 0 0 0 272 0.000
2007 F2 26 55 19 100 0.535
2010 F1 147 77 7 231 0.803
2011 F1 309 135 10 454 0.829
2013 F1 91 22 1 114 0.895

Metabolic Resistance
We have also characterized metabolic insecticide resistance mechanisms
in Ae. aegypti from the Yucatán using biochemical assays (Flores et al., 2006).
The activities of alpha and beta esterases, mixed-function oxidases (MFO),
glutathione-S-transferase (GST), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), and insensitive
acetylcholinesterase (iAChE) were assayed in microplate assays. Elevation
of alpha and beta esterases in some of the populations suggested potential
insecticide-resistance mechanisms against organophosphate, carbamate, and
pyrethroid insecticides.
Metabolic resistance gene expression before, during, and after five genera­
tions of permethrin laboratory selection were monitored in Ae. aegypti from the
Yucatán Peninsula (Saavedra-Rodriguez et al., 2012). Changes in expression
of 290 metabolic detoxification genes were measured using the Aedes Detox
microarray. Selection simultaneously increased the LC(50), KC(50), and Ile1,016
frequency. Very few of the same genes were differentially transcribed among
field strains, but 10 cytochrome P(450) genes were upregulated in more than one
strain. Identification of one or a few metabolic genes that are predictably asso-
ciated with permethrin adaptation may very be difficult, but such information
would be invaluable for incorporation into mosquito surveillance and control
programs.

Potential Factors Conditioning the Increase in Knockdown Resistance

Public health insecticide usage The selective pressures that produced the ob­
served dramatic increase in Ile1,016 frequencies in Mexico remain a subject
of discussion. Clearly major insecticidal control efforts have been expended
to control Ae. aegypti in Mexico, especially with the emergence of DHF/DSS.
Pyrethroids are applied in and around dengue case households and intensive
space spraying of areas with dengue cases may promote evolution of resistance.
We demonstrated local adaptation to pyrethroids by comparing patterns of varia­
tion among 27 Ae. aegypti collections at 13 single nucleotide polymorphisms
APPENDIX A 151

(SNPs): Ile1,016 and Cys1,534 in the voltage-gated sodium channel gene (see
Figure A3-8), three in detoxification genes previously associated with resistance,
and eight in putatively neutral loci. The SNPs in para varied greatly in frequency
among collections, whereas SNPs at the remaining 11 loci showed little variation
supporting previous evidence for extensive local gene flow. Thus, local adapta-
tion to pyrethroids appears to offset the homogenizing effects of gene flow
(Saavedra-Rodriguez et al., 2014). Such control efforts are much less extensive
in rural areas and villages, and the importance of vector control in selection for
resistance is likely reflected in the fact that kdr frequencies are significantly less
in rural areas surrounding Mérida City, where public health vector control is
much less intensive than in Mérida City. This is also evidence for negative fitness
associated with the Ile1,016 and Cys1,534 alleles in the absence of selection in
rural areas.

Consumer product insecticide usage Extensive usage of insecticide consumer

products for indoor mosquito control has emerged as a potential additional source
of kdr in Ae. aegypti. We conducted a study to evaluate the household use of
insecticide consumer products to kill mosquitoes and the expenditures for using
these products in Mérida City (Loroño-Pino et al., 2014). A questionnaire was
administered to 441 households; 382 (86.6 percent of) surveyed households took
action to kill insect pests with consumer products. The most commonly used
product types were insecticide aerosol spray cans (74 percent), electric plug-in in­
secticide emitters (37 percent), and mosquito coils (28 percent) (see Table A3-7).
Mosquitoes were targeted by 90 percent of households using insecticide aerosol
spray cans, and more than 99 percent of households used electric plug-in insecti­
cide emitters or mosquito coils. Products were used daily or every 2 days in most
of the households. For all products used to kill insect pests, the median annual
estimated expenditure per household that took action was approximately US$31.
These numbers are suggestive of an annual market in excess of US$5.7 million

TABLE A3-7 Consumer Usage of Mosquito Control Products in Homes

All Households Urban Area Rural Area
Number and Number and Number and
Methods Used to Control Insect Pests* (percent) (percent) (percent)
Interviewed households 382 300 (79) 82 (21)
Insecticide aerosol spray can 281 (74) 238 (79) 43 (52)
Electric plug-in insecticide emitter 143 (37) 99 (33) 44 (54)
Mosquito coil 108 (28) 82 (27) 26 (32)
Smoke 19 (5) 15 (5) 4 (5)
Electric insect racquet 11 (3) 10 (3) 1 (1)

SOURCE: Adapted from Loroño-Pino et al., 2014.

152 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

for Mérida City alone. Homeowners spent substantial amounts of money on

insecticide consumer products. Clearly, there is a large market and incentive for
companies to provide effective consumer products for vector control.
The constant exposure to pyrethroid-based insecticides resulting from public
health control efforts and the use of consumer products could promote insecticide
resistance in the mosquito populations.

The Global Threat of Pyrethroid Resistance for Control of VBDs

Pyrethroid resistance also may affect control of other globally important
VBDs by insecticides. Pyrethroids are by far the most commonly used mosquito
adulticides, and evolution of resistance to these compounds is a major threat to
public health. Pyrethroid resistance, both kdr and metabolic resistance, has now
been documented in vectors of most globally important pathogens (Hemingway
et al., 2006). This resistance threatens some significant advances that have been
made in control of VBDs in the last decade. The situation is potentially most
grave for control of the Anopheles spp. vectors of malaria in Africa. The use of
long-lasting insecticide-treated bed nets (LLIN) and indoor residual spraying
(IRS) has reduced malaria deaths by a third (Hemingway, 2014). All LLINs and
most IRS have pyrethroid active ingredients. Pyrethroids are relatively safe for
use around humans, are easy to formulate, and cheap to produce. Other classes of
insecticides do not share these attributes, making pyrethroids the current insecti­
cides of choice (Hemingway, 2014). Some insecticides also have been lost to the
armamentarium for vector control. The discovery of DDT and its use to control
VBDs was a landmark achievement in public health. However indiscriminant
usage of DDT to control insect pests led to detrimental effects on nontarget or­
ganisms, and DDT was banned even for public health use in IRS programs. The
widespread termination of DDT usage coincided with a resurgence in malaria,
leishmaniasis, dengue, and other diseases that are transmitted principally in­
doors in the Americas and elsewhere (Attaran et al., 2000). Indoor use of DDT
disrupted the close association between the human host and important anthropo­
philic and endophilic vectors, such as Ae. aegypti and An. gambiae, thereby
reducing transmission and disease. Pyrethroids have largely taken the place of
DDT in vector control, especially in IRS and LLINs. But now this important tool
for vector control is in jeopardy.
Although kdr has now been demonstrated in most of the major vectors of im­
portant human pathogens, its operational significance remains to be determined.
Pyrethroid resistance in An. gambiae in Africa has occurred in waves. Pyrethroid
resistance was relatively rare in these species until the start-up of massive vector
control programs using LLINs and IRS. Initial kdr resistance was not associ­
ated with obvious operational impact, but subsequent waves of resistance have
involved relatively new metabolic mechanisms, such as P450-based metabolic
enzymes. Metabolic resistance can result in mosquitoes that are 1,000 fold more
APPENDIX A 153

resistant to pyrethroids than kdr mosquitoes (Hemingway, 2014). If a similar sce­

nario occurs with Ae. aegypti, pyrethroids may also be lost to the armamentarium
for dengue and chikungunya control. The same can be said for control programs
for vectors of Chagas, leishmaniasis, filariasis, and other VBDs. The emerging
resistance to pyrethroids is a potential public catastrophe on the order of emerg­
ing resistance to antibiotics in bacteria. These subjects were addressed in an IOM
workshop that for the first time gathered experts in resistance in vectors, bacteria,
parasites, and viruses to discuss common mechanisms, threats, and opportunities
for mitigating resistance in their respective systems (IOM, 2003b).
Clearly, there is a public health imperative to develop new, environmentally
sensitive insecticides and formulations with the efficacy of DDT or pyrethroids
to augment existing and future control programs. The development of new insec­
ticides is not trivial; no new chemical insecticides have been brought to market
for decades (Hemingway et al., 2006). To help address this public health threat,
the Innovative Vector Control Consortium (IVCC) was formed in 2005 to facili­
tate the development and applications of new insecticides for vector control. The
IVCC partners with industry to develop new insecticides of different classes with
different modes of action to replace or complement pyrethroids. The new insecti­
cides will provide the potential for rotational or mosaic applications to minimize
development of insecticide resistance and thereby provide improved stewardship
of existing and new pesticides and sustainable vector control.

Needs and Opportunities

The pantropical urban super nidus for Ae. aegypti-transmitted diseases is a
major threat to public health and is proving to be intractable to classical vector
control measures. Unprecedented population growth, unplanned urbanization,
and the throw-away society are major factors contributing to the creation of the
super nidus and a dramatic global increase in Ae. aegypti-transmitted diseases.
The situation is exacerbated by globalization and the extraordinary movement of
humans, vectors, and viruses throughout the pantropical world. Control measures
that proved successful in the past are unlikely to be as successful in the super
nidus. The situation is dire. Conventional vector control measures, even when
applied most efficiently, as in Singapore (Ooi et al., 2006), are not sufficient to
control dengue hyperendemicity. New approaches are sorely needed to augment
insecticidal control of Ae. aegypti (Morrison et al., 2008).
Despite the gravity of the situation, new and innovative tools evolving from
the digital, genomic, and molecular revolutions are available to augment and
enhance control of Ae. aegypti and dengue; some are being developed and tested
for efficacy in Ae. aegypti control currently. A major breakthrough occurred with
the transfer of Wolbachia, an insect endosymbiont, into Ae. aegypti. Wolbachia
infection causes cytoplasmic incompatibility in Ae. aegypti, and thus the bacteria
traffics efficiently in laboratory and wild populations, rapidly infecting most of
154 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

the target mosquitoes (Hoffman et al., 2011). Most remarkably the Wolbachia­
infected mosquitoes are resistant to DENV (and a variety of other pathogens
transmitted by mosquitoes), thereby reducing DENV transmission to humans
(Moreira et al., 2009). Wolbachia control trials are ongoing in many parts of
the world. RIDL (release of insects carrying a dominant lethal) technology is
another innovative approach being tested for Ae. aegypti control in field trials.
This is more akin to but differs from sterile insect technology (Wise de Valdez
et al., 2011; Black et al., 2011). Transgenic males propagated in the presence of
tetracycline are innundatively released to mate with wild females (Carvalho et al.,
2014). Progeny of these mosquitoes die, thus suppressing the Ae. aegypti popu­
lation. Field trials are ongoing or planned in other parts of the world. A variety
of other genetic approaches are being explored for vector control (Franz et al.,
2014). Exciting new chemical interventions for Ae. aegypti control are also being
tested. For example, pyriproxyfen (a synthetic juvenile hormone) is being tested
for mosquito control. The active ingredient can be used to coat nets and other
surfaces. When female mosquitoes contact these nets, they transfer the chemical
back to oviposition sites, thereby stopping larval development. Treating LLINs
with pyrethroids and pyriproxyfen potentially provides a negative cross-selection
resistance-blocking mechanism for vector control (Devine et al., 2009). These
strategies are environmentally sensitive and particularly suited to dengue vector
control in the super nidus, as in using mosquitoes to find cryptic breeding sites
and deliver the control agent. New and effective traps also are being designed that
offer exciting new potential to control vector populations (Barrera et al., 2014;
Hiscox et al., 2014).
Vector control programs would benefit by not only having new insecti­
cides and innovative control interventions in their armamentarium but also from
application of modern management tools. Failure of some vector programs
can be attributable to inconsistent implementation of vector control strategies
(Hemingway et al., 2006). The digital revolution has provided unprecedented
computational power for modeling of control interventions and for developing
surveillance and decision support systems, which could enhance the efficacy of
control programs (IOM, 2008). Decision support systems can provide improved
vector control through rapid and efficient monitoring of entomological and epi­
demiological parameters related to pathogen transmission; provide more effective
vector control through prompt, timely, and focused application of the appropriate
insecticides, which can mitigate insecticide resistance; and provide efficient and
effective use of resources (Eisen et al., 2011). Many tools with potential to im­
prove vector control are now freely available on the web (e.g., Lozano-Fuentes et
al., 2008). It is likely that all of these new technologies and innovative approaches
will be needed to control Ae. aegypti in the super nidus. Finally, although not the
subject of this contribution, significant advances are being made in the develop­
ment of a new generation of vaccines for DENV and CHIKV (e.g., da Costa et
al., 2014; Powers, 2014).
APPENDIX A 155

Conclusion
The burden of Ae. aegypti-transmitted diseases is too great to bear, and new
approaches and technologies are critical. It is clearly time to declare “war” on
Ae. aegypti and to control this enemy of humankind!

Acknowledgment: This work was supported in part by NIH grant AI088647.

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APPENDIX A 161

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A4

DENGUE, CHIKUNGUNYA, AND OTHER

VECTOR-BORNE DISEASES (VBDs):

SURVEILLANCE AND RESPONSE IN

LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN:

THE ROLE OF THE PAN AMERICAN HEALTH ORGANIZATION

Luis Gerardo Castellanos1

Introduction
To better understand the role of the Pan American Health Organization
(PAHO) in support of the prevention, control, and elimination of vector-borne
diseases in the American continents, it is useful to briefly describe what PAHO is,
what has been done, and where the organization is today in its practice.

The Pan American Health Organization

During the 19th century, four international sanitary conferences that included
participation of countries from the Americas were held in Europe with unclear

1 Pan American Health Organization.

162 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

results. Later in the 1870s, an epidemic of yellow fever spread in several coun­
tries of South America, and from there it reached the United States of America
through maritime contacts, resulting in a major epidemic with more than 20,000
cases and deaths.
The countries of the Americas resolved to take action with an international
perspective; thus a 5th International Conference was arranged to be held in the
Americas for the “purpose of securing an international system of notification
as to the actual sanitary situation of ports and places.” Around the same time,
inter-American cooperation was beginning to grow, and during the 1890s a first
international conference was also organized to establish the International Union
of American Republics (today known as the Organization of American States).
In 1901, during the 2nd Conference of the International Union (in Mexico)
a recommendation was made to call a general convention of representatives of
health from the different American republics, with the purpose of proposing
sanitary agreements and regulations. The First General International Sanitary
Convention of the American Republics, to assure effective cooperation in promot­
ing health in the Americas, was held in Washington, DC, in December 1902. This
meeting gave birth to the Pan American Sanitary Bureau.
Originally called the Pan American Sanitary Bureau (PASB), PAHO today
is the world’s oldest international public health agency continuously working.
PAHO can be considered a coalition encompassing 30 percent of Earth’s land
mass and 14 percent of the world’s current population. With 28 country offices
in 35 countries, PAHO’s scope has also continued to grow. The initial focus
on controlling epidemic diseases has broadened to noncommunicable diseases,
better health education, health systems and services, essential medications, mental
health, and other fields that include environmental improvements designed to help
all populations, especially communities in need.
PAHO’s current vision is to serve as the major catalyst for ensuring that all
the peoples of the Americas enjoy optimal health, and contribute to the well-being
of their families and communities. PAHO’s current mission is to lead strategic
collaborative efforts among member states and other partners to promote equity
in health, to combat disease, and to improve the quality of, and lengthen, the lives
of the peoples of the Americas.

The Fight Against Vector-Borne Diseases in

Latin America and the Caribbean

Yellow Fever
PAHO was the first international health organization to organize a united
front against the spread of yellow fever in what today is a key shipping route
connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Founded by 11 countries, PAHO’s
first task was to eliminate yellow fever and malaria in the Panama Canal Zone.
APPENDIX A 163

The 2nd International Sanitary Convention, which took place in 1905 in

Washington, DC, continued to emphasize the importance of yellow fever, noting
the success of control campaigns in Cuba, the Panama Canal Zone, and Mexico.
Setting an important precedent, the convention resolved that, in event of epi­
demics, national health authorities would be responsible for quarantine and
disease control campaigns.
Despite successful achievements, yellow fever has continued to be a public
health concern in the Americas, and it is a reportable disease according to the
International Health Regulations coordinated by the World Health Organization
(WHO). Currently, between 16 and 60 cases are reported every year, despite the
millions of vaccines applied yearly to prevent its spread, mostly in South America
where a dozen countries remain as endemic territories or are under permanent
threat.
PAHO’s role is to support countries to keep up-to-date capacity in preven­
tion, control, diagnosis, adverse event management, and risk communication. In
addition, PAHO periodically collaborates with WHO in the reviewing of guide­
lines and recommendations for endemic or at-risk countries.

Malaria
The efforts to eradicate malaria worldwide were spurred on by the successes
seen through use of DDT to kill anopheline vectors of the disease. The global
launch to eradicate malaria was held in Mexico City in 1955. After World War
II, WHO helped countries put together programs of DDT spraying to combat
malaria transmission. PAHO coordinated these efforts in the Americas. These
campaigns partially interrupted malaria transmission, and it was reflected in
dramatic reductions in infection and number of cases in a relatively short time
between the 1960s and 1980s.
With more than one million cases in the year 2000 to less than 430,000
malaria cases in 2013, the Americas have earned a first place in steadily decreasing
the incidence and mortality (82 deaths in 2013) due to malaria in the last decade.
One of PAHO’s roles has been concentrated in maintaining political and
financial interest from governments and international stakeholders in support­
ing their national malaria programs and efforts towards control and elimination.
For this, permanent consultation with countries has allowed PAHO to properly
analyze and map the technical needs and keen efforts necessary to advance the
agenda of malaria elimination in the region.
Resolution CD51.R09, approved by PAHO’s member states in 2011, de­
scribed the strategy and plan of action elaborated to aggressively pursue control
and advance towards the elimination of malaria in the Americas. In the year 2015,
a new regional strategy and plan of action will be presented considering the ad­
vances reached by the countries, including the potential use of newly developed
and available tools and in concordance with recommendations of the forthcoming
164 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

new WHO Global Malaria Strategy 2016–2030. Among the main areas of action,
PAHO supports countries in the following ways:

• Intensify efforts directed toward malaria prevention, surveillance, early

detection, and outbreak containment in various program contexts (includ­
ing malaria elimination)
• Integrated vector management by promoting, strengthening, and opti­
mizing mechanisms and tools for judicious and cost-effective vector
management
• Malaria diagnosis and treatment by strengthening efforts to achieve uni­
versal access to prompt, accurate, and quality malaria diagnosis, followed
by rapid treatment with effective antimalarial medicines
• Advocacy, communications, partnerships, and collaborations through spe­
cific actions that foster an environment that promotes sustainability and
supports collaborative efforts and best practices to combat the disease
• Health systems strengthening, strategic planning, operational research,
and country-level capacity building
• Optimize efforts to strengthen health systems (including strategic plan­
ning, monitoring and evaluation, operations research) and the countries’
capacities to address their respective malaria challenges both relevantly
and adequately

Dengue Virus
Similar to malaria, PAHO also has played a role in the history of (attempted)
Aedes aegypti eradication or control as described in the PAHO Director’s Report
from 1958, but outcomes so far are different. In the Americas, dengue incidence
has increased 30 fold in the last 50 years, and between 2008 and 2012 more
than 1.2 million cases of dengue were notified annually, including 28,233 severe
cases and 1,000 deaths. Furthermore, 2013 had the highest burden of disease ever
registered, with the largest epidemic in the history of the Americas, with a total
of 2.3 million cases, 37,898 severe cases, and 1,318 deaths.2 This disease has a
high social and economic impact, affecting not just the patient, but also families
and the community as a whole. The estimated economic cost of the disease in the
region supersedes US$2.1 billion per year.
Dengue and its main vector in the Americas have continued to spread geo­
graphically, and its unusual capacity to survive in cold climates and temperatures
has increased. The United States is not exempt from this threat, as documented
in 2013 by Añez and collaborators from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
The geographic spread of these potentially harmful vectors has already invaded a

2 PAHO. Number of Reported Cases and Severe Dengue (SD) in the Americas, by Country. Avail­

able at: http://www.paho.org/dengue. Accessed on June 5, 2014.

APPENDIX A 165

significant portion of North American soil. Currently all four serotypes of dengue
virus (I, II, III, and IV) are known to be circulating in the Americas, and simul­
taneous circulation of all four types are documented in at least eight countries.
PAHO/WHO, through the Dengue Regional Program, supports member
states in the implementation of the Integrated Management Strategy for the Pre­
vention and Control of Dengue (IMS-Dengue). This strategy was adopted by the
countries of the Americas through the Resolution of PAHO’s governing bodies
CD44.R9 in 2003; since then, 22 countries of the Americas have developed
national IMS-Dengue prevention and control plans. In addition, 20 of the coun­
tries have completed an assessment of their IMS-Dengue strategy, with the sup­
port of experts from the International Technical Group on Dengue (ITG-Dengue),
following the recommendations of Resolution CSP27.R15, adopted in 2007 by
the 27th Pan American Health Organization Sanitary Conference.
The current efforts of the Regional Dengue Program include the following:

• Strengthen epidemiological surveillance of dengue through the develop­

ment of a generic model of an integrated epidemiological surveillance
system.
• Strengthen laboratory networks in the management of effective practices
in the diagnosis of dengue through the Dengue Laboratory Network of the
Americas (RELDA, acronym is from the Spanish name of the network).
• Strengthen vector monitoring and control in entomology, integrated vector
management, and monitoring of insecticide resistance.
• Improve clinical management of patients through the adaptation for the
Americas of the WHO clinical guidelines published in 2009, a second
edition of which is currently in progress.
• Strengthen social communication by use of communication planning
methodologies to improve behaviors of populations facing the dengue
problem, including political leaders, health officials, residents, and other
stakeholders.

Chikungunya Virus
As the Americas evolve along with the rest of the world, communication and
international trade facilitates the travel or transport of individuals and goods, and
with them, the spread of diseases and their vectors. On December 2013, PAHO/
WHO received confirmation of the first cases of autochthonous transmission
of chikungunya virus (CHIKV) in the Americas. Yet, since 2012, PAHO/WHO
and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) collaborated
together and with countries in the region, anticipating and preparing for the risk
of introduction of the virus. As a result of these efforts, new joint guidelines were
published that same year for preparedness and response on CHIKV introduction.
These guidelines were aimed to help countries throughout the Americas improve
166 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

their ability to detect the virus and be prepared to monitor, prevent, and control
the disease.
Ever since the first cases were reported, PAHO has officially acknowledged
the reporting of over 900,000 cases (over 15,000 laboratory diagnosed), and close
to 150 deaths related to CHIKV in more than 30 countries and territories of the
Americas.
In addition to the already developed capacity in countries to properly respond
to any chikungunya-related threat in the Americas, PAHO has from the very
beginning supported countries to (a) formulate evidence-based outbreak manage­
ment plans and effectively manage cases and outbreaks, and (b) improve their
reporting systems and technical skills to properly diagnose cases, and improve
their capacity to assess and implement vector control activities. PAHO also pub­
lishes guidelines and handbooks for surveillance, case management, laboratory
detection, and vector control for its member states and receives support from
a network of referral laboratories located in Argentina, Brazil, Cuba, French
Guyana, and the United States.

Current Challenges
Countries in the Americas have a history of success in achieving public
health goals, and elimination of diseases has been in the agenda for more than
50 years. Ever since the eradication of smallpox, initiated in the Americas in the
1950s, the region grew its reputation for tackling vaccine-preventable diseases
and showing the world that it was possible to eliminate them. After smallpox,
polio, measles and rubella have followed the same path, as the Americas proudly
reflects their achievements in the health of all children and adults. Nowadays,
the Americas are convinced that elimination of diseases can be expanded to
conquer diseases that cannot be prevented with immunizations; and as examples
of such possibilities, in 2013 Colombia became the first country in the world to
be verified by WHO as having eliminated onchocerciasis transmission, followed
recently by Ecuador in September 2014.

Conclusions
Understanding the role of the Pan American Health Organization in the pub­
lic health history of the Americas, we note the following:

1. The Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) is the world’s oldest

international public health agency continuously working for the public
health and well-being of the Americas.
2. Vector-borne diseases have been a historical public health challenge to the
Americas, and they continue to be a significant threat.
APPENDIX A 167

3. Countries in the Americas have also historically been leaders in prevent­

ing, controlling, and eliminating vector-borne diseases as public health
problems. Great examples of this are malaria in the Caribbean, yellow
fever in the region, and most recently onchocerciasis from Colombia and
Ecuador.
4. PAHO has been instrumental, supporting countries in preparedness, pre­
vention, control and elimination of vector-borne diseases, always in col­
laboration with governments and partners.
5. Vector-borne diseases will continue to be a dynamic public health threat
to countries in the Americas; therefore, the commitment and financial sup­
port from governments and international stakeholders to prevent further
spread and strive for elimination is essential.

A5

VECTOR-BORNE DISEASES: ANIMALS AND PATTERNS

Margot Stuchin,1 Catherine C. Machalaba,2 William B. Karesh2

We are in the early stages of understanding patterns of vector-borne disease

(VBD) in animals in the United States and globally. While the enormous impacts
of VBD to human and economic health have been well studied, there are unique
challenges associated with assessing and controlling VBDs for which an animal
host is a major component and even more so when multiple host species can play
epidemiologically significant roles.
The scope, relevance, and evaluation of vector-borne pathogens are highly
dependent on organizational priorities. No individual list or organization focuses
on all VBDs that pose a risk to animals; however, many do cover a portion of
viral, bacterial, or parasitic illnesses of relevance. For example, the National
Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) categorizes infectious
agents by their threat to public health and national security. These agents are
prioritized and divided into three categories (A, B, and C) based on their trans­
missibility, potential to cause social disruption, and impact to human health,
although many of these pathogens affect animal health as well. Forty percent of
the NIAID priority pathogens are vector borne and also widely regarded to infect
or cause disease in animals (4 of 18 in Category A, 9 of 24 in Category B, and
13 of 23 in Category C) (NIAID, 2014) (see Table A5-1).

1 Colorado University.
2 EcoHealth Alliance, 460 West 34th Street, New York, USA.
168 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

TABLE A5-1 Vector-Borne NIAID Priority Pathogens (Categories A, B, C)

That Affect Animals and Humans, OIE-Reportable Terrestrial Mammalian

Pathogens, and Viral Families with Novel Primate, Bat, Rodent, and Shrew
Viruses Discovered Through the PREDICT Project
OIE NIAID PREDICT

Bluetongue virus Yersinia pestis Flavivirus

C ateg o ry A
Crimean Congo hemorrhagic fever Franciscella tularensis Orbivirus
Heartwater Rift Valley fever Rhabdovirus
Eastern equine enchephalomyelitis Crimean Congo hemorrhagic fever Seadornavirus
Japanese encephalitis Phlebovirus
Rift Valley fever Typhus fever (Rickettsia prowazekii)
Surra (Trypanosoma evansi) West Nile virus (WNV)
Tularemia tularensis LaCrosse encephalitis (LACV)
West Nile virus
C a t e go r y B

California encephalitis
Nairobi sheep disease Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE)
African swine fever Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE)
Bovine anaplasmosis Western equine encephalitis (WEE)
Bovine babesiosis Japanese encephalitis virus
Theileriosis St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV)
Trypanosomosis
Western equine encephalomyelitis
Equine infectious anemia Severe fever with thrombocytopenia
Equine piroplasmosis Syndrome virus (SFTSV)
Infection with African horse Heartland virus
sickness virus Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus
Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis Alkhurma virus
Kyasanur Forest virus
Tick-borne encephalitis complex
C a t eg o ry C

flaviviruses
• Tick-borne encephalitis viruses
• European subtype
• Far Eastern subtype
• Siberian subtype
• Powassan/deer tick virus
Yellow fever virus
Other rickettsias
Chikunguya virus

SOURCES: NIAID, 2014; OIE, 2014; PREDICT Consortium, 2014.

Several VBDs are of importance to international trade and are listed as noti­
fiable diseases. One-quarter of the terrestrial vertebrate pathogens of concern to
the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) are vector borne (OIE, 2014).
The goal of the OIE’s list is to promote global transparency and awareness of the
condition of animal health to prevent disease introduction or spread.
As these different listings highlight, known VBDs are of great importance
and concern to both federal and international organizations for their existing
APPENDIX A 169

or potential burden to human and animal health. However, there is no single

resource for assessing or prioritizing these VBDs. With the threat of potentially
unidentified vector-borne pathogens or pathogens yet to emerge, it is important
to recognize this as a shortcoming in our current classifications systems. Over a
5-year period, the PREDICT project, supported by USAID’s Emerging Pandemic
Threats program, has identified an additional 36 viruses from taxa that are known
to encompass VBDs, suggesting that unknown vector-borne diseases may rep­
resent a burgeoning threat to both human and animal health. PREDICT seeks to
identify novel zoonotic pathogens before their spread to humans (PREDICT Con­
sortium, 2014), and tests samples from wildlife based on their risk for zoonotic
transmission given the ecological setting. Literature review suggests that ap­
proximately 40 percent of emerging zoonotic viruses are vector borne (Johnson
et al., 2015). Combined, these results point to the importance of VBDs in both
animals and humans.
Vector-borne viruses account for 29 percent of the 593 known mammalian
viruses (Olival et al., in review). These pathogens have three times the host range
compared to nonvector-borne viruses (Johnson et al., 2015) meaning that multiple
animal species may act as hosts or reservoirs for any particular VBD. Addition­
ally, individual vector-borne viruses can be transmitted by multiple, related vector
species. Not only does this mean that VBDs may broadly affect animal health
over a range of species, but it also poses challenges for disease control that targets
hosts rather than vectors.
When a VBD affects both people and animals, humans are typically an
incidental host and do not serve an important role in transmitting the disease to
additional vectors. However, this does not exclude humans from being affected
both directly and indirectly by VBDs for which they are not the primary host.
VBDs can have serious effects on human and animal health as well as significant
economic implications.
While climate change is commonly cited as a major contributor to increas­
ing VBD prevalence and distribution, it is important to recognize that numerous
human and ecological factors play a major role in disease emergence and spread.
Patterns of VBDs can be attributed to a wide range of variables that vary by
disease, location, and circumstance (see Figure A5-1). Additionally, identify­
ing the drivers that are associated with VBD emergence and spread presents an
opportunity for prevention, education, and control. Changes in land use, war
and famine, breakdown of public health measures, global trade and travel, and
human behavior are all associated with VBD emergence (Loh et al., 2015) (see
Figure A5-2). By identifying situations where we anticipate VBD emergence, we
can more effectively target prevention and intervention strategies.
Recent VBD emergence events have highlighted the important role of animal
hosts or reservoirs. We examine four examples, Schmallenberg virus, West Nile
virus, tick-borne illness, and Rift Valley fever virus, for their trends and implica­
tions in terms of animal health.
 170

FIGURE A5-1 Temporal patterns of select vector-borne disease emergence.

SOURCE: Kilpatrick and Randolph, 2012. Reprinted with permission from Elsevier.
APPENDIX A 171

FIGURE A5-2 Scaled number of zoonotic EID events (n = 180) per transmission route

categorized by the primary driver of disease emergence for each pathogen from Loh et al.,

2015. Vector-borne diseases are shown in pink.

SOURCE: Loh et al., 2015. Reproduced with permission from Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. on

behalf of Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases.

Schmallenberg Virus
Schmallenberg virus (SBV) is a novel nonzoonotic virus in the Bunyaviridae
family that emerged in Germany and the Netherlands in 2011 and is now reported
in most European nations. It primarily affects domestic ruminants and has been
detected serologically in dogs and a number of wildlife and zoo species includ­
ing alpaca, water buffalo, elk, bison, red deer, fallow deer, roe deer, muntjac, and
chamois (Sailleau et al., 2013; EFSA, 2014). Biting midges, Culucoides spp., are
the primary vectors (EFSA, 2014), which likely dispersed throughout Europe via
wind-mediated spread (Sedda and Rogers, 2013). Although midges do not easily
acquire SBV from infected sheep, and the prevalence of the virus in midges is
low at 0.25 percent (Elbers et al., 2013), biting midges are efficient at transmit­
ting the virus to animals, with a 0.76 probability of transmission from an infected
vector to host (EFSA, 2014).
The basic reproduction number (R0) of Schmallenberg is 5–7 per infected
animal, which peaks at 21°C (see Figure A5-3). This high value for R0 follows
172 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A5-3 Basic reproduction number (R0) for Schmallenberg virus in (a) cattle and
(b) sheep, indicating a temperature-dependent relationship.

NOTE: The posterior median is shown by the black circles, surrounded by 95 percent CI

error bars. The black dotted line represents the R0 = 1 threshold.

SOURCE: EFSA, 2014.

suit with similar VBDs; however, the temperature for optimal transmission is
relatively mild. Indeed, warmer conditions are not universally optimal for all
vector-borne diseases, and additional factors must be considered when addressing
VBD spread on a whole.
SBV does not generally kill sheep, and currently it is not a notifiable disease
to the OIE. However, non-OIE related international trade restrictions due to SBV
have had major implications for the EU’s live animal and bovine semen trade,
resulting in serious economic consequences. For example, in 2012, SBV was
responsible for an 11–26 percent decline in bovine semen exports to non-EU
countries and a 20 percent decline in breeding animal exports from €590 million
to €475 million (EFSA, 2014).
While symptoms in affected cattle and sheep are generally rare, clinical
signs of acute SVB infection can cause fever, reduced milk yield, diarrhea, and
abortion. The animal typically recovers in 4–6 days, after which it is immune
(Meroc et al., 2014). The rate of abortions in SBV infected flocks is double
compared to uninfected flocks, with a five-fold increase in malformations
(Saegerman et al., 2014). Obstructed labor in domestic ruminants imposes addi-
tional draining of resources from farmers and veterinary professionals as a result
of the work in assisting with birth. Fifteen percent of SBV infected pregnant
ewes have obstructed labor, and 2 percent die as a result (Dominguez et al.,
2012). This loss can impose a major burden on affected farmers who operate on
small profit margins.
Current strategies for mitigation of midge-borne viruses include vector
control, timed breeding, and vaccination. Midge control through the use of pes­
ticides is largely impractical both for the individual farmer and for large-scale
APPENDIX A 173

prevention of disease. Breeding before or after the midge season is also un­
certain, as expansions in vector range or longer peak midge season may have
implications for the usefulness of this method (Wittmann et al., 2002; Wernike
et al., 2013a,b). Available vaccines suggest promise for SBV control. However,
the marketability of these immunizations is questionable. There is marginal
incentive for livestock owners to purchase the vaccines and hence for pharma ­
ceutical companies to promote them. Given the overall mild symptoms, short
duration of illness in domestic ruminants, and the gain of immunity postrecov ­
ery it may not be economically viable to vaccinate. Individual livestock owners
will most likely have to live with the burden of disease unless improved control
strategies become available.

West Nile Virus: Shifts in Surveillance

Patterns of West Nile virus (WNV) emergence and transmission are highly
dependent on a wide range of variables, many of which are stochastic or un­
predictable. While landscape and weather factors do play a role in transmission
dynamics, it is impossible to discuss patterns of WNV emergence without ad­
dressing the dramatic changes in surveillance throughout the history of the virus
in the United States. From 2004 to 2012 there was a 61 percent reduction of CDC
epidemiology and laboratory capacity (ELC) funding which affected state- and
county-level WNV surveillance in their early detection capacity and ability to
determine and monitor patterns of the virus in animals and humans (Hadler et al.
2014) (see Figure A5-4).
To function effectively, consistent support is needed in surveillance activi­
ties, as geographically patchy surveillance limits our ability to draw conclusions
on trends or correlations with factors that may affect disease prevalence (see
Figure A5-5). WNV is far from the only vector-borne disease for which lapses
in testing and reporting leaves gaps in our understanding of pathogen dynamics.
Lyme disease in dogs, discussed later in this report, is also a valuable example of
how gaps in surveillance affect our ability to monitor disease trends.
When addressing WNV control in domestic animals, our competitive market­
ing strategies may interfere with optimal surveillance. There are currently two
WNV vaccines available for veterinary use in the United States; however, vaccine
use in the United States is confidential information, and sales data are regarded as
proprietary. We are therefore lacking critical knowledge regarding disease control
in domestic animals. It would be of benefit to the public health community to
have information regarding the geographic distribution and volume of vaccines
used to detect potential trends or changes over time. A network for immunization
use across the United States would aid the public and animal health community in
our understanding of where disease control is being implemented and our ability
to take action in emerging areas for control.
174 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A5-4 Changes in WNV surveillance as of 2013 reported by 50 states and 6

county or city CDC-funded jurisdictions.
SOURCE: Hadler et al., 2014 (CDC).

Tick-Borne Diseases in Companion Animals and Livestock

Pathogens transmitted via tick bite, or tick-borne diseases (TBDs), broadly
affect domestic animals, livestock, and wildlife worldwide. Ticks feed on a wide
range of animal taxa including mammals, reptiles, amphibians and birds, often
using different hosts throughout their life cycle, creating multiple opportunities
for disease spread between species.
Geographic patterns of Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi) prevalence in
dogs have closely followed those in humans, with the highest regions of sero­
prevalence occurring in the United States northeast and Midwest, where some
clusters have seroprevalence as high as 44.1 percent. A comparison of studies
of Lyme disease seroprevalence in domestic dogs in the United States showed
an increase from 11.2 percent in the 2001–2007 study period to 13.3 percent
in the 2010–2012 study period (Bowman et al., 2009; Little et al., 2014) (see
APPENDIX A 175

FIGURE A5-5 Nonhuman (avian, sentinel, and veterinary) reported WNV infections for

2003 (top) and 2014 (bottom).

SOURCE: USGS, 2014.

Figure A5-6). Because of the interconnectedness of humans and domestic dogs, it

can be expected that patterns for Lyme disease would be similar among both. Hu­
man activity and other ecological drivers are likely responsible for these increases
of disease prevalence; however, the role of inadequate surveillance in our ability
to perceive these patterns must be addressed. A lack of centralized reporting for
canine Lyme disease makes it difficult to discern whether these parallel increases
176 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A5-6 Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi) seroprevalence in dogs 2001–2007

(top) and 2010–2012 (bottom).

SOURCE: Bowman et al., 2009, reproduced with permission from Elsevier (top);

Little et al., 2014, available from Parasites & Vectors under Creative Commons license

(bottom).

are a function of a change in the amount of diagnostic testing or actual shift in

disease range. Gaps in uniform surveillance of TBD in companion animals im­
pede accurate and integral epidemiologic monitoring, particularly in nonendemic
regions (see Figure A5-6).
APPENDIX A 177

Whereas ectoparasiticides are relatively easy to administer to companion

animals for tick control, managing ticks and TBD in the livestock industry is a
major challenge both to individual farmers and on the global scale. TBD affects
80 percent of the world’s livestock holdings, and the economic cost of TBD
is $13.9 billion to $18.7 billion annually (Minjauw and McLeod, 2003). This
economic burden can be substantial in resource-poor tropical and subtropical re­
gions, particularly to small-scale livestock owners (Minjauw and McLeod, 2003).
The cost of controlling TBD in some areas exceeds animal production costs, as
is seen with theileriosis in Tanzania (see Figure A5-7). The significant burden is
especially pertinent when adherence to international standards for vector control
at national levels is a trade requirement.

A One Health Approach to Vector-Borne Diseases—RVF as an Example

Rift Valley fever (RVF) is an emerging mosquito-borne zoonotic disease and
has been recognized as a pathogen of significant concern by the WHO, OIE, FAO,
U.S. CDC, U.S. DoD, and USDA, with broad relevance for both human health
and livestock production. The virus has caused large epizootics in Africa, and has
recently led to outbreaks in the Middle East. RVF outbreaks are devastating to
domestic ruminants, in which it causes widespread abortions and high mortality
(> 90 percent in some cases) in juveniles (Murphy et al., 1999). Infection in
humans can occur through the bite of an infected mosquito or via contact with
tissues or bodily fluids from an infected animal.
RVF outbreaks have been extensively studied in Kenya, where it was first
discovered in 1931. East African RVF outbreaks appear to occur periodically (in
cycles every 7–15 years), with little to no activity during interepidemic periods, and
are associated with heavy floods. This RVF virus cycle involves a sylvatic cycle
with transmission between Aedes mosquitos and wild and domestic ruminants; the
mosquitoes can transmit it transovarially. Wild and domestic ruminants typically
experience subclinical infections in interepidemic periods, but heavy rains increase
Aedes populations, leading to amplification in domestic ruminants, and increasing
potential for outbreaks in domestic ruminants and transmission to humans.
While this weather-dependent cycle is well established in Kenya, outbreaks
appear to be less cyclical, or have different determinants, in South Africa. A
recent analysis of outbreaks showed RVF outbreaks of varying scales and in
different regions reported in South Africa each year from 2008–2011 (Metras et
al., 2012). The scale of infection and spread may be a major consideration for
immunity, with apparent low immunity in interepidemic periods, and potential
herd immunity established during outbreaks. However, despite potential mixing
of wildlife and domestic animals at some ranch sites (whether through pres­
ence of farmed wildlife or via free-ranging wildlife at the periphery of farms),
the role of wildlife—if any—in the infection cycle and resulting immunity for
wildlife and domestic animals has not been widely studied. The potential role of
178 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A5-7 Annual costs per head of different tick-borne diseases in cattle systems.
SOURCE: Minjauw and McLeod, 2003.

burden on mosquitos, domestic animals, wildlife, humans, and ecological factors

(e.g., climate) in RVF show the complexity of some VBDs. Thus, an integrated
approach is needed to better understand interspecies and other transmission
dynamics.
APPENDIX A 179

A One Health approach that considers the links between humans, animals,
and the environment can thus provide a more robust view around causes and
possible solutions to VBDs such as RVF. A unique U.S. Department of Defense
(DoD) DTRA-supported partnership between EcoHealth Alliance, the South
African National Institute for Communicable Diseases, South African National
Parks, the Free State Province Department of Economic Development, Tourism
and Environmental Affairs, Republic of South African Department of Defence,
University of Pretoria, and NASA/Universities Space Research Association has
been established under a 5-year comprehensive study of RVF in South Africa.
The project, which has a strong capacity-building component, will allow for
a greater epidemiological understanding of RVF dynamics through four cen­
tral aims: (1) Determine how immunity to RVFV changes over time in sheep;
(2) determine the herd immunity in wildlife and domestic animals; (3) understand
the ecology of the virus in the mosquito vector; and (4) determine the immunity
level in people working on the study farms and detect new infections. By employ­
ing different vaccination scenarios in flocks to study herd immunity, studying
prevalence of natural infection and epidemiological risk factors, investigating
mosquito abundance and succession, and using climate, vegetation and soil data,
we will gain a greater ability to better predict potential outbreaks in the future.
Additionally, by enhancing knowledge on herd immunity at individual, popula­
tion, and metapopulation levels, information obtained from this project will en ­
able more targeted vaccination and mitigation methods for RVFV. This project
will involve a 40,000 square km study site in the Free State and the Northern
Cape province. The study will monitor humans, cattle, sheep, goats, and selected
species of wildlife; assess the presence of RVFV throughout the life cycle of
multiple mosquito species; and analyze mosquito blood meals to determine which
species the vectors prefer. Additionally, the project will link patterns of human,
animal, and mosquito occurrence with weather and vegetation cycles. This broad-
based approach will hopefully provide a more comprehensive epidemiological
understanding of RVFV as it pertains to wild and domestic animals, vectors,
people, and the environment.

Conclusions
For the future, we can say with confidence that known VBDs will continue
to be a significant disease burden for animals and people, and new VBDs will
continue to be identified. We are even witnessing VBD affecting endangered spe­
cies recovery programs; for example, Yersinia pestis, has been a major barrier to
the recovery of black-footed ferret populations (Godbey et al., 2006). There is no
indication that vector-borne disease is going to be eliminated in the near future.
Current methods of VBD classification are highly dependent on organizational
priorities with a strong focus on direct and indirect impacts to human health and
a segregation of VBDs of animal importance.
180 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

The ability to discern patterns of VBD in animals hinges on consistent sur­

veillance, prioritization, and integrative strategies. It would be an immense and
inappropriate undertaking to attempt to eliminate ticks, mosquitoes, fleas, and
midges in order to prevent VBDs. While vaccines present an opportunity at the
individual animal or herd level, the associated cost-benefit relationships poses
additional challenges. To better understand and control VBDs, we need more
than molecular diagnostics and new or better vaccines. A fundamental quality of
VBDs, their dependence on the ecology of vectors and hosts, points to the need
for the earnest engagement of the ecological sciences. Skilled medical entomolo­
gists are critical for future work, and the number in this field are dwindling. There
is an urgent need for ongoing support and training in medical entomology to meet
emerging demands.
The possibility and opportunity for introduction of VBDs on a global scale
cannot be ignored. As was seen with the emergence of WNV in South Dakota,
the favorable ecological conditions for disease emergence cannot always be pre­
dicted. Controlling VBDs can be expensive and labor intensive. With the 10-year
anniversary of One Health behind us, it is important to pull together thinking on
human, animal, and plant vector-borne illness to find synergistic collaborative
interventions to benefit health as a whole.

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182 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

A6

DRIVERS, DYNAMICS, AND CONTROL OF

EMERGING VECTOR-BORNE ZOONOTIC DISEASES1

A. Marm Kilpatrick2 and Sarah E. Randolph3

Summary
Emerging vector-borne diseases are an important issue in global health.
Many vector-borne pathogens have appeared in new regions in the past two
decades, while many endemic diseases have increased in incidence. Although
introductions and emergence of endemic pathogens are often considered to be
distinct processes, many endemic pathogens are actually spreading at a local scale
coincident with habitat change. We draw attention to key differences between
dynamics and disease burden that result from increased pathogen transmission
after habitat change and after introduction into new regions. Local emergence is
commonly driven by changes in human factors as much as by enhanced enzootic
cycles, whereas pathogen invasion results from anthropogenic trade and travel
where and when conditions (eg, hosts, vectors, and climate) are suitable for a
pathogen. Once a pathogen is established, ecological factors related to vector
characteristics can shape the evolutionary selective pressure and result in in­
creased use of people as transmission hosts. We describe challenges inherent in
the control of vector-borne zoonotic diseases and some emerging non-traditional
strategies that could be effective in the long term.

Introduction
In the past three decades, many vector-borne pathogens (VBPs) have
emerged, creating new challenges for public health (Weaver and Reisen, 2010).
Some are exotic pathogens that have been introduced into new regions, and others
are endemic species that have greatly increased in incidence or have started to
infect local human populations for the first time. Here, we review the drivers
of these processes. Of particular interest are zoonoses that are maintained by
transmission in wildlife but also affect people who have been bitten by infected
vectors. Additionally, we draw from lessons learned from diseases that now use
only people as transmission hosts, such as malaria and dengue.

1 Reprinted from Lancet, Vol. 380, Pages 1946−1955. Copyright 2012, with permission from Elsevier.
2 Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa
Cruz, CA, USA.
3 Oxford Tick Research Group, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
APPENDIX A 183

BOX A6-1

Key Messages

• Many vector-borne zoonotic diseases have emerged in the past three decades.
• Emergence in new regions is caused primarily by pathogen movement due to
trade and travel, whereas local emergence is driven by a combination of envi-
ronmental changes that affect vectors and wildlife hosts and social changes
(eg, poverty and conflict) that affect human exposure to vectors.
• Pathogens introduced into novel regions often cause explosive epidemics fol-
lowed by declining incidence, whereas pathogens that emerge locally because
of land use or social changes usually show consistent increases.
• Vector-borne diseases are highly sensitive to climate, but the past and future
effects of climate change on vector-borne disease will probably be less than
will those of changes in land use and social factors.
• Land use and increasing human populations exert selective pressure on
vector-borne pathogens to be able to infect and be transmitted by people and
vectors associated with human development.
• Control of vector-borne zoonotic diseases needs combined efforts by clinicians
and public health officials to treat patients and promote behaviour likely to mini-
mise risk of infection, and by disease ecologists, urban planners, and medical
entomologists to advise on development, restoration of ecological communi-
ties, and vector control to reverse the ecological drivers of transmission.

Clinicians have an important role alongside disease ecologists and epide­

miologists in the study of the causes of an outbreak and minimisation of the
burden of disease, because the effectiveness of control is improved by rapid
identification (Lloyd-Smith et al., 2003; Ferguson et al., 2006). In many cases,
clinicians are on the first line of detection of these epidemics because clusters of
patients present with novel sets of symptoms; evidence of new outbreaks then has
to be passed to public health agencies for appropriate management. New high-
throughput technologies for detection and identification of novel genetic material
in samples taken from patients can greatly aid this process (Gaynor et al., 2007;
Lipkin, 2010). Additionally, data obtained via mobile phones and online social
networks checked against expert assessment of plausibility offer the potential to
detect changes in spatial and temporal patterns of illness in real time so that new
epidemics can be detected early (Brownstein et al., 2009).
West Nile virus and chikungunya virus are among the best understood zoonotic
VBPs to have emerged in the past two decades and show just how explosive
epidemics can be in new regions (see Figure A6-1). In 1999, the New York City
Department of Health (NY, USA) reported a cluster of patients with meningoen­
cephalitis associated with muscle weakness; epidemiological evidence suggested
that an arbovirus (ie, a virus transmitted by arthropod vectors) was a probable
184 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

cause (Nash et al., 2001). Clinicians and veterinarians collaborated to identify the
aetiological agent as West Nile virus, but unfortunately identification and initial
control efforts did not prevent the virus spreading from the east to the West Coast
of North America within 4 years (CDC, 2012a; Kilpatrick, 2011), causing national
epidemics in 2002 and 2003.
Similarly, on the Indian Ocean island of Réunion in 2005, hundreds of
patients had painful and disabling polyarthralgia, and a subset presented with
neurological signs or fulminant hepatitis (Pialoux et al., 2007). A second wave
of such symptoms in 2006 exceeded all expectations, eventually affecting more
than a third of the entire population of 770,000 people (Pialoux et al., 2007).
The causative agent was identified as chikungunya virus, which is also causing
continuing epidemics in India, with several million cases so far (Pialoux et al.,
2007; Yergolkar et al., 2006; Schuffenecker et al., 2006). Other introductions of
VBPs have caused smaller outbreaks but have been important in the expansion
of the range of human populations at risk. For example, dengue virus has spread
to Hawaii (Effler et al., 2005), Zika virus to the Micronesian island of Yap (Duffy
et al., 2009), and chikungunya virus to Europe (Rezza et al., 2007). Whether the
outbreak of chikungunya in Europe died out naturally because of the arrival of
the temperate autumn or was interrupted by mosquito control efforts is unclear.
These past experiences—together with increases in the known drivers
of pathogen introduction—suggest that future introductions are likely (see
Table A6-1). A key challenge arises from the non-specificity and similarity of
symptoms caused by many of these viruses, especially Zika virus, dengue, and
chikungunya virus that all present with acute fever similar to many diseases
endemic in the tropics, such as malaria (San Martin et al., 2010; Duffy et al.,
2009). This difficulty makes rapid identification methods (Gerstl et al., 2010)
and high-quality laboratory-based diagnoses necessary for accurate surveillance
and appropriate treatment. Recent advances in identification of unknown patho­
gens with deep sequencing and microarrays should enable rapid identification of
novel or introduced pathogens (Yozwiak et al., 2012). A key need is to develop
diagnostics for point-of-care use for infection and exposure to allow for proper
assessments of case fatality ratios and disease burden.
The emergence of endemic VBPs is usually thought to be a qualitatively
different process from the arrival of exotic ones, but in some cases increases
in incidence of endemic VBPs result more from spread into new areas than in­
creases in local transmission. A combination of local spread and an increase in
transmission potential in situ is also possible. Lyme disease is perhaps the best
understood example of a mixed emergence. Reported cases (and estimated ill­
nesses) have roughly tripled since 1990 in the USA (see Figure A6-1), appeared
increasingly in Canada (Ogden et al., 2009), and apparently increased by between
two and ten times in various parts of Europe where diagnosis and reporting are
more variable. Evidence for the importance of local invasion in the USA comes
from counties in the states of Wisconsin and Virginia, where Lyme cases have
APPENDIX A 185

TABLE A6-1 Important Pathogen Threats for Introduction into New Regions
and Range Extensions within Endemic Regions, and Probable Sources and
Pathways for Introduction
Pathways for
Regions at Risk Endemic Region Introduction*
Japanese encephalitis virus Americas Asia Infected livestock
Rift Valley fever virus Americas, southern Europe Africa, Asia Infected livestock
Venezuelan equine Europe, Asia, Africa Americas Infected livestock
encephalitis virus
Chikungunya virus Europe, Americas, Australia Africa, Asia Infected people
Mayaro virus Africa, Asia, Europe South America Infected people
Zika virus Europe, Americas Africa, Asia Infected people
Crimean-Congo North Africa, east Asia, Africa, Asia, Infected livestock
haemorrhagic fever central and western Europe Europe
Dengue virus Southern Europe Southern Infected people
hemisphere
West Nile virus Central Europe, Turkey Africa, Asia, Migratory or
Europe, Australia dispersing birds
Sindbis virus Northern Europe Africa, Asia, Migratory or
Australia dispersing birds

* Infected mosquitoes transported via aeroplanes are a potential pathway for all these pathogens
(except Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever which is tick borne) in addition to pathways listed.
SOURCE: Adapted from Kilpatrick et al., 2006a.

only been reported in the past decade and few if any cases occurred previously
(CDC, 2012). By contrast, in the state of Connecticut—where the first cases of
Lyme were detected 30 years ago—incidence of the disease has hardly risen in
the past decade (CDC, 2012b).
In Europe and Eurasia, the substantial rise in cases of Lyme disease and
other tick-borne diseases, including babesiosis, ehrlichiosis, and rickettsiosis, and
tick-borne encephalitis, is due as much or more to upsurges within pre-existing
ranges of the vector ticks (principally Ixodes ricinus and Ixodes persulcatus) as
to the establishment of enzootic cycles in new places. Zoonotic VBPs with other
types of vectors also represent an important and growing threat in some places,
such as those that cause Chagas disease, plague, and leishmaniasis (Hotez et al.,
2008). Strong evidence suggests that ecological and human factors have had im­
portant roles in establishment of the differential patterns of increased incidence
of all these diseases, while increasing awareness and testing by clinicians has
contributed to improved reporting of cases.
Differences in the drivers of emergence of exotic and endemic VBPs have
important implications for their subsequent dynamics, where they will emerge,
186 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A6-1 Temporal patterns of reported cases for selected introduced vector-borne
pathogens (red) and endemic or long-established diseases (blue). Introduced pathogens
can cause notable epidemics followed by a decreased incidence (eg, West Nile virus in
the USA [CDC, 2012] and chikungunya virus in Réunion [Effler et al., 2005]), or spo­
radic epidemics from repeated introductions and local transmission (dengue in Australia
[Duffy et al., 2009]). The incidence of some endemic or long-established zoonotic vector-
borne diseases has increased greatly in the past several decades (Lyme disease in North
America [Rezza et al., 2007], plague in Africa [Kilpatrick et al., 2006b], and dengue in
South America [San Martin et al., 2010]), but could show different trajectories (plague in
Africa vs plague in Asia [Stenseth et al., 2008]), even in neighbouring regions (tick-borne
encephalitis in eastern [ex-communist] and western [historically free market] Europe)
because of socioeconomic differences.
* Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus is shown as endemic to Turkey because there
is evidence of its presence there many years before its appearance in people.

and the efforts that can be made to control or eliminate them. We consider each
of these aspects in turn, illustrated by some of the more notable examples across
the globe. We argue that viewing emerging endemic pathogens as invading at a
local scale can be used to take a prospective approach to prevention and control.

Emergence of Exotic Versus Endemic Pathogens

Arrival of Exotic Pathogens

The main driver of pathogen introductions in the past five decades—the
accelerating increase in trade and travel—is well known. What is less discussed
APPENDIX A 187

is that four centuries of trade and travel set the stage for many present pathogen
introductions. In the 17th to 19th centuries, shipping traffic resulted in the trans­
port of larvae of several important mosquito species, such as Aedes aegypti (a
vector of dengue, yellow fever, chikungunya virus, and others), Culex pipiens
(a vector of West Nile virus) and Culex quinquefasciatus (a vector of West
Nile virus and filariasis) (Fonseca et al., 2006; Bryant et al., 2007; Farajollahi
et al., 2011).
Some pathogens (eg, Plasmodium vivax) were introduced to new continents
and became established coincident with or shortly after these early vector intro­
ductions because they cause chronic infections in people that are still infectious
after weeks or months of travel (Mendis et al., 2001). Other pathogens that have
only short periods of infectiousness in people, including yellow fever virus and
dengue virus, could also reach distant regions centuries ago because pathogen
transmission cycles could occur aboard ships in which vectors were present and
could reproduce (Farajollahi et al., 2011).
The growth in air travel enabling global transit in a single day (see
Figure A6-2) has accelerated introductions because it has allowed many patho­
gens that cause acute infectiousness (eg, chikungunya and West Nile viruses) to
reach other continents within the few days that hosts are infectious, and even
during the latent period for some diseases (Kilpatrick et al., 2006a). Several of

FIGURE A6-2 The global aviation network. Lines show direct links between airports,
and the colour indicates passenger capacity in people per day (thousands [red]; hundreds
[yellow]; tens [blue]). Routes linking regions at similar latitudes (in the northern or south­
ern hemisphere) represent pathways that pathogens can move along to reach novel regions.
Notably, air traffic to most places in Africa, regions of South America, and parts of central
Asia is low. If travel increases in these regions, additional introductions of vector-borne
pathogens are probable.
SOURCE: Adapted from Hufnagal et al., 2004.
188 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

these pathogens were also aided by the 20th century introductions of another key
vector, Aedes albopictus (Reiter, 2010; Tatem et al., 2006). Thus, the most recent
wave of pathogen introductions, and those likely to occur in the near future,
take place against the backdrop of centuries of vector introductions that enable
establishment.
A key result of an already well established vector population and a highly
suitable environment (including hosts and climate) is that many introduced patho­
gens cause explosive epidemics in which a large fraction of the population at risk
is infected in the first few years after introduction (see Figure A6-1). High vector
populations (relative to host abundance) result in a high basic reproduction num­
ber (R0) of the pathogen, and if the host population is immunologically naive to
the introduced pathogen, as is usually the case, then the effective pathogen repro­
duction number (Reff) is close to the maximum R0. This high Reff leads to another
common pattern, which is that the intense and rapid initial spread of a novel
pathogen is frequently followed by a substantial decrease in case burden shortly
after introduction, especially on a local scale, as the fraction of the population
that is immune to infection rises (Kilpatrick, 2011). This pattern both contrasts
with, and has similarities to, the emergence of endemic diseases.

Emergence of Endemic Pathogens

Emergence of endemic VBPs is frequently associated with changes in land
use (Lambin et al., 2010) or socioeconomic conditions (Randolph, 2010), and
these transitions control the dynamics of disease emergence. For pathogens
affected by land-use change, the rise in case numbers is often gradual (see Fig­
ure A6-1), paralleling changes in the pathogen’s abiotic and biotic environment.
By contrast, the increased incidence of endemic disease driven by changes in
socioeconomic conditions can be abrupt if the shift is rapid, such as that caused
by political upheavals, military conflicts, or natural disasters (see Figure A6-1).
Changes in land use affect VBPs by altering the interactions and abundance
of wildlife and domestic hosts, vectors, and people, with some diseases better
understood than are others (Lambin et al., 2010). In the Amazon and east Africa,
deforestation increases standing water and sunlight and enhances the breeding
success of some mosquito species, which can increase risk of malaria. Further
increases in urbanisation frequently eliminate anopheline mosquito habitat and
have reduced malaria elsewhere (Yasuoka and Levins, 2007). In northeastern
North America, reforestation during the 20th century is thought to have allowed
recolonisation by deer and the consequent expansion of the range of ticks (Ixodes
scapularis), underpinning the emergence of Lyme disease in the mid-20th cen­
tury (Barbour and Fish, 1993). Deer (Odocoileus virginianus in the USA and
Capreolus in Europe) have a key role in feeding adult Ixodes ticks, although
they are actually incompetent hosts for the Lyme disease bacterial spirochaetes.
Additionally, in the past three decades, fragmentation of forests in eastern regions
APPENDIX A 189

of Canada and the USA and changes in predator communities (Levi et al., 2012)
have altered the host community for ticks and the Lyme bacterium Borrelia
burgdorferi, and might have increased relative abundance of small mammals
(white-footed mice [Peromyscus leucopus], eastern chipmunks [Tamias striatus],
and shrews [Sorex spp and Blarina brevicauda]) that are the principal transmis­
sion hosts for Lyme disease spirochaetes. These changes in the host commu­
nity can result in increased spirochaete infection prevalence in nymphal ticks
(Logiudice et al., 2008). A key remaining question is how fragmentation and
hunting-induced changes in the host community affect the abundance of infected
nymphal ticks, which is the key metric for disease risk.
Changes in land use might also be responsible for recent emergent foci of
Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus within its large range through parts
of Africa, Asia, southeastern Europe, and the Middle East. By contrast with typi­
cal sporadic outbreaks of only a few cases, an exceptional epidemic occurred in
Turkey, starting with about 20 cases in 2002, and rising to nearly 1,400 cases
by 2008 (see Figure A6-1). Most infections occurred in agricultural and animal
husbandry workers via tick bites and direct contamination from infected animals.
Changes in land cover associated with political unrest and reduced agricultural
activities might have allowed colonisation by wildlife and subsequent tick popu­
lation growth, as is thought to have precipitated the first recorded epidemic of
Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever in Crimea in 1944–45 (Hoogstraal, 1979).
The case fatality rate (5 percent) in Turkey has been much lower than is usually
observed (20–30 percent) (Hoogstraal, 1979; ErgÖnül, 2006), creating some un­
certainty about the cause of this epidemic. This uncertainty emphasises the need
for accurate and systematic diagnosis through effective point-of-care methods.
Increases in incidence can also result from changes in socioeconomic and
human activities, such as expansion into risky new habitats for exploitation or
dwelling, or land-cover change, such as reforestation of previously agricultural
areas (Barbour and Fish, 1993; Chaves et al., 2008; Barrett and Higgs, 2007; Hay
et al., 2005). Human infection with VBPs increases with the product of entomo­
logical risk (the abundance of infected vectors) and exposure of people to vectors,
which can change independently and sometimes synergistically. For example, the
incidence of dengue is higher on the Mexican side of the Mexico–Texas border
than on the other (Reiter et al., 2003), where open windows compensate for the
absence of air-conditioning but expose people to mosquito biting.
Exposure to ticks, paradoxically, might be higher in people of high and low
income than in those with intermediate income (see Figure A6-3). Incidence of
Lyme disease in parts of Europe has been shown to be higher in people with high
income living in new homes in broad-leaf woodlands where wildlife co-occur,
including rodents and birds that serve as reservoirs for spirochaetes and ticks
(Linard et al., 2007). Generally, outdoor recreational opportunities associated
with wealth can result in increased exposure to vectors. Conversely, hardship
precipitated by population displacements due to civil conflict, loss of protective
190 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A6-3 Interactions between economic status and disease risk. Interactions are
particularly applicable where contact with infectious agents is largely due to human activi­
ties outdoors, such as tick-borne diseases. Human activities take place against a backdrop
of variable inherent risk from zoonotic vector-borne pathogens, which is measured as the
density of host-seeking infected vectors such that the overall risk curve can rise or fall.

housing through natural disasters, or use of natural environmental resources

driven by economic transitions can lead to increased contact between people and
vectors (Randolph, 2010; Beyrer et al., 2007). A clear example comes from a
large upsurge of tick-borne encephalitis in 2009, immediately after the economic
downturn in three eastern European countries that already had high background
poverty and where foods are harvested from forests for subsistence and com­
merce (Godfrey and Randolph, 2011). Human activities resulting in exposure
to VBPs is sometimes reflected in different seasonal patterns, such as cases of
tick-borne encephalitis in different parts of Europe (see Figure A6-4). In east­
ern Europe, the timing of cases matches the season of forest food harvest more
closely than the seasonal pattern of tick abundance, while in western Europe the
earlier peak of cases coincides with summer recreational activity.
Poverty and wealth, however, probably affect final disease outcomes asym­
metrically, because economic duress restricts the potential for ameliorative ac­
tions (eg, limiting of outdoor activities, protection from vector bites, or costly
vaccination in the case of tick-borne encephalitis). This hypothesis could partly
explain the difference between a large upsurge (two to 30 times) in reported
tick-borne encephalitis cases in the early 1990s in central and eastern Europe
APPENDIX A 191

FIGURE A6-4 Seasonal patterns of tick-borne encephalitis cases and abundance of quest­
ing nymphal ticks (Ixodes ricinus). The data for ticks are lagged by 1 month to account for
the interval between a tick bite and diagnosis of tick-borne encephalitis.

after the fall of Soviet rule and a gradual and steady increase in western Europe
(Figure A6-1) (Randolph, 2010). Political and civil unrest that commonly occur
with armed conflict could also account for the sudden re-emergence of plague
in Vietnam in the late 1960s and in Madagascar and Mozambique at the end of
the 1980s (Duplantier et al., 2005). Failure of public health services and over­
crowded, unsanitary living conditions increased human contact with flea-bearing
rodents and decreased routine surveillance, allowing rapid emergence with no
warning. These examples of social strife enabling new epidemics of vector-borne
diseases will probably recur, and awareness and investment in public health infra­
structure can help to reduce their effect.
Understanding of the mechanistic processes linking land use and socio­
economic conditions with disease enables prediction of future trends and control
or mitigation. Economic and public health assistance could be targeted towards
populations at high disease risk because of social strife caused by conflict or
natural disasters, and urban planning could be used to minimise the use of risky
habitat by people for living and recreation. Unfortunately, although correlations
exist between land use and disease incidence or measures of risk, rigorous and
192 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

mechanistic analyses that identify causal factors that are needed for intelligent
urban planning are absent in most cases. For example, in the USA, specific types
of land use (agriculture and urbanisation) are associated with a higher incidence
of West Nile virus in people at the county scale, but the mechanism underlying
this pattern is unknown (Kilpatrick, 2011; Bowden et al., 2011). This gap in our
knowledge makes it difficult to anticipate and avoid future epidemics associated
with rapid urbanisation and land-use change.

Climate Change and Vector-Borne Diseases

Although several components of vector-borne disease systems (principally
the vector and the pathogen) are highly sensitive to climate, evidence shows that
climate change has been less important in the recent emergence of vector-borne

BOX A6-2

Climate Change and Vector-Borne Disease

It is now well established in the scientific community that climate change has
played and will play a mixed and minor part in the emergence of most vector-
borne pathogens (VBPs) and diseases generally (Rogers and Randolph, 2006;
Lafferty, 2009). Nonetheless, a persistent stream of reviews are published that
claim that climate change is a primary driving force. These reviews stem from two
semi-independent assumptions that have developed in the past decade: first, that
climate change will lead to more widespread and more abundant VBPs as more
of the planet starts to closely resemble the tropics where VBPs are presently most
abundant; and second, that the arrival of exotic and upsurges of endemic VBPs
are due to climate changes. Both these assumptions originate from plausible
arguments, because the natural distribution and intensity of VBPs are indeed
highly sensitive to climate (Russell et al., 2009). They were partly inspired by
repeated publications of highly influential and visually arresting maps at the end
of the 20th century that presented predictions of expanding malaria derived from
mathematical models. Problematically, these models were not parameterised
with data for key variables (eg, vector abundance) (Martens et al., 1995). The
belief that warming will intensify VBPs is reinforced by speculative reports that
describe the general coincidence of increased disease incidence with warming in
recent decades (Gould and Higgs et al., 2009; Gray et al., 2009). Spatiotemporal
analyses of variation in long trends suggest that in many cases climate has not
consistently changed in the right way, at the right time, and in the right places to
account for the recorded epidemiology of emergent VBPs (Šumilo et al., 2007).
The effects of climate on transmission are several, non-linear, and act in
opposing directions. Thus, prediction of the overall effect of climate and cli-
mate change on vector-borne disease systems needs a complete understand-
ing and parameterisation of VBP models (Reiter, 2008; Rogers and Randolph,
2006). Specifically, higher temperatures increase three aspects of transmission
for vector-borne pathogens: vector biting rate, vector development rate, and
APPENDIX A 193

diseases than have changes in land use, animal host communities, human liv­
ing conditions, and societal factors, probably because of countering influences of
climate (see Box A6-2). An exception seems to be the increased transmission
of VBPs with warming along the cold latitudinal and altitudinal edges of their
present distribution. The differential effect of climate at the edge and core of a
pathogen’s distribution stems partly from the non-linear relation between the frac­
tion of the population exposed in an epidemic and transmission potential (which
can be quantified as R0). Specifically, initial increases in R0 to more than one (ie,
allowing pathogen spread to create an epidemic) lead to large rises in case burden,
but further increases in R0 have diminishing effects, especially for pathogens with
sterilising immunity. Expansions in the distribution of a disease might have dis­
proportionate effects on public health if the newly exposed populations have little
immunity. Examples of VBP range expansions along cold edges are dengue virus in

pathogen replication (thereby reducing the extrinsic incubation period or the time
between a vector feeding on an infected host and being able to transmit the patho-
gen). However, they frequently decrease a fourth, vector survival, especially when
associated with moisture stress. As a result, increased temperatures might lead to
increases or decreases in transmission depending on the relative effects of these
factors (Rogers and Randolph, 2006). A key challenge is that biological models
frequently have difficulty accurately predicting changes in vector abundance,
which is the most variable factor in the transmission potential of VBPs.
The best science clearly suggests that effects of climate change on VBPs will
be variable, as would be expected from all such complex systems (Rohr et al.,
2011). Thus, although continuing climate change could increase transmission or
distributions of some VBPs in the future, for most diseases other factors will be
more important and, crucially, be manageable with public health initiatives (e.g.,
drug treatment, vaccines, and bed nets). These factors include changes in the
biotic elements of the environment (e.g., wildlife hosts), drug resistance, reduced
health service provision, and political and socioeconomic factors that change
human exposure and susceptibility to infections.
Governments and public health agencies want predictions of the disease bur-
den and risk in the future. To obtain such predictions, a robust understanding of
how all aspects of climate affect rates of the processes involved in transmission
needs to be developed (Rogers and Randolph, 2006), and the breadth of analyses
should be expanded to include all potential factors affecting incidence of infection
and prevalence of disease, both biological and non-biological. Predictions will
necessitate truly cross-disciplinary collaborations, marrying biologists’ pursuit of
improved models of vector abundance, infection prevalence, and pathogen evolu-
tion (e.g., drug resistance) with understanding from medical and social scientists
about developments in treatment and interventions, land-use change, and human
societal factors. Such cooperation would further our knowledge, which is presently
based on assumptions about what global warming will do, to a more evidence-
based set of predictions.
194 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

Texas, USA (Brunkard et al., 2007), Lyme disease in Canada (Ogden et al., 2009),
and tick-borne encephalitis at increasing altitude in Slovakia (Lukan et al., 2010).
In core transmission areas, not only are the effects of climate change less
important than other factors, but warming might even decrease transmission if de­
creases in vector survival overwhelm other factors (Randolph and Rogers, 2000)
(see Box A6-2). An analysis of several decades of severe malaria incidence (the
best studied disease with respect to climate change) at five locations spanning a
range of elevations in western Kenya identified initial rises in incidence followed
by two decades of decreases at two locations and increases with high variability
in three others (Chaves et al., 2012). These mixed patterns challenge expectations
that continuing climate change will lead to increased malaria and suggest that
changes in transmission potential of malaria and other VBPs are primarily
driven instead by a mix of factors such as demographic shifts, land-use change,
interventions (eg, bed nets), drug resistance, and climate. The relative contribu­
tions of each factor can be rigorously assessed only by careful comparisons of
the same pathogen over time and with valid accurate baseline data, which were
lacking in a previous study (Gething et al., 2010).

Evolution of Vector-Borne Pathogens

One underappreciated aspect of growing human populations, global land-
use change, and the introduction of human commensal vectors is the selective
pressure exerted on pathogens, causing them to evolve to take advantage of new
environments, including hosts and vectors. Both West Nile virus and chikungunya
evolved rapidly (a feature typical of viruses and especially RNA viruses) (Holmes,
2003) after being introduced to new locations and encountering new anthropo­
philic vectors. The original genotype of West Nile virus (NY99) was replaced by
another (WN02) (Davis et al., 2005) that differs by three consensus nucleotide
changes and exhibits increased transmission efficiency in C pipiens and Culex
tarsalis mosquitoes (Moudy et al., 2007; Kilpatrick et al., 2008). Similarly, on
Réunion between 2005 and 2006, one nucleotide change occurred in chikungunya
virus that increased infection in the recently introduced mosquito species Aedes
albopictus (Tsetsarkin and Weaver, 2011). The same genetic change appeared
independently in viruses isolated from Réunion, west Africa, and Italy, but was
not identified in mosquitoes from India at the start of the continuing epidemics
there in 2006 (de Lambellerie et al., 2008). When A albopictus rather than A
aegypti became the main vector in India from 2007, however, the same genetic
substitution spread rapidly and subsequent substitutions seem to be enabling
even more efficient virus circulation and persistence, which could presage further
expansion of the chikungunya virus (de Lambellerie et al., 2008).
More generally, the transmission of many VBPs is less efficient when the
vector feeds on several hosts, only some of which can be infected by the patho­
gen (Kilpatrick et al., 2007). It is no coincidence that the dominant human VBPs
APPENDIX A 195

malaria and dengue are transmitted most intensely where they are vectored by
mosquitoes that feed almost entirely on people. What has been less appreciated
is the selective pressure imposed on zoonotic pathogens (especially those for
which people are still a dead-end host) to adapt to be efficiently transmitted by
human specialist vectors like Anopheles gambiae, A aegypti, and, to a slightly
lesser extent, A albopictus (which sometimes feeds on non-human mammals and
birds) where people are highly abundant. As the abundance of human commensal
vectors increases with urbanisation and deforestation, so do the opportunities for
strictly human transmission of pathogens.

Control of VBPs
Novel introductions and increases in incidence of endemic VBPs draw atten­
tion to the need for effective control and treatment of individuals with associated
diseases. A key challenge in the attempt to control many VBPs is that they are
zoonotic and transmission intensity in vectors is driven primarily by wildlife
reservoirs. As a result, the dominant method used to control directly transmitted
pathogens—vaccines—protects only individuals with financial and logistical
access and has no effect on underlying transmission intensity. Thus, natural or
vaccine-acquired herd immunity has no protective effect in people, and exposure
is governed primarily by contact with vectors.
Control of zoonoses in wildlife is difficult at best, and eradication is often
impossible (Barrett and Higgs, 2007). Vaccines for wildlife hosts—in develop­
ment for West Nile virus (Kilpatrick et al., 2010) and field tested at a small scale
for Lyme borreliosis (Tsao et al., 2004)—offer some reasons for optimism, but
substantial work remains before they can be deployed as effective instruments on
a large scale. Additionally, for vector-borne pathogens, transmission is thought to
be frequency dependent, such that culling of livestock or wildlife that decreases
host abundance (short of eradication) might increase transmission. Vectors are
likely to seek out, feed on, and infect the hosts that remain after culling efforts,
and the remaining hosts will subsequently be fed on by a greater number of sus­
ceptible vectors per host than they were before culling (Wonham et al., 2004).
Control of frequency-dependent pathogens by culling would thus be expected
to result in short but intensified epizootics that could lead to additional human
infections, with the exact public burden depending in part on patterns of vector
feeding on people and other hosts (Kilpatrick et al., 2006c, 2007).
Another control strategy used for VBPs, active or passive use of animals
to divert vector feeding away from people to protect them against infection (so-
called zooprophylaxis) (Hess and Hayes, 1970), has had mixed effects. Feeding
on additional alternative hosts sometimes results in increased vector densities,
which could result in higher transmission even if a smaller proportion feed on
people (Yamamoto et al., 2009; Cohen and Gurtler, 2001). A more recent incar­
nation of this basic idea—termed the dilution effect—postulates that naturally
196 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

occurring biodiversity could, in some instances, also divert vectors from infec­
tious hosts (Ostfeld and Keesing, 2000). As with empirical attempts of zoopro­
phylaxis, the effects of biodiversity, or, more accurately, variable host community
assemblages, are not uniform with respect to risk of infection, because of the
complexity of interactions between hosts, vectors, and pathogens (Randolph
and Dobson, 2012; Kilpatrick et al., 2006b). The more direct strategy of vector
control targeted at larval mosquitoes (including elimination of larval habitat)
has been more effective than has zooprophylaxis and has even resulted in local
eradication of a disease (Killeen, 2003). Additionally, new techniques to develop
vectors resistant to pathogens by infecting them with naturally occurring intracel­
lular insect parasites (eg, Wolbachia) offer some promise (Hoffman et al., 2011).
In many cases, the most effective long-term public health strategies will
combine efforts by clinicians and public health officials to treat and alter the
behaviour of patients to avoid infection with actions by others to reverse the
ecological drivers of transmission. Behavioural change is especially important
at the leading edge of invading endemic or exotic pathogens where personal
protective behaviours are often absent. Reversal of ecological drivers of disease
emergence necessitates identification of the causes of increases in incidence and
subsequent targeting with appropriate control measures, which needs integration
between researchers, public health agencies, the government, and the public. For
example, risk related to specific types of land use could be ameliorated by urban
planning and management of host and vector communities through landscaping,
hunting, or restoration of ecological communities.
Similarly, increases in incidence related to socioeconomic changes could
be reduced with prudent development and assistance after disasters and social
upheaval (Bogich et al., 2012). The vaccination campaign against tick-borne
encephalitis, for example, targeted children in Latvia in response to the massive
upsurge in incidence in the early 1990s. This campaign, together with a reduction
in high-risk activities in tick-infested forests (presumably as a result of enhanced
awareness), effectively reduced the mean national incidence by 74 percent by
1999, with the greatest reductions in counties where incidence was previously
highest (Šumilo et al., 2008). Even modest changes in societal structure and
socioeconomic development can increase exposure to zoonoses; an awareness
of changing risk would allow communication of appropriate warnings to alert
unsuspecting members of the public. Prevention of the introduction of foreign
pathogens is far more difficult than is control of endemic VBPs because it is an
inevitable result of the globalisation of trade and travel. History suggests that
successful control needs prompt identification, swift action, and occasionally
draconian social measures.
APPENDIX A 197

Conclusions
VBPs impose an important global burden on public health, including wide­
spread human diseases that were formerly zoonotic, such as malaria and dengue,
as well as zoonotic diseases for which people are dead-end hosts, such as Lyme
disease, West Nile virus, and Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever. Widespread
land-use change, globalisation of trade and travel, and social upheaval are driving
the emergence of zoonotic VBPs, including along local invasion fronts. Recogni­
tion that a large fraction of the public health burden of both endemic and exotic
VBPs comes from infection at the invading front would enable prospective action
to address the ecological and sociological drivers of transmission. Financial and
technological hurdles persist in developing countries, making diagnosis and con­
trol difficult where the diseases are stubbornly most prevalent. Inadequate knowl­
edge prevents populations in developed countries from taking actions that would
minimise the diseases’ effects. Development projects that address disease can help
to overcome these challenges, and clinicians and public health professionals can
play important parts in the reduction of the burden of vector-borne disease.

Search Strategy and Selection Criteria

We searched PubMed and ISI Web of Knowledge with the terms “emerging
infection,*” “vector-borne diseas.*” “zoonos*” or names of specific vector-borne
infections, in combination with “control,” “exotic,” “climate change,” “socio­
econom,*” “land use,” or “evolution” for reports published in any language
before July, 2012. Searches were done at all stages, from the initial drafting of
the paper to submission of the revised and final version. We also relied on our
own familiarity with the scientific literature. We largely selected reports from the
past 6 years, but did not exclude older publications that were informative and
useful. We also searched the reference lists of reports identified by our searches
and selected those that we judged to be relevant. Reviews and book chapters are
cited to provide readers with comprehensive sources of references, but primary
research is also included where possible within the space allowed. Our reference
list was modified on the basis of comments from peer reviewers.

Contributors
AMK and SER conceived the ideas and wrote the report.

Conflicts of Interest
We declare that we have no conflicts of interest.
198 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

Acknowledgements
AMK acknowledges funding from the National Science Foundation and the
National Institutes of Health.

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202 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

A7

CLIMATE TELECONNECTIONS, WEATHER EXTREMES,

AND VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE OUTBREAKS1

Kenneth J. Linthicum,2, 3 Assaf Anyamba,4, 5

Seth C. Britch,1, 2Jennifer L. Small,3, 4 and Compton J. Tucker 3, 4

Introduction: Vectors, Ecology, and Climate

Fluctuations in climate lead to extremes in temperature, rainfall, flooding,
and droughts. These climate extremes create ideal ecological conditions that
promote mosquito-borne disease transmission that impacts global human and
animal health (see Figure A7-1). For example, abnormally high temperatures
can affect mosquito populations by reducing mosquito survival, altering sus­
ceptibility of mosquitoes to pathogens, increasing mosquito development rates,
changing their seasonal activity, increasing pathogen replication and shortening
the extrinsic incubation period in the mosquito, and changing disease transmis­
sion patterns and seasonality (Gubler et al., 2001; Epstein, 2005; Linthicum et
al., 2014). Elevated rainfall may increase immature habitats for mosquitoes, and
elevated humidity can increase mosquito survival (Turell et al., 2001; Glass et
al., 2000; Reisen et al., 1993). Drought conditions can change immature mos­
quito habitats and enhance container breeding mosquito habitats (Chretien et al.,
2007). One well-known driver of such global-scale climate fluctuations is the
El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon that is exemplified by peri­
odic extreme warming and cooling of the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean with
attendant consequences on precipitation and temperature worldwide especially
across the global tropics. Such extremes include flooding as a result of persistent
and above-normal rainfall and drought resulting from extended periods of below-
normal rainfall and above-normal temperatures (see Figure A7-2). Such extremes
in regional climate can create ecological conditions that influence the emergence
of mosquito vectors, their distribution and abundance, population dynamics, and
transmission of mosquito-borne disease (Anyamba et al., 2012). In this paper we
show that outbreaks of Rift Valley fever and chikungunya, two important emerg­
ing mosquito-borne diseases, are coupled to specific climate anomaly patterns.

1 Modified by authors from PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0001465

and PLoS ONE doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0092538 for inclusion in this workshop summary.

2 USDA-ARS Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, 1600 S.W. 23rd Drive,

Gainesville, FL 32608.
3 Mosquito and Fly Research Unit.
4 Biospheric Sciences Laboratory.
5 NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.
APPENDIX A 203

FIGURE A7-1 Land surface temperature (LST) anomaly extremes composites for June,

July, and August 2010–2012 for various regions associated with vector-borne diseases in­
cluding West Nile virus disease [WNV] (USA), Rift Valley fever [RVF] (Southern Africa),

dengue (East Africa), Murray Valley encephalitis [MVE], Kunjin, malaria (Australia), and

environment-linked respiratory illnesses (Russia).

SOURCE: Assaf Anyamba (USRA at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center) and Kenneth

Linthicum.

Data: LST data from the MODIS instrument on-board NASA’s Earth Observing System

Terra satellite.

Next we describe significant worldwide weather anomalies that impacted vector-

borne disease outbreaks during the 2010–2012 period. Using 2000–2012 normal­
ized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and land surface temperature (LST) data
from NASA’s satellite-based Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
(MODIS) we map the magnitude and extent of these weather anomalies for
diverse regions including the continental United States, Russia, East Africa,
Southern Africa, and Australia, and we demonstrate that shifts in temperature
and/or precipitation have significant impacts on ecology patterns with attendant
consequences for public health. Weather extremes resulted in excessive rainfall
and flooding as well as severe drought which created exceptional conditions for
extensive mosquito-borne disease outbreaks of Rift Valley fever, Murray Valley
encephalitis, dengue, West Nile virus disease, and air pollution associated with
extensive fires and high temperatures. Finally we describe climate teleconnec­
tions between several vector-borne, rodent-borne, and environmentally linked
diseases, and describe how risks may develop if El Niño conditions develop in
the winter of 2014 and spring of 2015 (Chretien et al., 2015).
204 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A7-2 Summary map showing the correlation between monthly NINO3.4 sea

surface temperatures (SSTs) and rainfall anomalies (1979 to 2008). El Niño events are as­
sociated with extremes of elevated or depressed rainfall (blue/green or yellow/red colors,

respectively).

SOURCE: Anyamba et al., 2012. Available from PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases under

Creative Commons license.

Climate Teleconnections and Vector-Borne Disease Patterns

ENSO is a climate phenomenon that is associated with extremes in global
climate on interannual time scales through its dislocation of major centers of
and redistribution of precipitation across the global tropics and extra-tropics.
It has been shown to be associated with the occurrence of several human and
animal diseases including Rift Valley fever, Murray Valley encephalitis, chi­
kungunya, malaria, hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, and cholera precipitated
by extremes in rainfall and temperature among other factors (Anyamba et al.,
2009; Linthicum et al., 1999; Nicholls, 1986; Bouma and Dye, 1997; Kovats et
al., 2003; Engelthaler et al., 1999; Pascual et al., 2000). The impact of ENSO on
earth’s climate system, especially over the tropics, through interannual variations
in temperature, atmospheric circulation, and rainfall at various distant locations,
is termed teleconnection. These teleconnections produce differential anomaly pat­
terns in major climate variables with near-cyclical transitions through time from
the warm El Niño phase to the cold La Niña phase with a periodicity of 5–7 years
(Diaz and Markgraf, 2000). There is likelihood for outbreaks of mosquito-borne
diseases to occur at or near the same time during an ENSO cycle, demonstrating
how extremes in rainfall resulting in either persistent flood or severe drought can
APPENDIX A 205

influence the regional dynamics of mosquito vector populations at distant loca­

tions around the world, especially in the tropics (Nicholls, 1986; Glantz, 1991;
Engelthaler et al., 1999; Linthicum et al., 1999).
Globally the El Niño phase of ENSO causes predictable patterns of flood­
ing and drought. Figure A7-2 depicts the close correlation between sea surface
temperatures (SST) and rainfall anomalies. There is a strong tendency for above
(below) normal rainfall during El Niño (La Niña) events over East Africa (South­
ern Africa, Southeast Asia). Elevated rainfall conditions and floods generally oc­
cur over Eastern Africa, the southern half of the United States, Southern Brazil/
Northern Argentina, eastern and central Pacific Islands, Ecuador, and Peru. Re­
duced rainfall conditions leading to drought occur over a large area of Southeast
Asia, Australia, northern and north-eastern Brazil, and Southern Africa. The op­
posite conditions may prevail during the La Niña phase of ENSO (Glantz, 1991).
ENSO-produced extremes in regional climate can create ecological condi­
tions that influence the transmission of mosquito-borne diseases of global public
health relevance (Gubler et al., 2001; Gage et al., 2008). Teleconnection studies
examining the link between climate and disease have been limited by poor report­
ing and a lack of georeferenced disease data. We analyzed and illustrated how
recent outbreaks of two mosquito-borne diseases, chikungunya and Rift Valley
fever (Chretien et al., 2007; Gage et al., 2008; Panning et al., 2008; Anyamba
et al., 2009, 2010, 2012), over Africa, the western Indian Ocean basin islands,
and Asia were linked to specific climate anomaly patterns. We georeferenced
disease occurrence records, and examined the spatial and temporal associations
of these disease outbreaks and how they were impacted by variable climate and
ecological patterns.
The relationship between rainfall and Rift Valley fever was determined
through a logistic regression of presence or absence of disease reports on cu­
mulative rainfall anomalies for the 4 months immediately preceding each Rift
Valley fever outbreak (Anyamba, 2009; data not shown). There was a significant
relationship found between cumulative rainfall anomalies and Rift Valley fever
presence with at least 99.9 percent confidence. This relationship for East Africa,
Sudan, and South Africa was strongly positive. Figure A7-3 shows that for each
of the selected outbreak locations in each region, persistent above-normal rainfall
for 3–4 months preceded the first case of Rift Valley fever. Rainfall anomalies for
each of these regions at the times of disease activity are depicted in Figure A7-4
and listed in Table A7-1. The magnitude of such rainfall anomalies creates ideal
ecological conditions for an increase in Rift Valley fever mosquito vector emer­
gence and survival. These findings confirmed experimental (Linthicum et al.,
1984) and field (Linthicum et al., 1985) observations that persistent, widespread,
and above-normal rainfall is required to flood mosquito habitats to produce
ecological conditions supporting the emergence of virus-infected ground pool
Aedes mosquito populations and ultimately lead to large populations of vector
competent mosquitoes on a large geographic scale that would result in a Rift
206 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE
APPENDIX A 207

Valley fever epizootic. However, in Madagascar a negative relationship was

found, with the model predicting higher odds of Rift Valley fever outbreaks when
rainfall was less than normal (see Figure A7-4). Although the 2008 Madagascar
Rift Valley fever outbreak was initially triggered by elevated rainfall (Anyamba
et al., 2010), the subsequent spread of the outbreak may have been caused by the
introduction of infected livestock from the southern part of the country to areas
in the north where competent Culex mosquito vectors are associated with human
habitations. Large outbreaks of chikungunya have historically been transmit­
ted by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes in large highly populated urban areas of Asia
and highly populated areas of Africa with smaller outbreaks in rural areas. The
location of chikungunya outbreaks between 2004 and 2010 in relation to human
population density is illustrated in Figure A7-5. Outbreaks occurred in coastal
urban centers with large population densities (Chretien et al., 2007; Anyamba et
al., 2010). Chikungunya cases between January 1979 and February 2010 were
analyzed by Anyamba et al. (2012) and examined for relationships with surface
air temperature anomalies and precipitation anomalies as shown in Figures A7-6
and A7-7, respectively. These figures show the frequency distribution of the
number of reported chikungunya outbreak events against rainfall and temperature
anomalies. Rainfall and temperature anomalies were calculated by subtracting the
long-term 1979–2010 monthly rainfall or temperature means from the rainfall
or temperature values in each month in each year of the study period, such that
the rainfall or temperature anomaly for each month could be plotted as greater
than or less than the zero long-term baseline (shown as a vertical dotted line in
Figures A7-5 and A7-6). Temperature anomalies which persisted over a 4-month
period were classified as hot if anomalies were > 0 or cool if < 0. Precipitation
anomalies which persisted over a 4-month period were classified as drought if
< 0 and wet if > 0. In East Africa, Central Africa, and South Asia, 94 percent, 68
percent, and 80 percent of the outbreaks, respectively, occurred during warmer­
than-normal temperatures, and these differences were significant at P < 0.05
(see Figures A7-6A–C). In Southeast Asia, however, 52 percent of the outbreaks
occurred during cooler than normal temperatures (see Figure A7-6D). In East
Africa chikungunya reports were significantly positively correlated with drought
conditions at P < 0.05 (see Figure A7-7A), and were not significantly correlated
in South Asia (see Figure A7-7C).

FIGURE A7-3 Cumulative daily rainfall profiles for periods of Rift Valley fever activity
for selected outbreak sites in Africa. Cumulative daily rainfall (green lines) profiles for
periods of Rift Valley fever activity and mean long-term cumulative daily rainfall (red
lines) for sites with reported Rift Valley fever activity. Dotted line represents when the first
case of Rift Valley fever was identified at each location. Each of the outbreak locations
was preceded by above-normal rainfall for 3-4 months.
SOURCE: Anyamba et al., 2012b, reproduced with permission from IEEE.
208 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A7-4 A-Left: Cumulative rainfall anomalies associated with Rift Valley fever
outbreaks for East Africa (September 2006–December 2006), Sudan (June 2007–September
2007), Southern Africa (October 2007–April 2008, October 2008–April 2009, October
2009–April 2010, October 2010–April 2011), and Madagascar (October 2007–November
2008); B-Right: Corresponding map depicting location of RVF case reports from 2006
to 2011.
SOURCES: (A-Left) Anyamba et al., 2012. Available from PLoS Neglected Tropical
Diseases under Creative Commons license; (B-Right) Anyamba et al., 2012b, reproduced
with permission from IEEE.

In Central Africa (see Figure A7-7B) and in Southeast Asia (see Figure A7-7D)
outbreaks were significantly negatively correlated with drought at P < 0.05. The
positive correlation between chikungunya outbreaks and warmer than normal
temperatures in Africa and South Asia was consistent with nonsylvatic transmis­
sion by Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus in highly populated domestic settings
where domestic and peridomestic stored water supplies were the likely source of
the mosquitoes (Chretien et al., 2007; Anyamba et al., 2012). Our analyses sug­
gest that in a changing and variable climate, mosquito-transmitted viruses and
their mosquito vectors are going to adapt to the existing climatic and ecological
conditions in new regions, and disease transmission will vary accordingly and
may not be the same manifestation as observed in the original endemic regions.
Combining satellite-derived measurements and analyses of climate and ecology
with an understanding of mosquito vector biology and human and animal popu­
lation immunity status can contribute substantially towards reducing the global
burden of vector-borne diseases. Better understanding of climate teleconnection
APPENDIX A 209

TABLE A7-1 Total Season Rainfall, Long-Term Means, and Anomalies for
Selected Periods from 2006 to 2011 Extracted from the Global Precipitation
Climatology Project (Adler et al., 2003) for Regions Presented in Figures
A7-4 and A7-8
Total Mean Anomaly
Region Season (mm) (mm) (%)
East Africa September -December 2006 495.51 247.36 102.54
(Somalia/Kenya)a
Sudan June-September 2007 563.95 354.23 63.77
US June-August 2011 59.40 174.11 –65.88
(Texas)
East Africa December 2010-February 40.65 80.94 –52.26
(Somalia/Kenya)b 2011
South Africa December 2010-February 363.92 253.69 43.45
(Free State/North 2011
West)
SE Australia September-November 2010 255.28 95.59 174.01
(New South Wales)
a Refers to the specific location of Rift Valley outbreak in 2006–2007.
b Location of cluster of dengue outbreaks in East Africa in 2010–2011.
SOURCE: Data from NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (http://precip.gsfc.nasa.gov/), as described
by Adler et al., 2003.

events and their link to mosquito-borne diseases will likely allow parts of Af­
rica, the Indian Ocean basin islands, and elsewhere within the greater tropics to
have from several months to more than a year warning prior to Rift Valley fever
outbreaks, permitting more efficacious targeting of vaccine, virus surveillance,
mosquito control, animal quarantine, and public education strategies.

Extreme Weather and Disease Outbreaks

The anomalous conditions observed during 2010–2012 were the most ex­
treme weather events in the 12-year record of Terra MODIS data, and they
present a good opportunity to quantify these weather impacts on mosquito-
transmitted diseases using various satellite-based parameters of surface condi­
tions. The timing and unique intensity of these events is corroborated by analyses
using longer-term climate data sets (Trenberth and Fasullo, 2012; Blunden and
Arndt, 2013; Hoerling et al., 2013). Anyamba et al. (2012, 2014) postulated
that because both severe drought and flooding may create ecological condi­
tions for enhancing vector-borne disease emergence, then under such extreme
weather events as have been documented for 2010–2012 significant increases
210 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A7-5 Distribution of chikungunya outbreaks (2004–2010) in relation to human

population density. Each symbol represents the year(s) when an outbreak was reported at
a specific geographic location. Most chikungunya activity has occurred in locations with
high population densities (> 500 people per square kilometer).
SOURCE: Anyamba et al., 2012. Available from PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases under
Creative Commons license.

in outbreaks of vector-borne diseases under conditions of both extreme drought

and above-normal rainfall should be observed. They mapped locations of docu­
mented 2010–2012 extremes at selected locations around the globe using various
satellite datasets, and described and illustrated the impacts of these extremes on
epidemics/epizootics of West Nile virus disease (USA 2012), dengue (East Africa
2010–2011), Murray Valley encephalitis (SE Australia 2010), and Rift Valley
fever (East Africa 2006, Sudan 2007, South Africa 2010–2011) for the selected
regions shown in Figures A7-4 and A7-8. Rainfall statistics for regions where
and times when these outbreaks occurred are shown in Table A7-1. Rainfall
deficits were associated with elevated West Nile virus and dengue transmission,
and surpluses associated with Murray Valley encephalitis and Rift Valley fever
outbreaks.
Record high temperatures and persistent drought (rainfall shortfalls of 65
percent) (Table A7-1) were linked to the highest period of West Nile virus activ­
ity on record in Texas and the rest of the continental United States (see Figure
A7-9A, B). The 2012 epidemic of West Nile virus disease across the continental
United States (see Figure A7-8) was the largest such outbreak since the introduc­
tion of West Nile virus into the United States in 1999, and the spike in human
APPENDIX A 211

FIGURE A7-6 Frequency distributions of chikungunya outbreak events and 4-month

cumulative temperature anomalies for East Africa (A), Central Africa (B), South Asia
(C), and Southeast Asia (D). The 4-month anomaly threshold is used to represent periods
of cool temperatures or drought and extreme high temperatures. The dashed line at zero
depicts the long-term mean temperature (1979–2009 base mean period) with warmer than
normal temperatures shown to the right (red) and cooler than normal temperatures shown
to the left (blue) of the line. Cases shown to the right of the dashed line occurred during
a period of elevated temperatures, with a persistence of 4 months.
SOURCE: Anyamba et al., 2012. Available from PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases under
Creative Commons license.

West Nile virus disease cases in 2012 can in part be associated with extreme
drought (see Figure A7-9B; Epstein and Defilippo, 2001). Mean summer tem­
peratures in June to August 2012 ranged from 30°C to 33°C, exceeding long-term
means (see Figure A7-9A). Elevated temperatures may have increased the effi­
ciency of transmission of West Nile virus by both Culex pipiens and Cx. tarsalis
mosquitoes, the likely vectors, by elevating population development and survival,
biting rates, and viral replication within these mosquito species (Kilpatrick et al.,
2008; Johnson and Sukhdeo, 2013; Moudy et al., 2007).
Across Eurasia, the summer drought of June–August 2010 was centered in
western Russia (see Figure A7-1) with the drought area extending to Belarus,
Poland, Germany, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan (Munich, 2010; Trenberth and
Fasullo, 2012). Cumulative seasonal land surface temperatures reached as high
212 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A7-7 Frequency distributions of chikungunya outbreak events and 4-month

cumulative precipitation anomalies in East Africa (A), Central Africa (B), South Asia
(C), and Southeast Asia (D). The 4-month anomaly threshold is used to represent periods
of either persistent above-normal rainfall/wetness or persistent drought conditions. The
dashed line at zero depicts the long-term mean rainfall with greater than normal precipita­
tion shown to the right (blue) and lower than normal precipitation shown to the left (red)
of the line. Cases shown to the left of the dashed line occurred during a drought period,
with a persistence of 4 months.

SOURCE: Anyamba et al., 2012. Available from PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases under

Creative Commons license.

as 20°C above normal with declines in NDVI of up to 40 percent below normal

(see Figure A7-1). As in the southern United States, the drought caused extreme
fire conditions. The fires led to smoke pollution and an increase in the number
of upper respiratory illnesses, and resulted in more than 15,000 deaths in Russia
during the 2010 summer.
In 2011 an unprecedented extensive dengue outbreak occurred in East Africa
and was associated with anomalously elevated land surface temperatures and
drought (52 percent below-normal rainfall) (see Table A7-1, Figure A7-8). Den­
gue virus, transmitted by Ae. aegypti mosquitoes, has been linked to increased
storage of water around households during hot, dry climatic conditions in densely
populated areas (Epstein, 2005; Chretien et al., 2007; Padmanabha et al., 2010).
These conditions are thought to increase populations of that mosquito species
APPENDIX A 213

FIGURE A7-8 Global distribution of epidemics/epizootics of mosquito-borne disease

outbreaks during 2010–2012 associated with weather extremes, showing the outbreak
locations of West Nile virus disease (United States, 2012), dengue (East Africa, 2011), Rift
Valley fever (Southern Africa, 2011), and Murray Valley encephalitis (Australia, 2011).
SOURCE: Anyamba et al., 2014. Available from PLoS ONE under Creative Commons
license.

(Subra, 1983). Extensive drought and elevated higher temperatures likely in­
creased the abundance of container-breeding dengue virus vector mosquitoes in
urban settings leading to the dengue outbreaks focused in Mogadishu, Somalia,
and Mandera, Kenya (IRIN, 2011) (see Table A7-1, Figure A7-8).
During the extended La Niña event of 2010–2011 more than 40 percent
higher than normal rainfall fell in much of South Africa. These extremely wet
conditions led to the flooding of low-lying areas, or dambos/pans, and created
ideal ecological conditions to hatch ground pool Aedes species mosquito eggs
infected with Rift Valley fever virus. Additionally, there was a downward shift
in mean seasonal (December–February) temperatures from about 40°C to 30°C
in South Africa as shown in Figures A7-9C and A7-9D. These cool and wet
conditions, which persisted through December 2010 to February 2011, permit­
ted increased mosquito vector populations and increased virus infection rates in
mosquitoes (Turell, 1993; Grobbelaar et al., 2011), and subsequent Rift Valley
fever virus transmission. The outbreak was the most extensive and widespread
epizootic/epidemic of Rift Valley fever observed in the region since the 1970s
(see Figure A7-8), severely impacting domestic animal production and human
health in southern Africa (Grobbelaar et al., 2011; Metras et al., 2012). MODIS
time series NDVI and LST anomalies during the 2010/11 La Niña were the most
persistent and extreme anomalies ever observed for the southern Africa region
during the 12-year history record of consistent measurements.
Accordingly, the peak of the La Niña event from November 2010 to Janu­
ary 2011 produced persistent and heavy rainfall, cooler temperatures, vegetation
214 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A7-9 Distribution of land surface temperature (LST) and normalized dif­
ference vegetation index (NDVI) during periods of disease outbreaks in selected re­
gions: (A, B) Lincoln, Nebraska, USA: West Nile virus disease, 40.8069N, 96.6817W,

(C, D) Bloemfontein, South Africa: Rift Valley fever, 29.1183S, 26.2249E, and (E, F)

Peterborough, Australia: Murray Valley encephalitis, 32.9733S, 138.8376E.

SOURCE: Anyamba et al., 2014. Available from PLoS ONE under Creative Commons

license.

APPENDIX A 215

growth, and created the ideal conditions for increasing Murray Valley encephalitis
virus mosquito vector populations. These conditions (174 percent above-normal
rainfall) led to outbreaks of the virus over northern and eastern Australia (Knox et
al., 2012) (see Table A7-1, Figure A7-8). Culex annulirostris, the primary Murray
Valley encephalitis mosquito vectors, propagate well during cooler temperatures
associated with heavy rainfall periods in the tropics and subtropics (Van Den
Hurk et al., 2010). During this epidemic period there was a reduction in mean
seasonal temperatures from 40°C to 30°C in the period from December 2010 to
January 2011 compared to the long-term mean distribution for eastern Australia
(see Figures A7-9E and A7-9F).
These regional examples described above illustrate how extreme weather
events can impact mosquito-borne disease outbreaks. These environmentally
enhanced outbreaks can vary globally depending on the virus and its transmis­
sion ecology and the geographic location. The status of a particular disease, its
seasonality, and other factors may enhance the potential for globalization of such
pathogens (Anyamba et al., 2012). The analysis of temperature and vegetation
conditions presented here and in Anyamba et al. (2014) provides a method for
consistently quantifying weather extremes from region to region, and demon­
strates the unique capability of satellite data in monitoring and mapping the
magnitude and extent of such events. It is likely that as extreme weather events
become more common under a changing and more variable climate (Cai et al.,
2015), countries will face challenging and costly adaptation strategies.

Summary: Extremes and the Near Future

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA’s) Cli­
mate Prediction Center (CPC) issued, on December 4, 2014, their most recent
El Niño conditions advisory (http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_
monitoring/enso_advisory/index.shtml). The advisory indicated that there is a
65 percent chance that El Niño conditions will be present during the Northern
Hemisphere winter and last into the Northern Hemisphere spring of 2015. Ad­
ditionally, the RVF Monitor website (http://www.ars.usda.gov/Business/docs.
htm?docid=23464) has the current suite of satellite global climate surveillance
products for monitoring El Niño and vegetation conditions and implications for
Rift Valley fever activity in Africa and the Arabian Peninsula region. The global
products including NDVI, SST, and outgoing longwave radiation (OLR—a proxy
indicator for rainfall), as well as data from terrestrial rainfall monitoring stations,
are useful in illustrating the current situation of global climate anomalies with
implications for public health.
The U.S. Department of Defense Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center’s
Global Emerging Infections Surveillance and Response System (DoD-AFHSC/
GEIS); United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service
Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology (USDA-ARS/
216 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

CMAVE); and the Global Inventory Modeling and Mapping Studies (GIMMS)
Group at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center monitor global climate and eco­
logical conditions of relevance to various disease outbreaks. The current NOAA
El Niño watch forecasts a 65 percent chance of the development of El Niño
conditions this winter 2014 and into the coming spring 2015, which may result
in climate perturbations and anomalies that will affect various vector-borne and
rodent-borne pathogen ecologies globally and likely result in disease outbreaks.
Given current observations and forecast information, the following regions are
at increased risk for disease outbreaks (see Figure A7-10):

1. Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and most of the Southeast Asia Islands:

High likelihood of increased dengue fever and possibly chikungunya
transmission caused by drought conditions which (1) increase water stor­
age around houses leading to elevated Ae. aegypti populations and (2)
elevate ambient air temperatures which will reduce the extrinsic incuba­
tion period for the virus in Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus mosquito vec­
tors increasing vectorial capacity; and likelihood of increased respiratory
illnesses attributable to uncontrolled burning of tropical forests during
extreme drought conditions.
2. Coastal Peru, Venezuela, and Colombia: Elevated risk of malaria epidem­
ics due to elevated anopheline mosquito populations that will develop
when various types of potential habitats are flooded after heavy rainfall.
3. Bangladesh, coastal India, and Sri Lanka: Elevated risk for cholera and
malaria outbreaks due to increased rainfall and flooding.
4. East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Somalia, and Ethiopia): Elevated
risk for Rift Valley fever and malaria illnesses resulting from elevated
mosquito vector populations, as well as increased risk for cholera due to
heavy rainfall in dry land areas and human contamination of water supply.
Note: In spite of significant protective Rift Valley fever virus antibodies in
livestock older than 3 years, infected mosquitoes may be produced in the
region and significant transmission may occur particularly in areas not af­
fected during the recent 2006–2007 epizootic/epidemic. In addition, areas
previously affected have now restocked after the recent severe drought
from 2010–2011. There also is a risk for co-infection with other mosquito-
borne diseases such as dengue, chikungunya, and o’nyong’nyong.
5. Southwest United States (New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, Utah, Texas,
and California): Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome and plague due to el­
evated rodent populations caused by heavy rainfall. In addition, elevated
potential for transmission of arboviruses, such as West Nile virus, caused
by heavy rainfall and elevated culicine mosquito populations.
6. Southern and Southeast United States, particularly along the Gulf Coast:
Elevated rainfall conditions may increase Ae. albopictus and Ae. aegypti
populations, potentially increasing the likelihood of local transmission of
FIGURE A7-10 Potential El Niño regional teleconnections with patterns of vector-borne disease, rodent-borne disease, water-borne disease,

and environment-linked respiratory illness patterns.

NOTES: CHIK = Chikungunya; CHOL = Cholera; DENG = Dengue Fever; HFRS = Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal Sundrome; HPS = Hanta­
virus Pulmonary Syndrome; MAL = Malaria; PL = Plague; RI = Respiratory Illness; RVF = Rift Valley Fever.

SOURCE: Chretien et al., 2015. Available from PLoS Currents Outbreaks under Creative Commons license.

217
218 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

dengue and chikungunya virus within existing or potential endemic areas

or following continued pathogen introduction from current outbreaks in
the Caribbean Islands and/or Central/South America.
7. Northeast Brazil: Elevated risk for dengue and respiratory illnesses due
to drought conditions and potential large-scale forest fires. Additionally,
increased risk for chikungunya introduction from the ongoing outbreak
in the Caribbean and/or Central/South America into Brazil.

As described by Anyamba et al. (2012, 2014) outbreaks of mosquito-borne

diseases on epidemic scales, such as those experienced during 2005–2011 in
Africa, the western Indian Ocean islands, and in Asia, place a huge burden on
public health care systems and the economy. Outbreaks such as those of chikun­
gunya are also an impediment to tourism, a major contributor to the gross national
product of countries and small island nation states everywhere. Given the poten­
tial implications from the developing El Niño in the winter of 2014 and spring
of 2015 it is imperative that countries in potentially impacted regions anticipate
the changing, variable, and extreme nature of the climate to prevent or minimize
the emergence and reemergence of such diseases. There is an urgent need for
public health authorities to take advantage of climate observations and analyses in
times of extreme climate variability to enhance response and mitigation planning
including: vector surveillance and control, virus surveillance, vaccination, and
public education in areas that may be impacted by disease outbreaks. In addition,
climate-based predictions offer opportunities for virologists, epidemiologists, en­
tomologists, physicians, and veterinarians to understand the biological and cyclic
nature of these diseases and how their episodic occurrence relates to livestock and
human immunity in recently infected areas, and the potential for reemergence of
the diseases in livestock and human populations.

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A8

CHANGING PARADIGMS FOR TICK-BORNE

DISEASES IN THE AMERICAS1

Christopher D. Paddock,2 Robert S. Lane,3 J. Erin

Staples,4 and Marcelo B. Labruna5

Introduction
Ticks transmit a greater diversity of viral, bacterial, and protozoan diseases
than any other arthropod vector on earth (Jongejan and Uilenberg, 2004; IOM,
2011). Through 2014, at least 27 ecologically and epidemiologically distinct tick-
borne diseases were identified in the Western Hemisphere; remarkably, nearly
half of these were discovered during the last 20 years (see Table A8-1). Against
this background of expanding pathogen recognition are also unprecedented
surges in the incidence of several tick-borne infections throughout the Americas.
During 2013, 48,821 cases of autochthonous, nationally notifiable, vector-
borne disease were reported to the United States Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) (CDC, 2014). Overall, approximately 95 percent of reported

1 The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily repre­

sent the official position of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
2 Rickettsial Zoonoses Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA.
3 Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Management, University of California, Berke­

ley, CA.
4 Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Ft. Collins, CO.
5 Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
222 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

TABLE A8-1 Tick-Borne Pathogens Affecting Humans in the Western

Hemisphere
Year Identified
as a Cause of
Tick-Borne Country or Countries
Pathogen Disease Principal Tick Vector(s) with Cases of Disease
Rickettsia rickettsii 1909 Dermacentor andersoni Canada, United States,
Dermacentor variabilis Mexico, Costa Rica,
Rhipicephalus sanguineus Panama, Colombia,
Amblyomma sculptum Brazil, Argentina
Amblyomma aureolatum
Borrelia mazzottii 1921 Carios talaje Mexico, Panama
Francisella tularensis 1924 D. variabilis Canada, United States,
D. andersoni Mexico
Amblyomma americanum
Borrelia venezuelensis 1927 Carios rudis Colombia, Venezuela
Borrelia turicatae 1930 Ornithodoros turicata United States, Mexico
Borrelia hermsii 1935 Ornithodoros hermsi Canada, United States
Borrelia parkeri 1941 Ornithodoros parkeri United States
Colorado tick fever virus 1946 D. andersoni Canada, United States
Lineage I Powassan virus 1963 Ixodes marxi Canada, United States
Ixodes cookei
Ixodes spinipalpis
Babesia microti 1970 Ixodes scapularis United States
Borrelia burgdorferi 1982 I. scapularis Canada, United States
Ixodes pacificus
Ehrlichia chaffeensis 1987 A. americanum United States
Babesia duncani 1993 Unknown United States
Anaplasma 1994 I. scapularis Canada, United States
phagocytophilum I. pacificus
Babesia divergens-like 1996 Unknown United States
organism
Rickettsia africae 1998 Amblyomma variegatum Guadeloupe
Ehrlichia ewingii 1999 A. americanum United States
Lineage II Powassan virusa 2001 I. scapularis Canada, United States
D. andersoni
Rickettsia parkeri 2004 Amblyomma maculatum United States, Uruguay,
Amblyomma triste Argentina
Amblyomma tigrinum
Rickettsia sp. 364D 2010 Dermacentor occidentalis United States
APPENDIX A 223

TABLE A8-1 Continued

Year Identified
as a Cause of
Tick-Borne Country or Countries
Pathogen Disease Principal Tick Vector(s) with Cases of Disease
Rickettsia sp. Atlantic 2010 Amblyomma ovale Brazil
rainforest A. aureolatum
Ehrlichia muris-like agent 2011 I. scapularis United States
Heartland virus 2012 A. americanum United States
Borrelia americana 2013 Unknown United States
Borrelia andersonii 2013 Unknown United States
Borrelia miyamotoi 2013 I. scapularis United States
I. pacificus
Borrelia mayonii 2014 I. scapularis United States
NOTES: In some circumstances the distribution of the pathogen in ticks extends to other countries
from which no documented cases of human disease have been reported. Dates approximate the
recognition of a specific agent and its direct association with ticks and disease in humans. In some
instances the named disease preceded discovery of the causative agent by many years. In other situa­
tions, the discovery of the agent in ticks preceded its association with human disease, or the agent was
discovered simultaneously with the disease but remained without a formal name or was misidentified

as another species before its correct designation.

a Also known as deer tick virus, this agent was first detected in Dermacentor andersoni ticks in

Colorado in 1952 (Thomas et al., 1960; Kuno et al., 2001).

SOURCES: Ricketts, 1909; Bates et al., 1921; Parker et al., 1924; Dunn, 1927; Weller and Graham,

1930; Wheeler et al., 1935; Davis et al., 1941; Florio et al., 1946; McLean et al., 1963; Western et

al., 1970; Steere et al., 1983; Maeda et al., 1987; Quick et al., 1993; Bakken et al., 1994; Herwaldt

et al., 1996; Parola et al., 1998; Buller et al., 1999; Kuno et al., 2001; Paddock et al., 2004; Shapiro

et al., 2010; Spolidorio et al., 2010; Pritt et al., 2011; McMullan et al., 2012; Gugliotta et al., 2013;

Clark et al., 2013, Clark et al., 2014; Pritt et al., 2014.

cases of vector-borne disease were associated with ticks, making these the most
medically important group of arthropods in the United States. Lyme disease alone
accounted for almost 75 percent of all reported cases of indigenously acquired
vector-borne disease. This compilation does not include many other regionally
important and occasionally life-threatening tick-borne infections such as Colo­
rado tick fever (CTF), tick-borne relapsing fever, and Heartland virus infection
that are not nationally notifiable (Forrester et al.; 2015, Yendell et al., 2015; Pas­
tula et al., 2014). In comparison, indigenously acquired mosquito- and flea-borne
diseases comprised only approximately 5 percent of the nationally reported cases
of vector-borne disease for 2013.
224 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

Since 2000, the numbers of reported cases of notifiable tick-borne diseases

in the United States have followed consistent upward trends (see Figures A8-1,
A8-2, and A8-3). During 2000–2008, the annual reported incidence of Rocky
Mountain spotted fever (RMSF) in the United States increased from 1.7 to 9.4
cases per million persons, representing the steepest rise to the highest rate ever
recorded (Openshaw et al., 2010). Likewise, from 2000 to 2007, the incidence
of infections caused by Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Ehrlichia chaffeensis
increased linearly, from 0.80 to 3.0 and 1.4 to 3.0 cases per million population,
respectively (Dahlgren et a1., 2011). Nonetheless, these figures underestimate
the true burden of tick-borne infections (IOM, 2011). Recent analyses of Lyme
disease statistics provide a salient example. Using data acquired from a survey
of 7 large commercial laboratories in the United States that performed tests
for Lyme disease during 2008, investigators identified an estimated 240,000 to
440,000 source patients for that year (Hinckley et al., 2014). Although Lyme
disease is the most commonly reported arthropod-borne infection in the United
States, fewer than 30,000 cases were reported to the CDC in 2008, suggesting
that national surveillance underestimates the annual magnitude of Lyme disease
by about a factor of 10.

FIGURE A8-1 Reported cases of spotted fever group rickettsioses (including Rocky
Mountain spotted fever, Rickettsia parkeri rickettsiosis, and 364D rickettsiosis), eh­
rlichioses (including Ehrlichia chaffeensis, Ehrlichia ewingii, and Ehrlichia muris-like
ehrlichioses), and anaplasmosis in the United States, 2000−2013.
APPENDIX A 225

FIGURE A8-2 Reported cases of Lyme disease in the United States, 2000–2013.
SOURCE: Adams et al., 2014 (CDC) (http://www.cdc.gov/lyme/stats/chartstables/reported
cases_statelocality.html).

FIGURE A8-3 Reported cases of Powassan virus disease in the United States, 2000–2013.
SOURCE: ArboNET, Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Preven­
tion (http://www.cdc.gov/powassan/statistics.html).
226 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

Similar trends in rising case counts of tick-borne diseases have been identi­
fied in other countries of the Western Hemisphere. In several states of Brazil, the
number of reported cases of Brazilian spotted fever (BSF) has risen steadily dur­
ing the last decade (see Figure A8-4; Amâncio et al., 2011; Barros e Silva et al.,
2014). Since 2004, RMSF has reemerged in many regions of Mexico, particularly
in the states of Baja California, Sonora, and Yucatan (Zavala-Castro et al., 2008;
Bustamente Moreno and Pon Méndeza, 2010a; Álvarez Hernández and Contreras
Soto, 2013). Similar trends have been recognized in Colombia (Hidalgo et al.,
2007, 2011) and Panama (Estripeaut et al., 2007; Tribaldos et al., 2011), where
RMSF reemerged more than 50 years after the sentinel outbreaks were identified
in these countries during the first half of the 20th century (Patino et al., 1937;
Rodaniche and Rodaniche, 1950).
Collectively, these observations highlight several recurring themes: (1) the
scope and magnitude of tick-borne diseases are continuously evolving and ex­
panding; (2) changes in the distribution and determinants of these diseases may
occur over relatively brief intervals of time and space; and (3) the epidemiol­
ogy of historically recognized tick-borne infections may evolve alongside the
discovery of newly characterized pathogens. The following discussion examines
the growing list of tick-borne pathogens, explores new perspectives on the patho­
genesis of these infections in humans, and briefly considers certain aspects of
the dynamic and multifaceted natural histories of these diseases in the Western
Hemisphere.

FIGURE A8-4 Reported cases of laboratory-confirmed Brazilian spotted fever in São

Paulo State, Brazil, 1985–2012.

SOURCE: Data from São Paulo State government’s Centro de Vigilância Epidemiológica

“Alexandre Vranjac” (CVE).

APPENDIX A 227

The Expanding Diversity of Tick-Borne Pathogens

Thirteen newly recognized tick-borne pathogens have been identified and
characterized in the Western Hemisphere during the last 20 years (see Table A8-1).
Perhaps more remarkable is the diversity of organisms represented by these
newly identified pathogens, including several arboviruses and various Borrelia,
Ehrlichia, and Rickettsia species, as well as the recognition that certain tick spe­
cies can transmit multiple pathogens, in some cases as many as seven. It is highly
probable that many tick-borne viruses and bacteria will be discovered throughout
the enormously broad and ecologically diverse expanse of the Western Hemi­
sphere. By example, a molecular survey of host-seeking western black-legged
ticks (Ixodes pacificus) and small mammals from a single county bordering
San Francisco Bay in California revealed an unprecedented seven Borrelia spe­
cies, including two emerging human pathogens and two species novel for North
America (Fedorova et al., 2014). Some recently identified tick-borne agents, such
as Rickettsia parkeri, Rickettsia 364D (provisionally named Rickettsia philipii),
and lineage II Powassan virus (also known as deer tick virus), represent bacteria
or viruses that were identified in ticks many decades before they were formally
recognized as human pathogens, including some that are evincing increased
disease burdens (Kuno et al., 2001; Paddock et al., 2004; Shapiro et al., 2010;
Nofchissey et al., 2013; El Khoury et al., 2013). Nonetheless, many of these
agents are new to science and medicine, and even virulent pathogens, such as
Heartland virus, continue to be identified, often by coupling classical diagnostic
methods like cell culture isolation and electron microscopy with evolving mo­
lecular technologies (McMullan et al., 2012; Goldsmith et al., 2013).
The initial recognition of a tick-borne disease agent typically lags behind its
detection in nature. Indeed, these agents characteristically afflict human popula­
tions as cryptic or misidentified infectious processes for decades or even centuries
before these are correctly characterized. RMSF was identified in a “typhus fever”
patient who died in Maryland in 1901 by testing autopsy tissues 90 years later.
This retrospective diagnosis preceded the first official description of RMSF in
the eastern United States by 30 years (Dumler, 1991). Historical accounts of a
life-threatening, typhus-like illness, afflicting 44 persons in a small settlement
in North Carolina during the summer of 1759, also document an illness clini­
cally and epidemiologically suggestive of RMSF, 140 years before the disease
was “discovered” in the western United States in 1900 (Tigertt, 1987). A febrile,
highly lethal disease locally called febre pintada (spotted fever) has been recorded
in the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais, an area where BSF is endemic (Amâncio
et al., 2011), since the beginning of the 17th century (Magalhães, 1952).
The Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, hereinafter
B. burgdorferi, is another case in point. DNA of B. burgdorferi was amplified
from archival specimens of white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) collected
in Massachusetts during the 1890s (Marshall et al., 1994) and from black-legged
ticks (Ixodes scapularis) collected on Long Island, New York during the 1940s
228 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

(Persing et al., 1990), which establishes the presence of the pathogen in vec­
tor and reservoir hosts in the northeastern United States decades before the
formal recognition of Lyme disease. Willy Burgdorfer’s epochal discovery of
this spirochete in I. scapularis ticks collected from vegetation on Shelter Island,
New York, represents one of the major biomedical breakthroughs of the 20th
century (Burgdorfer et al., 1982; Burgdorfer, 1984). Lyme disease was initially
attributed to a single bacterial species, but subsequently was found to be caused
by several closely related species forming the ever-expanding B. burgdorferi
sensu lato (s. l.) complex. Nineteen additional species have been confirmed or
proposed since B. burgdorferi was characterized and named in 1984 (Margos et
al., 2011; Rudenko et al., 2011; Ivanova et al., 2013), and more undescribed spe­
cies await characterization (Fedorova et al., 2014). Borrelia burgdorferi was the
sole member of the complex thought to infect humans in North America for 3
decades until B. bissettii-like spirochetes were detected in three residents of a ru­
ral community in north-coastal California (Girard et al., 2011), and B. americana
and B. andersonii were incriminated as human pathogens in the southeastern
United States (Clark et al., 2013). More recently, B. americana-like strains were
recovered from patients residing in the northeastern, southeastern, northwestern,
and southwestern United States (Clark et al., 2014).
Discovery of new agents has important ramifications that may change clinical
and epidemiological perceptions of previously identified tick-borne infections. In
Missouri, investigators used molecular methods to discriminate infections caused
by Ehrlichia ewingii from those caused by E. chaffeensis (Buller et al., 1999). That
finding revealed a clinically and ecologically similar illness previously obscured
because of overlapping disease manifestations and a shared tick vector. Indeed,
surveys examining the relative prevalence of Ehrlichia spp. in reservoir hosts and
Amblyomma americanum ticks in the United States suggest that E. ewingii occurs
in these species at frequencies similar to, or in some cases greater than, infection
with E. chaffeensis (Paddock and Yabsley, 2007). However, E. ewingii appears to
cause a milder illness, particularly in immunosuppressed patients. Without mo­
lecular methods, these infections would have remained submerged among those
caused by E. chaffeensis, contributing to a falsely heterogeneous description of
E. chaffeensis ehrlichiosis. Likewise, an ehrlichial species very closely related
to Ehrlichia muris (designated the E. muris-like agent) identified by molecular
methods from patients in Minnesota and Wisconsin, appears to cause most and
perhaps all of the serologically diagnosed cases of ehrlichiosis in the upper Mid­
western United States, where neither E. chaffeensis nor E. ewingii are endemic
(Pritt et al., 2011; Hoang Johnson et al., 2015). Because the E. muris-like agent
appears to cause milder disease in humans than E. chaffeensis, and is transmitted
by I. scapularis ticks rather than by A. americanum ticks (Stromdahl et al., 2014),
the clinical, epidemiological, and ecological features of these diseases are distinct
(Hoang Johnson et al., 2015).
APPENDIX A 229

Equally telling is a recent example involving arboviruses. A retrospective

evaluation of 14 patients diagnosed with Powassan encephalitis in New York
State from 2004 to 2012 yielded laboratory and epidemiological evidence indi­
cating that many of these cases were caused by lineage II (i.e., deer tick virus)
rather than lineage I (i.e., classical Powassan) virus (El Khoury et al., 2013).
The ecologies of the two lineages of Powassan virus are markedly different:
lineage I is maintained principally between Ixodes cookei ticks and ground­
hogs (Marmota momax) or Ixodes marxi and striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis),
whereas lineage II is maintained predominantly between I. scapularis and deer
mice (Peromyscus maniculatus). Because I. cookei and I. marxi ticks rarely attach
to humans, the number of Powassan cases caused by lineage I is almost certainly
lower than those caused by lineage II Powassan virus which is more readily trans­
mitted to humans by I. scapularis ticks. Furthermore, I. scapularis ticks may be
coinfected with lineage II Powassan virus, B. burgdorferi, A. phagocytophilum,
or other zoonotic agents that can confound the clinical and epidemiological fea­
tures of Powassan encephalitis caused by lineage II virus. Close examination of
three other newly recognized tick-borne diseases further illustrates the foregoing
general trends.

Rickettsia parkeri
Disease caused by R. parkeri was first described in 2004 (Paddock et al.,
2004). Unrecognized infections undoubtedly have occurred in humans for many
years before the index case, as suggested by descriptions of non-fatal cases of
RMSF associated with attachment-site ulcers from coastal areas of Virginia
and Maryland during the 1920s and 1930s. Although R. parkeri rickettsiosis
and RMSF are clinically, epidemiologically, and ecologically distinct diseases
(Paddock and Goddard, 2015; Romer et al., 2011), cases of R. parkeri rickettsio­
sis have been embedded among national surveillance data for RMSF for decades.
Accordingly, the reporting category for RMSF in the United States was modified
in 2010 to include diseases caused by R. parkeri and other spotted fever group
rickettsioses (Openshaw et al., 2010). Through 2014, cases of R. parkeri rickett­
siosis have been identified from Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland,
Mississippi, North Carolina, Texas, and Virginia. Moreover, the magnitude of
R. parkeri rickettsiosis is likely greater than currently appreciated because 8–56
percent of Amblyomma maculatum ticks, the principal vector species, are infected
with R. parkeri (Paddock and Goddard, 2015). By comparison, Rickettsia rickett­
sii, the etiologic agent of RMSF, was detected in only 1 (0.02 percent) of 5,286
Dermacentor variabilis ticks removed from humans during one U.S. study from
1997–2009 (Stromdahl et al., 2011).
During the last decade, R. parkeri was detected in at least three human-biting
Amblyomma tick species in Argentina, Brazil, Peru, and Uruguay, and more than
15 cases of R. parkeri rickettsiosis were identified in South America though 2014
230 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

(Romer et al., 2011, 2014). In Brazil, the discovery in 2010 of a second patho­
gen, closely related to R. parkeri and designated Rickettsia sp. Atlantic rainforest
(Spolidorio et al., 2010), helped solve an epidemiological conundrum created by
vastly different clinical features described for the same tick-borne disease. During
2007–2012, 734 laboratory confirmed cases of BSF were reported to the National
Disease Surveillance System in Brazil, including 180 (24.5 percent) and 324 (44
percent) from the states of Santa Catarina and São Paulo, respectively. Surpris­
ingly, no BSF-associated deaths were reported from Santa Catarina during this
period, whereas the case-fatality rate of BSF in São Paulo was approximately
41 percent (Barros e Silva et al., 2014). A careful comparison of clinical char­
acteristics of BSF patients in Santa Catarina versus São Paulo revealed marked
differences in severity, which suggests that cases designated as “BSF” in these
two states were in fact two distinct diseases (Angerami et al., 2009). Although
no significant differences were identified between the frequency of fever, rash, or
malaise, the rates of hemorrhage, severe neurological manifestations, and death
differed notably (see Table A8-2). Acarological surveys from different regions of
Santa Catarina subsequently identified Rickettsia sp. Atlantic rainforest infecting
approximately 3–9 percent of human-biting Amblyomma spp. ticks in these areas
with no evidence of R. rickettsii (Medeiros et al., 2011; Barbieri et al., 2014).

TABLE A8-2 Comparison of Selected Signs and Symptoms Reported for

Patients with Laboratory-Confirmed Brazilian Spotted Fever in the States
of São Paulo and Santa Catarina, Brazil, During 2003–2006. No Significant
Differences in the Frequency of Fever, Rash, or Malaise Were Identified;
Nonetheless, Significant Differences in Severe Manifestations and Death Were
Apparent
Sign or Symptom São Paulo (n = 126) Santa Catarina (n = 61) P value
Fever 112 (89 percent) 58 (95 percent) 0.16
Rash 44 (35 percent) 30 (49 percent) 0.06
Malaise 73 (58 percent) 35 (57 percent) 0.9
Adenopathy 5 (4 percent) 30 (49 percent) < 0.01
Petechiae 46 (36 percent) 5 (8 percent) < 0.01
Hemorrhage 33 (26 percent) 1 (2 percent)
Hypotension 30 (24 percent) 2 (3 percent) < 0.01
Coma 24 (19 percent) 0 < 0.01
Convulsion 18 (14 percent) 0 < 0.01
Death 46 (37 percent) 0 < 0.01
SOURCE: Adapted from Angerami et al., 2009.
APPENDIX A 231

These findings strongly suggest that reported cases of tick-borne spotted fever
in Santa Catarina are caused by a Rickettsia species different than the pathogen
associated with classical BSF in São Paulo.

Borrelia miyamotoi
Until PCR and sequencing techniques came into routine use during the early
1990s, B. miyamotoi had been categorized unknowingly with B. burgdorferi s. l.
for more than a decade. First described in Japan in 1995 and named in honor
of tick researcher Kenji Miyamoto, this relapsing-fever group spirochete was
isolated initially from Ixodes persulcatus ticks and the blood of a rodent (Apode­
mus argenteus) (Fukunaga et al., 1995). Borrelia miyamotoi was subsequently
detected in North America in I. scapularis ticks, and 1.9–2.5 percent of host-
seeking nymphs collected in Connecticut, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, or
Rhode Island were found to contain this Borrelia species (Scoles et al., 2001). In
Canada, B. miyamotoi was detected in 23 (0.5 percent) of 4,938 I. scapularis ticks
collected by passive surveillance in eight provinces during 2012 (Dibernardo et
al., 2014). Borrelia miyamotoi is passed transstadially and transovarially within
I. scapularis ticks, and the white-footed mouse has been incriminated as a reser­
voir host. Approximately 12 percent of all Borrelia-positive ticks detected in the
areas surveyed by Scoles et al., (2001) were infected with B. miyamotoi versus
the Lyme disease spirochete B. burgdorferi (88 percent), which indicates that
a sizable proportion of spirochete-positive ticks previously thought to contain
B. burgdorferi by microscopy were instead infected with this novel Borrelia. The
authors also posited, correctly as it turned out, that at least some of the B. burg­
dorferi infections reported earlier in wild-caught I. scapularis larvae were prob­
ably B. miyamotoi, not B. burgdorferi. The foregoing assumptions are supported
convincingly by experimental and field and laboratory evidence for I. scapularis
and other members of the medically relevant I. persulcatus group of ticks, such
as I. pacificus (Lane and Burgdorfer, 1987; Rollend et al., 2013; Padgett et al.,
2014). In the study by Lane and Burgdorfer (1987), spirochetes visualized in
tissue smears of I. pacificus F2 larval progeny, but not those present in all three
parasitic stages of the F1 generation, were reactive with a monoclonal antibody
(H5332) once deemed specific for B. burgdorferi, but now recognized to be more
broadly reactive with other borreliae.
A 13-year survey carried out in 24 of California’s 58 counties revealed that
about half of spirochete-infected I. pacificus adults assayed for borreliae were
infected with B. miyamotoi and the other half with B. burgdorferi s. l. (Padgett
et al., 2014). These results have important epidemiological implications, namely,
that a considerable percentage of adult ticks thought to be infected with B.
burgdorferi when assayed 20–30 years earlier using less specific serological
methods are likely to have been infected with B. miyamotoi, and that the risk
of human exposure to B. burgdorferi and B. miyamotoi following the bite of
232 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

an adult I. pacificus is similar (Padgett et al., 2014). Nevertheless, the risk in

California of acquiring infection with either spirochete from an adult I. pacificus
tick is very low, as less than 1 percent of 6,036 tested adult ticks were infected
with either B. burgdorferi or B. miyamotoi. By comparison, 3.2 percent of 2,188
nymphal I. pacificus were infected with B. burgdorferi versus 1.4 percent with
B. miyamotoi.
On a global scale, multiple species of Ixodes ticks and several small mam­
mals and birds are known to host B. miyamotoi in Asia, Europe, and North
America. In the United States, B. miyamotoi infects white-footed mice in the
northeastern and north-central regions (Barbour et al., 2009), and wild turkeys
(Meleagris gallopavo) in the south-central region (Scott et al., 2010); whereas,
nothing is known about its vertebrate hosts in the western United States. As is true
for so many emerging tick-borne illnesses, the full clinical spectrum produced
by different genogroups of B. miyamotoi requires clarification. What is clear,
however, is that infection with B. miyamotoi may cause much more than a mild
relapsing fever-like illness (Krause et al., 2013, 2014; Chowdri et al., 2013), as
reported recently for an elderly patient who developed meningoencephalitis fol­
lowing infection with B. miyamotoi in the northeastern United States (Gugliotta
et al., 2013).

Heartland Virus and Other Potentially Tick-Borne Arboviruses

The first human cases of Heartland virus disease were discovered when the
virus was cultured serendipitously from blood specimens of two Missouri patients
who were suspected initially to have E. chaffeensis ehrlichiosis (McMullan et al.,
2012). Although the cell cultures showed cytopathic effects, no ehrlichial morulae
were identified; subsequently, electron microscopy identified a Bunyavirus, and
next-generation sequencing further characterized this pathogen as a newly rec­
ognized Phlebovirus (see Figure A8-5A). Because Heartland virus grows slowly
in Vero cells that traditionally are used to isolate arboviruses, this virus may not
have been readily discovered if the clinical samples had been received by an
arbovirology laboratory. Prior to this discovery, no human pathogenic Phlebo­
virus was known to occur in the Western Hemisphere (Matsuno et al., 2014).
The most closely related virus, severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome
virus described from China in 2011, demonstrates only 70 percent homology
on nucleic acid sequencing (Yu et al., 2011; McMullan et al., 2012). Despite its
recent identification in 2009, and given the similar clinical features of Heartland
virus with other tick-borne bacterial or rickettsial diseases, it is likely that cases
of Heartland virus disease may have been misdiagnosed clinically as one of these
diseases in the United States for many years (Figure A8-5B). The percent nucleo­
tide divergence of Heartland virus strains from various locations in the United
States suggest that these foci had been evolving separately for quite some time
(Muehlenbachs et al., 2014). Through 2014, cases of Heartland virus disease,
APPENDIX A 233

FIGURE A8-5 A. Electron photomicrograph of Heartland virus in cell culture. B. Im­

munohistochemical staining of Heartland virus antigens (red) in the spleen of a patient

who died in 2004.

SOURCES: Images courtesy of Cynthia Goldsmith, CDC; Sherif Zaki, CDC.

including several deaths, have been identified in Georgia, Kentucky, Missouri,

Tennessee, and Oklahoma (Pastula et al., 2014; CDC unpublished data), and it is
likely that the distribution of Heartland virus in the United States will resemble
closely that of its vector, A. americanum (Savage et al., 2013).
The recent discovery of Bourbon virus, a newly recognized Thogotovirus
isolated from an ill patient in Kansas, resulted from a careful laboratory assess­
ment of a patient suspected initially to be infected with Heartland virus (Kosoy
et al., 2015). Although it is currently unknown how Bourbon virus is transmit­
ted to humans, the initial case-patient reported tick exposure and removed an
imbedded tick several days prior to the onset of illness characterized by fever,
fatigue, thrombocytopenia, and leukopenia. Despite treatment with doxycycline
and other antimicrobial agents, the patient failed to improve, developed multi-
organ failure and died 11 days after illness onset from cardiopulmonary arrest.
Testing of the patient’s specimen for Heartland virus antibodies using plaque
reduction neutralization revealed a unique virus that was subsequently identified
by next-generation sequencing and phylogenetic analysis as a member of the
genus Thogotovirus. Thogotoviruses primarily associated with hard or soft ticks
(McCauley et al., 2012), and field studies are in progress to determine if Bourbon
virus is yet another example of the expanding diversity of tick-borne pathogens.
234 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

The Expanding Clinical Spectrum of Tick-Borne Diseases

Our understanding of the pathogenesis of tick-borne diseases has become
more nuanced during the last 50 years, augmented by the identification of host
factors that place persons at risk for more severe illness, and by the recognition
that some strains of a specific pathogen may dictate specific manifestations or se­
verity. Increasing awareness of the astonishing complexity among the pathogen,
its vector, and the human host has been leveraged by transformational advances
in diagnostic techniques that accurately provide species and strain identity of the
infectious agent.

Underrecognized Manifestations of Previously Recognized Pathogens

During 2012–2013, three cases of Lyme carditis associated with sudden
cardiac deaths were identified by postmortem examinations of patients ranging in
age from 26 to 38 years (see Figure A8-6; Ray et al., 2013). Prior to this report,
only four deaths attributed to Lyme carditis had been described since the initial
characterization of the disease in the early 1980s. Indeed, fatal carditis is consid­
ered an extremely rare manifestation of Lyme disease. A retrospective evaluation

FIGURE A8-6 Borrelia burgdorferi spirochete identified by using Warthin-Starry silver

impregnation technique in heart tissue of a patient with sudden cardiac death.
SOURCE: Image courtesy of Atis Muehlenbachs, CDC.
APPENDIX A 235

of 121,894 cases of Lyme disease from seven selected high-incidence states that
occurred between 1995 and 2013 identified two suspected cases of fatal Lyme
disease carditis, representing only 0.002 percent of the total patients and 0.1 per­
cent of the 1,696 cases for whom carditis was documented (Forrester et al., 2014).
Nonetheless, the frequency of sudden death attributable to cardiac infection with
B. burgdorferi, albeit rare, may be greater than previously believed.
Before 2003, nearly all reported cases of Powassan virus disease experienced
severe neurologic illness, usually meningoencephalitis (Artsob, 1988; Gholam et
al., 1999). Since then, several cases without neurologic features have been docu­
mented (Hoang Johnson et al., 2010). In addition, an increasing number of aseptic
meningitis cases due to Powassan virus infections have been reported (Minnesota
Department of Health, 2014). These less severe clinical presentations were as­
sociated mainly with lineage II Powassan virus infections originating from the
Midwest (Neitzel et al., 2013; Hoang Johnson et al., 2010; Ebel et al., 1999;
Brackney et al., 2008). Some of these perceived differences in severity between
the two lineages might be due to increased recognition and testing in certain loca­
tions of potentially less severe disease cases (Neitzel et al., 2013; Hoang Johnson
et al., 2010; Hinten et al., 2008); whereas, ecological data suggest that there has
been a true increase in the circulation of lineage II Powassan virus over the last
30 years (Nofchissey et al., 2013).

Strain-Specific Variations Associated with Virulence and Tissue Tropism

Advanced molecular techniques have allowed strain separation of R. rickett­
sii isolates obtained from patients in North, Central, and South America. In the
United States and Mexico, two predominant genogroups have been associated
with disease in humans, while cases of RMSF in Central and South America
have been associated exclusively with a third distinct genogroup (Paddock et al.,
2014; Labruna et al., 2014). Case-fatality rates of RMSF in Costa Rica, Panama,
Colombia, Brazil, and Argentina characteristically are three to four times greater
than those observed in the United States, and an unusually virulent genogroup of
R. rickettsii may be responsible for the higher case-fatality rates in many Latin
American countries (Parola et al., 2009; Labruna et al., 2014).
In north coastal California, 13 outer-surface-protein (ospC) allelles belong­
ing to 12 genotypes of B. burgdorferi were identified among several thousand
host-seeking I. pacificus nymphs (Girard et al., 2009). Approximately 20 ospC
genotypes had been described from North America through 2008, including at
least 4 and possibly as many as 9 that are invasive for humans. The most preva­
lent genotype in northern California is a novel strain, designated H3, previously
not detected in B. burgdorferi-infected I. scapularis ticks in the northeastern
United States, or in humans anywhere. Surprisingly, strain H3 was found in 25
percent of 222 B. burgdorferi-infected nymphs collected from dense woodlands
in Mendocino County (Girard et al., 2009). The presence of this strain, and the
236 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

absence of a few other strains causing disseminated disease in people in the

northeastern United States, especially the highly invasive ospC genotypes I and
K, may represent one of several factors contributing to the low incidence of Lyme
disease in California. Intriguingly, serum specimens from 24 percent of the sub­
jects tested from a community at high risk for Lyme disease in the same county
were PCR positive for B. burgdorferi infection (Girard et al., 2011). Among 20
B. burgdorferi-infected study subjects whose spirochete DNA could be typed,
95 percent contained the highly invasive ospC genotype A even though only 11
percent of infected nymphs collected countywide harbored this strain (Girard et
al., 2009).

Co-Infections with Multiple Tick-Borne Agents

Increasing awareness that a single tick species may contain multiple and
varied pathogenic agents has leveraged medical awareness that human hosts
may be infected simultaneously by two or more pathogens following a single
tick bite or from concurrent single-pathogen tick attachments. The most widely
described examples represent co-infections transmitted by I. scapularis and in­
clude instances of Lyme disease and babesiosis, Lyme disease and human ana­
plasmosis, and Lyme disease, human anaplasmosis, and babesiosis (Krause et al.,
1996; Swanson et al., 2006; Horowitz et al., 2013). The risk for co-infection with
multiple pathogens differs by geographic location and depends to a large degree
on the prevalence of the pathogens in reservoir hosts and tick species. Nonethe­
less, the risk of exposure to multiple pathogens following a single tick bite are
not well understood, and a recent study suggests that certain co-infections may
occur at frequencies other than predicted by independent assortment of the vari­
ous pathogens. Specifically, evaluation of questing nymphal I. scapularis ticks
collected in Dutchess County, New York, during 2011–2012 revealed 83 percent
more co-infections with B. microti and B. burgdorferi than predicted by chance
alone; whereas, fewer confections with B. microti and A. phagocytophilum were
identified than predicted by chance (Hersh et al., 2014).
In the United States, the highest frequencies of co-infections in humans
have been reported from New England (Swanson et al., 2006). From one study,
75 (39 percent) of 192 patients from Massachusetts and Connecticut diagnosed
with Lyme disease, human anaplasmosis, or babesiosis during 1997–2000 were
co-infected with two or more pathogens (Krause et al., 2002). Co-infected pa­
tients are significantly more likely to present with a greater diversity of signs and
symptoms, as well as longer durations of illness, caused in part by a delay in di­
agnosis of the secondary or tertiary co-infection (Krause et al., 2002; Horowitz et
al., 2013). Co-infections also occur with Powassan virus and A. phagocytophilum
(Hoang Johnson et al., 2010), and with Heartland virus and Ehrlichia chaffeensis
(CDC, unpublished data).
APPENDIX A 237

Host Factors and Clinical Expression of Disease

African-American male patients in the United States with glucose-
6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency have a greater likelihood of expe­
riencing severe or fatal RMSF than patients with normal G6PD activity (Walker
et al., 1983a,b). Specifically, the genotype represented by G6PD A- was identi­
fied four times more often than the expected frequency in that cohort of RMSF
patients. The overall frequency of G6PD A- also is generally higher among the
at-risk population of several Latin America countries versus the United States and
may contribute to the much greater case-fatality rates associated with R. rickettsii
infections in South America. For example, the overall case-fatality rate of BSF in
Minas Gerais State during 2000 to 2008 was 40 percent (Amâncio et al., 2011),
and in São Paulo State during 2007–2012 it was 41 percent (Barros e Silva et al.,
2014). By contrast, contemporary RMSF case-fatality rates in the United States
have been less than 5 percent (Openshaw et al., 2010).
Advanced age is a risk factor for disease severity for many tick-borne infec­
tions. By example, the age-specific incidence for ehrlichiosis and anaplasmosis
show a striking age-related increase in frequency among older persons (Demma
et al., 2005b). Cholesterol dependence by the pathogenic bacteria E. chaffeensis
and A. phagocytophilum may correlate with greater disease severity in older
patients, because cholesterol levels typically rise with increasing age, and these
bacteria lack the genes necessary for the biosynthesis of lipid A (Lin and Rikihisa,
2003). Furthermore, symptoms of babesiosis are more diverse, longer lasting,
and more frequently require hospitalization in elderly patients than in younger
individuals (Krause et al., 2003). Despite children being tested for Heartland
virus, none has tested positive, and all known cases of Heartland virus disease
have occurred in adults (Pastula et al., 2014), and the few deaths attributed to
Heartland virus occurred in persons older than 60 years of age, many of whom
had co-morbid conditions (Muehlenbachs et al., 2014; CDC, unpublished data).
Although it is unclear why older adults are more likely to have more clinically
apparent or severe disease when infected with Heartland virus, this finding mir­
rors what occurs with many other viral infections, such as West Nile virus and
influenza virus (Lindsey et al., 2010; Quandelacy et al., 2014).

Recent Epidemiological and Ecological Shifts

in Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases
Tick-borne zoonoses are highly sensitive to manifold factors, often anthropo­
genic, that include microclimate, climate, host availability, habitat fragmentation,
invasive forest pathogens and land use (Levia et al., 2012; Swei et al., 2012;
Pfäffle et al., 2013; Léger et al., 2013). Changes in one or more of these variables
often create ecological ripples across landscapes that culminate in modified envi­
ronments favorable for the propagation and perpetuation of certain tick vectors.
These dynamic and cumulative processes, associated intimately with concurrent
238 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

movements of pathogens, reservoir hosts, and host species, result in the emer­
gence of tick-borne infections in human populations that reside or intrude into
regions newly colonized by the particular tick species (Ogden et al., 2013). On
a microscopic level, the perception of ticks as “crawling pins” has evolved into
a far more complex host–pathogen association, as microbiome analyses reveal a
remarkable diversity of bacteria and viruses that coexist within these arthropods
and likely affect pathogen transmission.

Epidemiological Changes Over Time and Space

During the 1970s, most cases of CTF occurred among males aged 20-39 years
(Goodpasture et al., 1978; Spruance and Bailey, 1973). More recently CTF cases
in Montana, Utah, and Wyoming from 1995–2003 occurred in a higher propor­
tion of females and people older than 50 years (Brackney et al., 2010). Changes
in care-seeking behavior, testing, or surveillance practices, or true differences in
exposures during recreational activities among persons of all ages and both sexes,
may underlie these demographic changes. Overall, the number of CTF cases has
decreased dramatically from more than 200 cases diagnosed per year in the United
States from 1970–1984 to a median of 55 cases per year from 1987–2001 and only
5 cases per year from 2002—2012 (Bowen, 1988; Marfin and Campbell, 2005;
Yendell et al., 2015). This decline may be an artifact of changes in testing and re­
porting practices. For example, Colorado historically reported the largest number
of CTF cases (Bowen, 1988; Tsai, 1991; Marfin and Campbell, 2005), and when
CTF was removed from the list of notifiable conditions in Colorado in 1997, the
number of nationally reported cases plummeted (Yendell et al., 2015).
The ecology and epidemiology of Lyme disease on the West Coast differs
markedly from that in the northeastern United States. Californians are exposed
to infected I. pacificus ticks predominantly in rural or semirural settings year-
round in less populated northern counties while they recreate or work outdoors
versus mainly peridomestic exposure in suburban areas in the Northeast (Lane et
al., 1992; Salkeld et al., 2014). Risk factors for exposure to I. pacificus nymphs
in California include spending time in forested areas having an annual growing
degree-day range of 2,600 to 3,000 (Eisen et al., 2006), and having contact with
wood by sitting atop logs, gathering firewood, or woodcutting (Lane et al., 1992,
2004). Moreover, Lyme disease is a highly focal disease in California, with more
than four-fifths of cases reported from northern counties, especially the sparsely
populated northwestern coastal region (Eisen et al., 2006). Acarological, demo­
graphic, and climatic factors contribute to the low statewide incidence (about 0.2
cases per 100,000 population) of Lyme disease. Most residents live in suburban
or urban areas in more arid southern counties where both the projected (Eisen
et al., 2006) and known acarologic risks are low (Lane et al., 2013). Although
more than 37 million residents reside in the state’s 58 counties, half of the entire
population is concentrated in Los Angeles, San Diego, Orange, Riverside, and
APPENDIX A 239

San Bernardino counties, where B. burgdorferi-infected ticks are rarely encoun­

tered and diurnal questing by I. pacificus nymphs is minimal (Lane et al., 2013).

Range Expansions of Medically Important Ticks

Many shifts in the distribution and abundance of tick species in North
America occurred during the last 50 years. Some of these observations reflect the
ebb and flow of species movement within an ancestral range that is modulated by
constant human intervention (Spielman et al., 1993; Paddock and Yabsley, 2007;
Paddock and Goddard, 2015). The rise of I. scapularis populations throughout
much of eastern North America reflects a series of anthropogenically driven
events during the mid-19th century to the present, whereby reversal of post-
Columbian deforestation, increased deer abundance, and increased development
and use of forested sites by humans resulted in a proliferation of black-legged
ticks and recognition of at least 7 I. scapularis-borne pathogens (Spielman et al.,
1985; Spielman et al., 1993; IOM, 2011; Pritt et al., 2011; Hoang Johnson et al.,
2015). Current data indicate that the expansion of geographic range of black-
legged ticks has proceeded largely through progressive and local migration events
from southern populations to proximate northern locations (Khatchikian et al.,
2015). In the mid-1980s, Ipswich, Massachusetts, represented the northernmost
distribution of I. scapularis in the northeastern United States. Within a decade,
however, this tick had spread northward to the Bar Harbor region in Maine.
Similar changes in the distribution and abundance of black-legged tick popu­
lations took place across the central and upper Midwestern United States during
the past 30 years. A significant increase in the prevalence of I. scapularis on
white-tailed deer occurred along the Wisconsin River Valley during 1981–1994
(Riehle and Paskewitz, 1996). No specimens of I. scapularis were found dur­
ing an acarological survey in the early 1990s around Chicago; whereas, estab­
lished populations were detected within 20 years throughout several northeastern
Illinois counties located adjacent to and inclusive of this large metropolitan area
(Rydzewski et al., 2012). Recent incursions of black-legged ticks also were
identified across the lower peninsula of Michigan (Hamer et al., 2010). Finally,
B. burgdorferi-infected I. scapularis ticks have spread throughout southern Can­
ada, with recent invasion events in southwestern Quebec and southern Ontario
being ascribed to long-distance dispersal by migratory birds (Ogden et al., 2013).
Acarological surveys conducted at the end of the 20th century identified
established populations of A. americanum throughout many regions of New York
State where none were noted approximately 50 years earlier (Means and White,
1997; Paddock and Yabsley, 2007). Similarly, retrospective assessment of various
state and national tick collections revealed only isolated and sporadic records of
A. americanum in Nebraska during 1944–1973. Collection records of this species
increased markedly during 1987–2011, and it now represents the second most
frequently reported tick in the state (Cortinas and Spomer, 2013). Indeed, various
240 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

data sources suggest a general northward shift in the distribution of A. america­

num throughout much of the Midwest and northeastern United States during the
last 50 years (Springer et al., 2014).
The distribution of A. maculatum was described 70 years ago as occupying
a narrow band extending 100–150 miles inland from the Gulf Coast of Texas,
across the southern states, to the Atlantic Coast of South Carolina. Since then,
collection data suggest qualitative and quantitative changes in the historically ac­
cepted range of A. maculatum, including established populations more than 250
miles inland in several states bordering the Gulf of Mexico as well as northern
expansions in many mid-Atlantic states (Nadolny et al., 2015). Established popu­
lations of A. maculatum now occur in several states where few or no records of
this species existed during the first half of the 20th century, including Arkansas,
Delaware, Kansas, Kentucky, North Carolina, Oklahoma, and Virginia, and con­
firmed cases of R. parkeri rickettsiosis have been documented in several of these
states (Paddock and Goddard, 2015).
Amblyomma variegatum, the tropical bont tick, was introduced into the
Caribbean on cattle imported from Senegal, Gambia, and Guinea to Guadeloupe
during the early 1800s, and is now established on more than 15 islands in this
region (Parola et al., 2009; Léger et al., 2013). A. variegatum is a primary vector
of Rickettsia africae, the etiologic agent of African tick-bite fever and R. africae­
infected populations of A. variegatum have been identified throughout much of
the Caribbean, including Guadeloupe, Martinique, St. Lucia, Nevis, St. Kitts,
Antigua, Dominica, Montserrat, and the U.S. Virgin Islands (Kelly et al., 2010).
In 1998, the first case of African tick-bite fever acquired in the Western Hemi­
sphere was documented in a traveler from Guadeloupe, and it is likely that many
other undocumented cases occur annually in the Caribbean (Parola et al., 1998).

Capybara and the Reemergence of Brazilian Spotted Fever

The state of São Paulo in southeastern Brazil has accounted for nearly half
of all laboratory-confirmed cases of BSF during the past 30 years (Barros e Silva
et al., 2014). Notably, the number of BSF cases has gradually increased from 3 in
1985 to 68 in 2013, with annual fatality rates always around 40 percent. Most of
these cases occurred in rural areas where capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris)
sustain large populations of the tick vector Amblyomma sculptum, a member of
the Amblyomma cajennense species complex (Nava et al., 2014). Besides its
role as a major host for A. sculptum, capybaras also serve as reservoir hosts of
R. rickettsii (Labruna, 2013). Capybaras infected with R. rickettsii can maintain
rickettsiae in their bloodstream for several days to weeks at levels sufficient to
infect noninfected ticks, thereby amplifying rickettsial infection among the tick
population (Souza et al., 2009). Because R. rickettsii is only partially maintained
through vertical transmission in A. sculptum (Soares et al., 2012), capybaras play
a major role in the ecology of R. rickettsii in BSF-endemic areas in São Paulo.
APPENDIX A 241

Indeed, the increasing number of BSF cases has been directly attributed to the
increasing expansion of capybara populations in the state of São Paulo during the
same period (Labruna, 2013).
During the last 5 decades, the state of São Paulo has gone through substan­
tial landscape transformation, in which three factors have played a major role in
the expansion of capybaras: (1) the tremendous agricultural expansion of sugar
cane, a preferred food source of capybara, that has developed over recent years
throughout Brazil as ethanol has emerged as a biofuel; (2) the creation of strict
laws prohibiting the hunting of wildlife, which protect capybaras even in urban
and semiurban areas; and (3) the elimination of natural predators of capybara
such as jaguars from these same areas (Ferraz et al., 2007; Moreira et al., 2013).
Capybara are remarkably prolific breeders, and females can birth 6 pups each
year; indeed, the density of capybara in some BSF-endemic areas of the state of
São Paulo are estimated to be 40 to 60-fold higher than the densities observed
in natural environments, such as Pantanal and Amazon (Ferraz et al., 2010).
Collectively these changes have modified capybara behavior such that large
peridomestic populations exist that enhance the likelihood of human exposure to
tick vectors of R. rickettsii.

Rhipicephalus sanguineus and the Ecology of RMSF in Western North America

For almost a century, D. variabilis and Dermacentor andersoni were con­
sidered to be the most important vectors of RMSF in the United States. Dur­
ing 2002–2004, 16 cases of Rocky Mountain spotted fever were identified in
a 6700-km2 region of rural eastern Arizona (Demma et al., 2005a). From an
epidemiological perspective, this was a highly unusual event, as only 8 cases
of RMSF had been reported from the entire state during the preceding 15 years.
An ecological assessment revealed large numbers of free-roaming dogs and
Rhipicephalus sanguineus ticks in all life stages distributed abundantly at the
case-patient households and surrounding environment (Nicholson et al., 2006).
R. rickettsii was detected in approximately 5 percent of the nonengorged ticks
and 10 percent of the engorged ticks (Eremeeva, 2012). Neither D. variabilis
nor D. andersoni were found at any of the case-acquisition sites despite repeated
acarological evaluations. Although investigators in the 1930s determined that
Rh. sanguineus was a competent experimental vector of R. rickettsii (Parker et
al., 1933), a role for this tick in the natural history of RMSF in the United States
had not been demonstrated before this outbreak. It is now recognized that the
specific ecological circumstances that perpetuated epidemic RMSF in these small
communities also exist in other areas of Arizona. During 2003–2012, more than
250 authochthonous cases of RMSF, including 19 deaths, were reported from this
state alone. During 2009–2012, the average annual incidence of RMSF in Arizona
was approximately 136 cases per 100,000 persons, more than 150 times the U.S.
national average (Drexler et al., 2014).
242 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

In-depth studies in Mexico during the 1940s identified Rh. sanguineus as

a vector for R. rickettsii during outbreaks of RMSF in several northern states
including Sonora and Sinaloa (Mariotte et al., 1944; Bustamente and Varela,
1947). In 2003, investigators in Mexicali, Mexico, determined that 60 percent
of stray and privately owned dogs in the city were infested with Rh. sanguineus
(Tinoco-Gracia et al., 2009). These findings heralded an epidemic of RMSF that
occurred in Mexicali and other areas of Baja California during 2009, resulting
in more than 1,000 confirmed and probable infections (Bustamente Moreno
and Pon Méndez, 2010a). Surveys for Rh. sanguineus identified these ticks in
all 14 districts of Mexicali, where 96 percent of the cases occurred (Sanchez et
al., 2009; Bustamente Moreno and Pon Méndez, 2010b). These outbreaks are
not necessarily generalizable to other regions of the United States or to other
countries in the Americas. However, it appears that Rh. sanguineus is a far more
important vector of RMSF than previously believed. While R. rickettsii has been
detected or isolated from Rh. sanguineus ticks at different BSF-endemic areas
of southeastern Brazil (Cunha et al., 2009; Gehrke et al., 2009; Moraes-Filho
et al., 2009; Pacheco et al., 2011), cases have not been associated with this tick
species in Brazil. Thus far, R. rickettsii-infected Rh. sanguineus ticks have been
collected only from areas where the classical vectors of R. rickettsii—A. sculptum
and Amblyomma aureolatum—were also present (Labruna, 2009).

Conclusions and Future Perspectives

The contemporary pace of tick-borne pathogen discovery has produced
a litany of newly recognized agents and may well escalate with the advent of
metagenomics. Many candidate tick-borne pathogens already have been sug­
gested based on data from animal experimentation, serologic reactivity to par­
ticular antigens, or anecdotal reports of non-characterized illnesses following
tick bites (see Table A8-3). Focused endeavors to determine viral etiologies of
tick-borne disease in the New World will undoubtedly reveal novel pathogens. In
North America, there are currently four tick-associated viral agents of disease—
Colorado tick fever virus, Heartland virus, and Powassan lineage I and II viruses.
This likely represents only a fraction of the pathogenic tick-borne arboviruses in
the Western Hemisphere. Several viruses in the Bunyaviridae and Arenaviridae
families have been detected with increasing frequency in human-biting ticks, and
it would be surprising if some of these occasionally did not infect people (Briese
et al., 2014; Pinto da Silva et al., 2005; McElroy Horne and Vanlandingham,
2014; Sayler et al., 2014). Recently, virome analyses of I. scapularis and D. vari­
abilis have uncovered multiple previously undescribed viruses, including novel
nairoviruses and phleboviruses of potential relevance for public health (Tokarz
et al., 2014b; Matsuno et al., 2014). Similar studies examining the viromes of
I. pacificus, D. occidentalis, Rh. sanguineus, A. maculatum, O. hermsi, and other
human-biting ticks in the United States will likely yield other tick-borne viruses.
APPENDIX A 243

TABLE A8-3 Candidate Tick-Borne Pathogens in the Western Hemisphere

Data to suggest
Agent Tick associate pathogenicity Reference(s)
Rickettsia canadensis Haemaphysalis Tick transmission McKiel et al., 1967
leporispalustris of agent to guinea Burgdorfer, 1968
pigs; fever in Bozeman et al., 1970
infected guinea pigs; Wenzel et al., 1986
seroconversion to R.
canadensis antigens in
febrile patients.

Rickettsia sp. Ixodes pacificus Death of infected Hughes et al., 1976

Tillamook mice.

Rickettsia sp. Dermacentor Fever in infected Philip and Hughes,

parumapertus parumapertus guinea pigs. 1953

Rickettsia Rhipicephalus Fever and death in Burgdorfer et al., 1975

rhipicephali sanguineus infected meadow
voles.

Punta Salinas virus Ornithodoros amblus Undifferentiated Clifford et al., 1980

febrile illness in
persons bitten by
O. amblus

Sixgun City virus Argas cooleyi Illness in suckling Yunker et al., 1972
mice; related viruses
cause disease in
humans.

Tacaribe virus Amblyomma Associated with a Sayler et al., 2014

americanum non-fatal infection in
a laboratory worker.

Borrelia bissettii Ixodes pacificus DNA detected in Girard et al., 2011

human serum; cause Schneider et al., 2008
of illness in Europe;
induces pathology in
mice.

Virus isolations and serological surveys from multiple species of wildlife col­
lected in California suggest that CTF virus, or a very similar virus, is widespread
across several west-central counties, far beyond the historically recognized and
relatively limited distribution of CTF in the far northeastern corner of that state
(Lane et al., 1982). Remarkably, no pathogenic viruses of humans have been
catalogued from among the 28 species of human-biting ixodid ticks in South
America (Guglielmone et al., 2006; Nava et al., 2014), where the potential for
similar discoveries is enormous.
244 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

Prospecting archival specimen banks containing blood, serum, or tissue

samples from patients for whom a recognized tick-borne disease was suspected
but unconfirmed with existing assays is expected to yield novel agents as well.
A retrospective survey of 29 patients for whom RMSF was suspected clinically
and epidemiologically identified 3 individuals who seroconverted to Ehrlichia
antigens and subsequent prospective evaluation at a hospital in eastern Georgia
where one of these patients had been treated identified 3 more individuals with
acute ehrlichiosis (Fishbein et al., 1987). In a similar manner, fatal cases of Heart­
land virus infection have been identified retrospectively from autopsy specimens
from at least 4 case-patients initially suspected to have died from ehrlichiosis
(Muehlenbachs et al., 2014; CDC, unpublished data).
Investigators throughout the 20th century commented on the diversity of
prokaryotic species that co-infected medically important ticks (Cowdry, 1925;
Steinhaus, 1942; Martin and Schmidtmann, 1998), but contemporary molecu­
lar techniques now reveal a far greater assemblage of bacterial residents than
ever imagined. The growing recognition that complex and interacting microbial
communities exist within medically important ticks, and that these interactions
may influence pathogen prevalence, heralds an important and evolving area of
research in tick-borne diseases (Clay et al., 2006). Amblyomma americanum,
a vector of E. chaffeensis and E. ewingii, contains many other bacterial taxa,
including Acidobacteriales, Bacilliales, Burkholderiales, Caulobacterales, En­
terobacteriales, Flavobacteriales, Legionellales, Pseudomonadales, Rhizobiales,
Rickettsiales, and Sphingomonadales (Clay et al., 2008; Ponnusamy et al., 2014;
Williams-Newkirk et al., 2014). Additional data indicate that the composition
of these bacterial communities are remarkably dynamic and change in response
to environmental stimuli, during acquisition of blood meals, and between vari­
ous life stages (Menchaca et al., 2013; Williams-Newkirk et al., 2014). The
complexity of tick-associated microbial communities extends beyond bacteria:
A. americanum is also a vector of Heartland virus, as well as host to another bu­
nyavirus (Lone Star virus) and a newly identified rhabdovirus (Long Island tick
rhabdovirus) (Swei et al., 2013; Tokarz et al., 2014a).
In certain situations, microbial communities appear to modulate the fre­
quency of pathogen transmission. By using an antibiotic to perturb the composi­
tion of the indigenous gut microbiota of larval I. scapularis ticks, investigators
detected qualitative alterations in the tick peritrophic membrane that significantly
reduced colonization by B. burgdorferi spirochetes (Narasimhan et al., 2014).
During a multistate survey of field-collected I. scapularis ticks, male ticks har­
boring an uncharacterized and presumably nonpathogenic Rickettsia species had
significantly lower rates of infection with B. burgdorferi than Rickettsia-free
males (Steiner et al., 2008). Also, ticks cannot simultaneously maintain more than
one Rickettsia species by vertical transmission, as demonstrated by the exclusion
of transovarial transmission of R. rickettsii by Rickettsia peacockii in D. ander­
soni (Burgdorfer et al., 1981), Rickettsia rhipicephali by Rickettsia montanensis
APPENDIX A 245

in D. variabilis (Macaluso et al., 2002), and R. rickettsii by Rickettsia bellii in

Amblyomma dubitatum (Sakai et al., 2014). This rickettsial interference phenom­
enon presumably explains the uneven distribution of RMSF cases in the Bitter­
root Valley of western Montana. Almost all patients acquire the infection from
exposures to D. andersoni ticks on the western side of the valley. It is believed
that R. peacockii, a nonpathogenic Rickettsia species infecting up to 80 percent
of D. andersoni ticks collected from the eastern side of the valley, prevents trans­
ovarial transmission of R. rickettsii. In contrast, almost all tick isolates of R. rick­
ettsii from the Bitterroot Valley have originated from its western slopes, where
only 8–16 percent of D. andersoni are infected with R. peacockii (Burgdorfer et
al., 1981). These findings could stimulate new areas of research and exploration
regarding control and prevention of certain tick-borne diseases by manipulating
the microbiome of medically important ticks using strategies similar to those
proposed for control of certain insect pests (Douglas, 2007).
Investigators who consider the complete ecological framework in which a
particular tick-borne pathogen resides are poised to make remarkable discover­
ies. Unprecedented advances have been made in genetics, biochemistry, and
molecular biology, but in many cases, these advances are applied to pursuits that
are independent of or entirely unconnected to the natural history of the disease.
In this context, many endeavors in this discipline result in highly compartmental­
ized studies that rely on elegant and sophisticated techniques, but are divorced
from the ecology of the pathogen, its vectors, and its hosts (IOM, 2008). Future
explorations in tick-borne disease research hold tremendous promise, but erosion
of expertise in many core disciplines could seriously undermine the founda­
tion upon which many past discoveries were based. During the last 50 years,
transformational advances in molecular technology have fueled the discovery
and characterization of multiple tick-borne pathogens. Ironically, the number
of scientists who pursue fundamental studies in tick taxonomy, vector–patho­
gen–host interactions, and basic transmission dynamics, has diminished con­
siderably during this same period. The identification of ticks should be founded
predominantly on morphology, and it is axiomatic that any subsequent ecologic
or epidemiologic conclusions based on an incorrect identification of the vector
species are erroneous and misleading. Unfortunately, diminishing numbers of
contemporary investigators have a solid foundation in tick taxonomy (Estrada-
Peña et al., 2013). Identification methods based on molecular data or proteome
analysis such as mass spectrometry are under development, but are not con­
sidered reference standards for tick identification, and cannot be developed or
validated without convincing morphological correlation. Emphasis in these areas
of expertise clearly needs to be maintained and fortified. Despite an increasingly
diverse catalogue of tick-borne diseases in the United States and other countries
of the Western Hemisphere, many of the resources that are necessary to properly
explore the transmission dynamics, reservoir hosts, and human epidemiologic
246 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

and clinical features for tick-borne pathogens are declining, particularly in state
health departments (Hadler et al., 2014).
A more complete understanding of the ecological and biological factors re­
sponsible for expanding distributions of tick vectors and reservoir hosts, as well
as the microbiological dynamics within ticks that modulate pathogen emergence,
is needed to develop effective strategies to mitigate the rising incidence of tick-
borne diseases in the Americas. To achieve this goal, more vector biology training
centers and programs that offer balanced curricula fostering ecological as well
as molecular and quantitative approaches are essential, as are more academic
and governmental-funded field-related job opportunities (Glaser, 2010). Also,
a more concerted effort must be made by national funding agencies to promote
and support field studies because these form the bedrock upon which successful
epidemiological interventions are based. Lastly, vector-borne disease scientists
need to become better advocates for their work, and more clearly articulate the
benefits of this research to public health and welfare (Porter, 2014).

Dedication
We are honored to dedicate this article to the memory of Dr. Willy Burgdorfer
(1925–2014), a world-class medical entomologist who not only discovered the
Lyme disease spirochete, but made many other significant discoveries about vari­
ous tick-borne agents that have a bearing on public health. He also was a very
generous and kind individual, and a highly effective mentor who willingly shared
his broad expertise about ticks and tick-borne diseases while training numerous
neophytes in the field. Several decades ago, Willy informed one of us presciently:
“There is no such thing as a clean tick.” How accurately he foretold the future
with his characteristic acumen.

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A9

EMERGING VECTOR-BORNE DISEASES IN THE UNITED

STATES: WHAT IS NEXT, AND ARE WE PREPARED?

Lyle R. Petersen, Roger S. Nasci, Charles B. Beard, and Robert F. Massung1

The emergence of West Nile virus in the United States in 1999 dramatically
illustrated the vulnerability of the United States to exotic vector-borne diseases.

1 Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

APPENDIX A 259

The sociologic, environmental, and technologic drivers of vector-borne dis­

ease emergence globally and in the United States, such as expanded travel and
trade, changing land use, human population growth, urbanization, and climate
change, are well known and many are accelerating (Kilpatrick and Randolph,
2012; Sutherst, 2004). As such, a bewildering array of vector-borne problems
has confronted the United States in recent years. New pathogens, such as the
chikungunya virus, have come from abroad (Leparc-Goffart et al., 2014). Other
endemic pathogens, such as Lyme disease, have markedly increased in incidence
and geographic distribution (Bacon et al., 2008). Still others, such as the Heart­
land and Bourbon viruses, have been newly discovered, in part, by combining
traditional microbiological methods with technological advances in genetic se­
quencing (Kosoy et al., 2015; McMullan et al., 2012). It is evident that emerging
vector-borne diseases will continue to tax our public health and medical care
systems for years to come. The question remains whether we will be prepared.

Current Situation in the United States

Arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses), bacteria, and to a much lesser extent,
parasites, are medically important vector-borne pathogens in the United States.
Ticks and mosquitoes principally vector the arboviruses; whereas, ticks vec­
tor most vector-borne bacteria and parasites. As such, this report will focus on
mosquito- and tick-borne diseases.

Arbovirus Transmission—General Aspects

The arboviruses circulate in complex transmission cycles that most often in­
volve a vertebrate host and arthropod vector. The short mosquito generation time
and time between blood meals permit rapid pathogen amplification in mosquito-
borne transmission cycles and, hence, development of large human outbreaks of
sudden onset that garner public attention. The mosquito-borne arbovirus ampli­
fication cycle is stochastic, and as such, may be subject to substantial random
variability. Furthermore, it is influenced by factors not easily measured, such
as immunity in birds, or predicted far in advance, such as weather. As a result,
prediction of mosquito-borne arboviral disease outbreaks has proven notoriously
difficult.
While many variations exist, arboviral transmission cycles can be simpli­
fied into two scenarios that influence many aspects of pathogen ecology, epide­
miology, and strategies for control (see Figure A9-1). In the first scenario (the
zoonoses), humans do not efficiently infect arthropod vectors; thus, humans do
not contribute to the maintenance of the pathogen and are considered incidental
hosts. In the United States, rodents and birds serve as the most important verte­
brate hosts, while ticks and mosquitoes are the most important arthropod vectors.
260 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A9-1 Two general patterns of mosquito-borne arboviral disease transmission.

High turnover rates in many animal reservoirs (e.g., small rodents, birds) limit
herd immunity, facilitating the long-term maintenance of the pathogen in nature.
In the second scenario (the anthroponoses), humans develop a sufficient
titer of the pathogen to efficiently infect mosquito vectors and can maintain the
pathogen without other vertebrate hosts. In the United States, the only important
arthropod vectors for this transmission pattern are Aedes aegypti and Aedes
albopictus mosquitoes. Among the two, Aedes aegypti is a superior vector as it
lives around human habitation and preferentially feeds on humans, often biting
many persons in a single blood meal. These outbreaks occur mainly in tropical
areas of the United States where Aedes aegypti mosquitoes are abundant (Ramos
et al., 2008). Outbreaks can be explosive and may continue until sufficient human
herd immunity develops.

Mosquito-Borne Arboviruses—Humans as Incidental Hosts

Mosquito-borne arboviruses have attained substantial public health impor­
tance in recent years in the United States. Among the arboviruses using humans
as incidental hosts, West Nile virus produces by far the highest human infec­
tion incidence, greatest morbidity, and highest number of deaths (Petersen and
Fischer, 2012). It was first recognized in the Western Hemisphere during an
epizootic in birds and an outbreak of encephalitis in humans in 1999 in the New
York City area (Nash et al., 2001). The presence of competent Culex mosquito
vectors and ubiquitous avian vertebrate hosts throughout the United States per­
mitted the virus’ rapid spread to the West Coast by 2004 (Petersen and Hayes,
APPENDIX A 261

2008). West Nile virus is now widely endemic; human cases have occurred in all
of the contiguous states, with Midwestern states in particular having recurring
high incidence (see Figure A9-2) (Petersen et al., 2013). Hundreds of neuroinva­
sive disease cases now occur each year; regional outbreaks in 2002, 2003, and
2012 each resulted in nearly 2,000 neuroinvasive disease cases (see Figure A9-3).
Outbreaks tend to occur during heat waves, likely because increased temperatures
shorten the extrinsic incubation period (time from infection to infectiousness)
and increase viral levels in mosquitoes, both factors conducive to amplifying
transmission (Kilpatrick et al., 2008).
Although West Nile virus outbreaks are largely unpredictable, intensive
surveillance in urban settings can indicate impending outbreaks with sufficient
lead-time to implement safe and highly effective emergency adult mosquito
control measures (Carney et al., 2008, 2011; Healy et al., 2015; Ruktanonchai et
al., 2014). Unfortunately, many communities have failed to implement adequate
mosquito-based surveillance, and even when data are available, concerns about
cost and pesticide use often delay or prohibit application of control measures
(Chung et al., 2013).
West Nile virus was shown to be a transfusion-transmitted infection in 2002
(Pealer et al., 2003). In contrast to most viral transfusion-transmitted infections

FIGURE A9-2 Average West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease incidence, by county,
1999–2014.

SOURCE: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (http://www.cdc.gov/westnile/

resources/pdfs/data/7-wnv-neuro-incidence-by-county-map_1999-2014_06042015.pdf).

262 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A9-3 West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease incidence, by year, 1999–2013,
United States.
SOURCE: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (http://www.cdc.gov/westnile/
resources/pdfs/cummulative/99_2013_neuroinvasivebyyear.pdf).

that cause risk by virtue of the chronicity of asymptomatic viremia in potential

donor populations, the extremely high population incidence of West Nile virus
infection during outbreaks produces risk despite the short duration of viremia in
humans (Petersen and Busch, 2010). Since 2003, universal blood screening by
nucleic acid amplification testing has nearly eliminated transfusion transmission
from West Nile virus (Busch et al., 2005; Stramer et al., 2005).
Other important arboviruses involving humans as incidental hosts include
the eastern equine encephalitis and La Crosse encephalitis viruses. Although
their incidence has been relatively stable, their geographic distributions have
changed in recent years. Evidence of increased eastern equine encephalitis virus
transmission has been detected in the upper Northeast, possibly due to changes
in habitat structure or climate that have influenced transmission ecology (Gibney
et al., 2011). The distribution of La Crosse encephalitis virus has expanded from
upper Midwestern states to those in the southeastern and mid-Atlantic regions for
unclear reasons. The incidence of St. Louis encephalitis virus, which caused thou­
sands of neuroinvasive disease cases in the mid-1970s (Creech, 1977), has been
quite low in recent years, possibly because West Nile virus may have displaced
St. Louis encephalitis virus in its similar ecological niche (Reisen et al., 2008).
APPENDIX A 263

Mosquito-Borne Arboviruses—Humans as Primary Hosts

Globally, the dengue and chikungunya viruses are now by far the most im­
portant arboviruses that use humans as primary vertebrate hosts. Thousands of
dengue-infected travelers return to the contiguous United States each year from
dengue endemic tropical areas (Mohammed et al., 2010), and more than 2,400
travelers returning to the contiguous United States with chikungunya virus infec­
tion were reported during the first year of its circulation in the Americas (CDC,
unpublished data). Dengue and chikungunya viruses are now significant health
concerns in many areas of the United States where competent mosquito vectors
reside and autochthonous transmission may occur.
Dengue incidence has increased several fold in the past 15 years in endemic
areas of the Western Hemisphere, which includes Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin
Islands. Nevertheless, the spread and impact of dengue in the contiguous United
States has been limited by the sporadic and limited distribution of Aedes aegypti
and likely by other sociologic factors such as the widespread use of air condition­
ing (Ramos et al., 2008). While Aedes albopictus is a competent mosquito vector
whose distribution extends throughout much of the eastern United States, recent
dengue outbreaks in the contiguous states have only occurred in the southern
states in areas with significant Aedes aegypti populations, suggesting a limited
potential for Aedes albopictus to cause outbreaks (Bouri et al., 2012). The four
dengue viruses have no known important animal reservoir.
The first autochthonous transmission of chikungunya virus in the West­
ern Hemisphere was noted on the Caribbean island of St. Martin in late 2013
(Leparc-Goffart et al., 2014). Chikungunya virus uses the same transmission
ecology as dengue (Vega-Rua et al., 2014), and the widespread distribution of
the Aedes aegypti mosquito in the region permitted the virus’ spread throughout
the Caribbean, Central America, and parts of Mexico and South America within
a year, causing more than one million recorded cases, including more than 30,000
suspect cases in Puerto Rico (Pan American Health Organization, 2014; Sharp
et al., 2014). However, despite more than 2,400 imported cases reported in the
contiguous United States in 2014, only 11 autochthonous cases were recorded, all
in south Florida (Kendrick et al., 2014). These findings suggest that chikungunya
will follow a pattern similar to that of dengue in the contiguous United States.

Tick-Borne Arboviruses
Colorado tick fever virus has historically been the most important tick-
borne arbovirus in the United States, although reported incidence has decreased
in recent years, possibly due to decreased surveillance (Yendell et al., 2015).
However, the incidence of Powassan virus has increased, with 6 to 12 cases now
reported each year across an expanding geographic range (Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, 2015). Two types of Powassan virus in the United States
are linked to human disease. The first type, often called lineage 1 Powassan virus,
264 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

is associated with Ixodes cookei or Ixodes marxi ticks, which infrequently bite
humans. Lineage 2 Powassan virus, sometimes called deer tick virus, is associ­
ated with Ixodes scapularis ticks (El Khoury et al., 2013). While it is not clear
if a true increase or enhanced recognition account for the increasing reported
Powassan virus disease incidence, other diseases associated with Ixodes scapu­
laris ticks, such as Lyme disease, human anaplasmosis, and babesiosis, have
greatly increased in incidence in recent years (see below).
The combination of traditional microbiologic methods, next generation se­
quencing, and focused surveillance efforts has resulted in identification of two
novel pathogenic tick-borne arboviruses in the last 3 years in the United States.
Heartland virus, the first pathogenic phlebovirus identified in North America,
causes a febrile illness that can be fatal (McMullan et al., 2012; Muehlenbachs
et al., 2014; Pastula et al., 2014). It is transmitted by Amblyomma americanum
ticks, which are widely distributed in much of the Midwestern, southern, and
eastern United States (Savage et al., 2013). Consequently, human cases have
been identified over a wide geographic distribution, but disease and infection
incidence remain unknown. Heartland virus is most closely related to the newly
discovered severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus (SFTS) found in
China, Korea, and Japan (Lei et al., 2015; Park et al., 2014; Saito et al., 2015).
More recently, Bourbon virus was discovered from a Kansas fatality with a
history of tick bite (Kosoy et al., 2015). Bourbon virus is a type of thogotovirus,
which belongs to the orthomyxovirus virus family. This is the first thogotovirus
identified in the Western Hemisphere. Bourbon virus is genetically similar to
tick-borne viruses found in Eastern Europe, Africa, and Asia. Human incidence
and distribution as well as the arthropod vector and vertebrate hosts of Bourbon
virus are unknown. The recent discoveries of Heartland and Bourbon viruses sug­
gest that further efforts may yield additional novel tick-borne arboviruses, some
possibly of public health significance.

Tick-Borne Bacterial Infections

The reported incidence of nearly all tick-borne bacterial infections has mark­
edly increased in recent years (see Figures A9-4 and A9-5). The distributions of
the major tick-borne diseases are geographically circumscribed by the distribu­
tions of their respective tick vectors (see Figure A9-6). Of particular concern
is the expansion and increasing frequency of Amblyomma americanum (Lone
Star tick), the vector of Ehrlichia chaffeensis and Heartland virus; and Ixodes
scapularis (blacklegged tick), the vector of a wide array of bacterial (Borrelia
burgdorferi, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Borrelia miyamotoi), viral (Powassan
virus), and parasitic (Babesia microti) pathogens.
Ixodes scapularis has a 2-year life cycle. Larvae and nymphs feed mostly on
mice and other rodents, which serve as vertebrate hosts for Borrelia burgdorferi,
the cause of Lyme disease in the United States, and Anaplasma phagocytophylum,
APPENDIX A 265

FIGURE A9-4 Incidence of ehrlichiosis and anaplasmosis (Eh/An), Rocky Mountain

spotted fever (RMSF), and babesia, 2004–2013, United States. Babesiosis became nation­
ally reportable in 2011.
SOURCE: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

FIGURE A9-5 Reported cases of Lyme disease, 1996–2013. United States.

SOURCE: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2008 (http://www.cdc.gov/lyme/

stats/graphs.html).

*National Surveillance case definition revised in 2008 to include probable cases.

266 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A9-6 Distributions of key tick-borne diseases, 2013.

NOTE: Each dot represents county of residence and does not necessarily indicate location

of exposure.

SOURCE: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014.

the etiologic agent of anaplasmosis. Adult Ixodes scapularis ticks feed and mate
on white tailed deer, whose greatly increased numbers in recent decades have
likely contributed to expanding Ixodes scapularis tick populations (Spielman et
al., 1985). At the same time, suburbanization of woodlands and other habitats
has put people in close proximity to deer and ticks. Lyme disease by far has the
highest incidence of the tick-borne diseases in the United States. Approximately
35,000 Lyme disease are reported annually (see Figure A9-5) over a widening
geographic area (see Figure A9-7). Data indicate that Lyme disease is signifi­
cantly underreported; the true incidence may be 10 times greater than the number
reported (Hinckley et al., 2014).
Unfortunately the relentless increase in diseases spread by Ixodes scapu­
laris ticks remains unchecked. Reducing deer populations has been effective in
reducing tick populations and human disease in some settings, but large-scale
controlled studies have not been done to demonstrate efficacy (Kilpatrick et al.,
2014). Four-post deer feeding stations that reduce tick populations on deer have
also been used with mixed results (Grear et al., 2014; Hoen et al., 2009). Other
host-targeted approaches include using bait boxes to apply acaricides to mice,
feed antibiotics to mice, or vaccinate mice (Gomes-Solecki et al., 2006; Piesman,
APPENDIX A 267

2006). While some of these approaches have yielded promising results in the lab­
oratory and small-scale field studies, efficacy on reducing human disease has not
yet been studied in controlled trials. Acaricides are commonly applied around the
perimeter of homes in an attempt to reduce tick abundance and human disease.
Unfortunately, a large recent placebo-controlled study showed that this approach
substantially reduced tick populations in treated areas but failed to reduce tick
exposure or tick-borne disease incidence (CDC, unpublished data). Since Bor­
relia burgdorferi is not transmitted to humans unless Ixodes scapularis has been
attached for at least 24 hours, tick checks and removing attached ticks can be an
effective preventive measure. However, the nymphal ticks are very small and eas­
ily missed. A human vaccine for Lyme disease was introduced and subsequently
taken off the market, with the manufacturer citing poor sales (Poland, 2011).
Rocky Mountain spotted fever (Rickettsia rickettsii) is a significant pathogen
in the United States, particularly because of its severe and fatal course if left un­
treated. Its incidence has increased in recent years (see Figure A9-5), but it is not

FIGURE A9-7 Cases of Lyme disease in 1996 and 2013.

NOTE: Each dot is placed in the county of residence and does not necessarily indicate

the location of exposure.

SOURCE: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (http://www.cdc.gov/lyme/stats/
index.html).
268 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

clear to what extent this increase is due to a true increase, increased recognition,
or confusion with other Rickettsial diseases. Diagnosis largely rests on serologic
tests for which cross-reactivity among the rickettsia can create diagnostic uncer­
tainty. Several tick species vector Rocky Mountain spotted fever, which account
for its wide geographic distribution. Tick control is impractical in most areas as
cases are widely dispersed geographically and temporally. One exception has
been the emergence of Rocky Mountain spotted fever on Native American reser­
vations in Arizona, where RMSF incidence exceeds that of the rest of the United
States by at least 10 times (Holman et al., 2009). Transmission in this instance
is related to brown dog ticks (Rhipicephalus sanguineous) and uncontrolled dog
populations (Nicholson et al., 2006). The lack of other tick vectors and vertebrate
hosts facilitates disease control, or even elimination, in these settings. Interven­
tions to reduce stray dogs, apply tick-control dog collars to all dogs, and apply
acaricides around homes have resulted in greater than 95 percent reductions in
tick populations (Drexler et al., 2014). The sustainability of this program and its
effect on human disease incidence has not yet been determined.
Several other tick-borne bacterial pathogens are emerging or have been
newly discovered in the United States. Ehrlichiosisis is caused by at least three
different ehrlichial species in the United States: Ehrlichia chaffeensis, Ehrlichia
ewingii, and a third Ehrlichia species provisionally called Ehrlichia muris-like
(EML) (Paddock and Yabsley, 2007; Pritt et al., 2011). The Amblyomma america­
num tick is the primary vector of both Ehrlichia chaffeensis and Ehrlichia ewingii
in the United States, and the geographic range of this tick is expanding northward
along the Atlantic coast, and in mid-Atlantic and Midwestern states (Cortinas and
Spomer, 2013; Springer et al., 2014). The incidence of ehrlichiosis is increasing
and is a growing public health concern (see Figure A9-4). The causes of this
increase are not understood. Reported fatality rates range from 1-4 percent. Ana-
plasma phagocytophylum, the cause of human anaplasmosis, has a lower fatal­
ity rate and like other pathogens spread by Ixodes scapularis, is increasing and
expanding in distribution (see Figure A9-4). Anaplasma phagocytophylum has
also been identified rarely in Ixodes pacificus ticks (Western black-legged tick).
Borrelia miyamotoi infection has been described in several patients in the
United States and has been found both in Ixodes scapularis and Ixodes pacifi­
cus ticks (Gugliotta et al., 2013; Krause et al., 2013; Padgett et al., 2014). The
incidence and clinical importance of this infection are unknown. Several new
Rickettsial infections have been discovered in recent years. Rickettsia parkerii,
vectored by Amblyomma maculatum (Gulf Coast tick), causes a systemic ill­
ness with an eschar at the site of the tick bite in coastal areas of the eastern and
southern United States (Paddock et al., 2004). Rickettsia 364D, vectored by
Dermacentor occidentalis (Pacific Coast tick), also causes a febrile illness with
an eschar at the site of the tick bite in coastal regions of Northern California
(Johnston et al., 2013).
APPENDIX A 269

Tick-Borne Parasitic Infections

While parasitic vector-borne diseases are major scourges worldwide, only
Babesia microti, the cause of babesiosis, carries significant public health impact
in the United States (Vannier and Krause, 2012). Babesiosis has only been report­
able since 2011, but as with other pathogens spread by Ixodes scapularis, data
suggest increasing incidence (see Figure A9-5). Babesiosia microti can be trans­
mitted by blood transfusion and has become a transfusion transmission concern
in endemic areas (Herwaldt et al., 2011). Babesiosis can be fatal if untreated.

What Is Next?
Three major factors alone or in combination are likely to drive future vector-
borne disease trends in the United States: (1) importation of exotic pathogens and
vectors, (2) evolving epidemiology and ecology of recognized pathogens cur­
rently endemic to the United States, and (3) discovery of new pathogens already
endemic to the United States.

Importation of Novel Pathogens and Vectors

Increasing travel and trade undoubtedly will introduce new vectors and
pathogens to the United States. The introduction of West Nile virus to the New
York City area in 1999 was not predicted. Similarly, accurate prediction of the
arrival of new pathogens will be a formidable challenge. However, monitoring
global trends in vector-borne disease distribution will be of benefit, as dem­
onstrated by the observation that the global expansion of chikungunya would
likely result in the virus’ introduction into the Western Hemisphere. This allowed
health agencies in the region to establish laboratory and other response capacity
beforehand. Nevertheless, nobody could have predicted that it would first take
hold on the tiny island of Saint Martin, particularly by an Asian genotype virus
likely originating from Southeast Asia or the Western Pacific. Based on India hav­
ing been the primary source of traveler-related chikungunya cases before 2014
(Lindsey et al., 2015), most had expected that the East-Central-South African
genotype virus circulating in India would be introduced to the Americas.
The epidemiology and public health significance of newly imported exotic
pathogens may be very difficult to predict. For example, the epidemiology of
West Nile virus could not have been ascertained at the time of its introduction and
only became apparent after more than a decade of observation. Similarly, while it
was expected that chikungunya would produce large outbreaks in the Americas,
it remains unknown whether the virus will become permanently established in
the Western Hemisphere and how long outbreaks will persist and to what extent
they will affect the United States.
In addition to exotic viruses, mosquito species not endemic to the United
States have been introduced and established populations across the country,
270 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

adding new potential vectors to the ecosystems. This trend was first noted over
200 years ago with the introduction of Aedes aegypti from Africa, and its sub­
sequent widespread establishment and transmission of yellow fever and dengue
viruses throughout the Western Hemisphere. Aedes albopictus, the Asian tiger
mosquito, has received the most attention because of its peridomestic habitats,
human biting tendencies, and competence to transmit several arboviruses found
in the United States (Benedict et al., 2007). However, there are other recently
introduced mosquito species expanding in different areas of the United States,
including two species introduced from Asia (Aedes japonicus, Aedes togoi), one
from the Caribbean (Aedes bahamensis), and one from Australia (Aedes noto­
scriptus) (Belton and Belton, 1990; Kaufman and Fonseca, 2014; O’Meara et
al., 1989).

Evolving Epidemiology of Pathogens Endemic to the United States

Of the arboviruses endemic to the contiguous United States, West Nile virus
will likely remain of paramount importance as continued unpredictable focal and
regional outbreaks. The St. Louis encephalitis virus caused large outbreaks in the
Midwest in the mid-1970s for reasons that still defy explanation and thus is of
potential concern despite its decreasing incidence in recent years. It is unknown
whether the shifting geographic distributions of the La Crosse encephalitis and
eastern equine encephalitis viruses will continue, or if the epidemiology of
Powassan virus will change as a result of its apparently new association with
Ixodes scapularis.
For tropical areas of the United States, such as Puerto Rico and the U.S.
Virgin Islands, the trend toward larger dengue outbreaks will likely continue as
it has in the Caribbean and Latin America in recent years. Accordingly, more
traveler-associated cases can be expected, with the potential to cause outbreaks
in areas of the contiguous United States with Aedes aegypti populations. The
distribution of Aedes aegypti is expanding in certain areas, such as in California,
placing new areas at risk (Gloria-Soria et al., 2014).
As discussed earlier, the expanding geographic distribution and increas­
ing prevalence of Ixodes scapularis ticks will likely continue unabated. Thus,
increasing incidence of the diseases they carry—Lyme disease, anaplasmosis,
Powassan virus, babesiosis, and Borrelia miyamotoi infection—is expected. The
eventual extent of this geographic expansion and disease incidence are unknown
but could dwarf the current reality. One important consideration is that unlike
the Midwestern, Mid-Atlantic, and Northeastern states, the reported incidences
of Lyme disease and anaplasmosis in the Western coastal states are not increas­
ing, presumably because of differences in the ecology of its western tick vector,
Ixodes pacificus, compared to Ixodes scapularis ticks found in other disease
endemic areas.
APPENDIX A 271

For Rocky Mountain spotted fever, it is difficult to determine eventual trends

as the root causes of recent increases in incidence remain unknown. The one
exception is that successful control efforts could abate the increasing incidence
of Rocky Mountain spotted fever on Native American reservations in Arizona if
they are maintained and expanded.

Newly Discovered Endemic Pathogens

The discovery of an unprecedented number of tick-borne pathogens in recent
years has resulted from dedicated efforts of astute clinicians, microbiologists, and
entomologists. These efforts have been supplemented by advances in nucleic acid
sequencing that allow for the rapid and efficient identification and characteriza­
tion of new agents. Nevertheless, decades of inattention have led to identification
of few novel arboviruses compared to nonvector-borne viruses (Rosenberg, 2015;
Rosenberg et al., 2013), suggesting that renewed efforts at identification of previ­
ously unidentified vector-borne pathogens could be quite fruitful.
Some novel or previously unrecognized pathogens may have considerable
public health significance. The high prevalence of antibodies to Heartland virus
in multiple animal species over a broad geographic area in endemic regions for
Amblyomma americanum, an aggressive human biting tick, suggests substantial
potential for human exposure (Bosco-Lauth et al., 2015). The vectors, animal
hosts, human incidence, and disease spectrum of the newly recognized Bourbon
virus are unknown.
In addition, genetic mutations in domestic or exotic vector-borne pathogens
may alter vector competence, host range, or pathogenicity. For example, genetic
changes in the West Nile virus have affected avian mortality and augmented
temperature-dependent changes in viral replication in vector mosquitoes (Brault
et al., 2007; Kilpatrick et al., 2008), while genetic changes in the chikungunya vi­
rus increased the fitness of Aedes albopictus as a vector (Tsetsarkin et al., 2007).

Are We Prepared?
Considerable investments by the U.S. government for vector-borne disease
surveillance and research following the introduction of West Nile virus in 1999
led to substantial short-term improvements in surveillance; our understanding
of the epidemiology, ecology, microbiology, and pathogenesis of vector-borne
disease; and diagnosis and recognition of endemic and novel agents. However,
if we are to detect and respond to new and exotic pathogens and to reverse the
increasing incidence trends of endemic vector-borne diseases, existing capacities
must be strengthened and new capacities must be developed (see Table A9-1).
272 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

TABLE A9-1 Capacities and Needs Required to Prepare for and Respond to
Vector-Borne Diseases in the United States
Capacities Current needs
Surveillance • Enhance ArboNET surveillance capacity to address
new and emerging mosquito- and tick-borne threats
to states.
• Enhance TickNET surveillance and response
system to increase focus on new and emerging tick-
borne diseases; develop new methods to address
the overwhelming number of Lyme disease cases.
Diagnosis and pathogen recognition • Develop new methods for serologic confirmation
of arboviral diseases and for markers predictive of
severe disease.
• Develop sensitive and specific methods for early
diagnosis of bacterial diseases, such as Lyme
disease and the rickettsioses.
• Develop and adopt simpler algorithms for Lyme
disease diagnosis.
• Continue adoption of advanced molecular detection
technologies in reference laboratories; additional
dedicated surveillance efforts needed to determine
public health impact of newly discovered
pathogens.
Research and research capacity • Increased understanding of environmental
influences on transmission, pathogen–host
interactions, and the microbiologic underpinnings
of transmission and virulence are needed for
development of effective prevention technologies.
• Promote increased collaboration among modelers,
ecologists, and epidemiologists to develop
improved predictive tools.
• Enhance collaboration with academic research and
training programs, and provide additional research
funding to support field-based entomology and
ecology activities and address critical research
needs.
Prevention: Vector control • Develop strategies to improve implementation of
vector and other control measures, particularly in
urban areas that have experienced West Nile virus
outbreaks.
APPENDIX A 273

TABLE A9-1 Continued

Capacities Current needs
• Greatly expand current efforts to develop effective
and scalable pesticide- and nonpesticide-based
vector control methods for Ixodes scapularis and
Aedes aegypti. Evaluate effectiveness based on
human outcomes.
• Develop public health pesticides with new modes
of action and improved delivery systems, as well
as cost-effective paradigms for bringing them to
market.
• Evaluate the disease reduction impact of integrated
control programs.
• Support basic research leading to the development
of novel vector control paradigms.
Prevention: Vaccine development and • Develop cost-effective and practical pathways for
licensure bringing new vector-borne disease vaccines to
market.
• Develop a next-generation Lyme disease vaccine.
• Evaluate the cost-benefit of a West Nile virus
vaccine.
Prevention: Other modalities • Develop new repellent active ingredients and
formulations that may increase repellent use and
provide long lasting protection.
• Enhance programs at state and local levels to
increase public awareness of vector-borne disease,
with the goal of increasing use of personal
protective measures, such as repellents and tick
checks.
• Develop cost-effective and environmentally safe
pathogen reduction technologies for blood donation
processing that reduce risk of vector-borne
pathogens such as dengue, babesia, chikungunya,
ehrlichiosis, and anaplasmosis.
Therapeutics • Develop cost-effective and practical pathways for
bringing new vector-borne disease therapeutics to
market.
• Educate the public and health care providers about
the lack of evidence between doxycycline use and
dental staining.
• Identify better markers of impending dengue
hemorrhagic fever, leading to improved clinical
management of severe dengue.
• Define optimal therapy for persistent symptoms of
chikungunya virus.
274 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

Surveillance
Surveillance is a foundational capacity required to determine trends in cur­
rently endemic, newly emerging, and exotic pathogens. As surveillance may
require human, animal, and vector components, considerable technical expertise
is required at national, state, and local levels, a capacity that may take years to
develop. Two national surveillance systems monitor vector-borne diseases in the
contiguous United States.
The ArboNET surveillance system, developed in 2000 to track the spread of
West Nile virus across the United States, is the only surveillance system in the
world that tracks human arboviral disease cases as well as environmental indica­
tors of arbovirus transmission activity, such as arbovirus infection in mosquito
vectors, avian amplifier hosts, veterinary cases, and vectors in real time. It has
expanded in scope, now tracking 14 arboviral diseases. However, capacities re­
lated to the conduct of entomologic surveillance required for early detection of
impending West Nile virus outbreaks, and for comprehensive arbovirus diagnos­
tic testing at state health department laboratories have diminished (Hadler et al.,
2014). Retaining capacities at state and local levels is important, particularly in
high population centers where control efforts could substantially reduce human
morbidity and mortality from West Nile virus.
The TickNET surveillance and prevention effectiveness program is small in
scope relative to the large and growing burden of tick-borne diseases. The sheer
number of Lyme disease cases and the difficulties in verifying them present a
formidable challenge to health departments in highly endemic areas, producing
considerable undercounting and surveillance artifact. New surveillance para­
digms based on a sampling approach rather than attempting to capture and verify
every case need to be considered. In addition, expansion of TickNET surveillance
activities to allow added emphasis on other emerging and newly discovered tick-
borne diseases will permit improved understanding of their epidemiology and
their public health impact.

Diagnosis and Pathogen Recognition

For the arboviral diseases, widespread development of nucleic acid detec­
tion testing capacities has greatly improved diagnostic sensitivity and specificity
for dengue and chikungunya, particularly during early disease when diagnosis is
most clinically relevant. Nucleic acid detection tests have also been adapted to
the identification of West Nile virus in mosquitoes and birds, making monitoring
of these indicators of impending human risk more readily available. Nevertheless,
serologic tests remain an important component of arboviral diagnosis because hu­
man diagnostic samples are often obtained after detectable viremia has subsided.
The plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) is the most specific serologic
test and thus remains the gold-standard serologic confirmatory method. How­
ever, the PRNT is performed mostly in reference laboratories as it is technically
APPENDIX A 275

demanding, involves culture of live virus, and is slow and time consuming. An
alternative to the PRNT would be of great benefit, although none has yet been
identified.
The diagnosis of bacterial vector-borne diseases, particularly during early
disease, remains problematic. Lyme disease diagnostics are complicated by the
low sensitivity of serology-based diagnostic tests during early Lyme disease and
diagnosis often relies on recognition of the erythema migrans rash, which may
not occur, can be atypical, and can mimic the rashes of other diseases, such as the
southern tick associated rash illness (STARI). Established serologic diagnostic
algorithms currently use the Western blot test as the second tier in a 2-tier algo­
rithm. Western blot results are interpreted according to the presence of a certain
number of specific bands; however, difficulties in identifying the bands have led
to considerable confusion, uncertainty, and misinterpretation of results. Other
promising serologic diagnostic algorithms not involving the Western blot need
to be fully evaluated and adopted as a standard. Ultimately, creation of sensitive
and specific diagnostic tests for all stages of disease that don’t rely on serology
would be of considerable benefit.
Early recognition and treatment dramatically reduces disease morbidity and
mortality from Rocky Mountain spotted fever; however, initial symptoms are
nonspecific and serologic tests of acute- and convalescent-phase sera are often
required for definitive diagnosis. Thus, laboratory confirmation of infection is too
late to be clinically useful, and serologic cross-reactivity with other Rickettsia
may prohibit definitive diagnosis. Development of sensitive nucleic acid or other
early detection tests are urgently needed. While ehrlichiosis and anaplasmosis
have lower mortality than Rocky Mountain spotted fever, diagnosis of early
disease often relies on serologic methods that have limited use in the acute care
setting.
Next generation nucleic acid sequencing undoubtedly will continue to be
developed as a tool to identify new vector-borne pathogens, particularly when
combined with a concerted effort to establish surveillance and research protocols
to identify patients with illnesses of unknown etiology following potential vector
exposure. Reference laboratories need to be equipped with these new technolo­
gies and associated data management and analytic capabilities. When new human
pathogens are discovered, epidemiologic investigation and fieldwork are required
to identify potential vectors, enzootic transmission cycles, clinical spectrum, and
incidence and geographic distribution of disease.

Research and Research Capacity

Improved surveillance combined with field- and laboratory-based research
has improved our understanding of environmental influences on vector-borne
disease transmission, pathogen-host interactions, and microbiologic basis of
transmission and virulence. While a detailed discussion of research needs is
276 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

beyond the scope of this report, this research base provides the underpinnings
for the development of all prevention measures. However, research in these areas
has decreased, particularly for ecological- and field-based investigations, and
as a result, academic programs have diminished, particularly those specializing
in medical entomology, the vector component of vector-borne disease. A new
pipeline of investigators capable of bridging the gap between laboratory and field
research will ensure continued development and evaluation of new intervention
methods. This will require partnerships with academic research institutions to
address staffing and other critical research areas.
The difficulties in predicting vector-borne disease have resulted in new
modeling efforts. Additional expertise and collaborations of modelers with epi­
demiologists, ecologists, and other subject matter experts have resulted in more
realistic and robust models of vector-borne disease transmission and improved
estimates of disease burden. The eventual usefulness of vector-borne disease
modeling and need for further development in this arena requires an improved
understanding of transmission ecology and epidemiology, and will be predicated
on the demonstrated benefit of these models on public health practice and policy.

Prevention: Vector Control

Unfortunately, our capacities to control vector-borne diseases through vector
control measures remain quite limited, and when effective prevention methods
do exist, they are often inadequately employed. For example, as previously men­
tioned, surveillance indicators reflecting infection rates in mosquito vectors can
predict West Nile outbreaks with sufficient lead time to mobilize safe and effec­
tive control measures in urban areas, yet inadequate surveillance effort, public
concerns about pesticides, lack of local control capacity, or inability to mobilize
funds quickly often delay or prohibit implementation of control measures when
and where they would be most effective. Greater understanding of these barriers
may promote development of measures to mitigate them, particularly in large
metropolitan areas where West Nile virus prevention and control efforts would
have the biggest impact.
Much of the mosquito control capacity in the United States is developed and
funded at local levels for reducing the impact of mosquitoes on quality of life,
with vector control capacity benefitting the community as a result of this support.
Rather than trying to increase vector control capacity across the board, which
seems unrealistic in communities without the need or desire to support nuisance
mosquito control, a robust surveillance program, coupled with a rapidly deploy­
able national or regional emergency response capacity should be developed to
address the often focal and sporadic West Nile virus outbreaks. This would not
only benefit West Nile virus control, but could be used to address other new or
emerging mosquito-borne diseases, or situations that develop following natural
disasters such as hurricanes and floods.
APPENDIX A 277

Highly effective, scalable, and cost-effective tick or mosquito control meth­

ods proven to reduce human illness for most vector-borne pathogens in contem­
porary settings do not exist. Given the substantial public health impact of the
diseases they vector, surprisingly few resources are devoted to developing and
field-testing new pesticide- or nonpesticide-based control measures. Neverthe­
less, several novel alternatives to pesticide-based approaches or novel pesticide
delivery systems for mosquito and tick control have been developed. For Ixodes
scapularis, several products that do not contain synthetic pesticides, such as
entomopathogenic fungi, nootkatone, and reservoir-targeted vaccines have been
developed and are being evaluated and novel pesticide delivery systems have
been developed and some are in use, such as bait boxes and 4-posters designed to
apply pesticides to the vertebrate hosts of ticks. For Aedes aegypti, lethal ovitraps,
insect growth regulator auto-dissemination devices, and release of Wolbachia­
infected or genetically-modified mosquitoes that produce non-viable offspring are
among approaches currently under development. Extended release tick control
collars are a promising approach for Rocky Mountain spotted fever in locations
where dogs are the primary reservoir.
Nevertheless, it is yet to be determined if any of these approaches will be
sufficiently scalable and effective in reducing human disease to impact the up­
ward trend in vector-borne disease over the long run. Entomologic and ecologic
field research and randomized trials with human disease outcomes are needed;
however, this research takes considerable time to complete since vector activity
follows annual cycles. At the current pace, decades may pass before effective
entomologic control measures are developed and proven effective in reducing
human illness on a large scale. As explained above, the human resources required
to conduct this research are diminishing.
An Institute of Medicine Report from 2003 warned of the diminishing supply
of public health pesticides for vector control resulting from the considerable costs
of registration and reregistration relative to the limited size of the public health
market (IOM, 2003). The situation has not improved and the cost of develop­
ing and registering novel active ingredients or formulations, or for repurposing
products developed for agriculture to public health uses remains extraordinarily
high. Introduction of new classes of pesticides with unique modes of action and
new formulations to improve delivery characteristics is essential to overcome
resistance to extant pesticides and to provide the options required for successful
integrated vector management programs. New programs to support research and
development and streamlined pathways to registration would greatly enhance
options for vector management.

Prevention: Vaccines
Given the difficulties with developing, implementing, and sustaining en­
tomologic control measures, creation of human vaccines for the most common
278 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

vector-borne diseases is an attractive avenue of pursuit. While yellow fever and

Japanese encephalitis vaccines have long been effective and cost-efficient preven­
tion modalities for residents of or travelers to endemic areas, no human vaccines
are available for vector-borne diseases endemic to the United States. Dengue vac­
cines are the furthest along in development, with one having completed phase-3
trials (Capeding et al., 2014; Villar et al., 2015). This vaccine would likely be
of considerable public health benefit despite its incomplete protection to all four
dengue serotypes. Other dengue vaccines in late-stage development might confer
better protection, but are years away from becoming commercially available.
Because dengue is only endemic in tropical areas of the United States, such as
Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, manufacturers may not put priority on
vaccine pursuing licensure in the United States. Nevertheless, given the difficul­
ties with Aedes aegypti control and substantial dengue public health impact in
Puerto Rico, preparations for the introduction of a vaccine in Puerto Rico should
continue, including the development of appropriate surveillance tools so that
vaccine effectiveness and impact can be assessed.
Licensed West Nile virus equine vaccines have dramatically reduced equine
neuroinvasive disease incidence in the United States (Gardner et al., 2007).
While human vaccines have been developed and have undergone successful
phase-2 clinical trials (De Filette et al., 2012), phase-3 trials have not been at­
tempted because of uncertain market potential for a West Nile virus vaccine and
the considerable logistical difficulties in conducting a phase-3 efficacy trial for
a sporadic and geographically dispersed disease that largely occurs in rural and
suburban settings. Defining the public health cost-benefit for a West Nile vaccine
will help determine future market potential and a clear and cost-efficient pathway
to licensure must be identified.
The difficulties with Ixodes scapularis control and extremely high Lyme
disease incidence warrant accelerated development and licensure of a safe and
effective next-generation human Lyme disease vaccine that requires fewer in­
oculations and with long-lasting efficacy (Shen et al., 2011). Unfortunately,
controversies surrounding the previous Lyme disease vaccine have undoubtedly
reduced manufacturer interest in further vaccine development (Poland, 2011).

Prevention: Other Modalities

Insect repellents, though demonstrated to effectively reduce human–vector
contact, are often infrequently used, even during well-publicized outbreaks.
Development of new repellent active ingredients as well as improvements in
repellent formulation, such as repellent-containing soaps and spatial repellents
that are effective both indoors and outdoors, may improve repellent use and might
provide additional protection. Also, investigations to determine to what degree
repellents must be used to provide public health benefit should be conducted.
Expanded programs to increase public awareness of vector-borne disease, with
APPENDIX A 279

the goal of increasing use of personal protective measures, could increase the
appropriate use of personal protective measures.
Universal viral nucleic acid screening of blood doors has nearly eliminated
the threat of transfusion-associated West Nile virus infection. Nevertheless, this
screening is costly and does not cover other vector-borne agents of proven or
theoretical transfusion-transmission risk, such as babesiosis. Development of
effective and practical pathogen reduction techniques for all blood components
would obviate the need to screen for multiple pathogens and would help pre­
vent transfusion transmission of newly emerging vector-borne disease pathogens
(Petersen and Busch, 2010). For example, pathogen reduction technology was
implemented for platelet screening in French overseas territories experiencing
chikungunya outbreaks (Petersen and Epstein, 2014).

Therapeutics
Several potential therapeutics for West Nile virus have been developed;
however, as with vaccine development, its sporadic and dispersed epidemiology
has precluded evaluation of clinical efficacy (Jester et al., 2006). Thus, no clini­
cal trials for treatment of West Nile virus are currently underway. A clear and
cost-efficient pathway to licensure is required before further late-stage clinical
development will commence. This is a universal problem for all emerging infec­
tious diseases of this kind; solving it would be broadly useful.
Doxycycline is the preferred treatment for Rocky Mountain spotted fever,
other rickettsiosis, and Lyme disease; however, concerns about dental staining
stemming from the experience with early tetracycline formulations still lead to
warnings against its use in children. Evidence suggests that modern doxycycline
formulations do not cause dental staining. It is important to educate the public
and health care providers about the lack of evidence between doxycycline use
and dental staining in both children and adults.
Recognition of impending dengue hemorrhagic fever and close monitoring
of fluid and electrolytes markedly reduce morbidity and mortality. Continued ef­
forts to promote effective practice guidelines are needed. In addition, inexpensive
and rapid tests that indicate impending dengue hemorrhagic fever would be of
considerable clinical benefit.
Chikungunya virus carries considerable morbidity, and therapeutic options
for pain management and for reduction of several arthritic sequelae have not been
fully evaluated in controlled clinical trials. Given that chikungunya is likely to be
epidemic for years to come, controlled clinical trials are needed.

Concluding Remarks
The United States is faced with an unprecedented array of imported vector-
borne disease pathogens, substantial increases in endemic vector-borne diseases
280 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

of major public health importance, and newly discovered endemic vector-borne

diseases of yet to be determined public health significance. The etiologies un­
derlying these trends are likely accelerating. Following the importation of West
Nile virus into the United States, capacities to address emerging vector-borne
disease threats, particularly the development of arboviral disease surveillance
systems, were greatly augmented. Nevertheless, capacities on nearly all fronts—
surveillance, basic and applied research, and prevention—have eroded in recent
years, at a time when the need has never been greater. Ramping up effective
control programs, such as those for West Nile virus, and developing and iden­
tifying new scalable methodologies proven effective on reducing human illness
from diseases spread by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes and Ixodes scapularis ticks
are needed. The development of innovative, cost-effective paradigms for bring­
ing new public health pesticides, vaccines, and therapeutics to market is a pre­
requisite for spurring their development and bringing them to market. Without
significant advances on all these fronts, the gap between the increasing impact of
vector-borne diseases in the United States and our capacity to effectively respond
to them will become ever larger.

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A10

ARBOVIRUS EVOLUTION, VECTOR COMPETENCE, AND

VIRULENCE MODELS—CHANGING PATTERNS OF INFECTION

Corey W. Hecksel and Rebecca Rico-Hesse1

Abstract
Viruses that are transmitted by arthropods, especially mosquitoes, have
emerged very recently as major causes of public health concern: dengue and chi­
kungunya viruses are transmitted by some of the most common mosquito vectors
that cohabit with and bite humans, and new virus variants are being transmitted
at increased rates throughout the world. Not only are these viruses spreading,
along with humans that travel and infect other mosquitoes, but the most virulent
variants are being naturally selected for and causing increased disease severity.
Here we summarize the approaches used to measure these evolving arbovirus
characteristics, what we might expect in the near future, and what we are doing
to try to understand the mechanisms of their evolution and transmission, in order
to design effective control measures and provide accurate input for mathematical
models of disease dynamics.

Introduction
In the context of this workshop, it is important to discuss how mosquito-
viruses have been evolving, so that we might find some patterns to guide our
expectations of any type of emergence. Here we discuss what is currently known
about two of the most important arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses), dengue

1 Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston,

Texas, USA.
286 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

(DENV) and chikungunya (CHIKV), which are continuing to spread globally,

and being introduced to new populations (both mosquitoes and humans) that are
susceptible and are clinically inexperienced with the diseases these viruses cause.
Although these viruses belong to different virus genera (Flavivirus and Alpha-
virus, respectively) and contain different genes and have different structures, they
are both transmitted by bite, by the same two mosquito species, Aedes aegypti
and Aedes albopictus (females only, as they require blood for egg development),
forming mosquito–human–mosquito cycles of virus amplification and transmis­
sion. Both viruses contain single-stranded RNA genomes that are normally prone
to higher rates of mutation than DNA viruses; however, these viruses evolve at
lower rates than other RNA-containing viruses, presumably because they are
constrained in maintaining their ability to replicate in humans and mosquitoes,
with differing host cell receptors, cell biology, and mechanisms of immunity.
These two arboviruses produce large numbers of virus particles in the hu­
man host’s blood (viremia) after infection by mosquito bite (via saliva) and are
therefore infectious to other biting vectors, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and flies.
However, these two viruses are capable of replicating and spreading throughout
the bodies and salivary glands of only the two above-mentioned Aedes mosqui­
toes, without causing mortality; thus, these mosquitoes are serving as exponential
biological amplifiers for the viruses. Therefore, when we study the evolution of
these viruses, we must evaluate how they replicate, disseminate, and are transmit­
ted via saliva by mosquitoes; this is referred to as vector competence. In contrast,
for human hosts, we need to determine rates of infection and replication, or
pathogenesis and virulence in individuals with differing immune status, genetic
predispositions to viral infections, and possibly other underlying diseases. Thus,
for detecting differences between evolving viruses in humans, we require systems
in which to measure virulence, or the effects of viral replication and the damage
this causes in different human cells (tropism), leading to overall pathogenesis
and differing degrees of disease; these factors would also have an impact on
how often the human viremic host could infect other vectors. And, unfortunately
for us, no other animal responds to DENV or CHIKV like humans, so we have
no straightforward models in which to study replication, immunity, and clinical
presentations.
To test these principles of arbovirus evolution and the ultimate effects on
disease emergence, we need to measure evolutionary pressures and effects in
all three organisms (virus, mosquito, and humans), requiring us to rely on very
diverse assay systems: for the viruses, we study their genetic changes via nucleo­
tide sequencing, by generating phylogenetic trees, and by generating structures,
with reflected protein changes that might change tropism or escape immunity; for
humans, we study epidemiological links to specific virus antigenic (serotypes)
or genetic variants (genotypes), how the viruses behave in primary human cell
culture, or in new, complex animal models of disease and virulence; and for
mosquitoes, we can work with field-collected or colonized mosquitoes, which are
APPENDIX A 287

bred in the laboratory under controlled environments. Because of the complexity

of these systems, it is important to note that the outcomes of these measurements
and comparisons should always be done in systems that mimic the natural cycles
of virus transmission; otherwise, these studies could lead to incorrect conclusions.
These studies are necessary to determine if vaccination and treatment strategies,
for which there are none currently licensed, can be directed at the most virulent
virus variants that cause the majority of the disease outbreaks. This information
can also help to strategize disease control approaches, which are even more criti­
cal when dealing with mosquito vectors that cannot be eradicated. The impor­
tance of these studies is also highlighted by the fact that these data are needed to
derive any of the mathematical models of disease dynamics also discussed in this
workshop, which depend on accuracy of input for realistic prediction outcomes.

Dengue Viruses

Disease Characteristics and Viral Genetic Variability

Currently, dengue viruses are the most prevalent of all the arboviruses, caus­
ing an estimated 400 million human infections per year, in over 100 countries
worldwide; however, these infections produce clinical disease, dengue fever
(DF), in only around 10–15 percent of those infected (attack rate) (for reviews
see Bhatt et al., 2013; Guzman et al., 2010). The most recent incursion of new
virus variants into the Americas, during the 1980s, caused the first massive epi­
demics of dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF), which is the most severe form of
the disease, and can be fatal in 5–20 percent of patients. Because dengue viruses
differ by around 25 percent in their exterior proteins, we classify them into four
different antigenic groups or serotypes; this also means that immunity to one
serotype does not protect against infection by another serotype. In fact, this
insufficient “secondary” immune response increases the possibility of getting
more severe disease, or DHF. So, in addition of having to measure direct destruc­
tion of cells by the virus, we also have to measure the effects of immunologic
responses gone wrong; these events were first described as antibody-dependent
enhancement of disease, but we now know that other immune responses, such as
cytokines/chemokines secreted during an inflammatory response, lead to platelet
and endothelial cell activation that cause vascular leakage and hemorrhaging (for
a review, see Rothman, 2011). In addition to having four different serotypes, each
of these serotype viruses show variability in their genomes’ sequences, and can be
classified into genotypes; there are three to five genotypes within each serotype,
and these have specific geographic distributions, epidemiology, virulence, and/or
transmission abilities associated with each of them (for review see Rico-Hesse,
2003). Therefore, it is very important to measure these evolving differences be­
tween strains or variants, because these characteristics can be closely associated
with potential for spread and human clinical disease presentations.
288 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

Phylogenetic trees DENV contain approximately 11,000 nucleotides of RNA,

and produce 8 different proteins, in the order 5′-capsid-membrane-envelope-non­
structural proteins 1 through 5-3′; in addition, they have around 100 nucleotides
at the beginning (5′) of their genome, and 400 nucleotides at the end (3′), that
do not code for any proteins (known as untranslated region; UTR). We showed
some time ago that nucleotide sequences from certain areas of the DENV genome
could be used to construct evolutionary trees that could help us separate out vari­
ants from different regions of the world and demonstrate their times and routes
of spread (Rico-Hesse, 1990; Rico-Hesse et al., 1997). Since then, numerous
studies have been published comparing different areas of the viral genome or
complete genome sequences for various DENV strains, and are continuously be­
ing updated along with epidemiologic characteristics. To this end, we will focus
on the interpretation of one type of phylogenetic tree, for DENV of serotype 2,
to demonstrate the first linkages of genotypes with certain epidemiologic and
virulence characteristics.
In Figure A10-1, a phylogenetic tree constructed with the nucleotide se­
quences from the envelope gene of numerous DENV-2 strains, and representa­
tives of the other three serotypes, is shown. Studies of hundreds of virus strains
showed that for DENV-2, there were four distinct genotypic groups (simplified
here) that correlated with the geographic origins of the patient samples, with se­
quence variations of about 6 percent or more (Rico-Hesse, 2007). Here we have
highlighted two genotypic groups, the American and Southeast Asian (SE Asian)
genotypes because these groups differed in their clinical disease presentations;
that is, samples from patients with DF fell into all genotypes, but those from DHF
patients fell into only one of the genotypes (SE Asian).
The American genotype had been circulating in the American continent
before the 1980s, without causing major epidemics or severe disease (DHF); in
1979–1980, the SE Asian genotype was introduced, most probably via return­
ing Cuban military personnel who had been infected in Vietnam, after the war
(Rico-Hesse et al., 1997). This SE Asian genotype virus introduction was directly
associated with the first occurrences of DHF in the Americas, in spite of having
numerous serotypes circulating before this time; this genotype, with its high
virulence characteristic has since spread to the rest of the world, and has seemed
to displace the native genotypes in other continents also (e.g., Africa) (Messina
et al., 2014).
In our case, the American genotype viruses have not been isolated on
this continent since 1995, in northern Mexico (see bottom black highlight in
Figure A10-1) and in northern Peru, in 2000 (Cruz et al., 2013), and the viruses
isolated on the Mexican border with Texas, in 2005, are now SE Asian genotype
viruses (see top black highlight in Figure A10-1). Thus, a virus variant that
evolved within serotype 2 (maintaining its antigenic structure) became more
virulent to humans and was more transmissible than the variants native to this and
other continents. Unfortunately, because we had no animal models of disease at
APPENDIX A 289

FIGURE A10-1 Phylogenetic tree of selected DENV-2 strains, using complete E gene
sequences, and representatives of the other three serotypes to root the tree. The genetic
distance between the virus strains is proportional to the scale, representing 50 nucleotides;
values above branches represent percent statistical support. Viruses are grouped into four
genotypes, with the Southeast Asian and American genotypes shaded. Each virus is labeled
with the first four letters of the country in which it was isolated, followed by the last two
digits of the year of isolation, and the strain number or name.
SOURCE: Rico-Hesse, 2007. Reproduced with permission from Oxford University Press,
on behalf of Clinical Infectious Diseases.
290 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

the time, we could not prove the direct link of infection by the SE Asian genotype
to higher virulence and transmission.
This same effect, of infection by a specific genotype and more severe disease
and transmission, has been shown for a Sri Lanka variant of DENV serotype 3
(Messer et al., 2002, 2003), but has not yet been demonstrated for genotypes of
DENV serotypes 1 and 4. It is also important to point out that several reports have
suggested that DENV was undergoing intragenomic recombination events, with
the production of virions with nucleotide or antigenic properties of several geno­
types or serotypes (Holmes et al., 1999; Holmes, 2006), but these studies were
shown to be a result of technical errors in sequencing methods, and subsequent
errors in the GenBank sequence postings. Therefore, the more virulent genotypes
we discuss here are a result of independent mutation events that have led to the
production of distinct virus lineages that can outcompete other members of the
same antigenic groups (DENV-2 and DENV-3), and they have spread throughout
the world. However, we still have not determined the exact parts of the virus
genome that lead to these epidemiologic or virulence characteristics. Our studies
with infectious clones and recombinant laboratory techniques have allowed us to
pinpoint some parts of the virus that we believe can lead to increases in replica­
tion that translate into higher virion production, increased mosquito infectivity
and vector competence, and increased human virulence and pathogenesis.

Virus replication in target cells Owing to the lack of animal models of disease,
and only indirectly, by observation of human clinical presentations (during pro­
spective epidemiologic studies), it has been very difficult to measure which fac­
tors lead to increased DENV replication and subsequent disease. If we focus on
the production of DF, and not on the complex and little understood effects of our
own immune system in causing DHF, we can measure differences in replication
abilities of DENV in their primary target cells, taken directly from uninfected
individuals. Some human tropism studies in biopsied materials from patients
with or without DF, and some autopsy specimens from those dying of DHF, had
shown that dendritic cells and macrophages were the first cells to be infected
and replicated DENV at higher rates (Wu et al., 2000; Jessie et al., 2004). How­
ever, because of ethical reasons, there have been very few early studies of what
happens to humans right after being infected by mosquito bite (Sabin, 1952).
Some of these studies are being analyzed in more detail (Snow et al., 2014), but
there are too few subjects and too many variables to be able to identify specific
factors such as the exact dose of DENV needed to produce disease. Also, these
“volunteers” were not biopsied or analyzed pathologically to determine the exact
events leading to the sites of DENV replication after infection. In our labora­
tory, we measured the replication abilities of DENV of different genotypes, in
monocyte-derived dendritic cells (DCs) from unidentified blood donors (Cologna
et al., 2005).
APPENDIX A 291

In these cells, cultured in vitro (or ex vivo), we controlled for the numbers
of cells and the dose of DENV used to infect, and we compared the infection and
production abilities of 19 low-passaged (less than 4 passages from the patient’s
sample) virus strains, representing the SE Asian (n = 12) and American (n = 7)
genotypes of DENV-2 (see Figure A10-2). First we measured the number of
cells infected by each genotype (by detection of expressed viral protein) (see
Figure A10-2A), and then the number of virions produced by the same cells (us­
ing RNA genomes as a surrogate) (see Figure A10-2B). Surprisingly, the number
of cells infected was higher for the less virulent, American genotype strains,
and this varied by blood donor. However, when the numbers of viral RNA ge­
nomes (DENV are notoriously difficult to measure as infectious particles) were
compared across donors, all donor samples produced much higher amounts of
SE Asian genotype viruses. This means that American viruses may infect more
target cells, but they produce less progeny viruses after a single round of replica­
tion (at 48 hours post-infection), and that some donors (not previously exposed
to DENV) have some innate, probably genetic, cellular factors that prevent
DENV replication. These differences in replication ability are independent of any
measurable immune system response (adaptive immunity), since we are grow­
ing them in purified DC cultures. Therefore, segregation of DENV strains into
nucleotide variant groups, or genotypes, helps us define evolutionary differences
that increase the probability of the virus to infect human cells, produce viremia,
and cause disease.

DENV determinants of replication To study the specific structures of the DENV

RNA genome or expressed proteins that might determine differences in replica­
tion ability, we constructed chimeras of SE Asian and American genotype viruses,
using recombinant DNA techniques (Cologna and Rico-Hesse, 2003). The sites
for possible replication and/or virulence determinants were selected first by
complete genome nucleotide sequencing of six SE Asian genotype strains and
six American genotype strains (Leitmeyer et al., 1999). Their viral RNA nucleo­
tide sequences were determined by chemical analysis (primer-extension Sanger
sequencing off of viral RNA, with no cloning) from patient serum samples, so as
not to introduce mutations during passage in cells, either by biological or enzy ­
matic amplification techniques.
When these sequences were aligned, we found consistent differences across
many different areas of the genome, but only one difference in an encoded amino
acid, at E390 (N to D), which changed the charge and thus probably the structure
of the proteins on the outside of the DENV virion. However, two other consistent
differences occurred at sites in the untranslated parts of the genome, in the 5’
UTR (two nucleotides) and in the 3’ UTR (14 nucleotides, including 10 deletions)
that we hypothesized could significantly alter the folding patterns of these RNA
regions, thus, altering their ability to initiate or control replication and possibly
switch to template translation, in order to control virion production.
292 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A10-2 DENV infectivity and output in human dendritic cells. A. Infected DC
cultures were examined by flow cytometry with a DENV-specific MAb, to determine the
number of infected cells. B. Virus output was estimated by dividing the number of genome
equivalents in culture supernatants by the number of infected cells. Graphs were generated

for individual donors and for pooled data from five donors (A–E).

NOTE: Within each graph, the white bars represent the mean results of seven American

genotype viruses, and the gray bars represent the results from 12 SE Asian genotype vi­
ruses. Error bars are SE, with infections in triplicate.

SOURCE: Cologna et al., 2005. Copyright © 2005, American Society for Microbiology.

All Rights Reserved. Reproduced with permission from ASM Journals.

APPENDIX A 293

We later expanded these in silico studies, to determine the RNA folding pat­
terns of viruses from all four genotypes, and found that strains from each geno­
type of DENV-2 had differing degrees of complexity in their folding patterns (see
Figure A10-3), including overlaps (or pseudoknots), and these patterns seemed
to correlate with rates of replication and/or virulence (Rico-Hesse, 2009). This
suggested that these untranslated portions of the genome could in fact directly
control initiation of replication, especially since they are the binding sites for

FIGURE A10-3 Predicted folding patterns of the 3’UTR of DENV-2 viruses represent­
ing each of the four genotypes, shown in order of complexity, with many pseudoknots
predicted for the first two. A = SE Asian, B = Indian Subcontinent, C = American, D =
West African. The complete 3’UTR for each strain (400+ nt) was entered and analyzed in
RNASTAR software, which uses a processive analysis to estimate RNA folding patterns.
SOURCE: Rico-Hesse, 2009. Reproduced with permission from Future Medicine Ltd.
294 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

RNA polymerase, are responsible for genome circularization, to form replication

intermediates (dsRNA), and for initiation of translation of the DENV polyprotein,
thus switching from RNA replication to virion production. These hypotheses are
currently being evaluated using novel and complex approaches in cell biology,
viral chimeras, and biochemical and physical structure analyses.
Our studies with chimeras of SE Asian and American genotype viruses, with
substitutions in the 5’UTR, EN390D amino acids, and 3’UTR, demonstrated that
all three of these sites are important determinants of virus replication in primary
human cell cultures (macrophages and DCs) (Cologna and Rico-Hesse, 2003).
We inserted these American genotype sites into an infectious background clone of
a SE Asian genotype virus, showing that replication and output rates were similar
to wild-type American genotype virus in human cells. It remains for us to do the
reverse experiment, by inserting SE Asian sites into an American genotype virus
background to determine if replication and output can reach those of wild-type
SE Asian viruses. However, modification of these structures did not affect their
growth in C6/36 mosquito cell cultures. It should be noted that the C6/36 cell line
is a single cell type and therefore does not represent the whole mosquito; these
cell lines are known to be defective in some innate, cellular immune responses
and therefore may not represent virus tropism in mosquitoes.
In 2003, when these studies were performed, the emphasis was placed on the
exterior proteins of the virus as determinants of tropism and replication, meaning
viral attachment sites on host cells could control the eventual output of virus. But,
as we mentioned above, the number of infected cells does not actually determine
the output of virus for the DENV-2 viruses we have studied. In fact, these studies
helped us focus further on the role of the 3’UTR, its folding pseudoknots, and
cellular factors for controlling levels of virion production from infected human
cells. This is currently a very novel concept in the areas of virus replication and
pathogenicity.

DENV determinants of virulence in humanized mice In 2005 we reported

on the first animal model of DENV disease (DF), where NOD/SCID (immuno­
deficient) mice that were engrafted with hematopoietic stem cells derived from
human umbilical cord blood (CB-hu-mice) were infected by injection of one
DENV-2 strain, K0049 (low passage, SE Asian genotype). These mice developed
viremia and the same clinical signs of disease as humans (fever, thrombocy­
topenia, erythema) (Bente et al., 2005). These humanized mice develop many
components of the human immune system, including macrophages, dendritic
cells, mast cells, and some lymphocytes (B and T cells), but they do not make
specific antibodies to the infecting virus, nor do they produce educated T cells
(required for DHF). Figure A10-4 outlines the procedures used to prepare these
CB-hu-mice. Many other types of humanized mice have since been developed,
and this is a rapidly changing field of research (for review see Brehm et al., 2013).
APPENDIX A 295

FIGURE A10-4 Preparation of humanized mice, using umbilical cord blood hematopoi­
etic stem cells (CB-hu-mice), and methods of infection with DENV.

NOTE: Advantages (+) over other mouse models, factors missing (–) compared to other

humanized mice.

After our initial report, we tested injection of eight different DENV-2 viruses
(106 PFU equivalents, subcutaneously), representing the four genotypes, to dem­
onstrate consistent differences in virulence of these viruses, in humanized mice
(Mota and Rico-Hesse, 2009). However, we used a newer, more immunodeficient
strain of mice, called NOD/SCID/IL2r gamma null (NSG), as recipients of the
human umbilical cord blood stem cells (Figure A10-4), as these proved to be
much better at attaining higher engraftment levels, and are currently still being
used by many investigators attempting to study human-restricted pathogens. As
can be seen in Figure A10-5, the representative viruses we selected produced
statistically distinct viremias for each of the virus genotypes, with the SE Asian
viruses highest and longest viremias, and the American genotype viruses lower
(see Figure A10-5B), but not the shortest viremias (West African sylvatic geno­
type, Figure A10-5D), thus supporting our previous studies of epidemiologic
relationships and growth in primary human target cells.
Other clinical signs were notably different, depending on the infecting
DENV genotype, and statistical differences could be seen in fever, erythema, and
thrombocytopenia levels. In addition, we performed studies of virus tropism, with
a SE Asian genotype virus, demonstrating replication in numerous human cells,
by flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry. These studies showed DENV
replication in differentiated human B cells and in numerous, unidentified cells
in the humanized mouse bone marrow (Mota and Rico-Hesse, 2011). It remains
to be seen if we can identify all of the different types of human cells infected in
these mice, as the numbers of these cells may be too small to enumerate, includ­
ing those in lymph nodes, which are atrophied in these immunodeficient mice.
296 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A10-5 Comparison of viremia levels in humanized mice (CB-hu-mice) infected

by inoculation of approximately six logs PFU of eight different viruses, representing the
four genotypes of DENV-2. Viral genome copies were determined in sera every 2 days by
a quantitative RT-PCR that has a threshold of detection at 340 viral genome copies/mL.
NOTE: Error bars are SE, and n = number of infected mice per virus genotype.
SOURCE: Mota and Rico-Hesse, 2009. Reproduced with permission from American
Society for Microbiology.

Further improvements of this animal model may lead to a better understanding

of DENV tropism for human cells, and their contribution to pathogenesis of DF
and DHF.

DENV determinants of pathogenesis, including mosquito saliva To further

develop the humanized mouse model of DENV disease, we initiated studies using
only one strain of DENV-2, K0049, from the most virulent, SE Asian genotype,
but this time by infecting the CB-hu-mice by the natural route of infection, mos­
quito bite (Cox et al., 2012). This entails inoculating (with very small amounts
of virus, < 40 PFU eq.) female Aedes aegypti mosquitoes reared in the labora­
tory, keeping them in a biosafety level-3 lab facility for the extrinsic incubation
period (7–9 days), and having them bite mouse footpads (best mimics of human
epithelium), in order to transmit the virus via saliva.
APPENDIX A 297

These studies are extremely difficult to perform, as they require special

containment facilities for both immunodeficient mice and mosquitoes, and then
working with infectious, live mosquitoes in the BSL3. These studies also required
titrations of how many mosquitoes are needed to bite each CB-hu-mouse, to get
100 percent development of DF; the final tally was four mosquitoes per mouse.
However, our results were extremely novel, and not only did the mice have higher
and more extended viremias when infected via mosquito bite (Figure A10-6), but
they were able to make specific antibodies to the virus (IgM only; no class switch­
ing without T cells), and even to the mosquito saliva proteins. The erythema and
thrombocytopenia were also higher, suggesting that the mosquito bite delivery
has extreme effects on the virus as an antigen (opsonization), on hemostasis
(probably on platelets and endothelial cells also), and these mice cannot clear the
virus with their deficient immune system until after 54 days.
There are many factors that remain to be tested in CB-hu-mice, including the
role of specific mosquito saliva proteins on the effects to virus and host cells, and
the innate immune response, but fortunately, these mice are ready to be used in

FIGURE A10-6 Comparison of viremias (measured by RNA equivalents in serum, by

quantitative RT-PCR) in CB-hu-mice infected with DENV-2, strain K0049, by each of two
routes: by subcutaneous injection of six log PFU equivalents, or by infected mosquito bites
(4–5 mosquitoes per mouse). Asterisks denote statistically significant differences for time
points where there were data for both types of infection.
SOURCE: Cox et al., 2012. Reproduced with permission from American Society for
Microbiology.
298 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

tests of antivirals or other treatments, to suppress DF clinical disease. However,

these results also put into question the validity of any animal tests that use injec­
tion of virus, without the mosquito saliva components that occur during natural
DENV transmission.

DENV determinants of mosquito infection and transmission We began stud­

ies of DENV-2 strain replication, dissemination, and transmission dynamics in
Aedes aegypti mosquitoes in the late 1990s in parallel with virus virulence studies
(Armstrong and Rico-Hesse, 2001). In the case of DENV, this species of mos­
quito has been proven to be more competent than the Aedes albopictus mosquito,
although the latter was the main vector of DENV epidemics in Hawaii and in sev­
eral countries along the Mediterranean. Aedes aegypti populations (collected in
the field) have also been shown to differ genetically and show differences in vec­
tor competence, for differing DENV strains (Armstrong and Rico-Hesse, 2003).
Our studies have shown that although DENV-2 of the four different geno­
types bind to mosquito midguts at the same rates (Cox et al., 2011), their levels
of replication and dissemination are extremely varied, thus suggesting that viral
infection via receptors on the mosquito midgut is not the constraining factor for
virus dissemination, but rather, the rates of replication and virion production in
mosquito cells. In fact, for SE Asian and American genotype viruses in low pas­
sage colonies (F < 4) of mosquitoes established from the field (McAllen, Texas),
there is an up to 60-fold difference in the potential for these mosquitoes to be able
to transmit virus (SE Asian >>American). See Figure A10-7 for a comparison of
vectorial capacity (Anderson and Rico-Hesse, 2006).
When we infected these mosquitoes orally (by imbibing blood in a chamber),
with both SE Asian and American viruses in the same amounts in spiked blood,
as a direct competition experiment, the SE Asian viruses were able to disseminate
into the salivary glands by day 7 versus day 10 for American genotype viruses, in
mosquitoes from varied geographical collection sites (Cologna et al., 2005). This
means that the SE Asian viruses have an exponentially higher degree of transmis­
sion efficiency over American genotype viruses, and this could explain their more
recent displacement of the native genotype viruses on several continents. Thus,
specific DENV-2 variants have evolved and adapted to cause more viremia in hu­
man hosts (virulence) and to be more infectious and transmitted at much higher
rates by their main mosquito vector (vector competence), which could explain
their changing patterns of infection and transmission around the world.
These results suggest that we should better prepare for DENV emergence
by focusing control efforts on those viruses that have been shown to belong to
the genotypes that show increased virulence and transmission characteristics (SE
Asian for DENV-2; Sri Lankan for DENV-3). We should also focus our attention
on these variants to understand the complex interaction between infection and
pathogenesis in the human host and to better devise vaccines and treatments that
would protect against the most dangerous genotypes.
APPENDIX A 299

FIGURE A10-7 Vectorial capacity of field-collected (McAllen, Texas) Aedes aegypti

mosquitoes for viruses belonging to the SE Asian genotype and American genotype of
DENV-2. The probability (P) of these mosquitoes to transmit the SE Asian viruses is up
to 60-fold higher than for American genotype viruses, depending on day after mosquito
infection (extrinsic incubation).
SOURCE: Anderson and Rico-Hesse, 2006. Reproduced with permission from American
Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.

Chikungunya Viruses

Disease Characteristics and Viral Genetic Variability

The recent introduction and establishment of transmission of CHIKV in the
Americas, first detected in December 2013, has made the study of this virus a
priority for our nation. So far, autochthonous transmission has been demonstrated
in Florida, and it is suspected that this virus will establish itself soon in the re­
mainder of the U.S. Gulf Coast. Historically, French scientists had been the only
ones prioritizing research on this virus, mainly because their overseas laborato­
ries (Pasteur Institutes) were located in areas of endemic CHIKV transmission,
and because many of their citizens were returning sick from vacationing in their
former colonies (for review see Thiberville et al., 2013). However, the disease
caused by this virus, chikungunya fever, and its related, severe arthralgias, have
now become a concern to most of the developed countries, due to rapid travel
300 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

and introduction of viremic humans to even temperate climates, where the main
vectors of CHIKV are present, both Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus.
The main problem with dealing with these two efficient viral vectors is that
these mosquitoes differ in their biting habits (albopictus bites other animals in
addition to humans), their habitat (albopictus can live farther away from urban
areas), and their tolerance to low temperatures (infected albopictus eggs can
overwinter in some of the coldest climates). In addition, the virus itself differs
immensely from DENV, in that it infects other parts of the human body, including
keratinocytes and fibroblasts, but causes almost identical symptoms and signs of
disease as DENV, which make its extremely difficult to distinguish these two dis­
eases. But more importantly, CHIKV causes severe, long lasting, and debilitating
arthralgias in children and older adults, and it has an extremely high attack rate
of 90 percent, which means it causes disease in 9 out of 10 infected individuals
(versus 10 percent for DENV) (Schwartz and Albert, 2010).
Although there is only one serotype of virus, and infection produces lifelong
protection against reinfection, the majority of the world’s population is currently
susceptible to CHIKV, and this virus can be transmitted by mosquitoes that live
in most parts of the globe. Therefore, we expect CHIKV to become the most
prevalent and important emerging arbovirus of our lifetime.

Phylogenetic Trees and Structures

The CHIKV genome consists of approximately 12,000 nucleotides of RNA,
which encode 9 proteins, in the order 5′-nonstructural proteins 1-4-capsid-envelope
proteins1-3–protein 6k-3′; in addition, there are two UTRs on each end of around
75 nucleotides each, and a poly(A) tail on the 3′ end. Numerous studies have used
comparison of nucleotide sequences from either the E2 or E1 envelope genes
to generate phylogenetic trees of evolutionary relationships of CHIKV strains
from around the world (Lanciotti et al., 1998; Powers et al., 2000). The most re­
cent phylogenies, using complete coding genome sequences, consistently classify
CHIKV into three genotypes that correspond with geographic origin: the West
African, Asian, and Eastern Central Southern African (ECSA) (Thiberville et al.,
2013). These investigators have also derived routes of spread of these genotypes,
and most seem to have emerged from West Africa in the 1950s and 1960s, to other
African regions (ECSA) and Asia, where independent cycles of evolution formed
the new genotypes.
So far, most researchers have been concerned about the recent expansion of
the ECSA genotype into islands in the Indian Ocean and from there to the Indian
subcontinent, causing massive epidemics in 2004–2008. These events prompted
concern around the world, with the first major funding initiatives to produce
CHIKV vaccines and antivirals, and to investigate the viral biology and structural
determinants of virulence. In contrast with DENV, where numerous structures of
virions at various stages of maturation and resolution have been determined, and
APPENDIX A 301

from all four serotypes, for CHIKV there is no available complete virion structure
(only for a virus-like-particle) (Sun et al., 2013).
We have shown this here, in Figure A10-8, with some of the purported sites
of biological significance highlighted on the glycoprotein envelope protein (E1,
E2, E3) trimer structure, as described by others (Voss et al., 2010). By using
these predicted virion structures as a backdrop, we can see that three of the most
important virus neutralization, virulence, and mosquito transmission determinants
are all exposed on the end of the glycoprotein trimer (Figure A10-8B). Unfortu­
nately, for DENV, the structures described to date do not show simple, consistent
sites for some of these biological characteristics, and this may be complicated by
the fact that those viruses show such varied antigenic structure (serotypes) and
virulence characteristics.

Virus Replication in Target Cells

Although numerous reports describe growth of different strains of CHIKV
in keratinocytes and fibroblasts in culture, a recent report disputes those results,
and concludes that keratinocytes first serve as an antiviral defense on the skin,
with specific innate immune factors secreted (Bernard et al., 2014). However,
there are ample indications that fibroblasts, epithelial, and endothelial cells are
infected and produce virus progeny soon after infection. In fact, these cells are
probably producing the majority of the inflammatory response in joints and
muscles, as they produce immune factors of activation and recruitment such as
cytokines and chemokines (Sourisseau et al., 2007). In addition, because primary
infections by any CHIKV strain seem to induce lifelong immunity to disease, it is
most probable that patients make very high amounts of antibodies (and specific
T cells and plasmablasts) that can serve to neutralize any incoming virus during
a secondary infection. Such a strong neutralizing epitope has been described in
a monoclonal antibody derived from patient’s plasma, and its primary binding
site on the virion has been defined on E2, across the I121 and W64 amino acids
(see Figure A10-8B).
The current problem with understanding the complete cycle of CHIKV
replication and disease causation is that there are no detectable infectious virus
particles in the joints or other organs of animals (mice and nonhuman primates)
infected and studied after viremia disappearance, during the expected chronic
sequellae. Immunodeficient and very young mice (Couderc et al., 2008) and
some primates (Labadie et al., 2010) have been shown to develop CHIKV disease
similar to humans, but none of these models fully mimics the route of inoculation
and complete pathological picture as in humans.
The most recent study, in wild-type mice, suggests that a single amino
acid on the E2 glycoprotein (E282), and some epistatic site differences (see
Figure A10-8B), may determine the amount of dissemination and arteritis in this
model; however, these mice do not entirely reflect the pathological processes
302 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A10-8 Chikungunya virion and glycoprotein structures, including sites of pur­
ported biological activities. (A). Cryo electron density map of chikungunya virus-like-
particles, low pass filtered to 10Å and radial colored (green: 220Å to blue: 420Å). Purple
density corresponds to a single E1-E2-E3 glycoprotein complex. (B). X-ray crystal struc­
ture of E1(green)-E2(red)-E3(pink) docked into the cryo electron density map shown in
A. Residue 82 (purple) of E2 is known to be associated with dissemination and arthritis
in mice. Residues 121 and 64 (cyan) of E2 are responsible for neutralization by a human
MAb. Residue 226 (blue) of E1 has been shown to affect mosquito transmission efficiency.
Finally, residues 211 and 60 (yellow) of E2 have been shown to exert epistatic effects on
residue 226 (blue) of E1.
SOURCE: Cryo electron density map modified from Sun et al., 2013 (EMDB-5577); X-
ray crystal structure was modified from Voss et al., 2010 (PDB-3N42).
APPENDIX A 303

occurring in humans, as they develop footpad and hind limb swelling only, with­
out showing clinical signs (viremia, rash, fever, weight loss) and recumbence as
in humans (Ashbrook et al., 2014). Thus, we are currently at a lack of complete
animal models in which to study the pathogenesis of CHIKV and DENV, in­
cluding the immune mechanisms and factors that might lead to severe disease
presentations.

CHIKV Determinants of Pathogenesis, Including Mosquito Saliva

We propose to use a newer—although more complicated—type of human­
ized mouse to study immunopathogenesis of both DENV and CHIKV to attempt
to develop disease that fully mimics human signs and postviremia induction of
severe sequellae (DHF with secondary dengue, arteritis/arthritis in chikungunya
fever). The preparation of these mice, known as bone marrow-liver-thymus hu­
manized mice (BLT-hu-mice), is outlined in Figure A10-9. In this case, the adult
NSG mice, the same strain as used for CB-hu-mice, are surgically implanted
(suprarenal capsule) with human stem cells derived from fetal liver and thymus,
for a much more complete reconstitution of the human immune system, including
adaptive immunity (for a review see Brehm et al., 2013). These mice attain high
levels of engraftment of the mouse bone marrow, substituting human cells, and
because of the presence of human thymus, they are able to continually produce
functional B and T cells, and thus make specific human antibodies, with class
switching (IgM and IgG antibodies).

FIGURE A10-9 Preparation of humanized mice, using fetal tissues and hematopoietic
stem cells (BLT-hu-mice: bone marrow, liver, and thymus), and methods of infection with
DENV or CHIKV.
NOTE: Advantages (+) over other mouse models; disadvantages (-) compared to other
humanized mice.
304 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

Although these mice are extremely difficult to produce, they theoretically

allow for the measurement of human immune responses, including innate and
adaptive factors, which could possibly lead to the models necessary for studying
severe DENV and CHIKV disease. These animals could also potentially be used
to determine the effects of mosquito saliva proteins, as these have been reported
to be important mediators of infection by CHIKV, in cell culture and in wild-type
mice (Thangamani et al., 2010). Use of these mice could allow us to perform
natural route of infection experiments with CHIKV, which we have shown drasti­
cally modify the effects of infection and immunity to DENV.

CHIKV Determinants of Mosquito Infection and Transmission

Previous studies using infectious clones of CHIKV (ECSA genotype) and
their recombinant modifications implicated a site in the E1 glycoprotein (A226V)
as a determinant of switching vector competence from Aedes aegypti to Aedes
albopictus (Tsetsarkin et al., 2007, 2009). This would have created a very sig­
nificant problem for the expansion of CHIKV disease into entirely new areas and
new human populations, or a new mode of vector adaptation. However, more
recent experiments using over 35 different colonies of Aedes albopictus and
Aedes aegypti mosquito strains, and testing CHIKV strains with the E1226A and
E1226V mutation in the ECSA genotype backgrounds, and the new, Asian geno­
type virus that has been introduced recently to the Americas, have not shown con­
sistent statistically significant differences in vector competence for either species
of mosquito (three groups showed lower dissemination in albopictus) (Vega-Rua
et al., 2014). However, these studies failed to include sufficient Asian genotype
virus strains to fully evaluate their rates of transmission by either mosquito spe­
cies, and these are the CHIKV genotype variants that concern us most now.
Another concern is that there is evidence that Aedes albopictus can repli­
cate and transmit both DENV and CHIKV simultaneously, after oral infection
(Vazeille et al., 2010); therefore, we need to evaluate the dynamics of transmis­
sion and virulence when both viruses are infecting mosquitoes and human hosts
simultaneously. This adds a major degree of complexity to the measurements of
evolution and virulence that should be taken into account for various assay sys­
tems and ultimately, in the way that arbovirus dynamics and emergence mecha­
nisms can be modeled effectively.

Acknowledgments
Funding was provided by NIH, P41GM103832 (Chiu/CWH), Robert
Welch Foundation, Q1242 (Chiu/CWH), NIH R01AI099483 (RRH), and NIH
R01AI098715 (RRH).
APPENDIX A 305

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A11

VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE EMERGENCE AND

SPREAD IN THE EUROPEAN UNION1

Jan C. Semenza2

The emergence and spread of vector-borne diseases (VBD) in Europe is a

function of biotic (living organisms in an ecosystem), abiotic (nonliving elements
in an ecosystem) and socioeconomic drivers of disease. Permissive circumstances
that coincide in time and space can trigger an outbreak of VBD. Anticipating
and elucidating such an outbreak requires a systems perspective. In a foresight
study, the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control mapped the inter­
related and interdependent nature of disease drivers in order to predict the abrupt
emergence of infectious disease threats by 2020 in Europe (Suk and Semenza,
2011). The most significant infectious disease drivers for Europe were grouped
into three broad categories: globalization and environmental change, social and

1 Modified by author from Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12(6), 6333−6351, doi:10.3390/

ijerph120606333 for inclusion in this workshop summary.

2 European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control.
308 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

demographic change, and the public health system. Their relation to VBD is
briefly described below.

Globalization and Environmental Change

These two factors are recognized as significant disease drivers. They include
the steadily expanding reach of travel and trade and population movements.
Global disease dispersal is aided by a dense network of air traffic and shipping
routes (Semenza et al., 2014; Thomas et al., 2014). They have facilitated the
arrival, establishment, and spread of invasive pathogens to novel geographic
destinations, including dengue, malaria, chikungunya, and West Nile (Randolph
and Rogers, 2010). Approximately 60 percent of human pathogens are estimated
to be of zoonotic origin, in that they can be transmitted from animals to hu­
mans (Karesh et al., 2012). Thus, land use can indirectly determine the spread
of zoonotic diseases through different exposure pathways in urban, suburban,
and rural settings with a wider range of animal habitats such as pastures, arable
fields, and managed forests (Karesh et al., 2012; Patz et al., 2004). Urbanization,
urban sprawl, and high-population densities have also been associated with VBD
emergence (Jones et al., 2008). Habitat encroachment and habitat destruction can
result in displacement of wild animals into novel environments that can have a
bearing on exposure patterns to infectious pathogens. Climatic conditions are also
significant drivers of VBD as some of the vectors are cold-blooded; thus, climate
change can shift the geographical ranges of VBD transmission (McMichael,
2013b; Lindgren et al., 2012; Confalonieri et al., 2007; Altizer et al., 2013; Se­
menza and Menne, 2009; Semenza et al., 2012).

Social and Demographic Change

The human world is currently experiencing shifts in demographic pro­
files, social inequality, and lifestyles. Socially and economically disadvantaged
groups suffer disproportionally from infectious diseases in Europe (Semenza and
Giesecke, 2008; Suhrcke et al., 2011). In the 1990s, during times of economic
hardship, individuals in Central and Eastern Europe resorted to mushroom har­
vesting in wooded areas, and thereby increased their risk of tick-borne encephali­
tis (Stefanoff et al., 2012). The economic crisis in Kosovo in 1999–2000 resulted
in the abandonment of food stores with the subsequent rise in rodent populations
which led to the emergence of tularemia (Reintjes et al., 2002). The 2007 mort­
gage foreclosures in the Californian housing market resulted in many abandoned
homes with swimming pools, increasing breeding habitats for mosquitoes, which
was linked to an unexpectedly early seasonal increase in West Nile virus cases
(Reisen et al., 2008).
APPENDIX A 309

The Public Health System

This includes surveillance and reporting, research and development, animal
and food safety and health care. However, current surveillance systems might not
be adequately equipped to cope with the arrival and dispersal of tropical patho­
gens commonly associated with warmer temperatures (Lindgren et al., 2012;
Semenza and Domanović, 2013). Contamination of blood products from donors
infected with known, unexpected, or unknown pathogens represents a significant
threat to the blood supply and thus to public health. Current microbial blood-
safety practices might not be adequate to cope with global environmental change
(Semenza and Domanović, 2013). Research and development of novel surveil­
lance systems and of pathogen-reduction technologies for the blood supply might
reduce the risk from these emerging threats (Semenza et al., 2013; Lindgren et
al., 2012; Semenza and Domanović, 2013). Access to health care is an important
determinant for early treatment for a VBD and can help interrupt the outbreak by
removing a host from the transmission cycle.
Eight plausible threat scenarios facing the European Union by 2020 were
formulated, based on the line-listing of different drivers for infectious diseases
from the ECDC foresight study described above (Suk and Semenza, 2011). These
threat scenarios were selected based on the plausibility of the event, potential se­
verity of the scenario in terms of burden of disease, and relevance of the scenario
to multiple EU member states. They were primarily intended for prioritization of
public health interventions and health policy decision making. These plausible
scenarios were used to develop tangible steps to mitigate the potential public
health fallout from such infectious disease threats (Suk and Semenza, 2011).
One plausible scenario included a VBD outbreak triggered by environmental/
climate change, travel and tourism, global trade, and social inequality. The VBD
scenario considered a threat from the introduction of new disease vectors, which
creates new opportunities for disease transmission; expanded ability of vectors
to transmit pathogens (e.g., by mutation); and a shift in the transmission range
of diseases, hosts, and vectors due to socioeconomic factors and climate change.
The drivers and plausible scenarios for 2020 were compared to the threat
events that actually occurred between 2008 and 2013 and detected through
ECDC’s epidemic intelligence activities (Semenza et al., 2016). ECDC conducts
epidemic intelligence by monitoring all events (e.g., from media reports) that
could potentially be a threat to public health in Europe. Event-based data col­
lected at ECDC are verified and archived on a daily basis and used to generate
the Communicable Disease Threats Reports (CDTR); these are weekly reports
summarizing information gathered through epidemic intelligence regarding com­
municable disease threats of concern to the EU. Data and epidemiological infor­
mation for each event were extracted from the CDTR, epidemiological reports
and communications, ECDC rapid risk assessments, threat assessments, mission
reports, and scientific publications. The threat events were sorted into 10 threat
categories:
310 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

1. Vector and rodent-borne diseases,

2. Food and water-borne diseases,
3. Other zoonosis,
4. Vaccine-preventable diseases,
5. Multidrug-resistant diseases,
6. Health care-associated infections,
7. Injecting drug-use associated diseases,
8. Sexually transmitted infections,
9. Pandemic influenza,
10. Air-borne infections.

A total of 116 threats, 10 threat categories, and 17 drivers in 3 driver catego­

ries, were recorded (see Figure A11-1). Vector- and rodent-borne disease events
were the second most common threat events in the database with 27 individual
events. The event-based database did not comprehensively capture mortality and
morbidity (ECDC has a dedicated repository for notifiable infectious diseases),
but 64 deaths and 4,748 illnesses were attributed to those 27 individual VBD

FIGURE A11-1 Number of observed infectious disease threat events (IDTEs) in relation
to number of drivers for each IDTE group, Europe, 2008-2013.
NOTE: This figure is a new visualization of the same data set that was presented at the
workshop.

SOURCE: Semenza et al., in press with Emerging Infectious Diseases. Data from ECDC.

APPENDIX A 311

events. These events included the large dengue outbreak in Madeira (Lourenco
and Recker, 2014) (over 2,000 cases) and the West Nile fever outbreak in South­
east Europe with over 260 cases in Greece alone (Paz et al., 2013).
Based on a logistic regression analysis of all the drivers for the vector and
rodent-borne diseases category, the natural environment, climate, and lifestyle
scored as the top three drivers. “Natural environment” was the sole driver in
four events, a codriver in two events with climate, and one of four drivers in four
events. The majority of these events were West Nile fever outbreaks where envi­
ronmental and climatic determinates obviously play an important role (Paz and
Semenza, 2013). The lifestyle driver pertained to a large outbreak of hantavirus
in Germany in 2010 where the bank vole populations had increased substantially
due to excessive seed production the previous year (Faber et al., 2010); human
behavior favouring exposure and potentially increased dust production following
dry and warm weather were attributed to the outbreak.
Comparing the scenarios of the 2020 foresight study (Suk and Semenza,
2011) with the threat events that actually occurred between 2008 and 2013 re­
veals some similarities. The large dengue outbreak in Madeira was sparked by the
importation of viremic air traffic passengers in an environment where the vector
had recently been introduced. Environmental and climatic conditions contributed
to the upsurge of WNF in Southeast Europe (Paz and Semenza, 2013). Social
inequality was a factor in the emergence of malaria in Greece in 2009 where
migrant workers from endemic countries were part of the malaria transmission
cycle (Sudre et al., 2013). However, regardless of the accuracy of such foresight
studies VBD continue to emerge and spread in the European Union. Traditional
public health strategies might not suffice to cope with the public health challenges
associated with global environmental change. ECDC has developed a pragmatic
approach to tackle these emerging threats which are described below.

The European Environment and Epidemiology (E3) Network

Many environmental drivers can be considered epidemic precursors of dis­
ease (see Figure A11-2). Monitoring changes in environmental conditions can
help anticipate, or even forecast, an upsurge of disease (Lindgren et al., 2012;
Semenza and Menne, 2009; Semenza et al., 2013). However, traditional environ­
mental and infectious disease epidemiology is hampered by a number of short­
comings when it comes to the public health challenges from global environmental
change (McMichael, 2013a). Environmental, climatic, or epidemiologic data
often lack historic baseline measurements which make comparison and extrapola­
tion difficult. The effects of global environmental change do not adhere to typical
effect-response relationships which traditional epidemiologic methods have been
refined (and perfected) to measure. The pathways tend to be more complex and
sometimes protracted; they can be direct but more often than not indirect, dif­
fuse or delayed (Butler and Harley, 2010). Estimating future health risks requires
312 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A11-2 European Environment and Epidemiology (E3) Network.

SOURCE: © European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) (www. ecdc.

europa.eu).

interdisciplinary collaborations to develop scenario-based models. Moreover,

detection of health endpoints with traditional surveillance methods suffers from
significant time lags because of delays in case identification, diagnosis, and re­
porting, which can result in exposure misclassification and confounding. A geo­
graphic shift in infectious diseases might also lead to an expansion of the disease
burden into new areas and might therefore be missed. Thus, these changes in the
risk profile for human populations call for novel approaches to assess intercon­
nected and interdependent risks (Altizer et al., 2013; Woolhouse, 2011).
Rapid developments in geographic information systems over the last decades
have facilitated the management and use of spatial data for analytic epidemiology.
A number of tools are now available over the web to explore and map spatial
data that adhere to the standards of geographic data (e.g., INSPIRE directive).
Risk models can then be used for the quantitative estimation of dynamic risks
by taking into account changes in disease drivers. With this approach, future risk
under different scenarios can be estimated.
The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) has rec­
ognised the need for a proactive approach to deal with global environmental
change (Lindgren et al., 2012; Semenza and Menne, 2009; Semenza et al., 2013).
ECDC has developed an infrastructure coined the European Environment and
APPENDIX A 313

Epidemiology (E3) Network to help monitor environmental and climatic condi­

tions related to infectious disease threats (see Figure A11-2) (Semenza et al.,
2013; Semenza and Menne, 2009). The hub is composed of a data repository, a
geoportal for data visualization and dissemination, and online tools that support
the analysis of environmental, climatic and social drivers of infectious diseases
(see Figure A11-3) (ECDC, 2014). The E3 Network provides technical support
for the reporting, monitoring, analysis, and mapping of data and enhances the
analytical capacity of existing resources in Europe. Results have been dissemi­
nated to policy makers, public health practitioners, European Union and interna­
tional agencies, other governmental sectors, and nongovernmental organisations.
With the E3 Network, climatic, weather, and environmental data can be
merged and integrated with health data in order to provide support tools for de­
cision makers (see Figure A11-4) (Lindgren et al., 2012; Semenza and Menne,
2009; Semenza et al., 2013). Easy and rapid linkage of data for novel analyses
provides novel opportunities to deal with the complex nature of interconnected
and interdependent risks. Such an approach can rapidly identify geographic areas
of increased risk at a certain point in time. It can also define high-risk populations
that are particularly vulnerable to exposure and guide public health interventions.

FIGURE A11-3 E3 geoportal of the European Environment and Epidemiology (E3)

Network.

SOURCE: © ECDC.

314 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A11-4 European Environment and Epidemiology (E3) Network.

SOURCE: © ECDC.

Information from these analyses can provide lead time for outreach to the public
and engagement of health care providers. It can also be used to set public health
policies and inform civil society about potential consequences of global environ­
mental change on public health.
The initial building-block of the E3 Network was a set of data that was
assembled through a research project of the Directorate-General for Research
and Innovation of the European Commission entitled Emerging Diseases in a
Changing European Environment project (EDEN). The processing of these data
sets, and those continuously assembled from other sources, with regular outputs
from advanced scientific analysis, serve as a reference point (ECDC, 2014).
It also supports data exchanges and scientific collaborations between member
states, researchers, ECDC experts, and other authorised users across geographical
and political boundaries in the European Community, with particular interest in
the area of climatic change adaptation, landscape epidemiology, and emerging
disease threats. The data of the E3 Network have been used in a number of case
studies, three of which are briefly described below.
APPENDIX A 315

Intercepting Vector-Borne Disease Emergence and Spread: Case Studies

Environmental Suitability of Malaria Transmission in Greece

E3 data were used to predict the environmental suitability of malaria trans­
mission in Greece (Sudre et al., 2013). In the past, malaria was endemic in
Greece, but due to a successful malaria control and elimination programmes
the country was declared malaria free in 1974 (Sabatinelli et al., 2001; Danis et
al., 2011). Yet, importation of malaria has continued to occur accompanied by
sporadic autochthonous transmission (Vakali et al., 2012; Kampen et al., 2002,
2003). A cluster of six locally acquired Plasmodium vivax cases without travel
history to an endemic area was discovered in 2009; a total of 267 malaria cases
were noted by Greek health authorities between 2009 and 2012, although some
reported a travel history (Danis et al., 2011).
Nevertheless, the continuing transmission of P. vivax by indigenous vectors
in areas with permissive environmental and climatic conditions could poten­
tially signal the reemergence of malaria in Greece. Delineating specific areas
environmentally suitable for transmission could direct and focus malaria control
efforts. To assess the location of exposure of locally acquired malaria for such a
suitability map, a standardized questionnaire was administered to each malaria
case in Greece by a health officer. Cases with a travel history were excluded from
this analysis as the goal was to delineate the areas environmentally suitable for
autochthonous malaria transmission in Greece. By defining the environmental
and climatic profile of areas with active transmission cycles between 2009 and
2012 other areas at risk for malaria re-emergence in Greece could then be defined.
Georeferenced environmental and climatic information for Greece and sev­
eral other data sources were retrieved from the E3 Network data repository and
other sources and processed for spatial modeling (Scharlemann et al., 2008;
Earth Resources Observation and Science Center USGS EROS, 2005; European
Environment Agency, 2011; The Joint Research Centre, 2009). They included
demographic indicators, land cover categories, altitude, seasonal variations
of vegetation, temperature, and so on. Using nonlinear discriminant analysis
(NLDA) available in eRiskMapper version 1.1.4, a disease risk map was devel­
oped of areas suitable for persistent malaria transmission (Sudre et al., 2013) (see
Figure A11-5).
Areas of environmental suitability for malaria transmission were charac­
terized by warmer temperatures; low elevation; intensive, year round irrigated
agriculture with complex cultivation patterns. Elevated temperatures (both night­
time and daytime temperature parameters were predictive in this model) can ac­
celerate mosquito and parasite development which are likely contributing factors
to mosquitoes presence and potentially to malaria transmission. This suitability
map matched the historical distribution of malaria in Greece, particularly in the
Peloponnese, the west coast of Central Greece and Epirus, and the east part of
central Greece.
316 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A11-5 Areas latently hospitable and environmentally permissive for persistent
malaria transmission, Greece, 2009–2012. Map showing areas predicted to be environ­
mentally suitable for malaria transmission.
NOTE: Values from 0 to 0.5 (dark to light green) indicate conditions not favorable for
malaria transmission (based on locally acquired cases); yellow to dark red areas delineate
conditions increasingly favorable for transmission (values from 0.5 to 1).
SOURCE: Sudre et al., 2013.

This map was shared with public health practitioners in Greece responsible
for integrated preparedness and response activities. Using EU structural funds,
transmission was eventually interrupted in 2013 through targeted epidemiological
and entomological surveillance, vector control activities, and awareness rising
among the general population and health workers, in the areas environmentally
suitable for transmission.

Environmental Determinants of West Nile Fever

Transmission of WNF is determined by environmental/climatic and biologi­
cal drivers (Randolph and Rogers, 2010; Paz and Semenza, 2013). For sustained
transmission to take hold at a given place and time, susceptible birds have to
come in contact with infected birds in the presence of competent vectors. The
avian transmission cycle is then amplified by local birds at which point the
transmission can spill over to dead-end hosts such as humans or horses through
APPENDIX A 317

bridge vectors that feed on both birds and humans/horses (Paz and Semenza,
2013). A crucial aspect of WNV amplification among competent insect vectors
and vertebrate hosts is also their population densities which determine the inten­
sity of transmission. Vector population densities depend on temperature which
accelerates the growth rates (Reisen et al., 2006). Moreover, elevated tempera­
ture decreases the timing between blood meals but accelerates viral replication
rates and thus the transmission of WNV (Andrade et al., 2011). Thus, permissive
weather and environmental conditions are responsible for sustained local trans­
mission whereas migratory birds and short distance vector transportation affect
the geographic dispersion.
In Europe, several WNF outbreaks have been linked with elevated ambient
temperature (Paz and Albersheim, 2008; Savage et al., 1999; Paz et al., 2013).
For example, Southeastern Europe was afflicted by a heat wave at the end of
July to mid-August of 2010 which was followed by an outbreak of WNF cases
(Paz et al., 2013). Temperature deviations above the 30 year mean struck Russia
(deviations > 9°C), Romania (> 5°C), Turkey (> 5°C), and Greece (> 3°C) where
419, 57, 47, and 262 cases of WNF were reported, respectively (Figure A11-6).
A number of meteorological variables were examined but temperature was the
most significant one: in ‘colder’ countries of more northern latitudes a statisti­
cally significant correlation between number of WNF cases and temperature was
observed, with time lags of up to 4 weeks from the onset of the temperature raise;
in contrast, warmer and more southern countries presented correlations without
these time lags (Paz et al., 2013). It has been noted that eruptions of WNF in
previously unaffected areas tend to occur in years when summer temperatures
deviate from the norm and that continued transmission can occur the following
years even at normal summer temperatures (Reisen et al., 2006).
The notion that the initial outbreak is associated with a heat wave but not
the subsequent ones has been observed in a number of settings (Epstein, 2001;
Paz et al., 2013; Reisen et al., 2006; Pecoraro et al., 2007; Soverow et al., 2009).
To examine other environmental variables as predictors of WNF risk
(Ozdenerol et al., 2013) we tested the contribution of remotely sensed tempera­
ture, the state of vegetation and water bodies, and bird migratory routes. The
analysis was performed at the district level where each district was considered
“infected” if WNF human cases were reported there that year, and as “non­
infected” otherwise.
The number of WNF cases from 2002 to 2011 was assembled from ECDC
surveillance data, peer-reviewed papers and the grey literature to fit the models.
ECDC surveillance data for 2012 and 2013 were used for external validation. We
used univariate and multivariate logistic regression models to assess the prob­
ability of a district to be categorized as WNV positive. The status of infection was
set as the response variable, and anomalies of temperature, wetlands, and bird mi­
gratory routes were set as explanatory variables. In the final multivariate logistic
regression model, parameters of WNV risk at district level for 2002–2011 were:
 318

FIGURE A11-6 Distribution of WNF cases by affected areas, European region and Mediterranean basin.
NOTE: Transmission season 2014 and previous transmission seasons; accessed November 20, 2014.
SOURCE: ECDC.
APPENDIX A 319

July temperature anomalies, the anomaly of the Modified Normalized Difference

Water Index (MNDWI) (Xu, 2006) in early June, an outbreak the previous year,
the size of the human population, wetlands and the type of avian flyways. Model
validation with 2012 and 2013 data showed a good level of prediction; thus, July
temperature anomalies and MNDWI can be considered determinants for WNV
transmission in Europe. These models indicate that risk maps for WNV transmis­
sion can be assembled with up-to-date anomalies of July temperatures for a given
year along with the MNDWI (Semenza et al., 2016).
These two environmental determinants lend themselves for an integration of
environmental monitoring in public health surveillance systems of human cases,
serological surveillance of domestic and wild avifauna, and entomological sur­
veillance (Ozdenerol et al., 2013; Kwan et al., 2012; Semenza and Zeller, 2014).
Figure A11-7 displays the spatial heterogeneity of the probability of WNV infec­
tion per district in 2012 and 2013 as predicted by this model (Tran et al., 2014).
Central and Eastern Europe, Turkey, Israel, and Tunisia were predicted to have
higher risk values for 2012. In comparison with Figure A11-6, WND cases were
notified in all of the predicted high-risk areas, except in Ukraine, and Turkey.
Tunisia, Northern Italy, Northern Greece, Central Europe, and South Russia
scored the highest predicted values in agreement with main areas of transmis­
sion in 2013 (see Figure A11-7). These findings indicate that the variables in this
model can in part describe the variability in WNV transmission in Europe at the
district level. Applying temperature anomalies for July can produce short-term
and even long-term predictive maps of the probability of WNV infections.
Needless to say, besides these environmental/climatic drivers, biological
drivers such as the presence and abundance of avian hosts and mosquito vec­
tors of WNV need to be better described in order to more accurately predict the
transmission of WNF in Europe (Paz and Semenza, 2013).

Dengue Dispersal Through Air Traffic

Dengue is by far the most significant mosquito-borne viral disease affect­
ing humans globally, but there is currently no efficacious vaccine available for
dengue (Simmons et al., 2012; Capeding et al., 2014). Tens of millions of cases
occur annually resulting in approximately 20,000–25,000 deaths predominantly
in children (Gubler, 2002; Mackenzie et al., 2004; Simmons et al., 2012; WHO,
2013; Bhatt et al., 2013). Transmission occurs largely in tropical and subtropical
regions of the world, threatening almost half of the world’s population (WHO,
2013). In continental Europe limited outbreaks have occurred in areas infested by
two of the mosquito vectors, Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti. Aedes aegypti
is the predominant mosquito vector that transmits the dengue virus to humans,
whereas Aedes albopictus is a less effective vector (Lambrechts et al., 2010).
Ae. aegypti is not present on continental Europe but was first reported in
2005 on the Portuguese island of Madeira and has subsequently invaded the
320 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A11-7 Map of predicted probability of WNV infection based on environmental

predictors, Europe and neighbouring countries, 2012 and 2013.

SOURCE: Tran et al., 2013. Reproduced with permission from BioMed Central.

APPENDIX A 321

southern part of the island (ECDC, 2012). In Europe, Ae. albopictus has been
reported in at least 15 countries (either established or recently recorded) and
continues to broaden its reach. The development period for Ae. albopictus begins
in April and dwindles off in October/November based on entomological monitor­
ing activities in the Mediterranean (Giatropoulos et al., 2012; Tran et al., 2013;
Zitko and Merdic, 2014); however, the time of peak activity for Ae. albopictus
are the summer months.
Travellers from the tropics or subtropics, can be considered at risk for dengue
virus (DENV) infection (Gardner et al., 2012). Through international air travel,
infected travellers can arrive in Europe during their viremic period, and be bit­
ten by local Aedes mosquitoes (Vaughn et al., 2000). These infected mosquitos
can subsequently transmit DENV locally and trigger an outbreak. In Europe,
transmission has in fact occurred in areas where Aedes mosquitoes are present
(La Ruche et al., 2010; Gjenero-Margan et al., 2011). In 2010, two dengue cases
without recent travel history or blood transfusion were recognized in Southern
France (La Ruche et al., 2010) and two other dengue cases in Croatia (Gjenero-
Margan et al., 2011). Thus, for the first time in decades, local transmission had
occurred in Europe. In 2012, an epidemic of over 2,000 dengue cases erupted in
Madeira, Portugal, in areas where Ae. aegypti is known to be present (ECDC,
2012).
With the goal to quantify the risk of dengue importation in areas where
local transmission could occur (due to the presence of the vector) we took into
account the global disease burden and seasonality of dengue, the volume and
seasonal fluctuations of travellers originating from dengue-affected areas, and the
seasonality and distribution of competent mosquito populations within Europe
(Semenza et al., 2014). We developed a model based on 2010 data that relates
air travellers from dengue affected areas to dengue importation to Europe. Over
5.8 million air passengers entered Europe from dengue-affected areas in 2010;
country-level arrival by month is illustrated in Figure A11-8 (Semenza et al.,
2014). The final European destinations were mapped as a function of the volumes
of global air travellers arriving from areas with dengue activity during 2010; the
spatial extent of the Ae. albopictus distribution (from the E3 data repository) was
overlaid (see Figure A11-9). Milan and Rome received over half, and Barcelona
14 percent of these travellers that enter Europe from dengue-active/affected areas
(Semenza et al., 2014).
Imported dengue cases were significantly related to the monthly number of
travellers arriving from dengue-affected locations. We developed a hierarchical
multivariate model for imported dengue cases in 2010: the adjusted incidence
rate ratio was 1.09 with a 95 percent confidence interval of [1.01–1.17] for every
10,000 traveller increase (Semenza et al., 2014). This corresponds to a 9 percent
increase in the incidence of imported cases for every additional 10,000 travel­
lers arriving from dengue-affected areas, all other predictors in the model being
constant. In August, September, and October the rate ratio was 1.70 (95% CI:
322 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A11-8 Country-level destination of international air travellers from dengue-

affected areas, by month, 2010.

SOURCE: Semenza et al., 2014. Available from PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases under

Creative Commons license.

1.23–2.35), 1.46 (95% CI: 1.02–2.1), and 1.35 (95% CI: 1.01–1.81), respectively
(Semenza et al. 2014).
This empirical model for 2010 aims to quantify the association between the
number of monthly in-coming travellers with the number of monthly dengue
importations at the country level. The main driver of dengue importation and
its pattern into EU countries can be described with high spatial and temporal
resolution international air traffic data (see Figure A11-9) (Semenza et al., 2014).
Moreover, the model accounts for dengue seasonality in the origin countries since
APPENDIX A 323

FIGURE A11-9 Airport-level final destination of international travellers from dengue-

affected areas by quarter for 2010, overlaid with the presence of Ae. albopictus, 2010.
SOURCE: Semenza et al., 2014. Available from PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases under
Creative Commons license.

dengue presence was recorded by month and documents that the importation risk
for 2010 was the highest between August and October.
Disease dispersal through international air traffic is the inevitable conse­
quence of globalization. Pathogen introduction is difficult to intercept, and public
324 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

health has to resort to early detection, rapid response, and effective control
measures to contain potential dengue establishment and spread (Hufnagel et al.,
2004; Semenza and Zeller, 2014). The approach presented here could be trans­
lated to other settings in support of integrated surveillance of human cases and
vectors (Lindgren et al., 2012; Semenza et al., 2014; Suk and Semenza, 2014).
Such empirical models lend themselves to guide public health responses and can
be developed into early warning systems of emerging risks (Nichols et al., 2014;
Semenza et al., 2013).

Conclusion
Vector-borne diseases are a threat to global public health, including Europe.
Mounting an effective public health response to these threats obviously in­
cludes awareness rising among the general public, public health practitioners,
and policy makers about disease vectors and their relationship with infectious
diseases. Exposure prevention through personal protection and vector control
are essential activities of effective public health practice. However, intercepting
the emergence and spread of vector-borne diseases can contain escalating human
and financial costs of a potential epidemic. Monitoring environmental/climatic
precursors of these outbreaks through early warning systems can help predict the
emergence and spread of vector-borne diseases (Nichols et al., 2014; Semenza et
al., 2013). Forecasts and predictions can be developed by linking the monitoring
of environmental/climatic precursors to dedicated disease surveillance systems
with integrated vector surveillance of invasive and endemic vector species as
described in this chapter.
In recognition of the above, the European Commission emphasises the need
to strengthen public health preparedness, including surveillance and monitoring.
Specifically, DG SANCO acknowledges the importance of the E3 Network:
By connecting these sources of information, the E3 network should bolster
European early warning for climate-related disease events. It should also en­
able forecasting and risk mapping of infectious disease incidence in relation
to environmental changes. (Commision of the European Communities, 2009)

Monitoring the upstream environmental, climatic, and socioeconomic drivers

of disease can provide the lead time for a swift public health response in order to
contain human and financial costs associated with VBD emergence and spread
in the European Union.

Acknowledgments
I am grateful for the contribution of my collaborators to these E3 projects;
in particular Drs. B. Sudre, J.E. Suk, M. Rossi, T. Oni, E. Lindgren, S. Paz, A.
Tran, J. Sears, W. Van Bortel, H. Zeller, V. Estevez and K. Kahn.
APPENDIX A 325

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APPENDIX A 329

A12

DISRUPTION OF INSECT TRANSMISSION OF PLANT VIRUSES1

Anna E. Whitfield 2 and Dorith Rotenberg

Summary
Plant-infecting viruses are transmitted by a diverse array of organisms in­
cluding insects, mites, nematodes, fungi, and plasmodiophorids. Virus interac­
tions with these vectors are diverse, but there are some commonalities. Generally
the infection cycle begins with the vector encountering the virus in the plant and
the virus is acquired by the vector. The virus must then persist in or on the vector
long enough for the virus to be transported to a new host and delivered into the
plant cell. Plant viruses rely on their vectors for breaching the plant cell wall to
be delivered directly into the cytosol. In most cases, viral capsid or membrane
glycoproteins are the specific viral proteins that are required for transmission and
determinants of vector specificity. Specific molecules in vectors also interact with
the virus and while there are few-identified to no-identified receptors, candidate
recognition molecules are being further explored in these systems. Due to the
specificity of virus transmission by vectors, there are defined steps that represent
good targets for interdiction strategies to disrupt the disease cycle. This review
focuses on new technologies that aim to disrupt the virus–vector interaction and
focuses on a few of the well-characterized virus–vector interactions in the field.
In closing, we discuss the importance of integration of these technologies with
current methods for plant virus disease control.

Introduction
The virus transmission cycle involves host-finding, feeding and acquisition
of virus, transport and delivery of virus to a new host plant (see Figure A12-1).
Each step in the transmission process provides an opportunity for interdiction.
Strategies for disrupting transmission are the focus of this review and we high­
light recent biotech-based approaches to reduce vectorial capacity and popula­
tionreduction approaches that utilize the specificity of the virus–vector interaction
to target insects.

1 Reprinted from Current Opinion in Insect Science, Vol. 8, Pages 79-87, Copyright 2015, with

permission from Elsevier.

2 Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66502, USA.
330 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

FIGURE A12-1 The transmission cycle for insect-borne plant viruses. Each step in the
transmission process represents a unique opportunity for disruption

Overview of the Mechanisms and Methods of Plant Virus Transmission

Plant virus transmission by insects is classified into two major categories:
non-circulative and circulative transmission. The non-circulative-externally borne
viruses associate with specific cuticular structures of the insect stylet or foregut
(see Figure A12-2) and the attached virus particles are lost during the insect molt
(reviewed in Ng and Falk, 2006; Blank et al., 2014).
Non-circulative viruses are transmitted in a non-persistent or semi-persistent
manner which means that they are acquired within seconds to minutes of feeding
and transmitted rapidly as well. Semi-persistent viruses require longer periods
to be acquired and transmitted (minutes to hours). By contrast, the circulative
or internally-borne viruses require a greater time for acquisition and transmis­
sion (hours to days) and must traverse the gut and reach the salivary glands for
transmission to occur. These viruses are not lost during insect molts and have a
latent period between initial acquisition and transmission. The latent period is
synonymous with extrinsic incubation period in animal vector biology. For all
types of insect transmission, viral determinants of transmissibility have been de­
fined. For the non-circulative viruses, some viruses bind directly to insect stylets
or foreguts and other viruses need the assistance of another viral protein(s) that
serves as a bridge between the insect structures and the virion (Chen et al., 2011;
APPENDIX A 331

FIGURE A12-2 Viruses localize to different sites in the plant-feeding insect vector de­
pending on their modes of transmission. Non-circulative viruses bind to the insect stylet
(see inset) or foregut. Non-propagative circulative (yellow circles) viruses are generally
phloem limited and move through the insect body via the midgut or hindgut. Circulative
viruses enter the hemolymph and then enter the salivary glands. By contrast, circulative
propagative viruses (red ovals) tend to enter the insect through the midgut and replicate
in insect tissues. Some propagative viruses are phloem limited while others are widely
distributed in plant tissues. The salivary glands are the final destination for circulative
transmission, and viruses reach the salivary glands via the hemolymph or other routes
such as the nervous tissue (neurotropic route) or through connective tissues. Inset: Mag­
nification of an insect stylet showing the proposed site of virion attachment at the tip of
the stylet in the common duct region. Letters designate the different strategies for virion
binding and retention in the stylet: capsid strategy, direct binding of coat protein to the
stylet (a), helper component strategies for caulimoviruses, two virus proteins serve as a
‘bridge’ between the virion and the stylet (b) and potyviruses, one virus protein (HC-Pro)
binds to the aphid stylet and to the virus (c).
SOURCES: Modified from Blanc et al., 2014, and Ammar et al., 2009.
332 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

Liu et al., 2006; Lung and Pirone, 1974; Govier and Kassani, 1974). For the
circulative viruses, the viral capsid proteins and glycoproteins have been identi­
fied as viral determinants of insect transmission (reviewed in Hogenhout et al.,
2008). Similarly, for the viruses transmitted by soil-dwelling plant–virus vectors
(nematodes, fungi, and plasmodiophorids) the viral coat protein(s) is responsible
for binding and retention in the vector (Ohki et al., 2010; Andret-Link et al.,
2004; Adams et al., 2001). Despite being transmitted by different mechanisms,
the requirement of a viral protein–insect molecular interaction is a consistent
theme in transmission by insects and provides a common target for interrupting
the transmission process.

Blocking Virus Transmission with Viral Capsid Proteins and Glycoproteins

Viral proteins are required for attachment and/or entry into the insect vector.
Therefore, exploiting these proteins for their specific binding affinities to vector
tissues is an obvious approach for blocking virus acquisition and transmission.
For all the vector-borne plant viruses, a specific viral protein(s) is required for
virus transmission. Genomes of plant viruses are quite small, and defining the
viral attachment protein(s) (VAP) has been completed for diverse and seemingly
intractable virus–vector systems. Using this knowledge, recombinant VAP can
be used to (1) reduce transmission of viruses by blocking virus binding and sub­
sequent dissemination in the vector and (2) reducing the vector population using
the viral protein to deliver toxic cargo to the insect (see Table A12-1).

Exploiting Viral Proteins to Control Vectors of Circulative Viruses

For circulative viruses, the structural proteins of the viral capsid are the de­
terminants of insect vector specificity (reviewed in Grey et al., 2014). The route
of virus dissemination has been well-characterized for members of the family
Luteoviridae and the coat protein (CP) and the readthrough extension of the coat
protein are required for transmission. Luteovirids are small icosahedral virions
(25–30 nm) that are composed of a major coat protein and a minor protein that
has a carboxy-terminal extension termed the readthrough domain (RTD). Initial
virus entry occurs in the insect gut and the specific region for entry varies with
virus species, occurring in the midgut or hindgut. Several studies have docu­
mented that the coat protein is sufficient for delivery of virus into the hemocoel
and the RTD is crucial for transmission. It is thought that the salivary glands are
the barrier to transmission of particles with mutations in the RTD (Brault et al.,
2000; Peter et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2009). Knowledge of Pea enation mosaic virus
(PEMV) CP binding and movement through the insect gut was used to target a
hemocoel-active toxin to aphids (Bonning et al., 2014). The authors found that
a recombinant CP fused to non-viral toxin peptides could be delivered via trans­
cytosis from the aphid gut to the hemocoel to be aphicidal.
TABLE A12-1 A Summary of Strategies Used to Disrupt Plant Virus–Vector Interactions
I n p la n t a
Mode of exp erime nts
Disruption strategy Virus Vector transmission con ducte d R ef e r e n c e s
Blocking virus entry Rice ragged stunt virus Planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens Circulative, Yes Guoying et al., 1999;
into vector using a (RRSV, Oryzavirus, p ro pa g a t iv e Shao et al., 2003
v ir a l p r ot e i n Reoviridae)
Tomato yellow leaf Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci Circulative No Wang et al., 2014

curl virus (TYLCV,

Begomovirus,

Geminiviridae)

Tomato spotted Thrips, Frankliniella Circulative, Yes Whitfield et al., 2004,

wilt virus o c c i d e nta l i s p r o pa g at i v e 2008; Montero-Astua et

(TSWV, Tospovirus, al., 2014

Bunyaviridae)

Viral coat protein/ Pea enation mosaic Aphids, Acyrthosiphon pisum, Circulative Yes B o nn i n g et a l . , 2 0 1 4
toxin fusions virus (PEMV, Myzus persicae, Aphis glycines
Enamovirus, and Rhopalosiphum padi a
Luteoviridae)
Insect-gut binding PEMVb Aphids, A. pisum, M. persicae Circulative No L i u e t a l . , 20 1 0 ; C h o g u l e
peptide/toxin fusions et al., 2013
Targeting vector Rice stripe virus (RSV, Planthopper, Laodelphax Circulative, No Huo et al., 2014
proteins that interact Tenuivirusc) striatellus d p r o pa g at i v e
with virus
a A.glycines and R. padi do not transmit PEMV but were susceptible to the PEMV CP-toxin fusion protein.
b Peptide identified to bind aphid vector guts and reduced PEMV access to insect hemocoel.

c Member of a floating virus genus; tenuiviruses are closely related to the family Bunyaviridae however they lack an envelope.

d Disrupted transovarial transmission by RNA-interference of vitellogenin.

333
334 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

The benefit of using this system is that luteovirids are transmitted specifically
by aphids. Additionally, the insect gut is not the major barrier to luteovirids entry
into the insect and the salivary gland appears to be a more significant barrier to
aphid transmission of these viruses. Additionally, the CP-toxin fusion killed non-
vector aphids but had no apparent effect on an off-target lepidopteran species,
Heliothis virescens. Begomoviruses are transmitted in a similar circulative man­
ner by whitefly vectors and the viral CP was shown to bind to whitefly midguts
and reduce the amount of virus in whiteflies in feeding experiments (Wang et al.,
2014). The ability of viral CPs to bind to insect guts and block virus entry indi­
cates that preventing virus entry and delivering toxic peptides may prove to be
transmission inhibition-based approaches for other viruses that circulate through
the insect body.
An alternative strategy to CP-mediated transport of toxins to aphid vectors
has been documented with the use of aphid gut-binding peptides. A bio-panning
approach identified a 12 amino acid peptide that bound to pea aphid guts (Liu et
al., 2010). Interestingly, this peptide, GBP3.1, reduced PEMV abundance in the
vector for up to 70 minutes after acquisition of the peptide. Although the primary
amino acid sequence of GBP3.1 was dissimilar to the PEMV CP sequence, struc­
tural similarity was identified between the peptide and a specific surface loop of
the viral protein, suggesting that reduced virus abundance may have resulted in
competitive binding for gut molecules between the peptide and the virus.
The utility of this aphid binding peptide has been exploited to expand the
target range of a Bacillus thuringiensis cytolytic toxin, Cyt2Aa (Chougule et al.,
2013). The GBP3.1 peptide was incorporated into the surface loops of the toxin
and the modified toxin bound aphid membranes. The modified toxin retained
activity and was found to be toxic to Acyrthosiphon pisum and Myzus persicae.
Modification of insect-specific toxins with the addition of aphid-binding peptides
and/or virus CP is a promising new control strategy for vector and non-vector
aphids.

Disruption of Transmission of Circulative,

Propagative Viruses Using Viral Proteins

Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) is an enveloped negative strand RNA

virus and the type member of the genus Tospovirus within the family Bunya­
viridae. Tospoviruses are transmitted in a circulative-propagative manner exclu­
sively by thrips vectors, including Frankliniella occidentalis, the western flower
thrips (Whitfield et al., 2005). Efficient transmission to plants requires that thrips
acquire TSWV during the larval stages to transmit as adults. When vector com­
petent larval thrips feed on infected tissue, the virus enters the insect midgut,
initiates a high titer infection in the gut, and then disseminates to the salivary
gland tissues. The virus traverses several membrane barriers en route from the
vector midgut to salivary glands (Kritzman et al., 2002; Nagata et al., 2002;
APPENDIX A 335

Moritz et al., 2004), and virus titer was documented to be positively correlated
with the number of TSWV transmission events by individual female and male
thrips (Rosenberg et al., 2009). Collectively, these studies highlight the impor­
tance of virus accumulation and spread in the vector as quantitative determinants
of a successful transmission event.
The structure of the TSWV virion is characteristic of members of the family
Bunyaviridae, and the virion is spherical and composed of an outer membrane
envelope derived from the host. Two glycoproteins (GPs) are embedded in the
membrane and project from the surface. The GPs are designated GN and GC and
thrips transmission of TSWV maps to the M segment, the viral RNA that encodes
the GPs (Sin et al., 2005).
Due to the unique biology of the TSWV–thrips interaction, there is a nar­
row window of opportunity for virus acquisition during larval development that
is a good target for blocking virus entry. Defining the molecular determinants of
a plant virus–vector interaction enabled the development of novel virus control
strategies that aim to specifically disrupt the interaction. TSWV acquisition is
mediated by the molecular interaction between the virus membrane glycoprotein
GN, which serves as a viral attachment protein, and the thrips midgut. Previ­
ously, we found that an exogenously-applied soluble form of GN (GN-S) inhibits
TSWV binding, acquisition (Whitfield et al., 2004), and transmission to a plant
host (Whitfield et al., 2008). We generated transgenic tomato plants expressing
a soluble form of GN and found that thrips that fed on these transgenics had
significantly lower virus titers and adult transmission efficiencies than thrips fed
on TSWV-infected non-transgenic tomato plants (Montero-Astúa et al., 2014).
These results demonstrate that an initial reduction in virus infection of the larval
insect midgut can result in a significant decrease in virus titer and transmission
over the life-span of the vector.
The inhibition results with GN-S and TSWV are supported by the results of
research with Rice ragged stunt virus, which is a Reovirus that is transmitted in
a circulative, propagative manner by rice brown planthoppers (Guoying et al.,
1999; Shao et al., 2003). In those experiments, the viral spike protein inhibited
virus transmission and insects that were fed a nonstructural virus protein exhib­
ited no transmission inhibition. These results support the concept of disrupting
the insect-mediated transmission of viruses via viral attachment proteins. Future
work with this transmission-blocking strategy will focus on the spectrum of ef­
ficacy, that is, does TSWV GN block other related tospoviruses and transmission
by other thrips vectors. This research is important because new tospoviruses of
significance to agriculture have been recently described including Soybean vein
necrosis-associated virus (SVNaV) and a naturally-occurring interspecies reas­
sortant between Groundnut ringspot virus (GRSV) and Tomato chlorotic spot
virus (TCSV) (Zhou et al., 2011; Webster et al., 2011).
336 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

Potential for Disruption of Transmission of Noncirculative Viruses

Similar strategies as those described above for circulative viruses may pro­
vide reasonable methods for disrupting transmission of non-circulative viruses
due to the specific nature of binding and retention documented for these viruses.
The non-circulative viruses generally bind to cuticular surfaces of the insect
body including the insect stylet and foregut. Many of the stylet-borne viruses are
associated with specific regions of the stylet, and virions that are successfully
transmitted to host plants are those that bind to the distal tip of the stylet where
the food and salivary canals merge (Uzest et al., 2007; Wang et al., 1996).
Work with Cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) binding to aphid stylets has
also directed attention to the presence of a specialized region of the aphid maxil­
lary stylet termed the “acrostyle,” an electron-dense area where virions of CaMV
are specifically retained (Uzet et al., 2010). For the semi-persistent criniviruses,
virion bind to the whitefly foregut and the minor coat protein (CPm) is the VAP
(Chen et al., 2004). For Cucumber mosaic virus, the coat protein is the primary
determinant of aphid transmission and helper proteins have not been identified.
Specific regions of the virion including a surface loop and the quasi-threefold axis
of symmetry have been shown to be essential for virus transmission by aphids
(Liu et al., 2002; Bricault and Perry, 2013). Plants and bacteria have been engi­
neered to produce viral proteins that bind to the insect stylet or foregut. Using
these tools, determining if excess helper component or coat protein can compete
with virions to saturate binding sites in the vector to subsequently prevent virus
attachment is an exciting avenue to pursue for this category of vector-transmitted
viruses.

Disruption of Other Insect-Borne Plant Pathogens

Much like with plant viruses, recent work has focused on blocking trans­
mission of other arthropod-borne plant pathogens. The plant pathogenic bac­
terium, Xylella fastidiosa, is transmitted by hemipteran (leafhopper) vectors
and is retained in the vector foregut. Unlike non-circulative plant viruses, X.
fastidiosa cells attach to the foregut and replicate in the insect and this is termed
non-circulative propagative transmission. Like plant viruses, the bacterial cells
that attach to the foregut are lost during insect molts. Progress has been made
toward identifying the bacterial components of the interaction, pointing to afim­
brial adhesins as playing a major role in pathogen attachment to the vector
(Killiny and Almeida, 2009). Complementary studies using antibodies to various
bacterial cell-associated proteins and molecules confirmed the role of afimbrial
adhesins (carbohydrate-binding proteins) in transmission (Killiny et al., 2012).
Additionally, competition assays with lectins and carbohydrates confirmed the
importance of these host carbohydrate-bacterial protein interactions in X. fas­
tidiosa transmission by leafhopper vectors. Exogenous application of excess
amounts of N-acetylgucosamine carbohydrates reduced pathogen transmission
APPENDIX A 337

indicating that this specific carbohydrate may be a vector component recognized

by X. fastidiosa, facilitating binding of bacteria to the vector foregut (Killiny et
al., 2012). Conversely, competition experiments with carbohydrate-binding pro­
teins (lectins) also disrupted the interaction presumably by binding the carbohy­
drates on the foregut attachment site and blocking X. fastidiosa attachment. This
work supports the hypothesis that pathogen retention in insect vectors is mediated
by specific interactions and highlights commonalities in vector transmission of
diverse types of pathogens.

Potential Use of RNAi for Disruption of Plant Virus Transmission

RNAi is an insect control approach that can also be used to directly target in­
sect vectors and is considered to be the basis for the next generation of transgenic
plants designed for insect pest control (Gordon and Waterhouse, 2007). RNAi is
an attractive option for plant-feeding insects because dsRNA can be delivered
via transgenic expression in plants, transiently-expressed by viral vectors (i.e.,
attenuated plant viruses), or exogenously-applied by soil drench or foliar sprays
to plants. For insect control, silencing of an insect gene by endogenous RNAi
cellular machinery is triggered by delivery of dsRNA of the same sequence to
the gene transcript into the cell. Once inside, dsRNA is recognized by Dicer, an
RNAse III enzyme that cleaves the RNA into short interfering RNAs (siRNAs).
The siRNAs are incorporated into the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC)
which then targets the degradation of homologous transcript sequences by the
activity of the endonuclease, Argonaute. In insects, systemic silencing occurs
when the dsRNA signal spreads in the body of the insect by cellular uptake
mechanisms that are still under investigation for various insect pest species. For
example, several well-characterized insect genomes have SID orthologs, multi-
spanning transmembrane proteins essential for systemic RNAi in Caenorhabditis
elegans, while other mechanisms including endocytosis (V-ATPases) and scav­
enger receptor-mediated and other pattern recognition receptor-mediated uptake,
that is, innate immunity, have been proposed (Huvenne and Smagghe, 2010;
Winston et al., 2002; Feinberg and Hunter, 2003). Functional analysis of genes
implicated in these cellular processes in insects including virus vectors remains
a need. To add to the mystery, to date, there is no evidence of the presence of
RNA-dependent RNA polymerase in insects and therefore amplification of the
RNAi signal, a process that leads to transitive RNAi as documented for ticks,
C. elegans, and plants (Gordon and Waterhouse, 2007).
The success of RNAi varies depending on the insect species and devel­
opmental stage targeted, dsRNA delivery method, length and concentration of
dsRNA input, and gene target (Scott et al., 2013). An effective target for several
insect vectors of plant viruses has been the V-ATPase gene and has been shown
to reduce insect life-span and egg production (Yao et al., 2013; Khan et al.,
2013). Genome and transcriptome-wide data-mining projects will likely aid in the
338 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

identification of additional RNAi gene targets unique to vector insects, thereby

addressing concerns of off-target effects. In addition, the discovery of essential
interactions for vector transmission may yield additional targets for pest control
and reduction of virus transmission by RNAi. Targeting the vector components
is challenging because of the relatively large genome sizes and ploidy of insect
vectors (Hanrahan and Johnston, 2011; Jacobson et al., 2013), and vector trans­
mission strategies among vector–virus systems are vastly different, and thus
insect gene targets are likely more diverse and may vary between tissue types
(i.e., receptors in guts vs. salivary glands) in the same insect vector. Despite chal­
lenges of working with non-model insects, significant progress has been made in
defining vector molecules that interact with viruses.

Virus-Interacting Proteins for Circulative, Propagative Viruses

Propagative viruses have been the focus of proteomics examination of viral–
vector interactions. A common theme emerging is the involvement of insect
proteins associated with virus transport and dissemination in the vector. A yeast
two-hybrid screen with the reovirus, Southern rice black-streaked dwarf virus
(SRBSDV), and the planthopper vector, Sogatella furcifera, revealed 153 putative
interactions between P7-1, the major nonstructural viral protein that induces host
cell tubular structures that serve as conduits for virus movement, and the insect
vector (Mar et al., 2014). Key partners identified in the screen are consistent with
the role that P7-1 is thought to play in virus movement (cytoskeletal network
and endomembrane system) and the potential insect host response to infection
(ubiquitin proteasome and nervous system). Experiments with the tenuivirus Rice
stripe virus (RSV) and the vector, Laodelphax striatellus, revealed insect proteins
that also provide insight into the biology of tissue tropism in the vector (Huo et
al., 2014). Using a yeast two hybrid screen, vitellogenin, the major yolk protein
precursor of egg-laying animals, was identified to interact with the RSV major
nucleocapsid protein, pc3. In this study, RNAi-knockdown of vitellogenin tran­
scripts demonstrated the importance of the protein in transovarial transmission
of the virus. These findings support the hypothesis that RSV directly binds and
‘hijacks’ the vitellogenin transport route to enter L. striatellus oocytes.
In a separate study, vitellogenin was the most abundant transcript in RSV-
infected planthoppers in a global gene expression analysis indicating that in ad­
dition to possibly capitalizing on the natural route of vitellogenin into oocytes,
induced expression of this protein may enable more efficient transovarial passage
of the virus (Zhang et al., 2010). Proteomic analysis of F. occidentalis in response
to TSWV infection identified 26 protein spots that varied in density between the
virus-infected and non-infected larval thrips (Badillo-Vargas et al., 2012). The
differential proteins included nine proteins that are putatively associated with
steps in the viral infection cycle of entry and exit from insect vector cells (i.e.,
localization to membranes and protein transport) and 14 proteins associated with
APPENDIX A 339

response to stimuli, including nine that are potentially involved in the defense
response to TSWV infection. Virus-interacting proteins and proteins that respond
to virus infection provide potential targets for disruption of transmission and/or
for silencing by RNAi.

Virus-Interacting Proteins for Circulative, Nonpropagative Viruses

A variety of virus-binding and responsive proteins have been identified using
a combination of protein-protein interaction discovery methods including virus
overlay, yeast two-hybrid, co-immunoprecipitation, and proteomics. For luteo­
virids transmitted by aphids, the development of aphid offspring from crosses be­
tween efficient and inefficient vectors, Schizaphis graminum, enabled the genetic
mapping of barriers to transmission (gut vs. salivary gland) and provided a re­
source for identification of proteins associated with vector competence (Burrows
et al., 2006; Yang et al., 2008; Tamborindeguy et al., 2013). Virus overlays and
proteomics both revealed the importance of cyclophilins which are proposed
to play a role in virus transcytosis through the insect gut and possibly salivary
gland tissues. The presence and abundance of cyclophilin proteins and isoforms
has been associated with vector competence in the S. graminum F2 genotypes
of genetic crosses biotypes and field collected biotypes (Tamborindeguy et al.,
2013). Other proteins identified to interact with viruses in the genera Luteovirus
and Polerovirus include cytoskeletal proteins such as actin and tubulin; additional
endocyctic pathway proteins RACK1, GAPDH3, and luciferase-like proteins; and
cuticular proteins with chitin-bind 4 domains (Burrows et al., 2006; Yang et al.,
2008; Tamborindeguy et al., 2013; Seddas et al., 2004; Cilia et al., 2011). The
peptide (GBP3.1) that was found to bind pea aphid guts and reduce the PEMV
delivery into the insect hemocoel was also found to bind to a large aphid protein
that was identified as an aminopeptidase, a candidate receptor for entry of luteo­
viruses into the gut of the aphid vector (Chougule et al., 2013).

Virus-Interacting Proteins for Noncirculative Viruses

Vector proteins have also been implicated in binding and transmission of
non-circulative viruses. Virus overlay assays identified two types of green peach
aphid (M. persicae) proteins that bound to the helper component protein of potyvi­
ruses. Zucchini yellow mosaic virus (ZYMV) helper component protein (HC-Pro)
bound to cuticular proteins extracted from whole aphid bodies (Dombrovsky et
al., 2010), and using a similar approach but enriching for aphid heads (the stylet
is site of virus attachment) ribosomal S2 proteins bound to Tobacco etch virus
(TEV) HC-Pro (Fernandez-Calvino et al., 2006). Because non-circulative viruses
bind to specialized regions of the insect stylet or foregut, it is hypothesized that
once virus binding partners in the vector are identified, strategies to saturate
binding sites can be deployed to prevent viral protein binding and subsequent
340 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

transmission. Verifying virus–vector protein interactions in vivo is an essential

step in documenting the validity of interactions identified under in vitro condi­
tions or using heterologous systems such as yeast two-hybrid screens. The use
of RNAi and advanced imaging technologies will be an important component of
interaction studies and has already proven to be useful for validation of interac­
tions identified within vectors of propagative viruses.

Closing Remarks
Our global community faces the mounting threat of newly emergent and
re-emerging viruses on the world food supply. Of those viruses, 70 percent of
plant-infecting viruses are transmitted from one host to another by arthropod
vectors (Hogenhout et al., 2008). As the human population increases from 7 bil­
lion to a predicted 9 billion by 2050, it is crucial that plant science research aims
to bolster food security by developing reliable, safe, and sustainable plant virus
control strategies. The identification of unique steps in the viral infection cycle
that enable the design of molecules that interfere with the infection process is a
promising approach for virus disease control. The development of new biotech-
nology-based strategies to reduce transmission by vectors and to decrease vector
populations is attractive because they target pathways in the transmission cycle.
However, the long-term effectiveness of these control methods relies on their
judicious use and incorporation into existing virus-control and vector-control
regimes. One approach to increase the durability of the new biotech-based control
strategies would be to “stack” these novel traits with traditional virus and vec­
tor resistance genes or combine multiple biotech approaches such as deploying
transgenic plants that co-express a viral protein to block virus acquisition and
dsRNA hairpins to target vital genes in vector populations. The integration of
new technologies with traditional integrated pest management strategies (IPM)
such as altering planting date and reflective mulches to reduce vector landing
rates will also extend the shelf-life of biotechnological traits. This is particularly
important for managing resistance to viruses as they have great potential for ge­
netic change and have been shown to rapidly overcome single-target resistance
strategies (Lafforgue et al., 2011; Lopez et al., 2011).
Other promising strategies that deserve further exploration for vectors of
plant viruses include, firstly, insect transgenesis and secondly, microbial manipu­
lation to reduce vector transmission (Alphey, 2014). Transgenic insects expressing
viral dsRNA have been shown to elicit RNAi to reduce virus loads and prevent
dissemination to the salivary glands (Franz et al., 2006), thus rendering these
transgenics refractory to virus. This type of strategy could be applied to circula­
tive, propagative plant viruses. An alternative transgenic approach is population
suppression by introduction of a lethal gene into the population. The development
of the ‘release of insects carrying a dominant lethal genetic system’ (RIDL) has
been highly effective for mosquito vectors of human-infecting pathogens in lab
APPENDIX A 341

experiments (Alphey, 2014; Alphey and Alphey, 2014; Massonnet-Bruneel et

al., 2013).
There are several field studies that have examined the effectiveness and
persistence of the transgenic insect strategy (Harris et al., 2012; Lacroix et al.,
2012). For insect vectors that reproduce sexually, the RIDL technology could
provide new ways to reduce plant vector populations. Metagenomics and micro­
biome studies have directed attention to the influence of microbes on multiple
biotic processes and ecological interactions, including virus transmission. The
use of microbial manipulation to alter vector competence and/or capacity is an
emerging field of study. For example, the mosquito-Wolbachia system has led
to exciting findings and several examples of pathogen reduction and stimulation
have been documented (Martinez et al., 2014; van den Hurk et al., 2012; Dodson
et al., 2014). Wolbachia and other endosymbionts are commonly found in plant-
feeding insects and the potential role of microbes in transmission by plant virus
vectors warrants further exploration and manipulation (Zhang et al., 2010; Bing
et al., 2014; see also Pinheiro et al., 2015). With the increase in tools available
for the control of viruses and their vectors, the next phase of this research is to
move discoveries from the lab to the field. With the vast array of tools available
and the collaborative networks that can be developed, it appears that virologists
will be up for the challenge of feeding a growing global population while keeping
our environment healthy and productive.

Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the USDA NIFA/AFRI grant numbers 2012-
68004-20166 and 2007-35319-18326 and by the National Science Foundation
CAREER grant IOS-0953786. Contribution no. 15-281-J from the Kansas Agri­
cultural Experiment Station.

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 Appendix B

Agenda

DAY ONE: TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16, 2014

8:45–9:15: Registration and continental breakfast

9:15–9:30: Welcoming remarks and overview: David A. Relman,

James M. Hughes, Lonnie King

SESSION I OVERVIEW OF VECTOR–HOST–

ENVIRONMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS

Moderator: Mary Wilson

9:30–10:15: Emerging vector-borne diseases in the United States: What is

next, and are we prepared?
Lyle Petersen, Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention

10:15–11:00: The past, present, and future of vector-borne plant diseases

Rodrigo Almeida, University of California, Berkeley

11:00–11:45: Changing patterns of vector-borne diseases in animals

domestically and globally
William Karesh, EcoHealth Alliance

11:45–12:30: DISCUSSION

347

348 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

12:30–1:15: LUNCH

SESSION II THE CHANGING LANDSCAPE

FOR VECTOR-BORNE DISEASES

Moderator: James M. Hughes

1:15–1:45: Arbovirus evolution, vector competence, and virulence

models: Changing patterns of infection
Rebecca Rico-Hesse, Baylor College of Medicine

1:45–2:15: Vector-borne disease emergence and spread in the European

Union
Jan Semenza, European Centre for Disease Control
and Prevention

2:15–2:45: Arbovirus disease surveillance capacity in the United States

James Hadler, Yale University

2:45–3:15: BREAK

3:15–3:45: Recent introductions and spread of dengue and chikungunya

in the Caribbean and the Americas
Hal Margolis, Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention

3:45–4:15: The changing epidemiology and geographic spread of

leishmaniasis and Chagas disease
James Maguire, Harvard Medical School

4:15–4:45: Changing paradigms for tick-borne diseases in the Americas

Christopher Paddock, Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention

4:45–5:15: Blood donation screening for vector-borne diseases

Susan Stramer, American Red Cross

5:15–6:00: DISCUSSION

6:00: ADJOURNMENT
APPENDIX B 349

DAY TWO: WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17, 2014

8:30–9:00: Registration and continental breakfast

9:00–9:15: Welcome and summary of day one: David Relman

SESSION III KEY FACTORS AND DRIVERS—CLIMATE,

TRAVEL, LAND USE, TRANSPORTATION, AND TRADE

Moderator: Lonnie King

9:15–9:45: Recent weather extremes and impacts on agricultural

production and vector-borne disease outbreak patterns
Ken Linthicum, U.S. Department of Agriculture

9:45–10:15: Globalization, land use, global warming, and the invasion of

West Nile virus
Marm Kilpatrick, University of California, Santa Cruz

10:15–10:45: BREAK

10:45–11:15: The impact of environmental factors on mosquito-parasite

interactions
Matt Thomas, Pennsylvania State University

11:15–11:45: Dengue, chikungunya, and malaria surveillance and response

in Latin America and the Caribbean: The role of the Pan
American Health Organization
Luis Gerardo Castellanos, Pan American Health
Organization

11:45–12:30: DISCUSSION

12:30–1:15: LUNCH

SESSION IV NOVEL APPROACHES AND INTERVENTION

STRATEGIES FOR VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE CONTROL

Moderator: Gerald Keusch

1:15–1:45: Why did Gorgas succeed? (And why have we failed?)

Paul Reiter, Institute Pasteur
350 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

1:45–2:15: Towards the diagnosis and prognosis of emerging vector-

borne diseases
Barry Beaty, Colorado State University

2:15–2:45: Malaria eradication strategies at the Gates Foundation

Alan Magill, The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation

2:45–3:00: BREAK

3:00–3:30: Development and evaluation of transgenic insects for use in

the control of insect-borne disease
Luke Alphey, Pirbright Institute

3:30–4:00: Exploiting the specificity of virus–vector interactions for new

disease control strategies
Anna Whitfield, Kansas State University

4:00–4:30: Dengue, Japanese encephalitis, West Nile, chikungunya, and

yellow fever: Challenges for the development and use of
vaccines
Thomas Monath, Harvard Medical School

4:30–5:15: DISCUSSION

5:15–5:30: CLOSING REMARKS AND ADJOURNMENT

 Appendix C

Acronyms

AFHSC Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center

APHIS Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
APHL Association of Public Health Laboratories

BTV bluetongue virus

CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

CHIKV chikungunya virus

DDSS Dengue Decision Support System

DDT dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
DENV dengue virus
DF dengue fever
DHF dengue hemorrhagic fever
DSS dengue shock syndrome
DTP dengue transmission potential
DV dengue virus

ECDC European Center for Disease Control

EIS Epidemic Intelligence Service
ENSO El Niño–Southern Oscillation

HAT human African trypanosomiasis

HFRS hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome

351

352 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

IOM Institute of Medicine

ITM insecticide-treated material
ITN insecticide-treated bed net
IVCC Innovative Vector Control Consortium

JEV Japanese encephalitis virus

NIAID National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases

NIH National Institutes of Health
NMCP National Malaria Control Programme

OIE Office International des Epizooties

PAHO Pan American Health Organization

PCR polymerase chain reaction
PD Pierce’s disease of grapevines

RIDL release of insects carrying dominant lethal

RNA ribonucleic acid
RNAi RNA interference
rRT-PCR real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction
RVF Rift Valley fever
RVFV Rift Valley fever virus

SLE St. Louis encephalitis

SLEV St. Louis encephalitis virus
SNV Sin Nombre virus
SOI Southern Oscillation Index
SST sea surface temperature
subsp. subspecies

TBE tick-borne encephalitis

VBD vector-borne disease

VEE Venezuelan equine encephalitis
VEEV Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus
VP viral structural protein

WHO World Health Organization

WNV West Nile virus

YF yellow fever
YFV yellow fever virus
 Appendix D

Glossary

Agent (of disease): Factor such as a microorganism whose presence is essential

for the occurrence of a disease.

Anopheles: A genus of mosquitoes that includes all mosquitoes that transmit

malaria to humans.

Anopheline: Any of various mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles, which can carry
the malaria parasite and transmit the disease to humans.

Anthroponotic: Transmission from human to human and potentially from hu­

man to animal.

Antibiotic: Class of substances that can kill or inhibit the growth of some groups
of microorganisms. Used in this report to refer to chemicals active against bacte­
ria. Originally antibiotics were derived from natural sources (e.g., penicillin from
molds), but many currently used antibiotics are semisynthetic and modified with
additions of man-made chemical components. See Antimicrobials.

Antibiotic resistance: Property of bacteria that confers the capacity to inactivate

or exclude antibiotics or a mechanism that blocks the inhibitory or killing effects
of antibiotics.

Antimicrobials: Class of substances that can destroy or inhibit the growth of

pathogenic groups of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, parasites, and
fungi.

353

354 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

Arboviral diseases: Shortened form of arthropod-borne virus. Any of a group of

viruses that are transmitted to man and animals by mosquitoes, ticks, and sand
flies; they include such agents as yellow fever and eastern, western, and Venezu­
elan equine encephalitis viruses.

Arthropod: As used in this report, refers to insects and ticks, many of which are
medically important as vectors of infectious diseases.

Arthropod-borne: Capable of being transmitted by insect and tick (arthropod)

vectors.

Asymptomatic: Presenting no symptoms of disease.

Bacteria: Microscopic, single-celled organisms that have some biochemical and

structural features different from those of animal and plant cells.

Chagas disease: A potentially life-threatening illness caused by the protozoan

parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. Predominantly found in Latin America, T. cruzi is
commonly transmitted to humans and other mammals by an insect vector.

Climate: Average meteorological conditions over a specified time period, usually

at least a month, resulting from interactions among the atmosphere, oceans, and
land surface. Climate variations occur over a wide range of spatial and temporal
scales.

Climate change: A change of climate attributed directly or indirectly to human

activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and is in addition to
natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.

Climate extremes: Used to represent weather extremes (see definition below),

but viewed over seasons (e.g., droughts), or longer periods.

Climate variability: Refers to variations or deviations from the mean state of the
climate or temporal variations of the atmosphere–ocean system around a mean
state measure over a long period of time. Typically, this term is used for time
scales longer than those associated with synoptic weather events (i.e., months
to millennia and longer). The term natural climate variability is further used
to identify climate variations that are not attributable to or influenced by any
activity related to humans. However it is recognized that such internal or natural
variability could be affected by external factors driving climate change such as
changes in the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases. The El Niño–
Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon is a good example of the variability in
the coupled oceanic and atmosphere system that is a central factor in short-term
APPENDIX D 355

climate variability and the interannual time scale (http://www.cpc.noaa.gov/

products/analysis_monitoring/ensostuff/prelude_to_ensofaq.shtml; http://www.
ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/outreach/coral/coralenso.html; http://www.sws.uiuc.edu/
atmos/statecli/Climate_change/glossary.htm [accessed March 29, 2016]).

Communicable disease: An infectious disease transmissible (as from person

to person) by direct contact with an infected individual or the individual’s dis­
charges or by indirect means (as by a vector).

Dengue/dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF): A vector-borne viral disease, den­

gue is transmitted between people by the mosquitoes Aedes aegypti and Aedes
albopictus, which are found throughout the world. Dengue fever (DF) is caused
by any of four closely related viruses, or serotypes, dengue 1–4. Infection with
one serotype does not protect against the others, and sequential infections put
people at greater risk for DHF and dengue shock syndrome (DSS).

Disease: As used in this report, refers to a situation in which infection has elicited
signs and symptoms in the infected individual; the infection has become clini­
cally apparent.

Ecosystem: Mutually interrelated communities of species and abiotic compo­

nents, existing as a system with specific interactions and exchange of matter,
energy, and information.

El Niño: A warming of the surface waters of the tropical Pacific that occurs every
3 to 5 years, temporarily affecting weather worldwide.

Elimination: Cessation of transmission in a country, continent, or other limited

geographic area; complete prevention of a clinical presentation of disease.

Emerging infection: Either a newly recognized, clinically distinct infectious

disease or a known infectious disease whose reported incidence is increasing in
a given place or among a specific population.

Emerging infections: Any infectious disease that has come to medical atten­
tion within the last 2 decades or for which there is a threat that its prevalence
will increase in the near future (IOM, 1992). Many times, such diseases exist in
nature as zoonoses and emerge as human pathogens only when humans come
into contact with a formerly isolated animal population, such as monkeys in a
rain forest that are no longer isolated because of deforestation. Drug-resistant
organisms could also be included as the cause of emerging infections since they
exist because of human influence. Some recent examples of agents responsible
356 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

for emerging infections include human immunodeficiency virus, Ebola virus,

multidrug resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and influenza A (H1N1).

Encephalitis: An acute inflammatory disease of the brain due to direct viral inva­
sion or to hypersensitivity initiated by a virus or other foreign protein.

Endemic: Present in a community or common among a group of people; said of

a disease prevailing continually in a region.

Enzootic: A disease of low morbidity that is constantly present in an animal

community.

Epidemic: Appearance of an abnormally high number of cases of infection in a

given population.

Epidemiology: Study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states

or events in specified populations. Epidemiology is the basic quantitative science
of public health.

Epizootic: A disease of high morbidity that is only occasionally present in an

animal community.

Eradication: Reducing the incidence of a disease to zero worldwide, such that

further control measures are unnecessary; total interruption of transmission.

Extreme weather: Refers to weather phenomena that are at the extremes of

the historical distribution and are rare for a particular place and/or time, espe­
cially severe or unseasonal weather. Such extremes include severe thunderstorms,
severe snowstorms, ice storms, blizzards, flooding, hurricanes, high winds, and
heat waves. For example, although flooding is common in the United States,
the impacts of flooding are not consistent from year to year through time. Many
years of small floods with little impact may be followed by a single large flood
with a sizable loss (e.g., the June 2008 flooding in the Midwestern United
States) (http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/impacts/resources/glossary.html; http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extreme_weather; http://www.sws.uiuc.edu/atmos/statecli/
General/Illinois-climate-narrative.htmn [accessed March 29, 2016]).

Extrinsic incubation period: Time required for the development of a disease

agent in a vector from the time of uptake of the agent to the time the vector is
infective.

Globalization: The increased interconnectedness and interdependence of peoples

and countries is generally understood to include two interrelated elements: the
APPENDIX D 357

opening of borders to increasingly fast flows of goods, services, finance, peo­

ple, and ideas across international borders; and the changes in institutional and
policy regimes at the international and national levels that facilitate or promote
such flows (http://www.who.int/trade/glossary/story043/en/index.html [accessed
March 29, 2016]).

Herd immunity: A reduction in the probability of infection that is held to apply

to susceptible members of a population in which a significant proportion of the
individuals are immune because the chance of coming in contact with an infected
individual is less.

Host (disease): Person or other living animal that affords subsistence or lodgment
to an infectious agent under natural conditions.

Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT): HAT is a protozoan parasitic disease

of people and animals, caused by Trypanosoma brucei and transmitted by the
tsetse fly. The disease is endemic in some regions of sub-Saharan Africa, covering
about 36 countries and 60 million people.

Incidence: Number of cases of a disease commencing, or of persons falling ill,

during a given period of time in a specified population. Incidence rate is the
number of new cases of a specific disease diagnosed or reported during a defined
interval of time divided by the number of all persons in a defined population
during the same time.

Infection: The invasion of the body or a part of the body by a pathogenic agent,
such as a microorganism or virus. Under certain conditions the agent develops or
multiplies, the results of which may produce injurious effects. Infection should
not be confused with disease.

Intermediate host: A host that is normally used by a parasite in the course of its
life cycle and in which it may multiply asexually but not sexually.

Kinetoplastid: A group of flagellated protozoa characterized by the presence of

one or two flagella in the cell body and a kinetoplast within the mitochondrion.
As human parasites, kinetoplastids are associated with Chagas disease, HAT, and
leishmaniasis.

La Niña: Cooler-than-normal sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern

tropical Pacific ocean that impact global weather patterns. La Niña conditions
recur every few years and can persist for as long as 2 years.
358 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

Microbe: A microorganism or biologic agent that can replicate in humans (in­

cluding bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungi, and prions).

Mitigation: Initiatives that reduce the risk from natural and man-made hazards.
With respect to climate change, mitigation usually refers to actions taken to re­
duce the emissions or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases.

Morbidity: Diseased condition or state.

Mortality: The quality or state of being mortal; the number of deaths in a given
time or place; the proportion of deaths to population.

Outbreak: Localized occurrence as opposed to a generalized epidemic.

Pandemic: Epidemic occurring over a wide geographic area and affecting an

exceptionally high proportion of the population.

Parasite: An organism living in, with, or on another organism.

Pathogen: Organism capable of causing disease.

Pathogenic: Capable of causing disease.

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): A laboratory technique used to make multi­

ple copies of a segment of DNA. PCR is very precise and can be used to amplify,
or copy, a specific DNA target from a mixture of DNA molecules.

Prevalence: Proportion of persons in a population currently affected by a par­

ticular disease. Prevalence rate is the number of cases of a specific disease at a
particular time divided by the population at that time living in the same region.

Protozoa and protozoan parasites: Protozoa are microscopic, unicellular organ­

isms that can be free living or parasitic in nature. They are able to multiply in
humans, which contributes to their survival and also permits serious infections to
develop from just a single organism. Transmission of protozoa that live in a hu­
man intestine to another human typically occurs through a fecal–oral route (e.g.,
contaminated food or water or person-to-person contact). Protozoa that live in
the blood or tissue of humans are transmitted to other humans by an arthropod
vector (for example, through the bite of a mosquito or sand fly).

Reservoir: Any person, animal, arthropod, plant, soil, or substance (or combi­
nation of these) in which an infectious agent normally lives and multiplies, on
APPENDIX D 359

which it depends primarily for survival, and in which it reproduces itself in such
manner that it can be transmitted to a susceptible vector.

Rickettsial disease: Infection caused by a variety of obligate intracellular, Gram-

negative bacteria that are usually transmitted by ectoparasites such as fleas, lice,
mites, and ticks.

Rift Valley fever: Rift Valley fever is a viral zoonosis that primarily affects ani­
mals but also has the capacity to infect humans. Infection can cause severe dis­
ease in both animals and humans. The disease also results in significant economic
losses due to death and abortion among RVF-infected livestock. The virus was
first identified in 1931 after an epidemic struck sheep on a farm in the Rift Valley
of Kenya. Since then, outbreaks have been reported in sub-Saharan and North
Africa. In 1997–1998, a major outbreak occurred in Kenya, Somalia, and Tanza­
nia, and in September 2000, cases were confirmed in Saudi Arabia and Yemen,
marking the first reported occurrence of the disease outside the African continent
and raising concerns that it could extend to other parts of Asia and Europe (http://
www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs207/en/ [accessed March 29, 2016]).

RNA interference (RNAi): RNAi is a biological process in which RNA mol­

ecules inhibit gene expression, typically by causing the destruction of specific
mRNA molecules.

rRT-PCR: A real-time polymerase chain reaction is a laboratory technique of

molecular biology based on the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which is used
to amplify and simultaneously detect or quantify a targeted DNA molecule.

Salmonella: A genus of bacteria that cause typhoid fever, food poisoning, and
enteric fever from food poisoning.

Species barrier: Difficulty or impossibility for an infectious agent to pass from

one species to another (due to differences between species).

Subclinical infection: An infection where the patient does not have any apparent
symptoms (also known as an asymptomatic infection).

Syndrome: A group or recognizable pattern of symptoms or abnormalities that

indicate a particular trait or disease.

Transmission: Process by which a pathogen passes from a source of infection

to a new host.
360 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

Universal precautions: The use of gloves, protective garments, and masks when
handling potentially infectious or contaminated materials.

Vaccine: A preparation of living, attenuated, or killed bacteria or viruses, frac­

tions thereof, or synthesized or recombinant antigens identical or similar to those
found in the disease-causing organisms that are administered to raise immunity
to a particular microorganism.

Vector: A carrier—especially an arthropod—that transfers an infective agent

from one host (which can include itself) to another.

Vector-borne: Transmitted from one host to another by a vector.

Vector-borne disease: (1) Mechanical: this includes simple mechanical carriage

by a crawling or flying insect through soiling of its feet or proboscis or by passage
of organisms through its gastrointestinal tract. This does not require multiplica­
tion or development of the organism. (2) Biological: propagation (multiplication),
cyclic development, or a combination of these (cyclopropagative) is required
before the arthropod can transmit the infective form of the agent to humans. An
incubation period (extrinsic) is required following infection before the arthropod
becomes infective. The infectious agent may be passed vertically to succeeding
generations (transovarian transmission); transstadial transmission indicates its
passage from one stage of the life cycle to another, as nymph to adult. Transmis­
sion may be by injection of salivary gland fluid during biting, or by regurgitation
or deposition on the skin of feces or other material capable of penetrating the bite
wound or an area of trauma from scratching or rubbing. This transmission is by
an infected nonvertebrate host and not simple mechanical carriage by a vector or
vehicle. However, an arthropod in either role is termed a vector.

Viremia: The presence of virus in the blood of a host.

Virulence: The ability of any infectious agent to produce disease. The virulence
of a microorganism (such as a bacterium or virus) is a measure of the severity of
the disease it is capable of causing.

Xylem: The vascular tissue in plants that conducts water and dissolved nutrients
upward from the root and also helps to form the woody element in the stem.

Zika virus: ZIKV is a member of the Flaviviridae virus family and the Flavi­
virus genus. In humans, it causes a disease known as Zika fever. It is related to
dengue, yellow fever, and West Nile and Japanese encephalitis, viruses that are
also members of the virus family Flaviviridae.
APPENDIX D 361

Zoonoses: Microbes that are naturally transmitted between animals and humans
that cause disease in human populations but can be perpetuated solely in nonhu­
man host animals (e.g., influenza, rabies).

Zoonotic infection: Infection that causes disease in human populations but can
be perpetuated solely in nonhuman host animals (e.g., bubonic plague); may be
enzootic.
 Appendix E

Speaker Biographies

Rodrigo Almeida, Ph.D., is an associate professor in ecology of emerging infec­

tious diseases at the University of California, Berkeley. His research focuses on
insect-borne plant pathogens, addressing questions on what allows these organ­
isms to be successful in causing disease, how they interact with vectors and host
plants, and how they spread in time and space. An ultimate goal of his interdis­
ciplinary research is to generate information that will assist in the development
of practices that can reduce the impact of emerging diseases. He is a Fulbright
and Marie Curie fellow, and received the American Phytopathological Society’s
Early Career Award in 2012, among other awards.

Luke Alphey, Ph.D., is a leader in the emerging field of genetic pest management,
focusing particularly on mosquitoes. He is a nonexecutive director of Oxitec Ltd, a
spin-out company from Oxford University that he cofounded in 2002; he was the
research director from 2002 to 2014. Oxitec aims to control insect pests by use of
engineered sterile males of the pest insect species (RIDL males). Oxitec success­
fully conducted the world’s first outdoor experiments with a genetically modified
insect in the United States in 2006, and in 2010 showed that a wild mosquito
population could be suppressed by this genetics-based method. Dr. Alphey’s ear­
lier career focused on basic science, using Drosophila as a model system, latterly
at Oxford University. After 11 years at Oxitec he moved to The Pirbright Institute
in February 2014. Alphey was selected as a Technology Pioneer of the World
Economic Forum in 2008 and BBSRC Innovator of the Year 2014.

Barry Beaty, Ph.D., is a professor of microbiology, immunology, and pathol­

ogy at the University of Colorado. His current research efforts have involved

363

364 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

understanding the epidemiology of vector-borne diseases; arbovirus maintenance

in nature and transmission to humans; development of rapid, clinically relevant
diagnostic tests for improved arbovirus surveillance, prevention, and control strat­
egies; and for improving patient care. For the past 20 years, he has investigated
dengue virus epidemiology and molecular epidemiology in the Yucatan, dengue
molecular determinants of severe disease, dengue virus–Aedes aegypti associa­
tions and interactions, differential diagnosis of Flavivirus infections in Mexico
(e.g., differential diagnosis of dengue and West Nile virus [WNV] infections), and
development of rapid clinically relevant tests for Flavivirus surveillance (e.g.,
a blocking ELISA test for WNV infections, which is now widely used in Latin
America). Current research efforts include development of (1) a metabolomics-
based LC-MS/MS approach for identification of small molecular biomarkers in
acute phase serum, urine, and saliva for diagnosis of dengue virus infections and
for prognosis of severe disease outcomes (dengue hemorrhagic fever and shock
syndrome; (2) molecular mosquitocides (a novel RNAi-nanoparticle, target-spe­
cific approach) for control of insecticide-resistant mosquito vectors; and (3) novel
casa segura-based approaches for protecting the domicile from hematophagous
arthropods and pathogen transmission.

Luis Gerardo Castellanos, M.D., Ph.D., M.P.H., was born in the Republic of
Guatemala where he started his university studies to receive a degree in medicine
from the University of San Carlos of Guatemala. Later he worked as a profes­
sor at the medical school of the same university until 1990 when he began his
graduate studies in the United States. In 1991 he received the title of Master of
Public Health from the University of Puerto Rico, and in 1994 he also received
his Ph.D. in epidemiology from the School of Public Health at the University of
South Carolina. Between 1994 and 1996, Dr. Castellanos completed the Epidemic
Intelligence Service (EIS) training program in field epidemiology of the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), with particular focus on outbreak in­
vestigation, prevention, and control. In 1997, he joined the Pan American Health
Organization (PAHO) as a consultant for disease prevention and control, serving
in Honduras, Brazil, Mexico and the Mexico–United States Border Office, based
in El Paso, Texas. Since 2011, Dr. Castellanos has assumed the role of senior
advisor and chief of the Neglected Tropical and Vector-borne Diseases Unit at
PAHO headquarters in Washington, DC. During his career Dr. Castellanos has
published scientific articles, and assisted many countries in the Americas, both in
routine training and research activities, as well as technical support in the inves­
tigation, prevention, and control of outbreaks, emergencies, and natural disasters.

James Hadler, M.D., M.P.H, is currently clinical professor of epidemiology and

public health at the Yale University School of Public Health and a consultant to
the New York City Department of Health and to the Council of State and Ter­
ritorial Epidemiologists (CSTE). Recently, he was the lead consultant for CSTE
APPENDIX E 365

for a national arbovirus surveillance capacity assessment in 2013, a member of

the CDC’s Infectious Disease Board of Scientific Counselors, his term ending
several months ago, and an original member of CDC’s Biosurveillance Advisory
Subcommittee (term ending 2012). Dr. Hadler was the state epidemiologist and
director of the Infectious Diseases Division at the Connecticut Department of
Public Health for nearly 25 years before leaving full-time state service in 2008.
As part of his responsibilities, he was involved in development of the Connecticut
response to a wide range of emerging infectious disease issues, including HIV,
tuberculosis, and Lyme disease in the 1980s; West Nile virus in 1999; anthrax
in 2001; and SARS in 2003. He also was the principal investigator for the Con­
necticut Emerging Infections Program from 1995–2007 and responsible for pub­
lic health preparedness activities relating to infectious diseases. He has an M.D.
from Columbia (1972) and an M.P.H. from Yale (1982).

William Karesh, D.V.M., is the executive vice president for Health and Policy
for EcoHealth Alliance. He is also the president of the World Organisation for
Animal Health (OIE) Working Group on Wildlife Diseases and chairs the Inter­
national Union for the Conservation of Nature SSC Wildlife Health Specialist
Group. From 2009, he has served as the technical director for the U.S. Agency
for International Development (USAID) Emerging Pandemic Threats PREDICT
program. Mr. Karesh has pioneered initiatives focusing attention and resources
on solving problems created by the interactions among wildlife, people, and their
animals. He coined the term “One Health” and created the “One World–One
Health” initiative to encourage linkages among public health, agriculture, and
environmental health agencies and organizations around the world. He has lead
programs and projects in more than 60 countries, covering terrain from Argentina
to Zambia. Mr. Karesh is internationally recognized as an authority on the subject
of animal and human health linkages and wildlife. He has published more than
160 scientific papers and numerous book chapters, and written for broader audi­
ence publications such as Foreign Affairs and The Huffington Post.

A. Marm Kilpatrick, Ph.D., is assistant professor in ecology and evolutionary

biology at the University of California, Santa Cruz. He has authored more than
60 publications on many aspects of disease ecology including papers in Science,
Nature, PNAS, Lancet, PLoS Biology, and PLoS Pathogens. His work focuses
on the drivers of pathogen transmission, including land use, host community
composition, climate, the spread of pathogens to new regions, and the effects of
disease on animal populations.

Kenneth J. Linthicum, Ph.D., is presently the director of the Center for Medi­
cal, Agricultural and Veterinary Entomology, U.S. Department of Agriculture-
Agricultural Research Service in Gainesville, Florida. He received his B.A., M.A.,
and Ph.D. degrees in zoology/biology from the University of California, Los
366 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

Angeles. He retired from the U.S. Army in 2001. Since 2004 he has directed a
major Agricultural Research Service facility, consisting of four research units,
employing 60 scientists and 150 support personnel. His scientific interests include
vector and disease control, systematics, arbovirology, malaria, rickettsial diseases,
and applications of geographic information systems and remote sensing to disease
surveillance and epidemiology. His research findings have been published in 203
papers in the national and international scientific literature, and presented in more
than 341 papers given at national and international scientific meetings. He was
the recipient of the John I. Davidson Award for Practical Papers by the American
Society for Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, the 2010 Federal
Laboratory Consortium Lab Director of Year award, a 2013 Finalist for the Samuel
J Heyman Service to America Awards National Security and International Affairs
Medal, and is president-elect of the American Mosquito Control Association.

Alan Magill, M.D., is director of the malaria program at The Bill & Melinda
Gates Foundation in Seattle, Washington. Magill is board certified in internal
medicine and infectious diseases. He is a professor of medicine at the University
of Washington in Seattle, Washington, and has dual appointments as associate
professor of medicine and associate professor of preventive medicine and bio­
metrics at the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences in Bethesda,
Maryland. His primary research interests have been in malaria and leishmani­
asis. His focus has been on new product development in vaccines, drugs, and
diagnostics. Previous positions include program manager (2009–2012) at the
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency where he developed and enabled a
plant-based vaccine production capability. He retired after 27 years active duty
service in the U.S. Army in 2010. He was formerly the director of the Division
of Experimental Therapeutics and the science director at the Walter Reed Army
Institute of Research in Washington, DC. Magill was previously the head of
parasitology at the Naval Medical Research Center Detachment in Lima, Peru,
and the head of clinical research for the Malaria Vaccine Development Unit of the
U.S. National Institutes of Health. He is a faculty member for the Gorgas Course
in Clinical Tropical Medicine in Lima, Peru, and a sought-after speaker on travel
and tropical medicine-related topics. He participates in numerous national and
international advisory committees and workshops. He is the current president of
the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene and a past president of
their Clinical Group and a past president of the International Society of Travel
Medicine. He is the lead editor of the 9th edition of Hunter’s Tropical Medicine,
the premier clinical textbook of tropical medicine. He is also a medical editor of
the CDC Health Information for International Travel (the yellow book) for 2010,
2012, 2014, and 2016. He has authored more than 75 peer-reviewed publications,
135 abstracts, and 13 book chapters. He is a master of the American College of
Physicians, a fellow of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, and a fellow
of the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.
APPENDIX E 367

James Maguire, M.D., M.P.H., is professor of medicine at Harvard Medical

School and senior physician at Brigham and Women’s Hospital in Boston. He is
an infectious disease specialist who has conducted epidemiological and clinical
research on parasitic diseases, primarily Chagas disease in Brazil, leishmaniasis
in Brazil and Bangladesh, and malaria in Latin America and Thailand. He was
clinical director of the Division of Infectious Disease at Brigham and Women’s
Hospital and on the faculty of Harvard’s Schools of Medicine and Public Health
until 2001, the chief of the Parasitic Diseases Branch at CDC until 2005, and later
head of the Division of International Health at the University of Maryland School
of Medicine before returning to Boston in 2008.

Harold S. Margolis, M.D., is chief of the Dengue Branch at the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in San Juan, Puerto Rico. He is a gradu­
ate of the University of Arizona, College of Medicine, and completed a pediatric
residency at the University of Colorado, Denver. In 1975, he joined CDC as an
EIS officer and subsequently held several leadership positions, including director
of the Division of Viral Hepatitis. In 2004, he became director of the Pediatric
Dengue Vaccine Initiative (PDVI), a program located at the International Vaccine
Institute in Seoul, Korea, and funded by The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
While at PDVI, the program advanced five dengue vaccines into clinical trials,
evaluated the performance of commercially available dengue diagnostic tests,
established potential vaccine trial sites, and established regional public health
networks to support introduction of dengue vaccines. Margolis is a fellow of the
American Academy of Pediatrics and Infectious Diseases Society of America. He
is the author or coauthor of over 200 peer-reviewed publications.

Thomas P. Monath, M.D., is a consultant to the biotechnology industry. He

is chief medical officer of Hookipa BioTech AG and chief technical officer of
PaxVax Inc, where he is engaged in development of new vaccines. His expertise
and experience cut across discovery research, process and analytical develop­
ment, manufacturing, preclinical and clinical development, and regulatory affairs.
Monath is also a venture partner at Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers and is a
director of Sentinext plc, Rapid Micro Biosystems Inc, and US Biologics Inc.
Between 1992 and 2012 he was adjunct professor, Harvard School of Public
Health. Between 1992 and 2006, Monath was chief scientific officer and an
executive director, Acambis Inc. (a publicly traded biopharmaceutical company
recently acquired by Sanofi Pasteur) where he pioneered the development of
ChimeriVax vaccines against dengue, West Nile, and Japanese encephalitis; vac­
cines against yellow fever, Clostridium difficile, and Helicobacter pylori; as well
as a cell-based smallpox vaccine. Monath received his undergraduate degree and
M.D. from Harvard and trained in internal medicine at the Peter Bent Brigham
Hospital, Boston. Col. Monath retired from the U.S. Army in 1992 after 24 years
in the uniformed services (Army and U.S. Public Health Service). Between 1973
368 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

and 1988, he was director, Division of Vector-Borne Viral Diseases, CDC, Fort
Collins, Colorado, and from 1989 to 1992 chief, Virology Division, U.S. Army
Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases. He has worked overseas in
Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Cameroun, Argentina, Ecuador, and elsewhere doing field
research on arboviruses and hemorrhagic fevers. In 1972, he discovered the ro­
dent reservoir of Lassa fever virus. He received the Nathanial A. Young Award
(1984), the Richard M. Taylor Award (1996), and the Walter Reed Medal (2002)
from the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene and was president
of that society (2004–2005). From 1998 to 2000, Monath was senior science
advisor to the director of the Central Intelligence Agency. He has been a leader
in the One Health initiative.

Christopher Paddock, M.D., M.P.H.T.M., is a rickettsiologist and pathologist

at the CDC in Atlanta, Georgia. Paddock received his B.S. and M.S. degrees
in entomology at the University of California, Davis, in 1981 and 1986, re­
spectively, and his M.D. and M.P.H.T. M. degrees at Tulane University in New
Orleans, Louisiana, in 1990. He completed his residency in anatomic pathology
and laboratory medicine at the University of California, San Francisco, in 1995.
His employment with CDC began in 1996, as medical officer in the Viral and
Rickettsial Zoonoses Branch, where he worked until taking a position as staff
pathologist with the Infectious Disease Pathology Branch from 2003 to 2014.
He now serves as the team lead for the Reference Diagnostics and Microbiology
Activity in the Rickettsial Zoonoses Branch at CDC. He has authored or co­
authored approximately 160 scientific publications and 20 book chapters. His
research interests include clinical, diagnostic, and epidemiologic aspects of
rickettsial diseases, primarily newly recognized spotted fever group rickettsioses.

Lyle R. Petersen, M.D., M.P.H., has served as the director of the Division
of Vector-borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, since
2004. Petersen began his training at the University of California, San Diego,
where he received an undergraduate degree in biology. He then studied medi­
cine at the University of California, San Francisco, where he was awarded a
Regent’s Scholarship. After medical school, Petersen completed his internship
and residency in internal medicine at Stanford University. He then joined Tulane
University’s tropical medicine research efforts in Cali, Colombia before start­
ing CDC’s EIS applied epidemiology training program in 1985. After his EIS
training at the Connecticut State Health Department, he joined the CDC’s Divi­
sion of HIV/AIDS where he worked until 1995. During that time, he completed
CDC’s Preventive Medicine Residency Program, received an M.P.H. degree
from Emory University, and served in several posts, including chief of the HIV
Seroepidemiology Branch. From 1996 to February 2000, Dr. Petersen guided
Germany’s efforts in creating a new national infectious disease epidemiology
program at the Robert Koch Institute in Berlin. From 2000 to 2003, he served as
APPENDIX E 369

the deputy director for science of the Division of Vector-Borne Diseases. He is the
author of more than 175 scientific publications. Dr. Petersen has been the recipi­
ent of several scientific awards including the Charles B. Shepard Science Award,
the Alexander D. Langmuir Award, James H. Nakano Citation, and twice the
HHS Secretary’s Award for Distinguished Service. Dr. Petersen’s current research
focuses on the epidemiology of arboviral and bacterial vector-borne zoonoses.

Paul Reiter, Ph.D., has worked for his entire career on the natural history,
biology, and control of mosquitoes and the epidemiology of the diseases they
transmit. Dr. Reiter spent 22 years with the Centers for Disease Control and Pre­
vention, including several years working on Saint Louis encephalitis in Memphis,
Tennessee, 14 years on dengue in Puerto Rico, and 2 years on West Nile virus at
the Harvard School of Public Health. He has participated in a number of epidemic
investigations, including yellow fever, dengue, chikungunya, and Ebola hemor­
rhagic fever. In 2003, Dr. Reiter moved to the Institute Pasteur, Paris, to launch a
new unit of Insects and Infectious Diseases. His research remains field-orientated
with special attention to West Nile virus and chikungunya in Europe. He has also
been a lead player in the debate on global warming and vector-borne disease
and his two decades of efforts as a “skeptic” have been exonerated in the latest
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

Rebecca R. Rico-Hesse, Ph.D., M.P.H., is a professor in the Department of Mo­

lecular Virology and Microbiology, in the section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine,
and in the National School of Tropical Medicine at Baylor College of Medicine,
Houston, Texas. Prior to this, she was a scientist at the Texas Biomedical Re­
search Institute, San Antonio, and assistant/associate professor at Yale University
School of Medicine. She received her doctoral degree from Cornell University
in 1985 and trained as a Postdoctoral Fellow at the CDC. After being raised in
a small city in northern Mexico, she was inspired to become a virologist after
seeing the impact of rabies virus on animals and humans in the area and the ex­
tensive effects of an epidemic of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus on equids
in Mexico and Texas. She did her theses research on equine encephalitis viruses,
and worked on these, dengue, and other viral hemorrhagic fever viruses at the
Yale Arbovirus Research Unit and in the BSL4 laboratory at TBRI. Her current
research focuses on dengue virus transmission and pathogenesis in a mouse
model of disease that mimics human infection, in “humanized” mice that can be
infected by mosquito bites.

Jan C. Semenza, Ph.D., M.P.H., is the head of the Health Determinants Pro-
gramme at the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, where he
directs the work on environmental and social determinants of infectious diseases.
He is particularly interested in early warning systems for emerging infectious
disease threats. He was an epidemic intelligence service officer at the CDC in
370 GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE

1995, when he led the CDC response to the heat wave in Chicago for which he
received a Certificate of Commendation. As part of his work with the regional
offices of World Health Organization (WHO) including EURO, PAHO, and
EMRO, he provided technical and scientific advice to the countries within their
region, particularly on polio and measles eradication. He conducted public health
projects in Uzbekistan, Sudan, Egypt, Denmark, Brazil, and Haiti through CDC,
WHO, USAID, and nongovernmental organizations. Semenza was a faculty
member at the University of California (UC), Berkeley, UC Irvine, Oregon
Health and Science University, and at Portland State University where he taught
in the Oregon Masters Program of Public Health. His research has been published
in high-impact journals such as Cell, New England Journal of Medicine, Lancet
ID, Science, Nature Climate Change, and in several books.

Susan Stramer, Ph.D., is the executive scientific officer at American Red Cross
(ARC) and assistant laboratory director, National Testing Laboratories. Prior to
joining ARC, Dr. Stramer worked for the Diagnostics Division of Abbott Labo­
ratories. She also was a principal investigator for the ARC investigational new
drug application for nucleic acid amplification testing and numerous other studies
related to infectious disease testing. Dr. Stramer was the president of AABB in
2012–2013 and previously chaired or served on numerous committees of the
AABB and serves on the editorial board of the journal Transfusion. She serves
on advisory committees for blood centers internationally and diagnostic test kit
manufacturers. She received numerous American Red Cross awards including
the President’s Award. Along with collaborators, she also received the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention’s Charles C. Shepard Science Award, and
was nominated twice more for the same award. She also received the Herbert
Perkins Scientific Lecture Award. Dr. Stramer has authored or coauthored more
than 250 peer-reviewed articles and abstracts. She received her B.S. and M.S.
degrees in biological sciences from Northern Illinois University and her doctorate
in bacteriology from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Dr. Stramer also was
a postdoctoral research fellow at the hepatitis branch, CDC.

Matt Thomas, Ph.D., obtained his Ph.D. at the University of Southampton in

the United Kingdom. From 1991 to end of 2002 he worked as a postdoc and then
research fellow at the Centre for Population Biology at Silwood Park, Imperial
College London. He then took up a position as a senior lecturer and then reader
in Population Biology and Biological Control at Imperial College. At the end of
2005 he joined CSIRO Entomology in Australia as a senior principal research
scientist. In 2008 he moved to the United States as professor of entomology at
Pennsylvania State University. He has interests in various aspects of the ecology
and evolution of pests and diseases, with practical experience in a range of sys­
tems in both temperate and tropical settings. His current research focuses on the
ecology and control of mosquito vectors.
APPENDIX E 371

Anna E. Whitfield, Ph.D., is an associate professor in the Department of Plant

Pathology at Kansas State University (KSU). Her research emphasis is the biol­
ogy of plant–virus–vector interactions, and the long-term goal of her research
is to develop biologically based strategies for controlling viruses and arthropod
vectors in agricultural croplands and greenhouses. She specializes in negative-
sense RNA viruses that are transmitted in a propagative manner by arthropod
vectors. Her research aims are to (1) identify insect genes that are important
for virus infection of the arthropod vectors using a functional genomics-based
approach, (2) develop a better understanding of virus entry and the role of viral
glycoproteins in this process, and (3) characterize ecological plant–virus–vector
interactions at the molecular and field level. Recent work led by Dr. Whitfield
has focused on expression of viral glycoproteins in plants as a method to pre­
vent virus transmission. Other work focuses on using RNA interference (RNAi)
as a control strategy and a functional genomics tool for arthropod vectors of
plant pathogens. Dr. Whitfield was awarded an NSF-CAREER grant to study
the molecular mechanisms of Rhabdovirus–vector interactions. She teaches
graduate courses in plant virology and plant–virus–vector interactions, and in
2014, she was awarded the KSU College of Agriculture Award for Excellence
in Graduate Teaching.