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Generative processes for revitalizing historic towns or heritage districts

Article  in  URBAN DESIGN International · June 2007

DOI: 10.1057/palgrave.udi.9000194 · Source: OAI

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 URBAN DESIGN International (2007) 12, 87–99
r 2007 Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. 1357-5317/07 $30.00
www.palgrave-journals.co.uk/udi

Generative processes for revitalizing historic towns or

heritage districts

Besim S. Hakim

Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA.

Essentially this article advocates the adoption and use of dynamic generative processes for town and
neighborhood development vs the use of static blueprints of ‘master plans’ that produce fabricated built
environments. Instead, those that are the product of generative processes have attributes that can be
described as dynamic complex adaptive environments that embody the virtues of complexity and
sustainability. The article also discusses the components of a generative program and how they are utilized
for revitalization projects that are located within historic towns or heritage areas. Two case studies –
Albuquerque, New Mexico and Muharraq and Manama, Bahrain – are discussed to show how the
principles of a generative program are applied. Over time, the results of such a program for revitalization
will maintain the integrity, characteristics, and sense of place of the area by avoiding the static results that
freezes the built environment and produces museums that are of interest to tourists rather than the people
living there.1
URBAN DESIGN International (2007) 12, 87–99. doi:10.1057/palgrave.udi.9000194

Keywords: Generative process; fabricated structure; codes; proscriptive; prescriptive

Introduction Two maps from Bahrain (Figures 1a and b)

visualize the difference of the built environment
What is a generative process? The goal of this that resulted from a generative process and a pre-
planned and designed one. The latter type is
short article is to clarify what it is, and by doing so
based on a static plan in the form of a blueprint,
shed light on how it is different from the common
commonly known as a ‘master plan’ that de-
processes of development currently used in many
scribes what needs to be done and which
parts of the world. Although the study addresses
generates a fabricated structure. Whereas a gen-
the context and problems of historic towns or
erative program is one that creates built environ-
heritage districts in cities, the insight gained is
ments that are guided by a step-by-step
applicable to new development projects as well as
it is valuable for formulating policies and appro- procedure within a reasonable time frame. In
essence a generative process tells us what to do,
priate codes for projects that incorporate gen-
what actions to take to build or revitalize build-
erative processes in their implementation.
ings, rather than detailed drawings that tells us
what the end-result is supposed to be.
Author correspondence: Tel/Fax: þ 1 505 298 4711, E-mail:
arcan@sprynet.com
1
To my knowledge this approach was not considered or
discussed until the early years of this decade. Amos Rapoport
Historic towns in many parts of the world were
confirmed this – by saying ‘ y and this is a form of initially built following a generative process.2
preservation that has not yet really been considered or When confronted with the task of revitalizing
investigated.’ – in his article ‘A framework for studying
vernacular design,’ Journal of Architectural and Planning
2
Research, vol. 16, no. 1, 1999, pp. 52–64. Christopher Alexander For the analysis and findings of how this occurred in towns
in his recent four-volume book The Nature of Order, 2002– around the Mediterranean basin since antiquity including
2005, discussed a similar approach in volume 2, chapter 6, areas under Byzantine control or influence and later as a part
titled ‘Generated Structure.’ He has also published in volumes of the Islamic world. See publications by this author, some of
2 and 3 of this book built and unbuilt projects which he was which are available on:
involved in that are based on various aspects of this approach. http://www.charrettecenter.net/Hakim.
 Generative processes for revitalizing historic towns or heritage districts
B.S. Hakim
88

Figure 1a. (top) and 1b (next page) are from the city of Muharraq, Bahrain. The map on this page is a part of the
traditional fabric resulting from a generative process. Located on the next page is a partial map of a housing subdivision
from the mid-1990s, a result of a ‘master plan’ blueprint. Both maps are dated 2005, from MoMAA, Bahrain.

such historic towns today we must create the Generative system and its components
conditions that will allow a generative process to
function and thrive.3 I will put forward the essential components of a
generative system. This is adapted from my insight
of how traditional towns emerged from such a
system and from my experience in designing
3
The analogy is very clearly described by Lewis Wolpert in programs for revitalizing historic towns. It is
his book The Triumph of the Embryo, 1991, page 17 under the
sub-heading – A Developmental Programme:‘If the cells in the therefore an amalgamation from both sources.
embryo ‘‘know’’ where and when to change shape, contract, or
move, then it begins to be possible to envisage a program for A generative program must be composed of the
the development of form.’ And ‘We can think of this pattern of
cell activities as being part of the embryo’s developmental following components:
program. It is a program that contains the instructions for
making the shapes. A key feature of a generative program is I – Meta-principles comprised of ethical/legal norms
that it can be made up of quite simple instructions, yet
generate very complex forms.’ From the same author in his that is derived from the history and value system of the
Principles of Development, 1997, page 21:‘All the information for society for which such a program is proposed.
embryonic development is contained within a fertilized egg.
So how is this information interpreted to give rise to an
embryo? One possibility is that the structure of the organism is To provide a concrete example of such principles I
somehow encoded as a descriptive program in the genome, will use those that were predominant in Islamic
which contains a program of instructions for making the societies. Similar principles were also predomi-
organism – a generative program. Consider origami, the art of
paper folding. By folding a piece of paper in various nant in non-Islamic societies around the Mediter-
directions, it is quite easy to make a paper hat or a bird from ranean. The following seven meta-principles are a
a single sheet. To describe in any detail the final form of the part of ethical norms:
paper with the complex relationships between its parts is
really very difficult, and not of much help in explaining how to
achieve it. Much more useful and easier to formulate are (i) Good intentions are the basis for sound
instructions on how to fold the paper. The reason for this is decisions.
that simple instructions about folding have complex spatial (ii) The basis for action is the freedom to act
consequences. In development, gene action similarly sets in
motion a sequence of events that can bring about profound within one’s property, constrained by the
changes in the embryo. One can thus think of the genetic ethical norm of ‘Beauty without Arrogance,’
information in the fertilized egg as equivalent to the folding and by avoiding creating harm as stipulated
instructions in origami: both contain a generative program for
making a particular structure.’ in the following norms.

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Figure 1b. Continued.

Figure 2. A view of a street from the island of Paros,

Greece. The Sabat belongs to the house on the right
because the left side is supported by columns indepen-
dent of the structure on the left. Photo by Constantin
Papas from the early 1950s.

(iii) Harm to others and oneself should be

avoided, and if two damages should occur
then, and only if necessary, accept the lesser
of the two.4
(iv) Respect the rights of older established
conditions on the ground including existing
buildings, and by extension accepting the
idea of interdependence and cooperation
between neighbors.
(v) Respect the privacy of others, particularly
avoiding the creation of direct visual corri-
dors into private domains. In addition, in
traditional Greek societies, avoid blocking
the views of harbors and the sea.
(vi) Do not debase the social and economic
integrity of adjacent properties by changes
or the use of one’s property that would
create such harm.

4
The Golden Rule of reciprocity is very ancient. A number of
websites, available on the internet, discuss it. Socrates, Greek
philosopher from the 5th century BCE, wrote: ‘Do not do to
others that which would anger you if others did it to you.’

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Figure 3. A street scent in Ronda, Spain. The Fina is fully utilized in the structures by projections from the upper levels
and by its use by the people without obstructing the public-right-of-way. The result is a dynamic built and social
environment. Photo by Arthur Erickson from the early 1960s.

(vii) Local customary practices must be respected 2. Privacy rights – their protection and mainte-
and followed, although with the passage of nance.
time changes to those customs might be 3. Rights of original and earlier usage. This means
necessary.5 that subsequent decisions and acts have to take
into account existing conditions.6
4. Rights for the full utilization of one’s property
II – Private and public rights are fairly and equitably that include the right to increase useable areas
exercised. such as building a Sabat (room bridging the
right-of-way without creating obstructions to
In a generative bottom-up system most of the traffic, as the example in Figure 2), or increas-
decisions affecting the built environment are ing the height of a building within stipulated
made by the people living in their neighborhoods. restrictions if those exist for a specific locality
Rights that affect those decisions have to be or site.
clearly articulated and understood by the public. 5. Right for using a part or all of one’s property
They are: for generating income, provided such use does
not create damage to the neighborhood.
1. Right for abutting an adjacent neighbor, and 6. Right of pre-emption of an adjacent property.
the right of servitude and access. This will This right provides the first option for purchas-
depend on the specific configurations of the ing an adjacent property by the neighbors.
site and buildings.

5 6
Refer to the reference cited in note 11 below. Refer to the discussion in note 12 below.

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7. Right of Waqf property. The Waqf is an Islamic IV – Control and Management.

institution that allows owners of property to
endow their property and the income it It is important to establish a system of control and
generates for charitable purposes. management that will be guided by the meta-
8. Right of inheritance by taking into considera- principles and that would ensure private and
tion the impact it might have on division of a public rights are fairly and equitably exercised,
property. and that responsibilities are properly followed by
private and public parties. Such a system of
control and management should be based locally
Public rights relate to transportation, infrastruc- and must have legitimacy to the people living in
ture, and certain public facilities. The public the area or who will live there in the near future.
authorities have to implement and maintain them. One effective method that was predominant in
many traditional societies was the system of
III – Private and public responsibilities are properly neighborhood representatives, that is, one person
allocated and implemented. is elected or selected/identified by the majority
residents of a neighborhood to represent them at a
Historically, the responsibilities of private citizens council of representatives. If a council system
and institutions in generative systems that were were not used, then each representative would
clearly evident in societies and cultures located have direct access to the ruling authority. In some
around the Mediterranean basin were: traditional Greek communities a council of elders
was responsible for the day-to-day affairs of a
1. Utilizing the exterior Fina when needed and
community including matters that related to
the responsibility for keeping it clean. (The Fina
building activities.
is a longitudinal space along the exterior wall
of buildings about one meter wide. It has many
That was all that was needed in traditional
useful purposes as the example in Figure 3
societies to correctly control and manage the built
shows.)7 environment. However, with changes that oc-
2. Informing the public authorities of any danger curred in many societies since the first half of the
to the public realm from within private proper- 20th century plus the introduction of the munici-
ties so that corrective action is taken. A typical pal system in countries that traditionally did not
example is the leaning wall that might pose a have them, an intermediary became necessary.
danger to passersby on the street. This role can take the form of the Office of
3. Each individual and family is responsible to Arbitrator and his/her technical and secretarial
maintain peace and tranquility with their assistants. It can be a small office or a large one
surrounding neighbors. depending on the size of the community that it
Responsibilities of public authorities were: serves. Ideally a council of neighborhood repre-
sentatives should select the Arbitrator. His/her
1. Protecting the rights of the public. primary responsibility would be to liaise between
2. Building and maintaining public streets and neighborhoods and the municipal central autho-
sewer lines, water and electricity distribution rities. This is necessary to maintain a healthy
and maintenance, garbage collection, and generative process controlled by the people, that
insuring that the public realm – streets and is, keeping it a bottom-up system. The Arbitrator
open spaces – are always kept safe. will also be responsible for ensuring that all parts
3. Protecting the integrity of local customs that of a generative program function properly, and
are related to change and growth in the built that the rights and responsibilities of private and
environment. public parties are respected and followed.
4. Resolving equitably problems and disputes
that may arise between property owners, V – Rules and codes.
particularly between adjacent neighbors.
Another important component of a generative
system are the necessary rules and codes that can
7
For a detailed description of the Fina and how it is to be be followed during the process of growth and
used, and the rights and responsibilities of the residents to
their Fina, see my Arabic-Islamic Cities: Building and Planning change and for resolving unforeseen conflicts
Principles, London, 1986, pp. 27–31. between neighbors. It is preferable that such a

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Figure 4 continued on the next page

Figure 4. Heights of Buildings. Background: In traditional Arab-Islamic cities, we notice that the heights of buildings
tend to be uniform. The reasons for this are: 1. Roof terraces are potential locations for people to overlook the private
domains of adjacent neighbors. Thus the custom (Urf) was not to build appreciably higher than adjacent buildings. 2.
Owing to limitations of traditional construction methods and building materials, constructing a building higher than two
or three stories was discouraged and in some cases was impractical. This was also the case in the heritage areas of
Muharraq and Manama. With the availability of modern building materials and technologies, it is now possible to build
very high buildings. Such open-ended freedom will destroy the heritage characteristics of both towns.
Implementation: 1. In both Muharraq and Manama it is necessary to undertake a study to establish the average height
of traditional buildings in the area. That average can be established as a benchmark for building heights. Certain
exceptions might be allowed on a case by case basis. For example, if the average height of a two story building and its
terrace parapet is 3.5 m þ 3.5 m þ 1.5 m þ 1 m(for the floor thicknesses) ¼ 9.5 m, then for exceptional cases a 10 or
15% additional height might be allowed. That will make the building height between 10.5 and 11 m. 2. It should be noted
that the height of a building should be the primary measure and not the number of floors, as those can vary between 2.5
and 3.5 m or higher. Thus the average allowable height of buildings may allow within their dimension up to three floors:
3 floors @ 2.5 m/floor ¼ 7.5 m þ 1.5 m for the terrace parapet þ 1.5 for the floor thicknesses ¼ 10.5 m, which is within
the average range for buildings with an allowable 10% increase in height.

system of rules and codes is compatible with the its surroundings. In other words, the generative
ethical/legal norms, the rights and responsibil- program was designed for changes in the built
ities of private and public parties, and should also fabric of an existing historic area that traces its
be linked in content to traditional local customs history and its founding to 1706. The planning
that are still viable socially and technically. They principles and guidelines were developed to
should also be proscriptive in nature and their ensure that results from change would maintain
intention clear, that is, what is to be achieved must the character and sense of place of the historic
be understood by everybody involved in the district. To ensure authenticity the Spanish Laws
generative process. They are to be open for of the Indies, that date back to 1573 comprising
interpretation in response to the peculiarities of 148 rules and codes, were carefully consulted.
each location and condition. Prescriptive codes These laws influenced the physical parameters of
that do not allow localized interpretation must be old town at the time of its founding.
discouraged unless they are absolutely necessary.
For examples of such codes developed recently The other part of the generative program that was
for the Bahrain project discussed below, see proposed is the Coordination Process between the
Figures 4, 5, 6, and 7. city authorities and residents/users of the area. In
the case of Old Town Albuquerque it was made
Highlights of two cases: Old Town up of three components: (i) certificate of appro-
Albuquerque, New Mexico, and the priateness, (ii) city investment in public improve-
historic districts of Muharraq and ment projects due to the large amount of land
Manama, Bahrain owned by the city in the area, and (iii) user
participation for projects initiated by the private
The earlier case developed for the city of sector. A number of steps for implementation
Albuquerque, New Mexico in 19838 was essen- were suggested as a part of the generative
tially based on two tools of a generative program: program that was specifically worked out for this
the appraisal process, and planning principles project.
and guidelines that are to be used as necessary in
specific parts of old town after a careful assess- The case of the historic districts of Muharraq and
ment and appraisal is made of a specific site and Manama, Bahrain was developed in early 2006.9
The generative program for this project, as it
8
Historic Old Town: Albuquerque, New Mexico – A Procedure for
9
Guiding Change and Development Based on Patterns/Guidelines and This project was undertaken by the United Nations
Continuous Appraisal. For the Department of Community and Development Program and the Bahraini Ministry of Munici-
Economic Development, City of Albuquerque, NM. Besim S. palities and Agricultural Affairs, titled: Capacity Building for
Hakim, Consultant, March 1983. Sixty-one page technical Enhancement of Urban Governance. I developed the Control,
report plus appendices. Available at: Management and Coding aspects of a generative program. My
http://www.charrettecenter.net/Hakim. report was completed at the end of February 2006.

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93

THIS BIRD'S EYE VIEW SHOWS THAT BUILDING HEIGHTS RANGED BETWEEN
ONE, TWO, AND OCCASSIONALLY A PARTIAL THIRD LEVEL WAS ADDED. THE
LOCATION OF THIS AREA OF MUHARRAQ
MUHARRAQ IS SHOWN ON THE MAP BELOW.
Drawing by John Yarwood, 1980s .

N
2005 MAP FROM MoMAA, BAHRAIN. THE LOWER PART 0 10 30 50m
OF THIS MAP ALSO SHOWS ON THE TOP OF FIGURE 1a.
Figure 4. Continued.

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Figure 5 continued on the next page

Figure 5. Location of exterior doors and windows. Background: As a general rule doors and windows facing the
public-right-of-way were traditionally viewed as either ‘old’ or ‘recent,’ as a result of the sequence of building events.
Older doors and windows have a priority over more recent ones in terms of their right to continue as they are. This is
related to the Ethical/Legal norm 4 ‘ y to respect the rights of older established buildings.’ In other words, the ‘recent’
door or window has to adjust to the conditions of the ‘older’ ones. It is difficult to determine accurately which buildings
were built before others in the traditional fabric of Muharraq or Manama; however, the principle can still be followed
today. For example, if an owner of a house which is in a very bad state decides to tear it down and re-build it, he should
respect the existing conditions of adjacent and opposite buildings in locating the exterior door(s) and window(s) of his
proposed new building.
Implementation: 1 – The following rules should be followed for any changes to door locations: 1.1 – A door must not be
located exactly opposite another door. It should be offset from it adequately to discourage looking into the entry hall of
the opposite house. However, this stipulation might be relaxed if the street between opposite buildings is wider than
usual and has a higher pedestrian activity than other streets in the vicinity. A door must not be located opposite a shop,
or vice versa. They should be offset from each other so that direct overlooking will not be possible from the shop into the
entry hall of the opposite house. However, this stipulation might be relaxed if the street between opposite buildings is
wider than usual and has a higher pedestrian activity than other streets in the vicinity. 1.2 – On the same side of a
street, a door must not be located adjacent to an existing neighbor’s door without his consent. This is to avoid disrupting
the Fina space on both sides of an existing door, in the event that such a Fina space was used by the neighbor.
Examples for such uses include space for flower pots, unloading groceries, and temporary or emergency parking if cars
are allowed in that area. 2 – The following rules should be followed for any changes to window locations: 2.1 – The
height of a window sill on the ground level for residential buildings, facing a street or a public area, is determined from
the exterior, that is, from the street. It should be approximately 1.75 m from the surface of the street or public area. This
dimension is above eye level of an average man. It can be less if the sightline from the window into the interior would
pass above head level of a standing person(s) inside. This condition would occur when the interior floor level is
appreciably lower than the outside street level. Therefore as a general rule, ground level windows on exterior walls
facing streets should be designed for the purposes of ventilation and light. Measures for security should also be kept in
mind for the design of such windows. 2.2 – Windows on upper levels (ie first and second floors that are above the
ground level) facing streets or other public areas have no restriction on their size and sill height above the street.
However, their location should be influenced by existing windows on the other side of the street. The proper thing to do
is to offset, that is, set them aside, but this is not as critical as the case with doors discussed above, because exterior
windows were traditionally covered by a wooden lattice to prevent visual penetration. This treatment is commonly
termed Mashrabiya, and its use should be encouraged. The specific design should be influenced by traditional models
found in Muharraq and Manama. 3 – Location of windows facing the interior courtyard or garden: 3.1 – There are no
restrictions for the location and size of ground level windows that face a courtyard or garden. Any constraints will be due
to other design requirements. 3.2 – Upper level windows, whether or not they face an interior courtyard or garden, must
not be located so they would provide direct visual penetration of an adjacent neighbor’s courtyard or garden.

should be for every project, was developed from a developed for revitalization of these historic
careful understanding of the history and tradi- districts, was designed to ensure that the changes
tional processes of the two historic districts.10 that will occur would maintain the character and
Although the case of old Muharraq and Manama sense of place of each district. This is a similar
has similarities to other towns in the greater goal that was established for the Old Town
Islamic world, they also have certain unique Albuquerque project described above. The gen-
attributes.11 The generative program, which I eral approach that I have used is similar to the
outline of a generative program explained above
10
When developing a generative program for a specific site, in this article. It remains to be seen if the
it is imperative to do so based on the locality’s history and centralized authorities of Bahrain will adopt a
customary practices that formed that built environment in the
first place. Thus, such a generative program becomes unique to generative program that is based on a bottom-up
that particular project. decision-making structure. In other words, are the
11
For a detailed study of how customary laws and practices authorities willing to revert to a system similar to
in each locality within the Islamic world achieved distinct the one that created those historic districts in the
architectural and urban form qualities, see my study: ‘The first place? If they do, then it will demonstrate
‘‘Urf’’ and its role in diversifying the architecture of traditional
Islamic cities,’ Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, vol. serious intention to revitalize those areas follow-
11, no. 2, Summer 1994, pp. 108–127. ing a generative program.

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NARROW STREET WIDE STREET

LESS THAN 3:00m WITH HEAVY
TRAFFIC
PROPOSED DOOR
MUST BE OFFSET PROPOSED
DOOR EXISTING
EXISTING DOOR ALLOWED DOOR

1.1
.1 LOCATION OF PROPOSED DOOR 1.1
.1 LOCATIONOF PROPOSED DOOR ON A
ON NARROW
RROW STREETS LESS
LESS WIDE/HEAVY T
WI TRAFFIC STRE
S REET
THAN 3:00m
3 m WIDE
W DE

ALLOWED
LOCATION NO OVERLOOKING
FOR SHOP INTO ENTRY HALL
PROPOSED DOOR
NOT ALLOWED

FINA LENGTH
PROPOSED REDUCED
LOCATION
NOT ALLOWED EXISTING DOOR
OVERLOOKS INTO
ENTRY HALL
FINA

1.1
.1 LOCATION OF PROPOSED SHOP 1.2 LOCATIO
LOCATION OF PPROP
OPOSED ED DO
DOOR
OR
RELATIVE TO EXISTING DOOR ADJA
AD JACE
CENT
NT TO A NEI
NEIGHBOROR’S DOOR
ON OTHER SIDE OF STREET IS NOT
NOT ALLOWED
A D IF IT
I
REDUCECES THE
T E LENG
LENGTH OFO FINA
FINA

CAN BE LESS
THAN 1.75m IF
SIGHTLINE
PASSES ABOVE
PERSON INSIDE
1.75m

STANDING
PERSON

STREET
STREET
LEVELS OF STREET AND INT RIOR
INTERIOR LEVEL
LEVEL LOWERR THAN
INTERIOR APPROX.SAME STREET
2.1 - DETERMINE HEIGHT OF WINDOW SILL FROM THE EXTERIOR OF THE HOUSE AND FROM
THE STREET.

2.2 - BUILDING IN SHEIKH ISA ROAD IN 2.2

2 – AN
N EX
EXAMPLE FROM
FR MANA
MANAMAMA.
MUHARRAQ SHOWING USE OF ALSO SH
SHOWING
ING THE
MASHRABIYA WRAPPING AROUND TWO CHAM
AMFERED D CORNER
C A
AT THE
T
SIDES OF BUILDINGD. JUNCTIO
JU NCTION OF TWO STREETS,
DRAWING
ING B
BY JOHN
JOHN YARW
YARWOO
OOD, 1980s. 2006.
20

Figure 5. Continued.

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Figure 6 continued on the next page

Figure 6. Rules for the utilization of the Fina on the ground and vertically. Background: The Fina is an Arabic
term that refers to two types of spaces. The internal courtyard of a building is named Fina in some parts of the Arab
world. It also is synonymous with the term Harim which refers to an invisible space about 1:00 to 1:50 m wide alongside
all exterior walls of a building that is not attached to other walls, and primarily alongside streets and access paths. It
extends vertically alongside the walls of the building. The owner or tenant of the building has certain rights and
responsibilities associated with the Fina. He has the right to use it for temporary purposes provided such use will not
impede the traffic in the street, and he has the responsibility to keep his part of the Fina always clean and safe from any
obstructions. The Fina extended vertically allows high-level projections in the form of balconies, enclosed bay windows,
and rooms bridging the public-right-of-way which are called Sabat.
Implementation: In the past, before the era of municipal government, the historic sectors of Muharraq and Manama fully
utilized the Fina as in other Arab-Islamic cities. Therefore: 1 – The Fina should be recognized as a generative principle.
2 – As it is evident in the attached photo from a street in Muharraq, projections at the upper level were allowed as well
as steps to front doors within the space of the Fina. This practice should be encouraged to continue so that the
traditional character of the built form within streets will continue. 3 – Although the municipal system took over the
responsibility of cleaning streets, it never manages to keep them always clean. Therefore, owners or tenants of
buildings are responsible to: (i) clean the Fina adjacent to the exterior walls of their building at least once/week. (ii)
Placing any kind of item within the Fina that will impede access in the street is not allowed, except for dire necessity and
only for a few hours. (iii) If the public-right-of-way is determined to be wide enough for vehicular access (depending on
the location in the town) and particularly if wide enough for emergency vehicular access, then it is allowed to use the
Fina for planting vines and flowers, and to locate a Sabil – which is a privately donated and maintained drinking fountain
for public use. (iv) Any projections from the upper floor(s) of a building are allowed provided its base is at least 4.60 m
higher than the street level. The height may be lower if that part of the street is determined not to allow emergency
vehicles to go through. The width of the projection must not exceed the width of the Fina, keeping in consideration the
nature of use of the Fina on the other side of the street. One set of steps to the front door are allowed for each building.
(v) The treatment of downspouts and gargoyles for rainwater evacuation onto streets should observe the following
rules: v.1 – Downspouts are preferred to gargoyles, because they do not cause splashing. v.2 – When gargoyles are
used they should project from the roof of a one-story structure and pour within the width of the Fina of the building from
which it originates. It is preferable to build the spout at a 451 angle from the surface of the wall so that rainwater will fall
within the Fina and thus avoid splashing the wall of the opposite neighbor, particularly in narrow streets. v.3 – Gargoyles
are not allowed from structures of more than one story.

Conclusions and the future of processes that shaped the morphology and form
generative processes of what we currently refer to as ‘vernacular
architecture.’ They were very different from
In the past generative processes were the norm in current ‘modern’ processes that have spread to
most cultures, that is they were the type of many parts of the world.12 It is difficult to
imagine that generative processes will make a
12 comeback soon. However, they can at least be
For example the temporal priority issue is very different
from current practice. If someone has built something, then the used for revitalizing historic towns and heritage
person who comes later must legally pay attention to what is districts within cities. This will ensure that
there and respond to it. This process is akin to weaving, that is, authenticity will be maintained when revitaliza-
the next act always responds to the previous act and completes
it. Compared to current law, in most US cities, that provides tion is undertaken by a generative process
each person the same rights, regardless of the temporal that is derived from the uniqueness of a parti-
sequence. Thus each project, and each lot, becomes an isolated cular site and a thorough understanding of its
island, with no significant relation to the whole, and is unable,
for the same reason, to intensify the context in which it is history. Such an approach can embrace the use of
located. A fundamental principle that was explicit in tradi- modern materials and technologies were neces-
tional generative processes is that a new construction shall not sary or appropriate. It will also encourage
do harm to its surroundings. This is in reverse to the current
approach of zoning law that is followed in most US cities, residents of such places to maintain, improve,
which implicitly accepts that each case is different, by applying or renew their buildings, knowing that these
strict geometrical regulations blindly. Another important activities will ensure the continuity of the
practice in traditional generative processes is negotiating
decisions that may cause harm to the surroundings and the general character and sense of place of their
means to avoid them. neighborhoods.

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B.S. Hakim
97

Figure 6. Continued.

To summarize, the following are the attributes 2. Private and public rights and responsibilities
that must be present in a generative process: must be clearly assigned so that all actors and
parties making decisions know what is ex-
1. Agreed upon ethical meta-principles, derived pected from them, either as individuals or as
from a locality’s history and customs, must be public entities.
articulated. They have to be respected and 3. Control and management: this must be worked
followed by the residents. out and established based on a locality’s

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B.S. Hakim
98

Figure 7. Continued from the next page.

history and customs as it relates to the function tible with contemporary building materials,
of the traditional generative process, including technology, and infrastructure requirements
the interface between residents and the various including transportation. New rules and codes
public authorities. might also have to be devised to ensure
4. Traditional rules and codes must be identified maintaining the character and sense of place
and refined, revised if necessary, to be compa- of the historic area or district.

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Figure 7 continued on the previous page

Figure 7. Rules for building a Sabat. Background: The possibility of bridging the public-right-of-way is an extension
of the concept of the Fina. It is an element that allows the creation of additional space attached to a building. The
tradition of building Sabats was not a part of the local Urf (customs) in Muharraq and Manama. However, it is widely
used in most traditional Arab-Islamic cities. It is an effective method for creating additional space and its use provides
shade for pedestrians in the street and can be an excellent cover for front doors of buildings if they are built above them.
Implementation: 1 – Sabats are allowed to be built when one or more of the following conditions arise: 1.1 – When
opposite buildings on both sides of the street are owned by the same person or family. 1.2 – When a house is small in
area and whose height is within the maximum limit allowed, and the owner can demonstrate that some or all of his
requirements for additional space can only be met by building a Sabat. 2 – The design and structural requirements of
Sabats are: 2.1 – Ideally a Sabat should be supported on both sides structurally independent of the walls of the
buildings on opposite sides of the street. This allows change of ownership easily. The supports have to be built in such a
manner that they touch the walls of the building, so that no space, however small, is not taken from the right-of-way. 2.2
– The support of one side of the Sabat can be on the building whose owner wishes to build it. The other side has to be
supported by columns built adjacent to the wall of the opposite neighbor provided careful design is made to ensure no
damage occurs to the wall or its foundation. 2.3 – The technical aspects of the support has to be determined on a case
by case basis with the aid of a qualified structural engineer who will ensure that no damages will occur to the walls that
are adjacent to the supports.

Acknowledgements (MoMAA) and all the consultants for the project

who were present during that period. It was my
The work on the Bahrain project, during January pleasure to work with all of them. I would also
and February 2006, was undertaken with the like to acknowledge the assistance of Dr John
collaboration of all employees of the Research Yarwood, from the UK, for providing me with
and Development Department and its director, valuable information from the work he did for
Dr. Falah al-Kubaisy, of the Bahraini Ministry Muharraq during the mid-1980s.
of Municipalities and Agricultural Affairs

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 URBAN DESIGN International (2008) 13, 210
r 2008 Palgrave Macmillan. 1357-5317/08
www.palgrave-journals.com/udi

Corrigendum
Generative processes for revitalizing historic towns
or heritage districts
Besim S. Hakim

URBAN DESIGN International (2008) 13, 210. doi:10.1057/udi.2008.19

Correction to:
URBAN DESIGN International (2007) 12, 87–99, doi:10.1057/palgrave.udi.9000194

In the above paper, the orientation and description of the photo in Figure 3 were incorrect. The corrected
version of the description and photo are as follows:

Figure 3. A street scene in the Albaicin quarter, Granada, Spain. The Fina is fully utilized in the structures by
projections from the upper levels and by its use by the people without obstructing the public-right-of-way. The result is a
dynamic built and social environment. Photo by Arthur Erickson from the early 1960s.

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