Own A Steel Boat

MIKE PRATT
Ui

w
 $15*00

Steel-built pleasure boats are still widely regarded as

being expensive, prone to rust and corrosion, and
generally full of pitfalls. In this book Mike Pratt fully

demonstrates that, on the contrary, steel can be the

most economical and trouble-free material in which
to build and maintain your boat. With the rapidly
escalating cost of other boatbuilding materials, steel
is becoming ever more attractive in price. And the
greater interest now focussed on steel-built boats has
resulted in an ever wider choice of plans. Drawing on
his own experience with his staysail schooner Abraxis^
and after visiting boatyards in Britain and on the
Continent, he has estabhshed steel's many advantages
over other materials : it makes for a strong, water-

tight, fire-resistant boat, adaptable to refitting, and

within the means of most amateurs. The book is
profusely illustrated with diagrams and photographs
to help the reader choose his plan and to see him
through each stage of construction.
The great disadvantage for the amateur interested
in a steel yacht has been the relative lack of detailed

impartial information. With Own a Steel Boat Mike

Pratt has compiled a complete and lucid handbook for
the amateur boat-builder (and boat-owner) in steel -
for the man who, in the author's words, 'has to pay the
bills, and live with the result of his work'.

Cover photograph : Roberts Spray

Photograph by David Keast,
supplied by courtesy of Bruce Roberts International

International Marine
Publishing Company
Camden, Maine 04843
OWN A STEEL BOAT
To Diane
Own a Steel Boat
Mike Pratt

INTERNATIONAL MARINE
PUBLISHING COMPANY
CAMDEN, MAINE O4843
Copyright © 1979
by Mike Pratt
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 79-84493
International Standard Book Number 0-87742-123-4
Printed in Great Britain

All rights reserved. Except for use in review, no part of

thisbook may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system,
without written permission from the publisher.

Published in the United States of America

by International Marine Publishing Company, Camden, Maine

Published simultaneously in Great Britain

by Hollis & Carter, an associate company
of The Bodley Head Ltd, London, England
 1 1 7

CONTENTS
Measurements: Conversion Table, 6
Introduction, 7
1 Why Steel?, 1

2 What Can Be Done, 26

3 Tools That Will Be Needed, 41

4 Welding Is No Problem, 62
5 Steel Construction Systems, 75
6 Selecting Steel Plans, 88

7 Starting to Build, 103

8 Keels, Ballast and Backbones, 1

1

9 Frames, Bulkheads and Beams, 137

10 Plating, 153

1 Decks, 168
12 Deck Fittings, 177

13 Fitting Out, 201

14 Machinery and Steering, 213

15 Corrosion Protection, 241

16 Repairs and Alterations, 257

17 Instrumentation, 267
18 Buying Second-Hand or
for Home Completion, 276
Appendix A Addresses of Manufacturers
and Suppliers, 281

Appendix B Designers, 282

Appendix C Bibliography, 283

Index, 284
 MEASUREMENTS
In so far as possible, have used measurements natural to
I

British practice. As there has been a change-over from

Imperial to Metric measure in Britain, this means that both
types will be quoted throughout the book. A conversion table
issupplied below for those who are more used to working in
one system than in the other.
M.P.

millimetres mm. or inche

inches
25'4 1 0-04
50-8 2 0-08
76-2 3 0-12
I0I-6 4 o-i6
127-0 5 0-20
152*4 6 0-24
177-8 7 0-28
203-2 8 0-32
228-6 9 0-35
254-0 10 0-39
508-0 20 0-79
762-0 30 i-i8
1016 40 1-58
1270 50 1-97
1524 60 2-36
1778 70 2-76
2032 80 3-15
2286 90 3*54
2540 100 3-94
 INTRODUCTION

When we firstlooked at Abraxis, our 44 ft. steel staysail

schooner, we knew nothing about steel as a construction
material. We had the conventional English prejudice against
steel boats and some vague feeling that they must be both
prone to rust and difficult to repair. However, Abraxis was a
boat of the size we wanted for living aboard and for extended
voyaging. Better still, she was at a price we could afford and
with a reasonable amount of equipment. So we bought her.
The fact that she was steel and very rusty gave us horrible
qualms, but we had fallen in love with her despite her
appearance. The trip down to Penzance to part with the
money saw us avidly reading Eric Hiscock's Sou' West in

'Wanderer IV' to give us confidence — Tf a steel boat is all

right for him, it must be all right for us.'

Three years of fitting out, conversion work, and replating,
and three summer voyages that have taken us as far as the
Baltic have convinced us that steel is THE material, both for
working with and living with. Conversions and repairs are
simple and cheap, and when at sea the robust construction
gives an immense feeling of confidence. Such is the versatility
of steel construction that we have been able to modify drasti-
cally the original design to suit our needs exactly, so we are
unlikely ever to be looking for a different boat. But were we to
do so, she would have to be steel.

All along we have found it difficult to obtain information

about steel as a boatbuilding material. Books on the subject
are few, and those that do exist seem to be aimed at the
professional builder rather than at the owner, and the books
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

tend to be written from the point of view of one builder or one

designer. So during holidays I visited yards in Britain,
Holland, Belgium and France, to compare ideas and extract
the best. This accumulated experience, plus what I have
learned through trial and error, is the basis of this book. The
book is written from the viewpoint of someone who has to pay
the bills, and live with the result of his work.
Most of the experience I have gained has been through
trial and error. In many ways this is the most effective way of

learning. But it is also expensive. If this book helps to save

money and time in this learning process I shall be well
pleased. But I hope my writing will also spark off a few new
ideas as to how steel boats can be made and mended more
cheaply and quickly. In England we have a lot to learn about
steel building methods. But interest is escalating. Up until
the mid 1970s only a handful of steel boats were available in
England. Now scores of yards are building them. And there
seems every indication that steel is bringing a revival to the
small one-off builderwho in former times may have plied his
trade in wood. This means more choice for the customer who
is sick of the rows of plastic nonentities with which he has
been confronted at boat shows for so long. Now he can choose
a boat tailored to his needs, rather than one designed for the
average family of 3*7. Moreover, his boat will probably be
stronger, cheaper and more durable than a GRP version.
And there will certainly be a greater pride in ownership. The
more so, if the owner has himself taken part in the building.
There are many forms of structure, many methods of
construction. Each professional has his own preference. Each
system works, and each has its own snags. I do not claim to
be an expert, and I am not setting out to prove what methods
are best. However, I have been able to see the professional
methods from a detached viewpoint. And I have tried to
extract those that are likely to be of value to amateurs,
bearing in mind amateur- type equipment and facilities. But

8
 INTRODUCTION
just as the professionals have their own ideas, so too will
amateurs. You sift over, and you extract what appeals, then
add your own methods. This is all part of the fun.
My thanks to Paul Stubbs who drew the diagrams, to Dick
Everitt, who provided the boat plans, to Jude Watson, who
did the typing, and of course to Denny Desoutter, without
whose help and encouragement I would never have achieved
a long-held ambition to write.

Mike Pratt
Lisbon, 1978
I A Dutch steel-built tender.
 Why Steel?

All materials have their problems, but steel has a reputation

for having more than most. That this reputation is totally
undeserved is something that will be demonstrated during
the course of this book.
The adverse talk about
stems largely from ignorance
steel

about the use of the material for small boats in England and
America, where there has long been a tradition for the pro-
duction of wooden boats. When wood no longer lent itself to
modern production-line techniques in these countries,
glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) took over. Such was not the
case in some European countries, in particular Holland and
Belgium, where the shortage of trees led to an early switch to
iron and then steel production. Steel boats showed them-
selves to be capable of comparatively rapid production using
semi-skilled labour. A tradition of small work-boat and yacht
construction in steel thus grew up which has been sup-
plemented but not displaced by GRP. Virtually all work-
boats and the majority of yachts in Holland are made of steel.
Even little rowing boats and tenders are made of it (photo i ).

And they are mostly very smart indeed.

The three main problems that the critics of steel would
probably put forward are:

1 Corrosion
2 Condensation
3 Interference with instrumentation

The effects of these problems and how

overcome them will
to

be dealt with in later chapters, but a word of introduction

may be useful here.

II
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

Corrosion

Rust is not the problem that the potential purchaser of a steel

boat may be led to believe. In fact, steel produces a consider-
able amount of rust for a comparatively small loss of good
metal — example
for Ain. plate completely corroded would

produce about an inch of rust. What is more, even small

amounts of rust can be prevented by a sound paint scheme.
More of a problem, though, is electrolysis below the
waterline. This is an electro-chemical reaction which can
reduce good metal to a non-metallic state in a comparatively
short space of time. One particular boat sank on her moor-
ings less than six months after first being launched, directly
as a result of electrolysis. You will not need me to tell you that
such catastrophes must be extremely rare. That they are so is
because electrolytic action can be fairly easily controlled by a
sound understanding of the nature of the process and of the
several control schemes available.

Condensation
This need not be a problem at all. Experience shows that a
and insulated steel boat is often less prone to
well ventilated
condensation than many wooden boats, and usually less so
than a GRP boat. Furthermore, contrary to popular belief,
she is usually several degrees cooler below decks in hot
weather than her wood or GRP counterpart.

Instrumentation

Steel boats do give rise to certain instrumentation problems,

particularly in connection with compass and radio installa-
tions. Again, however, the problems are easily overcome by a
sound understanding of the magnetic effects of steel and the
ways in which these can be counteracted.
These problems are mentioned at the outset, not to put off
the would-be owner/ builder, but to stress from the beginning
that although steel has its vices these are far outweighed by

12
 WHY STEEL?
its virtues. The apparent disadvantages of the material can
be easily overcome with a basic understanding of its nature.

The Strength of Small Steel Boats

Compared with vessels made out of other materials, steel
boats are enormously strong, and small steel boats are rela-
tively stronger than big ones. For example, the hull bottom
plating oiAbraxis is J in. thick, the same as that of most barges
often times the gross tonnage, and large ships are built out of
plate of not much greater thickness. The sizes of both the
plateand the frames in a small ship will be selected to give a
margin for several years' corrosion and to prevent the buck-
ling thatcan take place with thin plate either in construction
or in subsequent contact with quays etc., rather than for
strength. The minimum thickness plate I would recommend
for any integral part of a small boat would be i in., and even
this would be recommended for the reasons just stated, there

being ample strength in thinner plate for most purposes.

The considerable local strength is testified by a number of
incidents. Abraxis was driven at hull speed (around eight
knots) into one of the Barrow Deep buoys in the Thames
Estuary (not with me on watch I hasten to add!) There was a
clang Big Ben would have been proud of, but barely a scratch
on the port bow where she hit. The average wood or GRP
boat would have been stove in. Examples also exist of steel
yachts being driven on to coral reefs and pounded there until
refloated, the only damage being to the paintwork. Perhaps
the best example is provided by David Lewis's gallant little

32 ft. Ice Bird (photo 2). Built out of only i in. plate, she
survived three capsizes in her incredible voyage to Antarc-
tica and back. (See David Lewis, Ice Bird, and Chapter 2 of
this book.)

Steel's strength of course, essential for small work-boats

is,

but it is useful for cruising yachts too, enabling them to use

commercial harbours with greater confidence and thus

13
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

^^ BIRD

2 David Lewis's Ice Bird (courtesy of David Lewis).

perhaps avoid the expense and similarity of the yacht

marinas. At sea, of course, a powerful steel hull induces an
enormous feeling of confidence, especially if the ship is split

into watertight compartments.

Finally, the high local strength makes for simplicity when
it comes to adding deck fittings. Chain plates can be welded

on the side and mooring bollards can be welded straight on to

the deck. Hatches etc. can be fitted without the structural
considerations that would be necessary with other materials.

Complete Watertightness
Comfort aboard a boat is largely linked to how dry the inside
can be kept. There is nothing worse than being confronted by
drips over your bunk after a cold, wet watch. If water does
leak into the boat it is virtually impossible to find anything
dry aboard after only a short while at sea. A properly welded
steel hull will not leak at all. It is advisable to take full

advantage of this property of steel by having decks made of

14
 WHY STEEL?
the material as well as the hull. The one disadvantage to this
is weight. However, comparatively thin plate can be used (i
in.), and provided this allowed for in the design, no prob-
is

lems should arise. In addition to ensuring a dry boat, steel

decks will probably be about two-thirds the cost of plywood
decks. Not only is steel cheaper than plywood of sufficient
thickness, but does not need expensive fastenings such as
it

stainless bolts. Further, a steel deck may well be completed

more quickly than plywood because of the difficulty of secur-
ing unHke materials with adequate strength. Those who are
able to contemplate a laid deck will not be concerned with
cost or speed; nevertheless I would still urge them to lay the
wood over steel (techniques for this are described later)
because of the gain in strength and watertightness.

Fire Resistance

Of all the materials, steel is the only one that offers real
resistance to damage by fire. From personal experience, I

know this to be a valuable asset. A serious fire on board

Abraxis off Cornwall's Lizard Head would have been disas-
troushad the boat not been steel. Built of wood or GRP she
would have been under the waves in minutes, and I guess the
crew would have been too, as the liferaft was right above
where the outbreak started. As it was, the decks got red hot
and the inside was extensively damaged, but we made port in
one piece.

Amateur Construction
Steel is well suited to amateur construction because most of
the work can be done with basic equipment and the skills
required can be picked up in a fairly short time. A round-
bilge hull is probably beyond the scope of the average
amateur (unless he has access to plate-rolling machinery,
which is unlikely). Nevertheless, there are examples of boats
of this type being successfully completed. On the other hand,
15
 OWN A STEEL BOAT
double or triple-chine boats are much easier as very little

plate curvature is required, and curves in more than one

plane can be avoided. Narrow boats (see p. 38) are easier still

to construct.
Working with steel is comparatively rapid, especially in a
yard set up for boatbuilding. As a result, labour cost in
relation to material cost is lower than with other hull
materials. Accordingly, it is worth obtaining quotes for the
professional construction of the hull alone. The price may
come as a favourable surprise. This avoids the risk of produc-
ing a badly finished hull which would probably be worth less
than the cost of the steel. Such failures are often to be found
for sale, but any money put into their fitting out would be
largely wasted, there being little resale value for badly built
amateur steel boats. It is the superstructure and the fitting
out that take most of the time and it is here that the amateur
may well be advised to use his own labour. A useful approxi-
mation is that a third of the cost of the boat goes into the hull
and the remainder into the fitting out and rigging.
Flush decks have many advantages for amateur construc-
tion, it being much easier to lay flat plates on to deck beams
than to make complicated coach roofs and dog-houses. It

may even make sense, time-wise, to have a slightly bigger

boat to avoid the necessity for a coach roof. In any event,
slightly higher topsides to accommodate the flush deck
should not be a problem for a cruising yacht and will make
for a drier boat. If a poop deck can also be included in the
design, it is very simple to construct and gives a very useful
after cabin.

Costing
compare the comparative
It is difficult to costs of various
materials because so much depends on the size and type of
boat, but in general steel will be cheaper than all other forms
of construction, with the possible exception of ferro-cement.

16
 WHY STEEL?
The larger the boat, the greater proportionally will he the
saving. Eric Hiscock discovered that in the 50 ft. range, a
Dutch-built steel yacht would be roughly two-thirds the cost
of its equivalent built in England in wood. (Hence Wanderer
IV is of steel construction. See Eric Hiscock, Sou' West in

'Wanderer IV\ and photo 3.) At the lower end of the scale, a

-*t.m

3 Eric Hiscock' s Wanderer IV (courtesy of Eric Hiscock).

17
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

production steel hull of around 24 feet will show little saving

on a GRP equivalent, although an amateur-built version
would undoubtedly be cheaper.
In the following table, I have taken a 40 ft. flush decked
cruising yacht hull to be built to a one-ofl' design as an
example, in order to compare costs. I have used steel con-
struction as the base of 100. The figures are, of course, only
approximate.

Material Cost -Base 100

Steel 100
Ferro-cement no
Planked wood 180
Plywood 200
Aluminium 250

GRP hasn't been included because of the difficulty and

expense of building one-offs.
The skill of the builder must obviously be taken into
account when comparing building times for various
materials, but on average the completion time for steel,

ferro-cement and plywood should be very similar. Construc-

tion in planked wood is a very lengthy process for the
amateur, especially as for much of the work two people are
needed. Even strip planking is very time-consuming. For
example, a 45 ft. William Garden-designed hull recently
completed in Lincolnshire took its owner five years to build
in strip planked mahogany. Aluminium boats can be con-
structed rapidly, although considerable skill is required
when it comes to the welding. Gas-shielded welding (see

Chapter 3) is really necessary and even then, welding of

aluminium is nowhere near as simple as it is with steel.
Against this, aluminium can be shaped quite easily and can
be cut readily with a good electric jig-saw.
Second-hand steel boats are usually cheaper in England or

18
 WHY STEEL?
America than either wood or GRP. This is partly because of
steel's poor reputation in some quarters and partly because
steel boats are for some reason often less smartly finished
than their wood or GRP cousins. This is probably because
steel craft owners are often more concerned with the strength
and seaworthiness of their boats than with developing an
aesthetically pleasing appearance, and with that attitude I

have some sympathy. Nevertheless, steel boats can be made

to look every bit as attractive as boats made out of any other
material. I only need to cite Minots Light (photo 4 and see
Arthur Beiser, The Proper Yacht) as an example.
Steel boats on the second-hand market can, therefore, be
an attractive proposition. The fact that a steel boat may
appear to be in a dilapidated condition should not neces-
sarily put off the would-be purchaser. Indeed, a bargain may

4 Minots Light (courtesy of Arthur Beiser).

19
 OWN A STEEL BOAT
be found in way, as the rust streaks that betray a period
this

of neglect will seldom be serious, although to the uninitiated

they may appear disastrous. Nothing could have appeared
worse than Abraxis when we found her, but beneath the
first

rust staining there was very sound plating indeed. In any

event, some serious plate deterioration is not in itself a reason
for rejecting an otherwise satisfactory boat, it is simply a
reason for reducing the price. It is seldom that the plating on
an entire boat will be poor. Usually metal is wasted in
identifiable areas (see Chapter 15 on Corrosion), so all that
may be necessary to renew the life of the ship is to replate
locally. The procedures for this are described in Chapter 16,
but suffice for the moment to say that replating is not
difficult. It is considerably easier than building a new boat,

and very often slightly suspect steel craft can be purchased

for little more than the price of the steel. In addition, the
sound on older boats will almost certainly be thicker
steel
than that of which more modern ones are constructed and
possibly of better quality too.

Ease and Cost of Repair

undoubtedly repaired more easily and quickly
Steel boats are
(and therefore more cheaply") than any other form of con-
struction. The main reason for this is the high local strength
of steel, which means that only the area of damage need be
removed and new plate welded in. In a wooden boat many
planks may have to be replaced as repairs using only short
ends are seldom satisfactory and would not be passed by a
supervising surveyor. In GRP it may often be impossible to
repair the result of serious collision damage satisfactorily
because of the monocoque (stressed skin) nature of GRP
construction — the strength of any part depends on the
strength of the whole. Another factor which influences
and costs is availability of materials. Steel is a very
repairs
commonplace material and can be found virtually anywhere

20
 WHY STEEL?
in the world. The same does not apply to good quality wood.
In addition, steel in the quantities necessary for the average
damage very cheap, such that materials will prob-
repair is

ably form only a minute part of the repair bill (attractive

from the amateur's point of view) Further, quantities of steel
.

adequate for all but major rebuilds can easily be carried

aboard as part of the ballast. Abraxis carries a selection of
angle and round bar together with i in., ^ in., i in., and some
^in. plate.
A factor which may well influence yard repair bills is that
steel can be worked on immediately and in virtually any
weather. No waiting for the area to dry out, as is necessary
with wood or GRP, this being especially significant if the
repair is below the waterhne. This fact will also benefit the
amateur who hires a slip on a daily basis to do repairs
himself.

Ease of Modification
Another distinct advantage of steel, especially from the point
of view of a would-be dream-boat owner is the ease with
which existing steel boats can be modified or converted. Our
dream-boat seeker, therefore, no longer has to find the per-
fect boat on the second-hand market; he can find one that is
nearly right and modify it to suit his own particular needs.
For example, I thought nothing of converting our own after-
cockpit schooner into a centre-cockpit version, by cutting
away the entire after-deck and dog-house and substituting a
poop-deck. An 83 ft. steel schooner built on the Medway to
the owner's design was cut in half at the stern and widened to
give a more attractive shape to the transom.
Nick Walker, a friend of ours, put a second deck on his old
Clyde Puffer Vic 32 (see Chapter 2) to provide more room for
charterers. Such conversions can be done simply, quickly
and strongly. Virtually anything can be done with steel, all
that is necessary is a little design flair so that the resulting

21
 OWN A STEEL BOAT
work of art appears that way to other people as well as to you!
On the commercial side, many barges and fishing-boats are
altered, usually to increase their size to more economic pro-
portions. In Holland barges are often increased in length
simply by cutting them in half and adding a new section in
the middle.
This versatility provides plenty of scope for the amateur.
Many small steel work-boats come on the second-hand
market out of trade and all that is needed is the imagination
to see the conversion possibilities to use as a pleasure-boat,
home, or even in a different trade. Quite often small
floating
uneconomic for their large company owners
steel craft are
but may be made to earn a living for an owner/skipper.

Comparison of Hull Materials

To make a comparison of hull building materials is not
altogether useful as so much depends on personal taste.
Nevertheless the various materials available do have certain
specific advantages and disadvantages which are worth
pointing out.

Planked Wood
ADVANTAGES Aesthetic appeal. Repairs can done
be
(given time) using simple hand tools. Damaged paintwork
can be left for a considerable period without detriment to
the ship's fabric.

DISADVANTAGES Subjcct to attack by marine borers

(teredo, gribble, etc.). Prone to leaks. Poor local strength.
Seams tend to open up in warm climates.

Strip Planked Wood

ADVANTAGES Relatively simple form of construction,
avoiding the necessity for extensive framing. Greater
watertightness than with conventional planked construc-
tion.

22
 WHY STEEL?
DISADVANTAGES As with Conventional wood construction
but additionally the wood is prone to stress cracking with
changes in climatic conditions (difficult to prevent and
almost impossible to repair). Repairs are difficult and
expensive as this form of construction relies on its mono-
coque nature for its strength.

Plywood
ADVANTAGES Simplicity and speed of construction. Cold
moulding techniques can provide good total strength.
Impervious to marine borers (they cannot get through the
glue).

DISADVANTAGES Dcsigns limited to chined construction

often giving a boxlike appearance (unless expensive cold
moulding techniques are used). Danger of delamination
(break-up of the glue joints in the plywood laminations).
Low second-hand value of plywood boats, normally
because of their fairly limited life potential.

GRP
ADVANTAGES Comparative simplicity of maintenance
(freedom from maintenance is a myth, no boat is free from
maintenance). Total watertightness. Production-line
techniques can be used which can make the product
cheaper.

DISADVANTAGES Lack of acsthctic appeal. Condensation

(especially in cheaper boats with poor ventilation and
insulation). Low local strength, unless abnormally heavy
laminations are used. Difficulty of satisfactory repair to
structural damage. Difficulty of building one-offs or
undertaking modifications.

23
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

Aluminium
ADVANTAGES Very and very
light strong. Can last

extremely well unprotected by paint.

DISADVANTAGES Extremely expensive. Difficult to obtain

in small quantities and specific sizes necessary for ship-
building. Can corrode extremely rapidly if suitable pre-
cautions against electrolysis are not taken and maintained.
Specialist gear really needed for welding, though cutting is
simpler than with steel.

In my opinion aluminium is not suitable for use by the

amateur, although I say this mindful of the fact that Trigillis,

the most professional-looking boat I have ever seen built

outside a yard, was made of the material.

Ferro-cement
ADVANTAGES amateur construction on the
Suitability for
cheap, being labour-not-material-intensive. Lends itself to
the production of one-offs with no limit to the designs that
can be (and have been!) produced. Freedom to adopt
curved shapes. Reasonable local and total strength and
watertightness.

DISADVANTAGES Weight; especially in smaller boats. Plas-

tering is critical; mistakes made at this stage are difficult to
rectify. Prone to stress cracking and flaking; partidularly
true in tropical climates. Difficulty in assessing the condi-
second-hand ferro boats, which can lead
tion of to a low
second-hand value.

The above comments are not exhaustive, they simply iden-

tify the main pros and cons.

Conclusion
I certainly would not contend that steel is THE perfect
material for all situations. A potential owner must assess its

24
 WHY STEEL?
merits and problems in relation to his own criteria, one of
its

which will probably be the aesthetic appeal of the material

itself. For many tasks steel will be the most suitable material,

for some it may not be appropriate at all.

 What Can be Done

Build or Buy
Whether buy second-hand or build new must depend on
to
whatever stirs your enthusiasm. On time and financial
criteria alone, buying a dilapidated craft and mending or
modifying as necessary will usually be the winner. But this
may not give the most satisfaction. It is a very positive feeling
to look at your newly completed craft and to know that you
created her from basic materials.
In this chapter, I offer some examples of what people have
done with small steel boats. Building, renovating, modifying
—
and straightforward buying are all included not so that the
reader will necessarily follow in the footsteps of these pages,
but simply so that he may have some idea of what can be
done.

Steelaway
Tony Porter's choice of name for the 32 ft. steel sloop he made
was so apt for both the boat and his own intentions that it
came as a big disappointment when a registered Stealaway
came into our home port, built in of all things. Glass Rein-
forced Plastic. Still, Tony's is a super boat and all credit is
due to him (and Jude) for completing the boat from scratch
in what must be a record: little more than one year of part-
time work. We nicknamed her The Tardis because of the
uncanny way she seemed to grow beyond her 32 feet when
you were inside, and the way more and more people could be
packed in without feeling cramped.
Tony's philosophy was simple: he wanted a strong boat to

26
 WHAT CAN BE DONE

5 Tony Porter on Steelaway.

sail off to wanted her quickly, and she had to

the sun with, he
be cheap. Steel was clearly the answer to all these require-
ments, so Tony set about finding a yard to build him only the
simple chined hull, the rest he would do himself. He was
fortunate in finding a small yard, who would not only build
the hull, but would also let him help in the work, both to learn
and to cut down on costs. The hull was completed in record
time for under £i,ooo (in 1973) and the fitting out began.
Tony has a philosophy that anything can be done with a
Black and Decker jigsaw (and I am sure from experience that
he is not far wrong) so the decks and interior furniture were
created at lightning speed with little more than that instru-
ment and a screwdriver. Fittings were bought at minimum
cost from hardware shops and the like, chandleries only
being used as a For example, rigging screws were
last resort.
obtained in this manner, showing a considerable saving,
even on the comparatively cheap and well-stocked local
chandlery. The mast was created from a telegraph pole
(bought straight from the importers before it was creosoted)

27
 OWN A STEEL BOAT
and all the rigging was handspliced by Tony himself.
Steelaway is of simple design as indeed steel boats should be
in order to gain full advantage of the material. Chine con-
struction was used so that no expensive plate-rolling
machinery was necessary to produce the hull. The first chine
was just underwater so that it was not offensive to the eye.
Quarter-inch plate was used for the bottom chine plates and
for the box-section keel^ so that little extra ballast was
necessary. Above the water line A in. plating was used and
this thickness of plating combined with the strength of chine
construction (given by the plates meeting at an angle)
allowed for virtually frameless monocoque construction,
only two main box-section frames being used. The advan-
tages of this form of construction are considerable in terms of
weight-, time- and cost-saving, as well as doing away with
the angular water (and therefore rust) traps which framed
construction creates. The only difficulty is that of obtaining a
regular shape to the hull, this being much easier if you can set
up the framing first.

What made Steelaway somewhat unattractive on first sight

was her excessive tumblehome from the gunwale to the flush
deck. This also had the disadvantage of producing a small
working deck area. I think that were Tony to build the same
size of boat again he would go for the higher freeboard and
reduced tumblehome, thereby overcoming the above disad-
vantages and additionally gaining even greater space below.

Abraxis
Our own boat is a good example of the type of post-war, Low
Countries built, steel yacht that can often be bought at a
reasonable price provided a slightly tatty condition is

acceptable. We know very little of her history, except that she

was built in Antwerp in 1^48 and given the name Stern. We
know nothing of her doings until 1969 save snippets to the
effect that she had been seen in both the Mediterranean and

28
 WHAT CAN BE DONE

6 Abraxis on the slip for a grit blast and repaint.

Caribbean, and a rumour (probably false) that she had been

engaged in gun-running. An American army officer became
the owner in 1968 and lavished new things upon the boat
including an engine, a 240-volt generator and a new rig. Her
present name apparently also stems from this time. Unfortu-
nately, the owner must have overspent, for on reaching Pen-
zance in England from Cork in Southern Ireland the boat
suffered the ignominy of a writ being pinned to the mast. And
for the next three or four years she lay virtually derelict,
grinding up and down the quay in Penzance's coal harbour
with scant attention paid to her. That was where we found
her in 1974.
Built of A in. 40 feet long on deck and 32
plate, Abraxis is

feet 6 inches on the waterline, with a 10 ft. beam. She has a

long straight keel and is similar in hull shape to the Van de

29
 —

OWN A STEEL BOAT

Wieles' Omoo (also built in Antwerp in about 1948 and

subsequently sailed around the world in just overtwo
years — see A. Van de Wiele, The West in my Eyes). She has
been our home and the subject of most of our spare-time work
for the last three years. Her steel construction has enabled us
considerably to modify her original design to take account of
our own needs. The major modification was that of cutting
off the deck and dog-house abaft the after watertight bulk-
head and turning this area into a fine, airy after cabin with an
inside steering position, navigation area and U-shaped seat-
ing. The conversion almost doubled the effective size of the
boat and made a very much more spacious home as well as
giving considerable advantages at sea.

Avalon
Avalon was professionally built as a yacht in 1955 by the little
yard of J. W. Valentijn & Zonen, Langeraar, Holland. She
finds her place here because I know her to be an excellent
little steel boat built in the true tradition of the small Dutch
yards. She is similar in appearance to thousands of boats that
appear all over Holland but in my opinion she is one of the
best of the designs. M. F.Gunning drew up the plans based
on a prototype Alcyone —
which was built to meet the
following requirements:

1 To serve as a comfortable floating home for his wife and

himself for at least two months each year.
2 To have, in addition, plenty of room for two to four
guests.

3 To be suitable for Dutch waters, both for the shallow

and for the short and vicious seas of the Ijsselmeer,
lakes
and the higher but longer waves of the estuaries.
4 To be capable of handling by himself with an occasional
semi-trained hand at the helm to help out in tight
places.

30
 WHAT CAN BE DONE

7 Avalon (courtesy of Denny Desoutter).

5 To be built — and subject to maintenance — within a

strictly limited budget.
6 And last, but not least, to sail well.

Avalon^ although only 36 feet long, has an incredible amount

of room and gives the impression of spaciousness, sleeping
four in two separate cabins and a further two in the saloon
where the dinette converts into a fine double bunk. She has
been the full-time home of the present owner, Toby Wool-

31
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

rych — and of the previous owners for a total of around ten

years. I quote what the present owner has to say of her:

'She far exceeds the Hmited seaworthiness conditions laid

down. Her twin, Spurning, has been around the world, and
others have sailed to America, Greece, Scandinavia and
Australia. For ease of handling it is difficult to find another
boat of similar size which is her peer. She can be sailed with
ease single-handed, requiring another crew member to help
only when shortening sail or entering or leaving a crowded
berth. She is simplicity itself to maintain, requiring only a
short, intensive annual repainting/revarnishing exercise of
about two weeks' duration to eliminate surface rust and
cheer up the woodwork.'

A boat similar to Avalon would undoubtedly be an excel-

lent buy for anyone wanting a strong family cruising boat or a
voyaging home, but a good second-hand one will be expen-
sive. However, this should not deter the enthusiastic amateur

builder, as a steel hull of this configuration could be built

comparatively easily and very cheaply. With its flat bottom,
chine construction and flush decks it lends itself to steel
(more details are given of this type of construction in Chapter
5)-

Ice Bird (See photo 2, p. 14)

Whether boat or man turned out to be tougher on David
Lewis's famous voyage to Antarctica in 1972-74 is debat-
able, but what is certain is that steel boats and men of steel
make an impressive combination. For those who are not
familiar with Dr Lewis's incredible achievement, he set sail
alone from Sydney on 19th October, 1972, headed for
Antarctica, a voyage never before attempted by a single-
handed yachtsman. Fourteen weeks later Ice Bird reached a
US Antarctic station after surviving 'mountainous seas, con-
stant gales, snow storms, freezing temperatures — and two
32
 WHAT CAN BE DONE

capsizes which her dismasted,' (to quote from introduc-

left

tory remarks to Fontana's paperback edition of David

Lewis's Ice Bird). On the return leg through pack-ice and
towering icebergs the boat again capsized while struggling
with weather as atrocious as that endured on the outward
passage. Eventually the safety of Cape Town was reached
with the boat battered but still intact.
The amazing thing is that Ice Bird was not specially
designed for the job, as one might imagine, but is a chine boat
of very straightforward construction built out of compara-
tively thin i in. plate. Her length overall is 32 feet, the beam is

9 feet 6 inches and the draft 6 feet, so she is by no means a big

boat. The only strengthening that was done to the fabric of
the vessel to enable her to undertake the voyage was in
connection with the rudder, cabin windows and washboards.
An extension was welded on from the keel to give further
support to the rudder, i in. plate was bolted over the windows
to prevent them stoving in in heavy weather, and the lower
washboards were replaced by steel welded in place. In other
respects she was a fairly typical production boat. Indeed,
Lewis's search for a suitable vessel that led him to Ice Bird
took him only a more than a week.
little

An draw from this is

obvious lesson to that a small steel
boat can go absolutely anyplace where there is water if

handled by the right crew. What is relevant here, though, is

that vessels of this type of construction can be obtained fairly

cheaply, and they are readily available especially in Holland.
Better still, the simplicity of construction renders building
from scratch well within the capabilities of the skilled

amateur.

Xylonite

Steel boats just out of trade often fetch very little; seldom
more and often less than the scrap value of the steel together
with the second-hand value of any machinery sold along with

33
 OWN A STEEL BOAT
them. Such was the case with Xylonite, an ex-saiUng barge of
I lo tons burden who had served out her days after the age of
sail as a motor barge on theLondon river. Her plating was in
excellent condition when Tim Elliff bought her, as was her
recently overhauled Gardner 6LW power unit. She was in
every respect a vessel worth restoring to her former glory and
this was exactly what Tim set out to do. No structural repairs
were necessary whatsoever, so work could be started straight
away on the major projects of re-rigging and fitting out the
inside as a floating home with charter accommodation.
In the necessary work, the fact tha.tXylonite was steel was of
considerable advantage. Chain plates, crab winches and
other fittings could be simply and speedily welded on. Steel
spars were chosen because of their strength (and availability
at the right price) and the mast case for the main mast was a
simple fabrication job welded straight to the deck. Not that I
am trying in any way to under-estimate Tim's achievement
in getting the boat, just out of trade, into racing trim in under
six months; but this illustrates how steel construction in any
size of vessel can save time and money. And Tim praises the
steel decks for the absence of drips, especially after owning a
wooden barge.
Before the reader chases out to buy a steel Thames barge, I

must confess that there are only a few of them left now.
However, they can still be found. For those who don't set
store by owning a traditional Thames barge, several alterna-
tives present themselves. Lighters can be purchased very
cheaply in good condition on the London river. Small ones
used to be virtually given away because they were
uneconomic, but now the new-found interest in the annual
barge rowing race has meant an increase in demand for these
craft. Even so, little ones can be had for not much more than

scrap value and some bigger lighters have gone for less. Meat
lighters are best, because they have a complete wooden lining
inside the steel. This only has to be cleaned (sand blasting is

34
 WHAT CAN BE DONE

easiestand cheapest in the long run) and sealed to give a very

presentable interior which needs a bit of furniture to make
very homely. Lighters, of course, have no means of pro-
pulsion and no means of steerage, so v^ithout anything being
done in this direction they are only suitable as immobile
houseboats. However, rudders are easy enough to make out
of steel or may even be purchased complete. And stern gear is
easy to fit in a steel vessel (see Chapter 14). Engine installa-
tion should normally be simple, as mounting brackets can be
welded in position on the basis of a cardboard model of the
engine (see Chapter 14), and the engine can be slotted in with
no strengthening required. In addition to mechanized pro-
pulsion, swim-headed lighters have been converted to sail,
rigged spritsail fashion (e.g. Montreal).

If a mobile barge just out of trade is required, why not look

to Holland where many fine smaller motor barges are being
laid up because of their uneconomic size.

8 A Dutch motor barge, converted to houseboat.

Moving to slightly smaller commercial craft, ex-fishing-

boats can make excellent pleasure craft and mobile homes, or
perhaps the skipper/ owner may be able to make a success of
one commercially. Fishing-boats in England of around the 40
ft. mark are usually wooden, but steel ones do find their
way
on to the market (often originating in Holland or Belgium).

35
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

Good fishing-boats can be bought comparatively cheaply in

England (fishing is not very profitable for the small man),
depending on the state of the power unit and on the gear that
is being sold with the boat.
Sometimes special circumstances apply. For example, a
while back bigger fishing-boats were going more cheaply
because of particularly onerous legislation by the British
government concerning fishing vessels of over 45 feet. An
expensive survey was required together with totally
uneconomic modifications. Many vessels were being
shortened in any way possible, to get them under 45 feet
(easy with steel, not so easy with wood) But around the 50 ft.
.

size it was difficult to do much reduction, so these boats had

to be sold off cheaply.

Vic J2
What an incredible enthusiast's boat Vicj2 is — an old Clyde
Puffer, she was built in 1943 to carry 150 tons of cargo on the

9 The old Clyde puffer, Vic 32.

36
 WHAT CAN BE DONE

River Clyde and the west coast of Scotland. She was, and still
is, propelled by steam. Her main boiler is huge, about 20 feet

high, and her engine room is a joy to behold, with its huge
pohshed brass pressure dials and massive crankshaft (which
you lubricate by simply squirting oil on to the big end
journals) it's a delight to anyone who appreciates the beauty
of steam. Best, though, is when the engine is running. Almost
complete silence prevails with just a slight hiss of escaping
—
steam and a swish as the shaft turns but what incredible
power as she glides silently away from a quay! What a
contrast to the modern ship's engine room where no com-
munication is possible over the noise of the diesels, and where
all romance is gone!
When Nick Walker (the present owner) bought Vic she had
been lying derelict in Whitby had
for so long that her hold
come to be used as the local rubbish tip. All manner of junk
had to be disposed of before work could commence on the
seized-solid steam engines. Still, she was cheap, approxi-
mately scrap value which was little more than £1,000.
Weekend after patient weekend gradually brought the day
nearer when the boiler could be fired up. This was a critical
time, as the boiler is the vulnerable part of a steam engine,
the engine itself being so chunky that hammers and blow-
lamps can be applied to get the thing to turn. By contrast any
damage to the boiler, especially to the boiler tubes, is not only
extremely difficult and expensive to repair, but also very
dangerous owing to the high pressure which is built up
inside. But the boiler was fired, it didn't explode and eventu-
ally the way was clear for the voyage to London. This was
achieved without incident and the conversion work necess-
ary for chartering back in her home waters was started.
One of the major tasks was the doubhng of available space
by sphtting the hold into two decks. This was done simply
and quickly because of the steel construction, and masses of
charter space was gained, and what a splendid home she will

37
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

make! The other major task was to attend to the steelwork of

the hull. She is an old boat and had suffered her fair share of
corrosion, but this was not too much of a problem with steel.
I shudder to think about the task of repairing the equivalent

rot in a wooden boat. Nick first of all sand-blasted the hull to

see the extent of the problem. And as is usually the case, the
corrosion turned out to be not as bad as anticipated, with the
worst problem on the waterline.
The —
was not difficult simply weld doubling
solution
plates all around the boat covering the waterline, and the
boat would last many a year. These were flat plates, so no
rolling was required and the job was done in a fortnight.
I give this boat as an example, not necessarily to fire people
with enthusiasm for Puffers, but as an illustration of the
diverse opportunities that exist for buying and converting
steel boats out of trade. Nick's previous boat was yet another
example. A steel narrow boat of some 80 feet, she was based
at Brentford on the English canal system where she made an
excellent home and pleasure cruiser.

Narrow Boats
Narrow boats tend to vary only in length as their breadth is

determined by the width of the canals through which they are

designed to travel. Thus it is that this form of craft can almost
literally be built by the mile and just cut off to length as

10 A narrow boat, for rambling in rural England.

 WHAT CAN BE DONE
required. They must be the simplest boats in the world to
make, having bottoms and flat sides and almost flat ends.
flat

And yet they can provide an enormous amount of pleasure,

enabling one to discover rural England (and parts that are
not so rural) at a pace that permits appreciation. The pas-
time of narrow-boating has recendy gained enormous popu-
larity in England, and commercial interests have not failed to
notice this. As a result, a narrow boat of the most simple kind,
fitted to a rudimentary standard and supplied with a small

diesel engine will still be expensive. She could be built by an

amateur for a cost of less than a third of the finished price.

Here is an attractive financial proposition for the amateur
as well as an interesting project. A boat could be completed
in a relatively short period with every hope of doubling one's
investment if it is subsequently sold. Alternatively, she might
be used as a hire cruiser, reserving a period for one's own
holiday. Narrow boats can be placed with hire companies
who will charter the vessel out, look after all the paper work
and put right all the faults, often of the charterers' making,
that appear in the boat. In return, the company will expect a
substantial chunk of the profits. They will probably earn it,
so you should only consider chartering out directly if you are
prepared to turn out at all hours of the day or night to sort out
an engine that won't start (probably out of fuel) or a boat that
is stuck in the bank. The normal return on a boat bought at

retail price is about the commercial rate of interest, but

capital appreciation can, of course, also be expected, and this

has been relatively high on boats in recent years. If the boat is
built for a material cost alone, then the return on investment
will be very good.
Make some enquiries about the current situation before
jumping into such a project, as economic circumstances
change all the time. However, it is worth consideration, and
anyone who can weld should be capable of completing the
venture satisfactorily.

39
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

1 1 A typical Dutch cabin cruiser.

Cabin Cruisers
A steel cabin cruiser can be cheap to buy and easy to build.
Here is one which is typical of the sort seen all over Holland.

Conclusion
In this chapter, I have tried to give some varied ideas of what
can be done with steel as a material for boat construction.
The examples were chosen so as to give a broad spectrum of
possibilities in the hope that one or more of them may spark
off a thought in the mind of the reader.
 3
Tools that will be needed

Contrary to what might be imagined, the speciahst tools that

will be needed are probably less than those necessary for use
with other construction materials. The basic requirements
are contained in the following list. Each of the items is

examined in more detail later in the chapter.

Arc-welder — plus electrode holder and earth clamp

leads,
Angle-grinder — plus a of cutting and grinding
selection
discs
Masks — a hand-held and helmet version would be useful,

plus plenty of spare glasses

Goggles — shaded grinding and
glass for cutting, clear for
chipping
Leather gloves
Chipping hammer
Cold chisel
Wire brush
Clamps
Engineer's rule and retractable metal tape
Steel set-square
French chalk
File

Gas would also be useful, but is not essential.

cutting gear
Electrodes are a consumable item and not really a tool, but a
brief discussion of them is included later on in the chapter.

Arc-welder
This is an obvious must and will probably be the most

41
 OWN A STEEL BOAT
expensive purchase in the above hst. Very many different
types are available and it is difficult to decide just which one
tobuy although certain necessary features can be identified.
Most important is to ensure that the welder has sufficient
capacity for the work that is to be undertaken. Don't make
the mistake of buying one that is too small, especially as
slightly higher capacity does not usually add significantly to
the bill.

The amateur will be best suited with a welder that can be

used off ordinary domestic electric supply. With most very
powerful machines a higher input voltage will be required,
but these are not of much concern to us. What is of concern is
the output rating of the welder which will be measured in
amps, the higher the amperage the thicker the plate that can
be welded. The thickest plate that is normally met with in
small-boat construction is lo mm. (0-39 in.) and this can be
easily welded with equipment of 140-amp output. Thicker
plate can be welded with a machine of this capacity provided
the edges are bevelled and several runs are made. Even
though you may not envisage welding thicker than 4 mm.,
which only requires iio-amp output, a job will certainly
arrive sooner or later that will require more. Above 140 amps
it is not possible to run from standard 13/15-amp input, so a
special supply will normally be the most appropriate.
Some better quality equipments (such as the Oxford
range) are capable of varying the input voltage. While the
normal UK
supply is 240-volt, certain conditions (such as a
very long lead from the supply point) can cause a voltage
drop which will have a significant effect on performance.
It may well be necessary to consider equipment with this

facility if such circumstances apply. Safest is to test the

voltage at the likely place of work using an Avo Meter. A
small fall below the required voltage will not be significant,
but ± 10 per cent or more could be. On one particular job
where a long lead to the shore had to be used and several

42
 TOOLS THAT WILL BE NEEDED
people were drawing off the same socket, my welder would
hardly produce a sparkle and we found that the voltage was
well below 200. Oxford arc equipment also in use at the same
time was persuaded to perform by fitting the input lead onto
a lower voltage terminal.
The next decision to be made is whether to go for an
oil-cooled or an air-cooled set. An model has the
oil-cooled
distinct advantage that it will run for almost any length of
time at full capacity without overheating. Consequently it
will normally have a very long working life. Many such sets
last for ten or twenty years with httle attention. Against this,
however, must be balanced a number of disadvantages. An
oil-cooled set will be considerably heavier than its air-cooled
counterpart of similar capability. A 140 amp air-cooled set
can be easily carried a considerable distance by one person
and is very easy to manoeuvre to different parts of a boat.
Such is not the case with an oil-cooled set which will

normally require lifting tackle or several people. A lot of

shipborne work is in awkward positions to say the least, and a
welder that can't be properly sited can add considerably to

the length of the job. Weight will also be significant if the

equipment is to be carried aboard the boat. An oil-cooled set
would make ideal ballast, but the problem is you can hardly
put it in the bilge! And another problem is that if the boat
heels significantly the oil can slosh out through the air vents
of the welder stowed down below.
An air-cooled welder is normally about half the cost of an
oil-cooled version, but their relative fives have to be weighed
against initial cost. There are a number of cheap poor quality
air-cooled sets on the market which will have very limited
lives. My first one lasted only six months! On the other hand,
many excellent sets are available at only marginally extra
cost. Whatever you may buy, it is most important to ensure
that the model selected has some sort of thermal cut-out so
that it automatically switches itself off before it reaches

43
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

danger temperature. In winter my own welder will run for

several hours of almost continuous welding at maximum
output before it reaches cut-out temperature. In hot weather,
about one hour is the maximum, and it then requires about
ten minutes to cool down. (It is a 'Monowelder', Italian
made, obtainable from S.I.P. (Industrial Products) Ltd.) If
more than one person is capable of welding so that the set
tends to be in continuous use, it can be a problem. However,
when I am working on a job by myself, in hot weather, an
hour's continuous welding is all I can take without a rest, so
the fact that the equipment needs a break as well doesn't
matter. Incidentally, my air-cooled set has lasted five years
and shows every sign of carrying on for ever. It gets very
rough treatment such as being sat in the mud (not to be
—
recommended but the tide was coming in) while I welded
some anode studs on. It has also been hauled up the mast to
do a job there. ... It was even doused by a wave while I was
standing in a barge boat trying to weld back a Thames sailing
barge's rudder that had come adrift from its mountings. It
withstood all such trials with no apparent disadvantage and
it is worth saying here that this sort of versatility is just not

obtainable from an oil-cooled set. I attribute the good service

I get from my set to its thermal cut-out and extremely robust

windings and internal connections (I had the top off to look

before I bought it).
With air-cooled equipment it is quite often possible to
obtain infinitely variable control over amperage setting
throughout the output range (choke control). This is

normally achieved by a control knob which is turned clock-

wise or anti-clockwise to increase or decrease the setting.
Such a facility is to be recommended as the welder can be
precisely geared to the conditions of the job. After a while it is

possible to fine tune the control by instinct without reference

to the amperage scale, simply by reference to the arc.
Oil-cooled or air-cooled is the decision you will have to

44
 TOOLS THAT WILL BE NEEDED
make depending on the type of work to be done. If it is to be
general maintenance, and especially if the equipment is to be
carried on board, then it must be air-cooled. If a lot of
continuous welding is involved from a position where the
machine can be sited so that all parts of the job can be
reached, then oil-cooled is probably the answer. Welding
equipment holds its value fairly well so the oil-cooled set
could always be swopped over later when the major con-
struction work is done.
A word about power supply. Even with the sets I have
been describing, it is best to obtain 30-amp input supply such
as would be used for a domestic electric cooker. This is
because a 90-amp output welder will take right up to the limit
of an ordinary 13-amp input, and sudden overloading such
as sticking an electrode, will cause the circuit to fuse.
Thirty-amp input is best, but 20 amps would do. The maxi-
mum input required can usually be obtained from the welder
instruction manual and commonly be expressed in
will

k.V.A (= 1,000 volt/amperes X a power factor of o-8). The

maximum input required for my 140-amp 'Monowelder' is

4-2 k.V.A. so at 240 volts the following input amperage is

necessary:

V X A X 0-8 = k.V.A.
240 X AX 0*8 = 4,200
A = 22

Input wires themselves should be heavy duty and flexible. If

a long run of cable is necessary to the supply point it is best if
a single continuous cable isand socket connec-
used. Plug
tions can cause a sizeable voltage drop and are in any event a
weak point in the hne where moisture could enter and short
out the installation. If a cable has to be joined, the wires
should be soldered and taped thoroughly, but even this will
cause a weak point as the wires will no longer be flexible. If
plugs are used in the input line I would avoid fuses except at

45
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

the supply point, or a check will have to be made on every

fuse if a short occurs. In any event, 13-amp fuses are easily
blown by an overload on a 140-amp welder.
At the output end the leads supplied with a welder or as an
'extra' are seldom long enough. Six feet is often all that is
supplied whereas double that would be useful. Provided long
leads are of good quality, thick cable, little power loss will
occur at the electrode. But make sure that all connections are
clean and tight. Earth clamps can be of two types — either
sprung or with a screw thread. The spring type is quicker to
move from job to job but the jaws are often too narrow to fit
on the work, so that they have to be tack-welded on. Also,
they have the habit of springing off. A better earth is obtain-
able with a threaded clamp and this is the type I would go for.
Most electrode holders are spring-loaded and the main point
to note is to avoid ones that are too heavy. Hours of con-
tinuous welding can put quite a strain on arm and wrist and a
little weight saved in the holder can make quite a difference.

Arc-welders are relatively safe pieces of equipment,

although that does not mean that they can be treated
casually. The danger lies with the 240-volt input supply,
which can, of course, be lethal. At the output end there is
little danger and it is possible to touch both leads without

harm, (although this practice should be avoided because

there may be a fault in the machine). The leads have high
amperage at comparatively low volts and it is high voltage
that is dangerous.
Watching the arc with the naked eye for even a very short
time causes arc-eye which is not unlike having sand around
the eyeballs. Arc-eye is thoroughly uncomfortable and
extremely dangerous and anyone who has experienced it will
do all he can to avoid a repetition. To those who have not, I
can only say take every precaution against the danger, which
means always using a mask with darkened glass that is free
from cracks. The temptation to peep around the corner of the

46
 TOOLS THAT WILL BE NEEDED
mask to see a bit better must be resisted, and on no account
should gas cutting goggles be used as these will not give
sufficient protection.

Electrodes

Many makes of electrode are available for all diflerent

materials, so up to an individual user to experiment with
it is

different rods and find those which suit him best. To express
a personal opinion, I do not like British Oxygen's Vodex rods
as they seem to me to be designed for much more powerful
machines than mine. I have found the Swedish Oerlikon
rods, made in Northern Ireland, to be very easy to use and
would recommend that anyone who is beginning should start
with these.
Whatever rods you use, it is essential that they be stored in
a dry place as dampness will quickly destroy their perfor-
mance. If they do get damp try putting them in the oven for a
while before use to dry them out. (The use of various gauges
of rod is discussed in Chapter 4.)
In addition to buying ordinary mild steel rods, it may also
be useful to obtain some gouging rods. These are specially
designed for cutting plate using the arc of the welder. They
are harder than ordinary rods and do not have a flux cover-
ing. After heating up the plate with the arc from one of these
rods using a very high amperage, cutting is achieved by
pushing the rod through the plate and moving it along. By
repeating this process quite accurate cuts can be made rela-
tively quickly on thin plate. Ordinary mild steel rods can be
used for this purpose but they are very quickly expended.

Gas-shielded Welding
Most metals when molten tend to form oxides from the air,
and these oxides inhibit the proper flow of metal at the weld.
A satisfactory weld is accordingly difficult, if not impossible,
to achieve without shielding. This is the main function of flux

47
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

on electrodes, but an alternative is to use an inert gas to

shield the weld. This can be more effective than flux when
stainless and certain high-tensile steels are to be welded.
In this technique a gun is used to feed copper-clad elec-
trodes continuously into the weld area through the gas
shield. Argon is best used for stainless but a cheaper gas such
as carbon dioxide will normally do for high-tensile steel.
Advantages are several. A slag-free weld is produced, there-
fore, saving chipping time between welds, and preventing the
possibility of a slag trap and consequent weakness. Another
benefit is the time saved through not having to change the
electrode. This type of welding inputs far less heat, with
consequent minimization of distortion. Although, if too
much advantage is taken of the continuous feed, distortion

will resultthrough long runs. The cost of the continuous-feed

electrode is less, although the gas, especially Argon, can be
expensive.
Argon arc-welding is very easy, far easier than stick weld-
ing. But the initial cost of the equipment is high more than —
ten times that of conventional arc. So it isn't really worth

buying unless you are setting up professionally. This is

especially true as stick equipment will really be needed as
well, because the heavy, cumbersome Argon arc plant isn't
easily movable from job to job.

Angle-grinder
The angle-grinder is an essential tool for many tasks. Its
principal use will be in smoothing off the cut edges of plate
and bevelling them prior to welding. It will also be necessary
to grind flush the welded seams. With a sanding disc
attached it can be used for cleaning plate of mill-scale and
rust before painting. Many ancillary applications will be
found, such as sharpening tools and engineering-type
fabrications. Perhaps most important of all is the fact that the
angle-grinder can be made to cut quite thick plate, fairly

48
 TOOLS THAT WILL BE NEEDED
rapidly. I have used it on lo mm. plate successfully and 3
mm. it cuts like buUer. On thin plate such as this my grinder
isnearly as quick as gas cutting gear and the finished ed.?e is

fine for welding without further preparation (unless a bevel is

considered necessary). Cutting-discs will definitely be far

more expensive than gas, so use the grinder only if small
amounts of work are involved or if gas One 9is not available.
in.cutting disc will last roughly 12 feet on 3 mm. plate.
Cutting by disc does have the advantage of being much
cleaner than gas, which may be useful in some circum-
stances.
Several makes of angle-grinder are available and all the
brand makes will be adequate for our purpose. Iwould
express a personal preference for Wolf, but I had excellent
service for five years from my very old, metal-bodied Black
and Decker which I bought second-hand for £10. It finally
sparked its last only when it was borrowed unbeknown to me
to cut through 2 in. ferro-cement.
Some points are worth noting. An all-plastic-bodied ver-
sion is the safest, as this provides double insulation against
shocks caused by faulty wiring. Most of the manufacturers
produce their grinders in two forms an angle-grinder —
proper, and what is usually described as a power-sander.
The difference is normally in the power of the electric motor
and sometimes in the robustness of the gearbox. An angle-
grinder will normally revolve at upwards of 6,000 r.p.m.
whereas the power-sander will work
about 4,500 r.p.m.
at
The grinder will naturally be slightly heavier. There is not
usually a significant difference in the price of the two types so
I would recommend buying the heavier duty version, especi-

ally if cutting is envisaged.

Some manufacturers such as Black and Decker and Wolf
produce a mini version known as a 'grinderette'. This can be
held in one hand if necessary and may be useful for light jobs,
but at about two-thirds the price of the grown-up version

49
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

there seems little point in buying one.

Angle-grinders can be extremely dangerous tools so cer-
tain basic factors must always be observed:

1 Always wear goggles. They may steam up, they may be

uncomfortable and you may see better without them,
but the pain of a metal splinter in your eye something is

you will never forget. I have had it twice through sheer

stupidity —I have used each of the above excuses. Both

times I was lucky and no permanent damage was done,

just a week or more of discomfort. There won't be a next
time because I might not be so lucky then. Loick
Fougeron lost his eye because he was not able to get a
metal sliver removed as he was on his boat some way
from civilization.
2 Make sure the machine is turned off before connecting
to the mains. The immense torque when starting can
cause the grinder to spin a considerable distance, doing
damage to people, property or itself. Again I know
through personal experience!
3 The grinder can easily be spun out of your hands by the
starting torque so it must be held very securely and care
should be taken not to lose balance.
4 Be careful to avoid cutting through the wire with the
disc. The results are dramatic!

5 The work should be securely clamped to a bench or

something solid to avoid the possibility of it shooting off
and injuring someone or twisting a cutting disc thereby
causing it to fracture. The projectiles caused by a frac-
tured disc can be lethal.
6 Always use the guard which will be supplied with the
machine. (Power-sanders won't have one.) This will
deflect fractured disc or metal splinters away from you,
but,more important, will protect your hands and arms
should you slip.

50
 TOOLS THAT WILL BE NEEDED
7 Cutting with an angle-grinder can be quite dangerous,
so be very careful especially while the 'knack' is being
acquired. The disc
tends to spin out of the gioove thst is
being cut and to shoot anywhere. This must be resisted
by holding the disc down into the groove and cutting
with the leading edge.It is additionally important to

maintain a stable stance.

8 The stream of glowing red-hot particles that the grinder
emits can do a lot of damage, and they can carry a
considerable distance. Glass-fibre boats in particular
are susceptible and the sparks can easily catch clothing
alight if attention is paid to the job without watching
where the stream of molten metal is going. I once man-
aged to set my shoe alight in this way!

Protective Clothing

Goggles have already been mentioned above in the context of

the use of the angle-grinder, but they will also be needed for
chipping slag or rust. The second splinter I imbedded in one
of my was caused by chipping rusty metal above head
eyes
level. Goggles are cheap enough to have several pairs so you

can throw them away as soon as they become scratched and

difficult to see through. That is when the temptation can
arise to do without them in order to see better. One point to
remember when buying goggles is to avoid those that have
excessively large holes in the side for ventilation. I have
known splinters to get through these and to do nasty injuries.
You need clear ones for grinding and chipping and coloured
ones for gas cutting. Goggles are available which combine
clear and coloured, with the latter on a fold-back hinge.
Shields will be required for use with the arc-welder, both to

protect the eyes from the bright light of the arc and the face
from spitting metal. The shield will have a view panel in the
centre consisting of darkened glass sandwiched between
clear. The darkened glass is protected by the clear which can

51
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

be thrown away as soon as weld splatter begins to hinder

vision. If thedarkened glass becomes cracked, it should be
rejected immediately as the eyes can be damaged by rays
through the crack without any danger being apparent.
Shields come in two forms: either a hand-held mask or a
helmet which fits on your head and is hinged so that you push
it back when not needed. Which to use is a matter of personal

choice. A helmet has definite advantages as it leaves both

hands free. Nevertheless I have never been able to get on with
them, so I always use the hand-held mask. I never seem to be
able to adjust my helmet properly and it has the habit of
dropping an inch at a crucial moment. Plus there is the
danger with the helmet of welding your free hand to the job!
Always wear leather gloves. They prevent injury and dis-
comfort from weld splatter and enable you to pick up the
work while it is still hot from welding or cutting. Proper
long-sleeved welding gloves are ideal for the job although I
must confess I don't like them, preferring ordinary work
gloves which are thinner and permit greater sensitivity.
Wear strong clothing such as denim, and your sleeves
buttoned up even when the weather is hot. Weld splatter
burns on the arms can sometimes be nasty, and I have had
quite serious burning from the ultra violet light of the arc
(just like sun-burn but it can be a lot worse) Trousers should
.

come down over stout boots and preferably be tied at the

ankle. Make sure molten metal can't get in your boots — if it

does, it is impossible to remove it quickly enough to avoid

painful burns. Leather spats over your boots can solve the
problem.

Tools

A chipping hammer is the first essential. These come in two

sorts so be sure to buy the welder's version, the difference
being in the pick which enables the welder to get right into
slag traps. An ordinary chipping hammer would also be

52
 TOOLS THAT WILL BE NEEDED
useful if any rusty metal has to be chipped back to ^rood
metal. The chipping hammer should be kept blunt as cuts in
the good metal will lead to early corrosion and can seriously
diminish the life of the plate.
A wire brush will be necessary for cleaning slag out of seams
that are being welded. A cold chisel may prove useful and ajile
is often handy for finally sm.oothing off corners after they
have been ground. A retractable metal tape will be necessary
for measuring and an engineer's rule will also be useful
plate,
for transferring angles and transferring measurements from
one side of a plate to the other. A set square will be worth
having and plenty of french chalk should be available for
marking out the plates.
A
good selection of G-clamps will complete the tool- bag.
The jaws don't need to be very wide, but the deeper they are
the better. Special welding 'Mole' clamps are available and
these will prove most useful. Clamps can be very easily made
by welding! in. square bar into a U and then welding a nut on
one end. A bolt with a small bar welded on the top provides
the clamping action when screwed through the nut.

12 A home-made G-clamp.

53
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

Gas Cutting Gear

I am deliberately ignoring gas welding gear as I do not
consider that it has much place in boat construction, the
plates being generally too thick. Gas cutting gear, on the
other hand, if not essential, is extremely useful on any major
project. It comes in —
two types oxygen and acetylene or
oxygen and propane. Both are equally suited to our purpose,
but only oxy-acetylene can be used for welding, as the flame
produced by oxy-propane is not sufficiently intense. Propane
gas is cheaper than acetylene and the deposit required on the
cylinder (all cylinders are hired from the supplying com-
panies and cannot be bought) is considerably less. It is also
more readily obtainable. Accordingly, if you are considering
gas cutting gear it may be best to go for oxy-propane.
As well as the cylinders you will require bottle gauges,
hoses, a cutting gun and a cylinder key. British Oxygen Ltd
are the biggest suppliers of gases in Great Britain and their
products are readily obtainable all over the country. They
are also able to supply the ancillary equipment that may be
required. Gauges, hoses and gun are often additionally
obtainable through specialist magazines or the Exchange &
Mart in Britain at a considerable saving on the leading
brands. These should be satisfactory providing they comply
with the appropriate safety standards in force. However, you
should be careful when buying second-hand equipment
unless you can obtain expert advice as to its condition.
The gauge set for each bottle normally consists of two dials
and a regulating device. (See photo 13, depicting me with a
British Oxygen 'Portapak'.) One will indicate the pressure at
which the set is regulated and the other will indicate the
contents of the bottle. An acetylene gauge should not be used on a
propane bottle, or vice versa ^ as the gauge would be damaged and
it could be dangerous. It is essential, therefore, to make sure
the gauges are appropriate before you buy. The cutting gun
itself also has regulator knobs but these should only be used

54
 TOOLS THAT WILL BE NEEDED

13 Mike Pratt with a British Oxygen 'Portapak'.

for fine tuning, the proper pressure being set up on the gauge.
Guns come and the appropriate one will be
in different sizes
determined by the thickness of plate to be cut. Even the
smallest gun can be made to cut quite thick plate, it just takes
a lot longer. If cutting 4 mm. to 6 mm. is what is normally
contemplated, a comparatively light-weight gun would be
best as this will be less tiring to use, will economize con-
siderably on gas, and its smaller nozzle will produce a finer,
more accurate cut. You also need hoses, but do ensure that
those you buy are long enough. Bottles are difficult to move
unless you buy a trolley to go with them, so the hoses should
be long enough to reach all parts of the job with the bottles
sited centrally.
British Oxygen Ltd market a small oxy-acetylene kit

55
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

known as 'Portapak'. The wholecan easily be carried to

kit

any work site and could be a useful addition to the mainten-

ance kit of a steel work-boat or even a yacht. The kit consists
of small bottles (which are technically leased for ten years),
hoses, gauges, and a small gun with a selection of nozzles for
both welding and cutting. The gun will cut quite thick plate
but the bottles last only a very short time. When cutting,
oxygen used at more than twice the rate of acetylene and
is

the small oxygen bottle will last for only about half an hour's
continuous use. The gas comes at a standard price for large
or small bottles, as it is the filling of them that costs the
money, not the gas Furthermore, British Oxygen puts
itself.

a standard service charge on every invoice for gas regardless

of how many bottles are filled. means that buying gas
All this
in small quantities is extremely expensive, and cutting done
in this way may cost more than if cutting discs are used on the
angle-grinder. The ancillary equipment in the kit can, how-
.ever, be used with large bottles, so if you are undertaking a
major project followed by the need for gas for small mainten-
ance jobs, then it may be worth considering. The small
bottles cannot be hired independently of the kit. The kit will
cost only slightly less than equipment plus the deposit on
large bottles, but a small monthly rental is additionally
charged on large bottles. The rental is not charged on the
small ones.
All gas under pressure can be extremely dangerous, be it in
large or small bottles. have known oxygen bottles take off
I

like a rocket when the cylinder fails, and go soaring way up

into the air. Acetylene bottles can explode like a bomb if
mistreated or if defective. It is for this reason that the cylin-
ders cannot be bought^ They need regular testing, so the
suppliers must maintain them under their control in order to
see that this is carried out. Propane tends to be less poten-
tially lethal than acetylene but even so its danger should not
be under-estimated.

56
 TOOLS THAT WILL BE NEEDED
The manufacturers will supply basic safety instructions on
request but the following few notes may be useful:

1 Perhaps the biggest danger is a flashback from the gun

to the bottles. To prevent this, flame traps should be
included somewhere in the line.

2 The acetylene bottle should not be used on its side.

Bottles should always be used upright. Dissolved
acetylene liquid could run into the valve if the botde is

on its side, and this could be very dangerous.

3 Lash the bottles securely upright when in use. Falling
bottles are not only dangerous to people who get in the
way, but may cause an explosion.
4 The acetylene bottle should not be allowed to become
hot as this may well lead to an explosion. If a bottle does
show work should be immediately
signs of heating up,
stopped, the area cleared, and appropriate authorities
called.

5 Don't dust down clothing with compressed oxygen.

Oxygen trapped in clothing could be ignited by a spark
and cause nasty burning.
6 Always light the gun (acetylene or propane first) with
the nozzle pointing away from yourself and other
people. Fuel turned accidentally high can shoot a con-
siderable distance with consequent danger to anyone in
the way.
7 Guard the hoses against chafe. Leaking fuel may ignite.
8 Turn the cylinders off firmly when work is finished, as
leaking gas is not only wasteful, but may cause an
explosion. It is a bad habit to switch the gas off just on
the regulator, or worse still only at the gun: damage may
occur at either or both, especially in transit, and gas will

then be allowed to escape. If gas still leaks when the

cylinder tap is turned fully home the cylinder should be

returned to the suppher for exchange. Do not attempt to

57
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

force the tap as it could shear off and this will be a

potential hazard.
9 It is worth repeating that goggles must always be worn.
The bright cutting flame will damage eyes in a very
short time and there is also the risk of damage by metal
splatter.

If these few basic principles are observed, gas cutting can

be comparatively simple and safe. A few hours' practice on
scrap plate should allow even the complete beginner to
achieve a reasonable degree of competence. The equipment
retailer may well be able to arrange for a demonstration, but
a brief guide is given here. The pressure gauges should first

be set at the level appropriate to the metal thickness and

nozzle size. These by the equipment
figures will be given
manufacturers who often supply them on a card for easy
reference. The fuel (acetylene or propane) should then be
turned on at the gun and ignited. A reddish yellow smoky
flame will result, but it oxygen is turned
will turn blue as the
on. The flame should be adjusted so that the oxygen and
acetylene balance is correct. This is achieved when the

MRINFLRMS MRINFWME MRINFLFIME

LiGHTBLUe,
DRRKER PffRK£f^ JUST NO-nCERBL.£
BLU£ Blue-

EXCESS FfC£Tn£M£ EXCESS OXYG^A/ NEUTF^ffl-

Fig I Oxy-acetylene flame adjustment.

 TOOLS THAT WILL BE NEEDED
lighter blue cones in the flame are adjusted very slightly
longer than the darker blue cones (Fig. i). This is achieved
by progressively increasing the oxygen supply. The gun is
now ready to cut. The principle is to heat the metal with the
flame and then oxidize the hot metal away with a stream ol
oxygen which is emitted from a hole in the centre of the
nozzle by the apphcation of a lever on the gun. Once oxida-
tion has commenced, the work can proceed rapidly
as while
metal being oxidized the metal just next to it is in the
is

process of being heated. You may find it helpful to use the

gun at a slight angle as in Fig. 2.

^ D/Aecr/aN of -r/=iFi\/£.L.

Fig 2 Gas cutting.

Practice will improve neatness and increase speed, but cut-

ting is essentially far easier than welding.

The 'Nibbler'
For the amateur I believe that the 'Nibbler' is a much better
bet than gas for cutting plate. A sort of electric tin opener, it
cuts plate up toi in. thick very rapidly without distortion. It

is extremely accurate and leaves clean edges ready for weld-

ing. (A good one to buy is the Duplux N24 obtainable from
J & C (Tools & Accessories) Ltd; at around £250, the
machine is not cheap, but there shouldn't be much loss if it is
sold at the end of the project.) In any event the investment is
only a little greater than that necessary for gas cutting gear
with all its inherent distortion problems, and this will not
now be required. One 'Nibbler' blade should be suflicient to

59
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

14. A 'Nibbler' steel-plate cutter.

cut out a 40-footer and its replacement cost of about £50 will
not be far removed from the cost of the equivalent amount of
gas.
Cutting discs in the grinder are probably marginally more
expensive than either gas or the 'Nibbler'. Even in large
quantities it's difficult to get a 9 in. disc for much less than
£1.50. As 600 to 800 feet of cutting could be required in a
40-footer, and one disc won't cut much more than 2 feet of A 1

in. steel, the total cost would definitely be more than £50.

However, the grinder is a necessary piece of equipment

anyway, so it doesn't involve additional expense. But it can't
be used for cutting out apertures such as portholes and this
can be a definite disadvantage.
Mechanical plate shears are another alternative and can
usually be bought second-hand fairly cheaply. However, in
order to move the shears along, the scrap has to be bent. If it
is too wide it is difficult to bend and at the same time it is a
waste of metal. If you have used tin snips you will know the
problem.

60
 TOOLS THAT WILL BE NEEDED
Maintenance
The arc-welder and the angle-grinder are extremely robust
tools, their enemy being water and damp. Provided
only real
these are guarded against, no problems should arise. The
only regular maintenance normally necessary with the
welder will be in connection with the earth and electrode
leads,which are prone to fray at the terminals after constant
use. Check them often, as slowly diminishing performance
caused by poor contacts may otherwise go unnoticed. With
gas cutting gear, the gauges are highly susceptible to dam-
age, and should be removed when not in use. They should be
stored in protective boxes and their connecting threads must
be kept scrupulously clean.

Conclusion

All the tools that have been mentioned should last a very long
time, and will be useful for maintenance and fabrication
work once the main building or conversion job is finished.
Virtually all the gear, with the possible exception of the gas
bottles, can be carried aboard the bigger cruising boat,
making her largely independent for her repairs. Abraxis has a
240/110 volt, 3*0 k.V.A. diesel generator installed for run-
ning power tools, making her almost a mobile workshop. The
generator has sufficient power to give the welder 100 amper-
age output, enough to run 14-gauge rods easily and 12's at a

push. Most repair jobs can be done with these and patience.
Abraxis's generator, made by Allam Generators, Southend, is

incidentally extremely compact, and I would thoroughly

recommend it to anyone thinking of installing one, especially
if space is limited. The Lister predecessor, while a fine
machine, was very large and very noisy for its output.
 4
Welding is no problem

I read several books on the subject of welding when I first

became involved with steel boats. While they were all very
lucid on the theory of what was supposed to happen, I could
find very little succinct information on the techniques
involved. Consequently my welding remained poor until
Brian Boorman, a qualified welder friend, pointed out a few
simple things was doing wrong. Since then my welding has
I

improved in leaps and bounds and practice has led to con-

tinued improvement. I do not advocate an in-depth theoreti-
cal study of welding for the would-be steel boat-builder.
Much better to work on as many types of job as possible. It
quickly becomes easy to tell while you are welding whether or
not the resulting join will be satisfactory. In this chapter I

shall simply pass on the tips that Brian showed to me, and I

believe that with plenty of practice you will quickly discover

that welding is no problem.
The first essential is brand of rod. I
to select a suitable
experimented with many and eventually settled on Oerlikon
yellow tip, an all-positional rod with which it is very easy to
strike and maintain an arc. Rods come in different sizes and
lengths according to the type of job for which they are
required. Size is measured in s.w.g. or millimetres. The
smaller the s.w.g. figure the larger the rod. For our purposes
1 6 s.w.g. to 8 s.w.g. will be useful, i6 being the smallest size
that is made. The following table gives an approximate
indication of rod usage in relation to plate thickness, together
with a note as to the amperage at which the welder should
be set.

62
 WELDING IS NO PROBLEM
Plate
thickness Rod Amperage Runs
inches

i 12 100 I

14 60 I
— possibly more
_3L
16 12 100 I

H 60 Several

i 10 130 I — if you are lucky

12 TOO Several

f 8 180 Not really suitable

for small machines

10 130 I
— probably more
12 100 Several

NOTE: Amperages are approximate depending on conditions and

types of rod. These amperages are slightly high by manufacturer's
recommended standards, but I have found that most professional
welders have the power turned well up. Whilst I am far from
being a professional I have found through experience that this is

advantageous.

For special apphcations I find SAF or Philips rods to be

extremely good. The following table indicates types of rod
suitable for different apphcations:

Apphcation Type of Rod

SAF PHILIPS
Mild Steel

All positions and vertical

going down G48N 42

All positions G47 53

Vertical going down L5^ 37 Q^ 39

63
 2

OWN A STEEL BOAT

Application Type of Rod

SAF PHILIPS
Stainless Steel

Stainless steel + stainless steell Safinox 18—8 Inox ir

Stainless steel + mild steel J rcn 29-10 80

Stainless steel + special steel 1

Stainless steel + unknown steelj '

Any of the stainless rods would be all right for welding special
steels such as Cor-Ten, with the Philips 80 being especially
good, but expensive. Oerlikon also make electrodes for
special applications.
The length of rod will be determined by the lengths of run
to be completed and by the experience of the welder. It is

easier to control a shorter rod, so the beginner should use 1

in. rods until his skill increases. Indeed, longer rods are
seldom necessary as even on plating jobs long runs should be
avoided because of the danger of distortion.
Before you start to weld, ensure that the negative lead from
the welder has a good earth on to the work. Poor earth
contact is the most frequent cause of difficulty in striking an
arc. It is also worth repeating here that protective clothing
must be w^orn including gloves, boots, and tough shirts
(buttoned down to the gloves) and jeans. Remember to
protect your eyes by using a helmet or shield.
The basic theory of 'stick' welding is not difficult. The arc
from the electrode (positive lead from the welder) is used to
melt the two pieces of metal to be joined (metal being con-
nected to the negative lead from the welder), and the gap is
filled by molten metal from the electrode itself The electrode

is covered in flux which, amongst other things, excludes

oxygen from the weld which would otherwise diminish the

strength.
In order to obtain a satisfactory result it is essential to
concentrate on the weld totally. A fraction of a second's

64
 WELDING IS NO PROBLEM
inattention can lead to the electrode tip wandering, thus
allowing the weld to cool and a flaw to result. Concentrating
on the arc can be very tiring and I have often ended up with a
headache after a long day's welding, especially when was I

beginning.
To practice, obtain some 12 s.w.g. electrodes (which are a
useful size for many jobs) together with some scrap pieces of
i in. plate. up in a vice and thoroughly clean the
Set the latter
edges to be welded. Then, after ensuring that no-one else is
looking in the direction of the arc, first try to put a run of weld
down the plate. The position of the rod in the holder is

important and should be at an angle to the work as in Fig. 3.

Fig 3 Welding: positioning of rod in holder.

If the rod is held vertically to the work, the slag (flux and
impurities) is prevented from bubbling away behind the
weld as it progresses and there is a risk of slag being trapped
in the weld thereby producing a fault. It is also important not
to grip the electrode holder too tightly as this will cause
tenseness which makes it very difficult to control the tip of the
rod adequately.
There is a temptation to try and strike the arc poking at the
plate with a stabbing motion. This should be avoided as it

often results in the flux coating being damaged, which makes

it very difficult to weld until the rod has been burnt down to

good flux. Instead you should stroke the plate at right angles

65
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

to the direction of the joint. This should result in an immedi-

ate arc, and probably means that either the earth or
if not, it

welder connections are loose or the rod is imperfect. Rods

suffer heavily if exposed to damp conditions and are often
difficult to light and to use if this has happened. A solution is
to warm the rods in an oven, but this can result in the coating
becoming brittle. Sometimes a used rod will have slag sol-
idified on its end, especially if it has become excessively hot in
use. Here is one instance when it will have to be stabbed at
the plate in order to get a good contact. However, this should
be done away from the work, and the job recommenced when
contact has been achieved.
When working along a joint it is necessary to weave the rod
to ensure a strong weld. The pattern should be kept as
regular as possible for a neat job, and it is important not
go to
back over the track. For example, you should avoid going
round in circles, as in Fig. 4, as this goes over the top of the
slag, thereby locking imperfections (slag and blow holes) in
the weld. But the pattern marked with a tick is by no means
the only acceptable version.

Fig 4 Welding patterns.

One of the greatest problems the beginner finds is that of

maintaining the rod at the right distance from the work. Too
far away will result in a splatter-type surface weld and the
risk of losing the arc, whereas too near causes the arc to dig

66
 WELDING IS NO PROBLEM
into the plate (undercutting) and consequently an uneven
weld. If the arc is lost, it is essential to stop and chip and
brush the weld, as the slag have been given a chance to
will
solidify. Starting up again immediately will result in slag
being locked The correct distance from
in. the phitc will
depend on a number of factors such as plate thickness and
type of rod and it is normally necessary to experiment before
starting the job proper. One quarter inch or so will normally
be too far and the result will be metal deposited on the surface
with no real penetration. One eighth inch or less should
ensure adequate penetration and consequently a much
stronger job. The following weld profiles illustrate these
principles:
SPLRTTEF\
V

L
Front Vibw

Fig 5 Inadequate weld penetration, cause: Amperage too low

or rod held too far away.

' "-^

15 Faulty weld profile, fault: Dips in the welded joint below the
level of the plate, cause: Amperage too high or rod held too near.
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

FRohJ-r ^IBW

Fig 6 Sound weld, has penetrated through to underside of plate and

at the top blends into the plate without undercutting.

The beginner often finds that it is all too easy to burn holes
in the plate that is being welded. Filling holes can be a
tedious business so all precautions should be taken to avoid
them. They normally result fi"om inattention and concentra-
ting the arc for too long inone spot, or possibly having the
welder set at too high an amperage. If a hole does occur, the
procedure is to try and deposit metal around the edge with-
out applying too much heat which would make the problem
worse. The amperage should be turned down to reduce the
heat and the impact of the arc. It will be necessary to stop
frequently in order to allow the area to cool, and each time
the weld will need to be chipped and brushed.
Downhand or horizontal welding is the easiest of all
positions but this is seldom found in on-site boat construc-
tion. Most welds will be at some angle, and while a slight
slope will not complicate the job significantly, vertical weld-
ing does cause problems for the novice. It is possible to work
either upwards or downwards, but the former is normally
easier. When going up, the slag is carried away from the weld
by gravity, unfortunately there is also a tendency for the
deposited metal to behave in the same way. This results in
beads hanging down which look unsightly and can lead to
imperfections. The beads can be ground away and a second
run put over the joint although this is time-consuming. The
only answer here is and in time you will discover the
practice,
knack of going sufficiently fast to prevent the metal from
beading, but not so fast that imperfections result. Working
downwards can be useful especially on thin plate or in
confined conditions. Here you have to increase the rate of

68
 WELDING IS NO PROBLEM
working, so as to keep ahead of the slag flowing down on tojj
of the weld, and the faster speed could result in poor penetra-
tion. To counteract this tendency it will be necessary to
increase the amperage by around 20 per cent. This method
does not deposit much metal, but a reasonable fast weld can
be achieved.
Overhead welding is only a little more dilFicult than
downhand once the awkward stance has been mastered.
Indeed it is the awkward welding pose that causes problems
here and not technical difBculty. The slag is carried away
from the weld by gravity and the real task is to stand in such a
position as to avoid being splashed by molten metal.
Amper-
downhand welding and
age will be slightly higher than for
the rod may be held almost at a right angle to the work
(unlike downhand where we saw that a 75 degree angle was
necessary).
mentioned at the beginning of this chapter that it would
I

soon become easy to tell whether a weld is satisfactory or not.

This is done by watching how the molten metal cools. A
bright fiery red, sometimes with sparks in it, indicates a flaw
in the weld whereas a deeper duller red indicates a satisfac-
tory job. The fault will take longer to cool ofl'than the sound
weld so a point that remains bright red after the rest has
cooled will need thorough chipping to remove the slag. The
cooling process takes only a few seconds but the faults are
readily identified with a little experience. And as experience
grows, the number of faults should decrease, but when they
do occur all must be removed before the area is
slag
rewelded. Chipping will normally do it, but it may be necess-
ary to use a pick to clean up the flaw. In certain circum-
stances flaws can be eradicated by increasing the amperage
and welding over the top. The greater heat can cause the slag
to rise to the top but there is a risk of trapping slag in the weld
so I would not advocate this method for any joints that must
be perfectly watertight.

69
 OWN A STEEL BOAT
A basic knowledge of butt and angled joints should be
sufficient formost small-boat construction. With any joint
the preparation of the plate edge is critical, and the angle-
grinder should be used on flame-cut plate to fair off the edge.
When butt joints are being welded the grinder should be used
to V off the edges as in Fig. 7. This is best done for all plate
even down to as thin as 3 mm.

I \ ^ ( 2

3 3

3 ^

3 s
Fig 7 Edge preparation.

As in the diagrams, a gap should be left between the plates

to allow proper penetration and help prevent the possibility
of buckling. One run should be sufficient on 4 mm. plate, but
a second run on the reverse side is preferable to ensure perfect
penetration and complete watertightness (step 4). It is then
possible to grind off the surface weld to make a smooth
surface (step 5).
The standard of the overall finish will be governed by your
success in preventing buckling of the plates. Buckling is

caused by excessive localized heat distorting the plate. A

useful technique to help prevent this is as follows:

1 Tack the plates together at about 50 cm. intervals.

2 Tack angle bar across the join as in Fig. 8.

Fig 8 Preventing distortion at the join.

 WELDING IS NO PROBLEM
Flat bar can be used for this purpose provided ii li.is a
perfectly straight edge, but angle is stronger. The angle bar
should be tacked on one side only as it is then easy to break olF
on completion of welding by knocking against the tacks.

3 Welding straight along the join will increase the risk of

distortion, so the technique ofback-step welding should
be used as in Fig. 9.

Fig 9 Back-step welding.

The length of each step will vary according to conditions,

particularly the thickness of the plate. On 4 mm. plate 18 cm.
would be reasonable. It is best practice to work from the
centre of the plate outwards.
With thick plate one run may be insufBcient even if it is
chamfered and large rods are being used. The rod/amperage
table on page 63 gives an indication of runs necessary, but
this will vary with conditions. Plate of 12mm. is likely to be
the thickest in common use and here it may be necessary to
build up the weld as in Fig. 10, using three runs:

I
^r
Fig 10 Fillet- weld using three runs.

Alternatively one run may be put in the bottom of the V and a

broad run then put over the top, as in Fig. i i:

71
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

I i
Fig 1 1 Fillet-weld using two runs.

Joints where the plates are set at an angle to each other are
more difficult to achieve, as the action of welding tends to
draw the two pieces away from their required relationship.
Normally the thinner or less well-secured plate will be drawn
in the direction of the other.
A1

£ 3
Welding along one side of this angle joint will tend to pull the
vertical plate in the direction of the arrow.

Fig 12 Weld distortion.

To prevent this distortion it is necessary to tack on either side

of the joint ensuring that as little heat as possible is applied.
When the tacking is complete the joint should be welded in a
sequence similar to that in Fig. 13:

c » '
i
7 II

> ^
^
?
^
3 y
/2 /
^
\
9 ^-N^
r ^

lop View

Fig 13 Welding sequence.

If the vertical plate is and no framing is involved it

sizeable
may be necessary to triangulate the joint by tacking angle bar
to both plates as in Fig. 14, the tacking to be on one side only

72
 WELDING IS NO PROBLEM
SO as to facilitate breaking when the welding is complete.

Fig 14 Triangulating a joint before welding.

There isalways a danger of undercutting when welding

angled joints and all precautions should be taken against this
as it can seriously weaken the job.

UNDEf^CUTT/f^G-

Fig 15 Undercutting.

Careful attention to the amperage (which may be slightly

lower than normal) and concentration on the arc should
avoid the problem.
One run a side may be insufficient on plate thicker than
5mm. In this case the procedure is similar to that with butt
joints with multiple runs as in Fig. 16:

1 \

c
il^
a) b)
One run followed by a broader
P " run possibly with a thicker rod

Fig 16 Right-angle joints.

Avoid overwelding as this will create a stress point which

could lead to an ultimate fracture.

73
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

Summary
The techniques described in this chapter will be sufficient to
make a good strong job of the types of joint likely to be
encountered in small-boat construction work. For those who
like practical instruction, night-school welding classes are
available in many cities and several big companies have a
welding school.
In conclusion, however, I re-emphasize that practice is the
key to success.
 5
Steel Construction Systems

There are probably as many difTerent systems for putting a

steel boat together as there are builders, but it is possible to
identify five basic structures:

Single chine
Multi-chine
Rounded chine
Strip chine
Round bilge

These five possibilities can be extended by the fact that with

any type of chine-building there is a choice between framed
andmonocoque construction, thereby increasing the number of
permutations to nine. With each one of these permutations
there are several different possible sequences of building. I'm
going to have a look at the relative merits of each type of
structure, to compare framed with frameless construction,
and then assess the best building sequence for the first-time
amateur.

Single Chine

Single chinehas the merit of being a very simple form of

construction, permitting the use of mostly flat plates. This
method was used for the building of both Steelaway and Avalon
(photos 5 and 7) and can provide a boat with entirely satis-
factory saihng quahties. It is, however, imperative that the
design takes account of the water flow around the hull, and is
not simply produced on the basis of building convenience.
The chines must be set in the true lines of the water flow so as
to minimize the resistance that turbulence at the chines may

75
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

i6 From the META shipyard. 'Embrun', a single-chine version of

Joshua, designed for amateur construction.

create, the turbulence being produced where the flow crosses

the chine at an angle. Unfortunately, the water-flow pattern
will tend to change at various angles of heel, so that the boat
will only tend to sail at its best at one specific angle. Sail
trimming can accordingly become that much more critical
with a chine boat, be it single- or multi-chine.
If single chine is to be used, then I believe that a fine entry
is essential to prevent the boat slamming in a seaway. A
broad entry with chines such as in photo 17 will probably
cause an uncomfortable motion through slamming, and
make the boat slow as she will have to push a wall of water
along in front.
Only tank testing will really reveal whether a design has
actually got the chines in the right place, and this process is,

of course, expensive and, therefore, comparatively rare. One

design that we discovered on a recent trip to Holland had
received this treatment and the results were impressive. The
designer, Kees Koopman, and the builders, Scheepswerf De
Rietpol, Spaarndam, had put considerable effort into creat-

76
 STEEL CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS

17 A broad entry with chines is unsatisfactory.

ing a 32ft. or 38ft. multi-chine bilge-keeler that would really

sail. The expense of tank testing was high so they are under-
standably reluctant to release the plans, but they do produce
the hull and decks at a competitive price and both are very
roomy boats finished to a high standard.
Many British chine steel designs have evolved from
plywood originals, the only attempt at design testing being
empirically, at the expense of the poor owner after he has
completed his boat and found that it doesn't sail. Some
designers are worse than others in this respect, but it may be
useful to chat to an existing owner before committing oneself
to a set of plans.

Multi- Chine
The term Multi-chine refers to the situationwhere two or more
chines are introduced in the design, the chines adding con-
siderably to the boat's strength. To the extent that this
produces more angles, improperly designed multi-chiners
may actually create more resistance than their single-chine
counterparts. This should not normally be so, however, in

77
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

1 8 Robert Tucker's pretty multi-chine 'Turanna'. The chine plates

fair in so as to be scarcely noticeable above the waterline.

that the multi-chine will enable the use of less acute angles
and correspondingly there will be less likelihood of turbul-
ence. The multi-chines must still follow the water-flow lines
and the angle of sailing will still be critical, as an increase in
angle of heel may well produce an increase in resistance
totally disproportionate to the greater wetted surface.
The multi-chine boat does have other advantages over the
single-chine version beside the less acute chine angles and
consequent probable reduction in turbulence. The increased
number of chines will help to produce a more curvaceous and
perhaps, therefore, more attractive hull. Additionally, it will
be possible to create a deeper-bodied vessel, thereby giving
greater headroom the lack of which can be a problem in
smaller chined craft.

Rounded Chine
Turbulence at the chines can be reduced by using a tech-
nique which we can conveniently call Rounded-chine That is, .

instead of having a hard knuckle where the plates join, a 'soft

chine' is created by one of a number of means. The simplest
way is to use either round bar or tube of fairly large diameter
welded into the chine, as in Fig. 17:

78
 STEEL CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS

Fig 17 Tubular chine bar.

Round bar is to be preferred, as it can be ground down if

necessary and not subject to rusting from the inside as is

is

the case with tube. In either case there is considerable ad\an-

tage over the hard chine in reduced turbulence, increased
strength, and the rounded corners hold their paint
fact that
better than sharp corners. The problems are the extra time
involved in welding, and the increased weight. The latter will
not usually be significant, but the former may be unless the
boat is being amateur-built with no strict timetable.

A
more sophisticated rounded chine can be obtained by
using flat plates but leaving a gap at the chines. This gap can
then be filled by narrow plates which will have to be specially
This type of construction could be attractive to the
rolled.
amateur builder, as the comparatively small task of rolling
could be contracted out quite cheaply. Quite a curvaceous
hull can be achieved in this way, although normally a fairly
slack bilge will result. See photos 19 and 20 overleaf The
bilge and topside plates have very slight curve in them, but
this can be put in manually. The chine plate will need to be
rolled but the garboard plate could simply meet the keel at an
angle as indicated. It is not worth leaving a gap at this point
to be filled by rolled plate. If this angle joint doesn't appeal, it

may be better to fill in the angle with thin plate which will not
be structural. Alternatively, the angle could be faired in with
mesh and ferro-cement used to produce a smooth curve, as in

79
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

19 and 20 A rounded chine using flat plates but leaving

a gap at the chines.

Fig. 18. If plate is used, a hollow section will be produced in

which rust could form. To prevent this, the section could be
drilled then filled with oil, pitch or expanded foam.
The only problem with this method of rounded-chine con-

80
 STEEL CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS

MESH* CEMENT
01^ PLfire
Fig 1 8 Mesh and
cement for fairing in.

struction is that produce a deep-displacement

it is difficult to
boat with firm sections. Either fairly flat bilge plates and
consequent relatively shallow draft or slack sections must be
accepted. I don't like slack sections from an aesthetic point of
view but, worse, they can make the boat very tender. Shallow
draft, though, can be a positive advantage if there is sufficient
beam to give initial stability. Headroom, however, is always
a problem in smaller boats built like this, but no more so than

with chined versions. A lot of tophamper may have to be

introduced to gain sufficient headroom but this need not be
obtrusive if the design is appropriate. A useful technique is to
have the boat flush-decked with some tumblehome to take ofT
the boxy appearance. If the top line of plates is painted a
contrasting colour the result can be most attractive. Avalon, a
Dutch professionally built centre-boarder, a.ndSteelaway, an
amateur built conventional keel boat (photos 7 and 5) are
both built with this system. Avalon has an attractive pro-
nounced sheer accentuated by a contrasting paint-scheme
that makes what could have been a boxy boat into something
most attractive. Steelaway has less sheer but more tumble-
home, a fraction too much of the latter according to the
owner, but again, the combination is an appealing one. The
result in both boats is a very roomy interior with ample
headroom despite shallow draft.

Strip Chine

The Strip-chine method has many advantages from the

81
 OWN A STEEL BOAT
amateur builder's point of view. In this approach the topside
and bottom plates of the hull are joined by a strip of constant
width which is usually of slightly thicker steel than the rest of
the hull. In this way the benefits of multi-chine are gained
without the complexity of cutting out chine plates which
taper towards the ends. Cutting can be minimized by obtain-
ing plate of the appropriate width (usually between six
inches and one foot) in long lengths so that the entire chine
plate can be fitted at one go. If plate can't be bought in long
enough lengths, then the shorter strips should be welded up
on the bench before plating begins.
The chine plate is normally the first' to go up, and as such
provides an excellent fair line against which to butt the rest of
the plating. As an additional bonus, if the thicker plate is
used (say 4 in.), the need for chine stringers may be obviated,
thus saving considerable welding time. Since the chine strips
should run easily, they will give a good indication of whether
any of the frames are out of true. Frames which are out can
then be adjusted before plating proper commences. This type
of construction is usually frameless (see p. 83) so that the
boat will be built on a jig consisting of mock frames which are
subsequently discarded.

Round Bilge
The remaining option is the X.rdid\iiom\ Round-bilge craft such
as our own Abraxis (see photo 6) or Bernard Moitessier's
idimous Joshua. Such boats can feature firm sections and deep
draft with heavily curved plates at the turn of the bilge (see
photo 37). These plates normally require rolling, so that
will
this method of construction is often regarded as beyond the
ability of the average amateur builder. This need not neces-
sarily be so, as 4mm. plate can be curved by a variety of
means, e.g. using tackles, Acrojacks, hydraulic rams (used
for car repairs) heating or
, power hammering (more about all
this later). Nowadays 4mm. is considered entirely satisfac-

82
 STEEL CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS
tory for boats up to 50 feet. The Hiscocks' Wanderer /lis made
from and Dr. David Lewis's famous Ice Bird
this thickness,

—
was made from even thinner 3mm. Personally, I prefer a
bit more margin for error and like to see bilge plating of
6mm., but I am old-fashioned in this respect. As far as
strength is concerned, the thinner plate is undoubtedly more
than sufficient, but corrosion can quickly condemn it. And
thicker plating below the waterline contributes towards bal-
lastand stability anyway.
In any event the round-bilge method is undoubtedly far
more time-consuming and my feeling is that it is dated as far
as steel construction is concerned. It has persisted with steel
because few designs have been created with an eye to the
material's own special construction advantages and needs.
But this is all changing, and it would be a properly designed
chine boat that I would go for now.

Framed and Frameless Construction

If a chine boat has been decided upon, a further choice has to

be made between framed or frameless construction. Entirely
satisfactory frameless craft are commonly built in Holland in
sizes up to 40 feet, and the method has much to commend it.
Weight-saving is an obvious plus, but time may be saved as
well, ifan appropriate building sequence is chosen (see p.
86). Additionally, internal maintenance of the hull can be
considerably simplified if frames are done away with. Prep-
aration can be done using power tools over uninterrupted
smooth surfaces, and the risk of missing nooks and crannies,
either with preparation or painting, is minimized. A
marginal advantage is the internal space saving that the lack
of frames gives, but against this, I would prefer to tack angle
to the frame rather than direcdy during the course of
to plate

furniture construction. Finally, the biggest plus of all, frames

are a real rust trap —
water trapped by a frame in Abraxis
caused a plate to be eaten away from the inside and its

83
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

21 Frameless construction in a Robert Tucker 38-footer.

complete replacement was necessary. It is a well-known fact

that steel boats often rust away from and not from
the inside
the outside. With frameless boats denting can be a problem if
too thin plate is used, so it is common practice to use com-
paratively thick steel at least for the bilge plating. I would
view 6mm. as being a minimum, and much thicker could be
used and regarded as part of the ballast. Alternatively con-
crete can be poured into the bottom of the boat as ballast and
to prevent denting. I believe that it is inadvisable to go below
4mm. for topside plating, again for fear of denting, but many
smaller boats are built in Holland out of less and without
frames. Such boats are common in hire fleets there, as they
are cheap to buy and maintain. And in common with all the
boats in Holland's crowded waterways, they have to face
frequent bumping in the locks and from the many laden
barges. Often in the hands of unskilled charterers, these little

craft take quite heavy punishment in their stride, which says

much for this method of construction.

84
 STEEL CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS
With framed construction the sequence ol
traditional
building would be much the same whether the boat is to be
round-bilge or chined. With chine, however, the frame fabri-
cation is very much easier as less bending will be necessary.
The boat may be built upside down (photo 22) or the right
way up; or in a sophisticated yard, the hull may be built
inside a rotating hoop arrangement which enables the job to
be turned to the most convenient point of access (see photo
37), thereby facilitating mostly downhand welding. Without
heavy lifting gear the amateur will have to build right side
up, but this should be no real disadvantage. First the keel
will be normally from heavy plate built up into a box
built,
section. To be added a strongback to form the basis
this will
of framing. Next the stem and transom framework will be
added and bulkheads installed. The framework could next be
welded up and the deckbeams installed to give the whole
structure rigidity. Plating up is by no means a gentle business

22 Building upside down to a John Teale design.

85
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

SO the framework has to be very soHd before this stage com-

mences. One way to achieve greater rigidity in the structure
is to weld on the decks before starting to plate. This idea has a
lot to commend it as the plates will lie naturally to the camber
on the decks and any curve required will be in one plane only.
Consequently plating up the deck will be a speedy process
and will add considerably to the framework strength. Even if
the boat is not to be flush-decked (I think she should be, as
construction is considerably simplified and in my view the
result is stronger and more seamanlike), it may pay to plate
right across and then cut out plate anyas necessary for
coachroofs or hatches. The deckplating will give an edge
against which to butt up the plates, the fitting of which
should now be a relatively routine matter.
With frameless construction, the traditional way to build
is by first constructing a set of moulds upon which the hull is

then built upside down. The mould construction will take

some time, and unless a series of boats is to be built to the
same design there is little advantage in this method. A
number of building sequences are possible without moulds,
but the one that appealed to me most from those we saw on
our trip to Holland in the summer of 1977 was that shown to
us by the Scheepswerf De Rietpol. Starting with the bilge
plating, they first weld in the floors then turn the plates
upside down so that the outside seams may be welded down-
hand. The bilge keels are then welded on prior to turning
the embryo hull back the right way up. This done, the stem
and bulkheads are welded in together with the transom and
then the decks are fitted. The plate shapes are taken from the
and welded up to the decks and down to the bilge
lofting floor
plating. The multi-chine method gives the plating rigidity
while building is under way. The whole process is very rapid
and enables the yard to produce a 38ft. hull comparatively
cheaply, especially when the high labour costs in Holland are
taken into account. A 38ft. round-bilge steel hull for sale at

86
 STEEL CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS
De Rietpol at the same time as the bilge-keeler of the same
length cost precisely twice as much, even though she was of
much narrower beam and much smaller inside . This aptly
illustrates the vastly increased time that is necessary lor the
construction of round-bilge boats, and this for a yard well
versed in their production.
Frameless chine boats can be produced very rapidly by
amateurs as well. The 32ft. Steelaway was built by ex-owner
Tony Porter and a professional steelworker in the rapid time
of six weeks.
One problem of building in steel is that of finding appro-
priate designs. The design often dictates the method of con-
you have a long time to spend building,
struction. Unless I

would choose a design that is based on the use of chines.

 Selecting Steel Plans

'There would be a more steel boats built by amateurs if

lot

more designers had worked with the material earlier,' says

Bruce Roberts in his helpful introductory booklet for
amateur builders called Build for Less. I agree with him.
There has been a dearth of good designs drawn specifically
for steel construction, and steel designs aimed at the amateur
have been virtually unobtainable until comparatively
recently. Even now there are only a few designers who have
had real experience with the material. This is all changing,
though, and we are now seeing a revolution in amateur
building comparable to the plywood revolution of the early
sixties.Bruce Roberts International have stopped selling
ferro plans and concentrate on steel, plywood and GRP.
Robert Tucker told me recently that over two- thirds of their
work for some time now has been in steel. In Holland, of
course, they can't understand why it has taken us so long to
see the light.
In the booklet mentioned above, Bruce Roberts says, T am
now a little bigoted on the subject and believe that steel has
great merit as far as the amateur is concerned.' Robert
Tucker, likewise, is very enthusiastic about the material, and
said to me that he regards ferro-cement with 'a great deal of
circumspection'. As he says, when they are good, ferro boats
are very, very good, but the quality control necessary is such
that when they are bad they are disastrous.
But perhaps I am preaching to the converted. It's now
time to select the plans. I have concentrated this survey on
sailboats in the 26ft. to 45ft. range. beyond 45
I believe that
feet, although the hull could be produced cheaply enough in

88
 SELECTING STEEL PLANS
Steel,the fitting-out costs becomejust too prohibiti\ c. doni I

believe it worth building much below 26 feet as there will be

Httle difference in building time between a 20-rooter and a
26-footer, and the cost difference of the material involved is

minimal. Nor should the fitting out costs be significantly

different.
Hull weight used to be a problem in little boats, but this is

no longer a real difficulty as the design can be for frameless

construction using the chines for strength and thereby con-
siderably reducing the weight. So tiny steel boats ca« be built
if anyone particularly wants to.
In my design selections which follow I deliberately exclude
accommodation plans, for reasons I explain on p. 201.
There are probably more boats being built by amateurs to
Bruce Roberts designs than to those of any other designer.
It's easy to see why. His booklet Buildfor Less features details

of all his designs plus advice on material and design selection,

all put together in a very readable package. The plan pack-
age demonstrates the same professionalism. Plans consist of
around 30 sheets of drawings and include full-size patterns of
hull frames, stem, etc., and incorporate many drawings of
how fittings can be manufactured cheaply. Mr Roberts has
aimed fairly and squarely at the amateur market and believes
in guiding the amateur builder step by step through each
operation. He says 'The builder should be taken from the
very first step right through to the launching stage and
nothing should be left out; the amateur should not have to
make too many decisions for himself. It is in these areas that
some of the mistakes are made that cause some boats to turn
out than they otherwise might have been if the
less successful

amateur had a thorough plan which would leave nothing to

doubt.' There are many Roberts designs to choose from all
based on the multi-chine configuration and they all demon-
strate the clean, sleek lines that I find very attractive. The
following are my particular favourites:

89
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

Fig 19 Roberts 34. Fig 20 Roberts Offshore 38b.

Fig 21 Roberts Spray 40. Fig 22 Roberts Mauritius 43.

Roberts 34— LOA ss'G", Beam lo's", Draft 5'6"

Offshore 38B— LOA 38'3", Beam ii'3", Draft ^f
Spray 40 — LOA 40', Beam i4'4", Draft 4'2"
Mauritius 43 — LOA 43'3", Beam 13', Draft 6'

The '38B' is would definitely consider if I were to build

one I

anew, although I must admit I would be asking Bruce

Roberts if there was any way of converting her to schooner rig
asI'm not much fond of the ketch. Plans cost (in 1978) from
approximately £280 for the 34 to around £360 for the 43.
Robert Tucker has a number of steel designs to choose
from, and have included a selection covering our size range.
I

Mr Tucker's plans are as cheap as any, although paper

patterns aren't provided as with Bruce Roberts' package. As
Tony Tucker said to me, 'patterns can cause more problems
than they solve'. Even if the reproduced
patterns are
extremely accurately, they can distort very easily with damp
and it is very easy to transpose the lines incorrectly. Tables of
offsets areby no means as difficult to understand as begin-
ners often believe, and lofting shouldn't be too much of a
problem. Nevertheless patterns can do much to cut down
time in construction, and provided they are treated with

90
 SELECTING STEEL PLANS
caution and used in conjunction with olVset tables, I am in
favour of them.
The Tucker family has a wealth of information with regard
to building in steel, and they are very prepared to chat and
give advice whenever it is needed. If one of their designs
should be to your taste, this kind of back-up could pro\ e \ cry
useful, especially if you are building for the first time.

Beagle— LOA 28'6", Beam \i'^\ Draft 3'6", Sail 397ft.*

RW31— LOA 31 '4", Beam i2'4", Draft 4', Sail 460ft.*

R383— LOA 37'8", Beam 11 '6", Draft 4', Sail 640ft.'

Vamos — As R383 but Schooner-rigged

Scylla 45 — LOA Beam
44', Draft 12', 6', Sail 725ft.*

Turanna— LOA 51 '4", Beam i5'6", Draft 6'5", Sail

906ft.*

Fig 23 Tucker Beagle. Fig 24 Tucker RW31,

Fig 25 Tucker R383. Fig 26 Tucker Scylla 45.

Fig 27 Tucker Turanna.

91
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

Alan Pape has an extremely attractive traditional design

for a cruising ketch,with most of the right ingredients for
—
me long straight keel, centre cockpit, clipper bow and a
very pretty sheer. A shame about the ketch bit She is a . . .

big boat at 45 feet overall, with a healthy beam of 12ft. gin.,

and a draft of 6ft. 6in., sail area 825^.^. Construction is a
multi-chine, using frames and chine bars.

Fig 28 Pape Ketch.

Two Maurice Griffiths designs are available in steel from

Bruce Roberts (UK) Ltd. The 37-footer, Trancis Drake', is a
larger version of one of Mr Griffiths' most popular designs,
the 'Golden Hind 31'. The 'Francis Drake' hull is double-
chined and features a trough keel plus bilge keels. With only
4ft. 3in. draft, the 'Francis Drake' is ideal for gunk-holing
around, and if it is anything like its smaller cousin which has
at least 25 Atlantic crossings to its credit, it should be well
suited to ocean voyaging as well. By modern standards the
beam is extremely narrow at gft. yiin. on a waterline of nearly

92
 SELECTING STEEL PLANS

Fig 29 Griffiths Levanter 33.

30 feet, making her a relatively small boat for her size.

Maurice Griffiths perhaps realized this and has recently
produced a new steel design based on the '37' and called
'Levanter 33'. This 33ft. Gin. overall cutter has a loft. lin.

beam which seems a much better beam/length relationship,

although by no means extreme. Like the '37', she is shoal
draft, at 4 and has the same trough keel plus optional
feet,

bilge keel, and the accommodation plan is very similar. This

is a particular favourite of mine, and one I would strongly

recommend. Plans cost (in 1978) about £200.

Peter Ibold's 'Endurance' range is best known built in

ferro-cement, but two of the designs, the '35' and the '44', are
available for amateur construction in steel. The price of the
plans is competitive. Both boats are built on a transversal
system with round-bilge sections as opposed to the much
easier to construct multi-chine. Endurances have, however,

93
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

Fig 30 Ibold Endurance 44.

been built in steel by amateurs although the job is likely to

take up to twice as long as for an equivalent multi-chine
design. This is evidenced by the fact that at the time of
writing, an 'Endurance 44' hull and deck built by Arma
Marine of Brightlingsea (who specialize in this design) costs
about twice as much as the Bruce Roberts 'Mauritius 43' of
comparable size, but built in multi-chine. The 'Endurance
44' is a fine ship though, for those who have the time and skill.
Jean K^nocker' s Joshua is famous for the many incredible
voyages made by her owner Bernard Moitessier who com-
missioned her for world voyaging. Joshua is of round-bilge
construction and is available from shipyard METAto any
stage of completion in any of seven different configurations.
Many of this design can now be seen around the world used
as voyaging homes, but it is an exceptional amateur who
could complete the round-bilged, canoe-sterned hull to a
satisfactory standard. However, META do provide a very

94
 SELECTING STEEL PLANS
complete service for amateur steel-builders in France, and
market two chine designs by modern French designers,
specifically aimed at the amateur market. In addition, they
provide a complete back-up service including advice on all
aspects of construction and corrosion protection. These hulls
are very powerful and attractive, and feature the (lush deck
that I Hke so much. The 'Embrun' (in French this means
'Spray') is modelled on the lines o{ Joshua, but with simple

single-chine construction. A big boat this, with all the desir-

able features for a cruising home — aft separate sleeping
accommodation is included, with a large galley and chart
room centrally situated, together with separate li\ing area
and plenty of room for stowage.
The slightly smaller 'Defer' is also an attractive proposi-
tion, making a great family cruiser or long distance \oyager.
Her I oft. gin. beam on a 29ft. Sin. LOA allows for a roomy
interior incorporating walk-in galley and separate sit-down
chart table, together with a cosy living area. And the flush
deck gives plenty of safe working space.

Vital statistics of the META boats are as follows:

Embrun— LOA sg'S", Beam 12', Dratl 6', Sail yooft.^'

Defer— LOA 29'6", Beam lo'g". Draft ^'2", Sail 40oft.=^

Fig 31 META Embrun.

y

Fig 32 META Defer.

 OWN A STEEL BOAT

Fig 33 Mason S87.

The Americans have not done very much in steel, but a

couple of designs have caught my
The Al Mason
attention.
'S-87' 4 -footer is particularly attractive, but how much is
1

due to the beauty of the design and how much to Mason's

incredible draftsmanship I'm not sure. The 'S-87' is certainly
a remarkable boat as it features all developed surfaces, which
allows for the use of flat plates of steel with no compound
curvature while at the same time producing an attractively
shaped hull. Despite the after cockpit, Mr Mason has
achieved a cabin aft of the main saloon, and without an
unsightly dog-house. I am a centre cockpit fan, but for those
who like after cockpits the tasteful hull shape and pretty
sheer make this powerful cruising yacht an interesting
proposition. A 33ft. version is also available without the
after cabin.

Jay Benford is well known for his character ferro-cement

boats. Unfortunately he hasn't done very much in steel sail-
boats. However, he has recently produced a very interesting

96
 SELECTING STEEL PLANS

Fig 34 Benford 40 Brigantine.

40ft. brigantine steel design aimed at the amateur builder. A

real character boat this one, and I love the rig, which is just
like that of Abraxis except we haven't got any yards
crossed — yet!
Van de Stadt is probably the best known Dutch designer
in England, having designed such famous GRP boats as the
'Westerly' range and the 'Trintellas'. A comprehensi\e
range of multi-chine steel boats is also available, from the
'Zeebonk' at 8*70 metres to the 'Zeelust' at 13*0 metres. The
designs are all modern in appearance and mostly feature the
fin and skeg configuration. The 'Zeebonk' plans are very
cheap, but those of the 'Zeelust' extremely expensive, and in
my opinion this latter is not so interesting as many of the 40ft.
designs which we have already looked at. The following is a
selection covering the range:

Zeebonk — LOA S-yom, Beam 2-90., Draft i-5om.. Sail

47-3m.2

97
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

Fig 35 Van de Stadt Zeebonk.

Zeehond — LOA ii -00111., Beam 3-54111., Draft i-gom.,

Sail 79-5m.2
Zeelust — LOA 13-00111., Beam 3-9om., Draft i-gom..
Sail I i8-om.*

I have often been asked if there are any round-bilge plans

available that are suitable for use by builders with only
limited experience in steelwork. There are. The 'Table Bay
39' and the 'Tahitiana' come into this category, and at 39 feet
and 32 feet respectively, these two boats are aimed fairly and
squarely at the blue-water sailor. Dream ships these, and I
would be happy to own either of them.
'Table Bay 39' is based on the Maurice Griffiths 'Good
Hope' class ketch. This I believe could be the answer for
those who want to build their dream boat in steel, but who
don't think that dream boats can be of chine construction.
Designer Robert Hundy, who has extensive experience of
steel construction both in Holland and England, has com-
pletely redrawn the 'Good Hope' plans for steel construction,
and has in the process produced a much more elegant boat.
The 'Table Bay' ketch is indeed a very pretty design. Every-
thing is in the right proportions, from the tasteful sheer to the
unobtrusive deck-house, from the moderate draft to the
compact rig. There is a choice between centre and after
cockpit, and 'Table Bay' is also available as a schooner. The
design incorporates the use of developed conical surfaces, so
that very little plate rolling should be required. And in

98
 Fig 36 Hundy Table Bay 39.

keeping with the rest of the design, the curvature is moderate

so that the plate can be readily persuaded to shape without
the use of sophisticated machinery. Four mm. steel is used
and this is comparatively easy to bend, while it is still

sufficiently thick to produce fair curves.

For a slightly smaller dream ship with a rounded bilge,

'Tahitiana' could be the answer. Every potential world \ oy-

ager must know about John Hanna's 'Tahiti' ketch of which
some three thousand have been built since the design first
came off' the drawing board more than fifty years ago. They

99
 OWN A STEEL BOAT
are to be seen sailing all the oceans of the world, economi-
and comfortably. Big enough to make a happy
cally, safely,

home for one or two, small enough to afford, this design is the
one I would recommend for the would-be world voyager
without a bottomless bank account.
The American designer Weston Farmer was largely
instrumental in popularizing 'Tahiti' through publication in
the magazine Modern Mechanics^ of which he was editor at the
time. And in 1976 he resolved to bring the old girl back up to
date by a complete redesign. Now, the jibe had always been
that the 'Tahiti' was comfortable, but oh so slow. So Mr
Farmer decided that 'the time has come to bring the old slow
"Tahiti" up luffing and square her into the modern breeze'
(sic). He concluded that the reason for her lack of speed was
simply lack of sail. And he reached this conclusion after
considerable sophisticated research and comparison with
other famous voyaging boats such as Spray ^ Svaap and Seabird.
'Tahiti' 420 square feet was simply undercanvassed.
at
Answer: 550 square feet of sail.
Mr Farmer reckons that a vessel of her size can be lofted,
framed and roughly plated out in a month. And there are
plenty more good points. 'Tahitiana' has over 6ft. headroom
compared with her predecessor's and with only a
5ft. yiin.,

4in. increase in draft to 4ft. 4in. The headroom makes her

much more habitable, and the draft makes her suitable for
world voyaging and gunk-holing alike. Mr Farmer has in the
process added a couple of inches of freeboard to make a dry
boat even drier. A look at 'Tahitiana's' lines will reveal her
sea-going qualities and the long straight keel points to good
directional stability and comfort, if not to great rapidity in
stays. And for a final plus, through a clever design Mr
Farmer has managed to obtain a round-bilge effect using
multi-chine construction. Conventional straight transverse
frames are used, angled at each of three chines. But T-bar
longitudinals are also used, and it is around these that the

100
 SELECTING STEEL PLANS

Fig 37 Farmer Tahitiana.

plates arewrapped. The plates are welded to the longitudi-

nals only, not to the frames, and this allows the plate to
'belly'. And it is this plate-bellying phenomenon that pro-
duces a boat of almost round-bilge characteristics.
The plans are available very cheaply from Weston Farmer
(see Appendix). The rock-bottom price means that the
designer can't enter into correspondence over your construc-

lOI
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

tion problems as one could reasonably expect of some of the

designers previously discussed. But the plans themselves are
detailed, and the construction simple. She should be easy
and quick to build.

Just a word about costs. I have tried to give some idea of

the cost of plans but I haven't been too specific as prices
change all the time. The cost of the plans you like should not
be grudged though, for remember it costs just as much to
build a bad boat as it does a good one. The material cost of a
hull is surprisingly low. And at the time of writing the price
per ton is tending to fall rather than rise. This stagnation in
steel prices is likely to last because of world over-capacity in
steel production. And
can be contrasted with the rapidly
this
escalating resin prices, thus widening the gap between the
material cost of a steel hull and that of a GRP hull.
 a

Starting to build

The Site

We have had a look at different construction methods and we

have selected our set of plans, so there's no excuse now tor not
getting started. And the first item on the agenda is to find
somewhere to build. The requirements for this are simple —
flat, level surface preferably with at least 6 feet of working
area around the boat, and a mains electricity supply.
Remember to check the electricity for voltage drop as this can
cause real problems in the welding. The out-of-the-way
places in which boats are usually built are quite often at the
end of inadequate cables, so it is best to check with an Avo
Meter that the voltage is within 5 per cent of the arc-welding
machine's requirements.
Cover is not essential with steel-boat building as it is with
most other materials; still, although the steel won't mind the
weather, you probably will, so obviously cover is better if
there is a choice. The steel itself will not suffer by being
exposed to the elements during the time it takes to build. On
the contrary, it may even benefit, as the mill scale will be
removed by the rusting process, thereby easing the prepara-
tion work prior to painting.
A concrete base is ideal for building on, but must be
it

perfectly level otherwise your boat will probably end up

banana-shaped. An area of firm earth is also possible as a
building site, and has the advantage that a hole can be dug
for the keel, thereby reducing the height of the hull for
working on. You probably be using framed construction,
will
so some form of metal jig will be needed as an anchoring

103
23 and 24 Building jig using girder sections. (Strip chine construc-
tion in progress.)

104
 STARTING TO BUILD
point for the frames, and this can be used to level up slight
undulation. Girder section can be used, as in photos 23 and
24, but a cheaper alternative might be scrap railway lines
w^hich can be obtained for around a third of the cost of new
tonnage. The lines could subsequently be used as ballast if

chopped up into manageable bits. Alternatively, heavy steel

plates are sometimes used as a base. While this has got a lot of
advantages, the expense of the steel is going to put it beyond
the reach of other than professional yards.

Steel Plate

Having organized the site and made sure that no council

official or irate neighbour is going to move you on, the next
stage is to order the plate. In Great Britain all steel must
comply to BS 4360*72, and the coding in other countries is

indicated on the table overleaf, which is kindly supplied by

Shipyard META in France. The table also indicates the
characteristics of the various steels. Note: In META's
opinion, only the mild steels in the first two columns are
suitable for small craft.

English gradings are as follows:

40, 43 or 50 are the grades commonly available and these are
measures of Tensile Strength expressed in terms of kgf/mm^.
Alphabetic symbols are added to the numerical, indicating:

A — No guarantee on yield values

B — Guarantee on yield values
C — Guarantee on yield values and impact tests.

Impact-tested plate is not necessary for boat building, but a

yield guarantee would be an advantage, so grade 40B would
seem the one to buy. META strongly advise to use no other
than this ordinary mild steel. And this advice is supported by
a research document produced in 1975 by the French Office
Technique Pour L' Utilization de L' Acier (OTUA). How-
ever, some designers, for example Robert Tucker, specify

105
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 STARTING TO BUILD
high-tensile steel (50B with 43A marginally
acceptable) and
an advantage claimed is that greater fairness in hull plating
can be achieved. But most designers and builderc to whom 1

have spoken on the Continent of Europe agree with META,

and emphasize that high-tensile steel should not be used as it
can have less resistance to fatigue and stresses when welded
than does mild steel. It is certainly harder to work than mild
steel, especially when cutting by 'Nibbler' where blade life
is

is reduced by as much as 75 per cent. Welding, too, is more

difficult and usually calls for Argon arc.
A special type of semi-high-tensile steel is Cor- Ten, and
this has been heralded by many as the answer to the corro-
sion problem. It is a low-alloy corrosion-resistant steel con-
taining traces of copper. Originally developed for industrial
use, Cor-Ten has between five and eight times the resistance
to corrosion of ordinary mild steel. It still rusts, but the
covering so formed is protective and reduces further wastage.
Also the rust is a better basis for paint than that of mild steel,

and where the paint covering is damaged the rust doesn't

tend to creep under the surrounding good paintwork. How-
ever, T. Howard Rogers in his authoritative work Marine
Corrosion is not enthusiastic about copper-bearing steels in a
marine environment. He argues that they can be definitely
advantageous in industrial uses, but underwater there is
little advantage. There is now evidence to suggest that far

from corroding less than mild steel, the copper content in

Cor-Ten makes it more prone to electrolysis when immersed
in sea water. Tests made in the River Crouch on unprotected
mild and Cor-Ten plates revealed significandy greater
steel

wastage in the Cor-Ten at the end of a year. But the excellent

epoxy paint schemes now available have largely eliminated
the danger of electrolysis below the waterline anyway, and it
is rust creeping under damaged paint on the upper works and

inside the hull that causes unsighthness and possible danger.

Cor-Ten can do a lot to counteract this.

107
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

For most amateurs, however, Cor-Ten is not suitable

because it really requires welding by copper-clad
continuous-feed electrodes with Argon-arc shielding.
Argon-arc machines are expensive at around £i,ooo and
need to be used indoors, although they can give a better and
much quicker weld, and there is some saving on electrodes as
against conventional arc. Cor-Tenharder to cut as well as
is

weld; while a 'Nibbler' blade will probably cut a 40-footer

completely out of mild steel before it has to be renewed, the
harder Cor-Ten will probably use two or three blades. At
around £50 a time that comes expensive.
As a further disadvantage, Cor-Ten sometimes suffers
from delivery difficulties and can be over 25 per cent more
expensive. I'd go for a good-quality mild steel and spend the
money thus saved on thorough grit-blasting and a complete
epoxy paint scheme.
With the grade to buy established, what about thickness?
This will, of course, be specified in the plans you chose, but it
is helpful to know what considerations will have affected the

designer in deciding on the specification. Steel is heavy at 490

pounds per cubic foot, but because of its great strength it can
be used thinly. However, below 3mm. it becomes very prone
to heat distortion and it is consequently difficult to work and
to achieve a fair hull. Also it becomes very prone to impact
denting. Thicker plate is easier to keep fair, but correspond-
ingly more difficult to bend. Accordingly 7mm. will be about
the thickest plate ever encountered on the average yacht, and
would be regarded as exceptionally thick except for such as
base plates and keels. Beyond this thickness the weight prob-
lems become excessive. In practice, 5mm. will be entirely
sufficient on most yachts of other than oil-sheikh pro-
portions, and I would not go below 4mm. on the grounds of
distortion and corrosion problems. The following table,
kindly supplied by Jay Benford, illustrates the comparative
weights of different materials:

108
 —

STARTING TO BUILD
Density Lb./Cu.l't. for
Lb./Cu.ft. triickness suitable
for 4ort. sailboat

Aluminium 170 4 to 5
Fibreglass 95 to 115 4 to 6
Wood 21 to 62 4 to 7
Steel 490 7 to 10
Ferro-cement 160 to 200 10 to 13

As can be seen, steel on average comes out second heaviest,

after ferro, although these figures are of necessity approxi-
mate. To take a specific example, the 40ft. sailboat built in
4mm. steel would be about the same weight as if built in
30mm. teak, both these thicknesses being about right for the
job. The steel boat would probably come out lighter if frame-
less construction was employed.
The price of steel plate varies considerably, so it is best to
shop around. For example, in England I found differences of
more than £50 a ton when speaking to various yard mana-
gers. The more you buy, the cheaper it becomes, so it pays to
order the one go. Some designers give you a bill of
lot in

quantities, but if not, the process of working out quantities

helps to familiarize you with every aspect of the plans. The
cutting sequence should be worked out to minimize wastage,
but some allowance for scrap must be made. I know of one
yard that allows 25 per cent scrap in its costings, but that
seems excessive to me and a figure of around 20 per cent
ought to be easily achievable. Stock sizes of plate are 8 feet by
4 feet and 6 feet by 3 feet (metricated), but other sizes are
available and can be specified where appropriate to minim-
ize wastage. However, there are likely to be delivery prob-
lems and extra cost involved in the off-standard stuff, so it

may be cheaper to weld up on the bench if larger sizes are

necessary. But buying long runs of plate does help to minim-
ize the distortion sometimes caused by welded seams. Try to

109
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

be precise in the amount of plate you order, as excess plate

may be hard to dispose of, and running out causes annoying
delays as well as increased cost.
worth considering buying your plate already shot-
It's

blasted and painted with holding primer, as this normally

doesn't cost significantly more. In this way you may be able
to avoid grit-blasting the inside of the finished hull, although
I believe that it is still necessary outside. You can weld
through the primer, but obviously it will be burned away
locally, so the welds should be wire brushed and strip-primed
after each day's work. The holding primer should protect the
plate for up to a year under cover or three months
to four
outside, provided the paint isn't damaged. Grit-blasting on
site is an expensive process and a 40-footer could cost about
£500. Any grit-blasting is a horrible job, but inside the hull it
is particularly unpleasant and, therefore, proportionally

more expensive, so the cost should be compared with the

extra cost of buying the treated plates. The cost of the blast-
ing operation can be significantly reduced if you do the job
yourself, but more of that in Chapter 15.
It is worthwhile ordering all your section steel at the same

time as the plate as this increases the tonnage and, therefore,

reduces the price. Most sections should be available from
steel stockholders in your locality, but British Steel Corpora-
tion can supply or advise on stockists if you ask.

Lofting
Having bought your steel, the next stage depends upon the
design chosen. The traditional approach is to loft out the
plans full size as would be done with a wooden boat. This
method has much to commend it in terms of familiarization
with the plans and accuracy when the time comes to start
building. However, lofting takes a long time and the design
may allow alternatives. Bruce Roberts' plans come with
full-size paper templates of frames, stem and transom, which

no
 1

STARTING TO BUILD
eliminate the need for lofting and, therefore, save consider-
able time.The objection to templates is that they can distort
with damp, causing inaccuracies. But provided they are
looked after that shouldn't be a real problem and small
inaccuracies can be eliminated when the frames are faired in
after erection. This is not to condone sloppy work at this
stage, because errors of more than iin. or so can be difficult to
rectify once the frames are in place and can result in an
unfairness in the hull plating which will be very obvious after
painting.
Another approach is to work straight from the plans.
META plans are drawn with this mind, and use a scale often
to one to facilitate taking measurements direct from the
drawings to the plate or mould floor. The problem with this
method is measurements will
that inaccuracies in extracting
be magnified when taken up A imm. error on the
to full size.
drawings (little more than a pencil line) would be grossed up
to lomm. on the plate, and that is enough to produce unfair-
ness. Nevertheless, META
themselves work on this basis,
and I have seldom seen such perfect hulls. They take pride in
the fact that they never use filler on the plating nor do they —
need to. METAplans are produced in immense detail (over
50 sheets of drawings) to a fine degree of accuracy, with
critical measurements given in figures as well as drawn. And

there is the advantage that the drawings are produced by the

builders in conjunction with the architect — they have long
ago discovered any inaccuracies in the plans because they
build boats to them. Additionally, they are able to include
useful drawings of tricky features which perhaps the designer
may not have foreseen.
The final option is to buy your steel in kit form. At the
moment I only know of one firm in England providing this
service, P.G. Steelcraft (Marine) Ltd, and their designs
suffer from the disadvantage of being only single-chine
(although by no means unattractive). But the kit idea is a

1 1
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

good one, and I am sure that as steel appeal spreads different

kit come on the market and their price may
designs will
become more attractive. The P. G. Steelcraft kits (imported
from De Groot in Holland) fit together by numbers so that no
construction plans are needed, just assembly instructions.
The purpose of lofting is to check the measurements given
by the designer for accuracy and to provide patterns and
template for building. If the plans have been built from many
times before, then there is possibly no need to check their
accuracy, and only the lofting necessary for pattern produc-
tion need be undertaken. If the traditional method of com-
plete lofting appears necessary, then it first has to be decided
whether to lay out in full scale, half scale or some other
fraction. Reducing the scale will, of course, reduce the size of
loft floor required, and this may be essential if the boat is a

very big one. The transverse sections (Fig. 38) will need to be
drawn out full size, and it is helpful if the designer has made
these coincide with the frames so that the sections can be
used as moulds for frame fabrication. Some longitudinal

Tf^RNSV£J^£ 3ECTJONS "'^ BOD/ Pl/fN

HHLF-BRERDTH

Fig 38 Lines plans.

 STARTING TO BUILD
members such as stem and keel will also need to be drawn full

But the profile and the half-breadth (Fig.

size for fabrication.

38) can happily be reduced in size to whatever scale is

appropriate.
The can be done on paper but this can distort, is
lofting
easily damaged and inaccuracies can creep in due to its
flexibility. Best is to use hardboard or plywood laid out on a

level piece of ground (preferably under cover) and painted

with white emulsion. Hardboard is cheaper, but I would use
lomm. or 12mm. plywood as this can subsequently be used
in fitting out the interior.
You can now take the plans and begin to mark down the
lines. Pencil can be used, or ballpoint, the latter avoiding the
need for continual sharpening. The first thing to look for is
whether the architect projects his table of offsets from a
baseline or a given waterline. If it is from a baseline, then the
'bottom' edge of the plywood will serve for this purpose, but if

a waterline is used, a straight line will have to be drawn, and

this is perhaps best achieved by stretching thin wire across. A
batten nailed down will serve equally well. One point to
note — obtain the longest measuring tape you can find, at

least the length of the boat. Better still get two of them.
The transverse stations must next be drawn in at right
angles to the baseline and waterlines. These stations will
usefully be at the frames but often designers don't take this
trouble and simply take imaginary lines cutting the boat

athwartships at appropriate intervals. These station lines

serve to locate the table of offsets. This latter is a series of
measurements from the baseline or waterline denoting the
essential shape of the boat, such as sheer, chine or top and
bottom of the keel. The measurements have to be extremely
accurate, and the stations have to be drawn precisely at right
angles or the resulting errors will be translated into the hull
itself.

Now it's necessary to discover whether measurements are

113
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

given to the INSIDE of the plating or the OUTSIDE.

Inside measurements are obviously necessary for the frames,
but outside ones will be necessary for the half breadth etc.
Assuming you are projecting the profile first, extract the
offsets for each station from the table and mark off from the
waterline or baseline. It's then conventional to tap in a nail at
these various points leaving half of the nail's length proud of
the ply. You then use the nails to fair in the lines. Wooden
battens are needed for this job (plastic curtain rail also

works), as long and as flexible as possible so that they flex

round the nails and can then be used to draw in beautiful fair
lines. The battens must be free from knots and must be
perfectly straight. A less flexy version might also be useful for
the easy sweeps where there are perhaps less stations. With
the lines drawn in, they can then be 'eyed up' for fairness: any
kinks can be faired out by tacking extra nails in as appro-
priate. If one or more of the offsets appears to be well adrift,

check back to the table. You might have made an error in

extracting the figure, but it is entirely possible that the fault
lies with the designer himself. This is especially possible if not
many boats have been built to the design you have selected.
And this is one of the advantages in lofting out in the tra-
ditional manner. You have to be very confident that the
drawings are fault-free before relying on extracting figures
straight from the plans.
As well as the profile, it is conventional to loft out the half
breadth, and the body plan. The half breadth is a view of half of
the boat (port or starboard) seen from below or above.
Measurements this time are taken from the centreline, and
the baseline of the profile can usefully serve for this to save
time and space. As the half breadth is being drawn on top of
the profile it is useful to use a different-coloured pen so that
the lines can be readily distinguished. When all the lines are
drawn in it is a good idea to seal over the top so that they can't
be erased or smudged when the loftings are being worked

114
 STARTING TO BUILD
on. Any clear floor sealer or cheap varnish will do for this
purpose.
The final job is the body plan. This
is a view of half the boat

seen from either end, but placed side by side. Conventionally

the left side of the drawing shows the boat from astern to
amidships, and the right-hand side shows it from the bows
back to amidships. The lines shown on the drawing represent
the various sections of the boat, which hopefully will corres-
pond to the frames. If they do, then the body plan can be used
to form templates for frame fabrication. The stern view can
also be used as the basis of making up the transom. If this is
flat, then no problems should occur in simply taking the
measurement from the body plan. However, if, as is prefer-
able, the transom has some curvature built in, this procedure
will not work. Chapter 8 looks in detail at transoms, but it is
appropriate here to suggest how this curvature may be
derived from the There are a number of
body plan.
mathematical techniques for deducing the increase in size of
plate caused by curvature, and these are well described in
Ohdi^tWc' Boat Building which is in fact an excellent reference
?,

for all lofting techniques, although primarily aimed at

wooden construction. For myself, I prefer the simpler tech-
nique of making up a flat template in plywood from the body
plan. This template can then be used either before or after
plating up the hull to cut out the transom plate. My approach
is to cut the plate roughly to shape a bit oversize to allow for

the curvature, which is then put in using frames cut to shape

from oflcuts of steel. The template is then offered up to the
embryo transom and the excess plate marked off' and subse-
quently cut. Easy and foolproof.
The profile, half breadth and body plan give all the
measurements necessary to start building. It may be useful at
this stage to make up measuring sticks for use in the subse-
quent setting up. These need to be fairly rigid (i inch by 15
inches would be all right) and at least two will be needed, one

115
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

deck edge in profile, and one for the waterhne.

for the sheer or
The centrehne and either the sheer or waterhne is marked on
to the batten at each station. The battens are then used to
position the frames precisely.
 8

Keels, Ballast and Backbones

The keel is a good place to start welding after all the detailed
lofting hasbeen done. It is simple and quick, and provides a
sense of achievement at the beginning when it is so badly
needed. The keel too, will provide the basis of the backbone if
the boat is being built right side up.

The Box-section Keel

By far the most satisfactory type of keel is the box section as in
the photos 25, 26 and 27. This is usually fabricated out of
quite thick plate which then acts as part of the ballast. The
base of the keel should be cut out of thick steel (as much as i

inch) as plenty of margin for corrosion is needed in this area

which will be subject to abrasion and to which no paint can
be applied. It may be as well to buy this base-plate ready
shaped, as i inch (25mm.) takes some cutting. The side
sections should be at least iin. and usefully more with the
upper restriction on thickness being that caused by the need
to bend the plate round towards the forward end of the keel.
Plate edges should be bevelled before welding and butted
down from above.
Cutting out the plate for the keel can be done either by
taking the measurements straight from the loftings or plans,
or using a template. But whichever method is chosen,
remember to cut the plate sufficiently over length to allow for
the curvature towards the keel's forward end. It will be useful
when it comes to setting up if the stations are centre-punched
on to the keel plate as it is being cut out.
The box-section keel has other advantages apart from

117
25, 26 and 27 Box-section keels.
 KEELS, BALLAST AND BACKBONES

simplicity of construction. The keel can be com-

split into
partments which can be used both for ballast and for water
and diesel tankage. In this way the ballast can be set as low
down as possible and can accordingly be kept to a minimum.
There are a number of possible alternatives for ballast. Best
is the traditional lead, which at 7 1 olb. per cubic foot is half as
heavy again as iron. Accordingly, the centre of gravity will be
lower therefore giving improved windward ability in a sailing
yacht. Steel punchings are often used as ballast when set in
concrete or similar, and this has the advantage of being very
cheap. The punchings, which are commonly available from
engineering works, can easily be distributed in the box keel,
but will take up more space than lead as the tiny spaces
between them will reduce their density which in any event is

two-thirds that of lead. This means that the centre of gravity

will be higher and there will be less room for tankage which
could even necessitate the cabin sole having to be raised.
Another alternative in larger sailing yachts not expected to
perform well to windward is chopped up scrap railway lines,
or similar large chunks of metal obtained from a scrap dealer
and embedded in concrete.
The price of lead varies considerably from dealer to dealer
and can fluctuate on a week- to- week basis by £1 or more per
cwt. It's worth shopping around and it's usually worth buy-
ing from a scrap dealer despite the fact that a certain amount
of impurities can be expected. These will float to the top as

dross when the lead is melted for pouring into the keel, and 5
per cent loss can often be expected.
Lead and steel are a long way apart in the galvanic scale so
that electrolysis will occur if the two are allowed in contact
with each other, to the detriment of the steel. Accordingly the
keel is hned before the lead is fitted. Concrete, fibreglass
best
and bitumastic have all been tried, but the bitumastic would
appear to be by far the best as it provides excellent insulation
and lasts indefinitely. It doesn't break up or shrink away
119
 OWN A STEEL BOAT
from the steel like the other two and it has the great advan-

tage of flexibility. If the keel is be lined in this way, the lead

to
cannot be melted straight in, but has to be fitted in the form of
pigs.These pigs will inevitably have slight gaps around
them, but these can be kept to the minimum by making the
pigs as square as possible. The gaps should be filled with
bitumastic melted in around the pigs. If scrap lead is being
used, the pigs can be produced by making up a mould out of
steel plate. The pigs should be of an easily portable size (say i

cwt.) and should be of an appropriate length and width so

that several of them will exactly fit into the rectangular
section formed by the keel. The scrap lead can be melted by a
propane blowtorch which could be easily hired from a
plant-hire firm. If the inside of the mould is painted with a
couple of coats of whitewash this will help to prevent the lead
from sticking. The molten lead will have to be puddled to
prevent air bubbles being trapped and to help impurities to
the surface, and this is done with green oak
traditionally
sticks as the sap stimulates the trapped air to bubble to the
surface. When the mould is full, the dross can be scraped off
the surface and the pig allowed to cool. It is best to make up
several moulds so that one can be cooling while the next one
is being filled. When the mould has cooled sufficiently, in an

hour or so, it can be tapped on the base to remove the pig. If

the mould tapers slightly towards the bottom, removal will
be that much easier.
A useful trick to help in installing the pigs is to insert a steel
wire loop so that it solidifies into the molten lead while it is

cooling. This will allow the pigs to be lowered down into

place much more easily. The wire can be chiselled off after
each pig has been installed. Once all the ballast is in position,
it should be sealed over the top with a layer of bitumastic. A
steel plate can then usefully be welded over the whole lot to
stop it all falling out if the yacht should ever be so unfortunate
as to invert, and to prevent water getting down between the

I20
 KEELS, BALLAST AND BACKBONES
lead and the steel. If there is a possibility that the ballast may
need be removed, then angle bar can be used to keep it in
to
position and this could easily be chopped out if necessary. If
angle bar is used in this way, then the bitumastic would be
rehed upon to keep bilge water away from the lead. This can
cause problems as diesel fuel is a solvent for bitumen, and I
can see no real reason against plating over. A simpler alter-
native to plating may be to concrete over the ballast after
retaining it in position with angle.
can be a good idea to fill only the middle sections of the
It

box keel with ballast initially, leaving the fore and after
sections of the box keel empty. In this way the trim can be
adjusted precisely when the yacht is afloatby topping up
these remaining sections as appropriate. Whatever method
you use you should ensure that there is a
to cover the ballast,
slope towards the stern of the boat, so that any bilge water
that does find its way aboard will be collected by the sump.
One of the sections in the keel should be reserved as a sump,
and remember that this is best deep rather than wide so that
bilge water cannot slop out as the boat rolls. An electric
submersible bilge pump can then usefully be fitted in the
sump together with the suction pipe of a manual stand-by.
As an alternative to making up the pigs, lead is sometimes
melted straight into the keel. Provided it is sealed over the top
by steel or concrete this should be safe enough but I hesitate
to recommend this method because of possible electrolytic
problems. It is quite difficult to get the lead into the keel
without leaving air bubbles trapped inside. The trick is to do
the job slowly melting small bits at a time, and one way to
achieve this is by using an iron drain-pipe as a feeder. The
pipe is sloped down into the section at as small an angle as
possible, and is then heated with the propane blowtorch
while small pieces of lead are put in and allowed to melt. The
molten lead then trickles down the pipe into the keel where it
gradually solidifies.

121
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

The Fin and Bilge Keel

Fin and bilge keels can be used as ballast formers in exactly the
same way as the box-section keel. But in the smaller, perhaps
more racy, boats to which fin or bilge keels are commonly
fitted, the keels themselves may constitute all or most of the
ballast. This is achieved by making them out of heavy plate
with a very thick base.One yard that I was shown round in
Holland used this technique, constructing their bilge keels of
ymm. plate on the sides and over 30mm. on the base. The
design was such that no additional ballast was necessary, but
the keels were used as tankage, one for water and the other
diesel. The yard designer said that this type of hollow bilge
keel configuration gave excellent roll damping properties,
and in that respect was appropriate for both sail and power
boats. Other advantages of properly designed bilge keels for
power boats are that they simplify drying out, and obviate
the disturbed water around the propeller that can be caused
by the standard keel arrangement.

28 Bilge keel bolted on to a Robert Tucker design. Bolting instead of

welding facilitates replacement in the event of damage.

122
 KEELS, BALLAST AND BACKBONES

29 Bilge keel: inside strengthening.

Cast Keels
Lead keels should not be bolted to the outside of the boat, as
despite the excellent paint schemes now available, serious
electrolytic problems will almost certainly occur. Iron or
steel ballast keels are sometimes cast for steel boats and
bolted on underneath, but I can see little advantage in this
method. The expense of casting will almost certainly make
the cast keel more expensive than scrap lead used in a box keel.
Also cast iron and have different electrical potentials
steel
from mild steel, so there is danger of electrolysis. This would
have to be guarded against by putting ample bedding on top
of the ballast before it is drawn up. Bitumastic will serve for
this purpose, and if put on thick enough it will fill slight

unevenness in the cast keel. A further problem of the cast keel

is that it has to be secured to the hull by bolting. These bolts

have to be extremely strong as they will have to bear all the

strain if a yacht goes aground, and there needs to be ample

123
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

margin for corrosion. The bolts also allow the possibility of

water seepage.
There is little justification for using a cast keel. One advan-
tage sometimes put forward is that it can be secured to the
hull after building is complete, thereby reducing the height of
the hull for working and reducing the weight for moving it

around. But a box keel need not be fitted until the rest of the
plating is complete, and the ballasting need not be done until
she is afloat.

Bolt- on Keels

If you are going to use a bolt-on keel you should specify that
the bolt holes are cast These are normally made undersize
in.

so that they can be subsequently reamed out exactly. The

holes must be exactly matched to the boat and this is best
done using a template. If this work is done carefully the
fitting of the keel can be left to launching day, and this will

mean you will only need one day's crane hire. As cranes are
commonly hired by the day regardless of the number of lifts
this could result in a substantial saving.
The bolts themselves should be substantial. It is a tra-
ditional principle of yacht design that each bolt should
ideally be capable of supporting the entire keel and it is best
not to use stainless ones as these are prone to crevice corro-
sion and can Galvanized are best and they should
fracture.
be heavily greased before they are fitted to stop water getting
in. White lead around the top and bottom will also help. The

bolt heads will have to be recessed at the bottom and pro-

vision must be made when casting. Remember to specify that
the recess must be big enough to get a ring spanner on to the
bolt head. Or have a hexagonal recess cast in and then you
could push the bolts up from underneath and tighten the nuts
from the inside.

124
 KEELS, BALLAST AND BACKBONES

Setting Up the Keel — the First Step

Once the keel is made it can be set up on the building floor as

the first step in erecting the hull. However, if space is 3t a
premium it will be appropriate to fabricate the stem and
frames as well before setting up begins, so that the mould
floor can double as the building floor. In any event this is
probably the most appropriate sequence, but I will deal with
the setting up of each component part after I have discussed
its fabrication in order to avoid too much cross referencing.
The up of the keel is critical to the shape of
correct setting
the whole boat, and a tendency to sail round corners can
often be traced back to errors at this stage. As an aid to
accuracy, permanent reference points are needed. And if the
boat is being built inside on a level concrete base, this can be
achieved by a thin line down the middle of the shop to act as
the centreline of the boat, with plumb lines suspended at
each of the stations. A centreline scribed on the jig or build-
ing floor should complete the necessary reference points, but

30 Setting up the keel.

125
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

waterlines and baselines are sometimes marked down the

sides of the building, either on the walls, on plates or by wires
stretched between uprights. But if you are building your boat
outside, marking your reference points may be difficult. One
solution is first to construct a steel cradle in which the boat
can be built. Reference points can be scribed on or suspended
from this structure which can subsequently be used for
taking the boat to its launching place.
If the keel is parallel to the waterline, setting up is a simple
matter of aligning the keel exactly down the centreline as
scribed on the building jig or by a stretched wire. Provided
the floor is perfectly level and the keel has been made level,

then no further problems should arise. But it is wise to check

with the plumb bob that the keel is However, many
vertical.
sailing boat keels slope down towards the stern which means
that the keel has to be set at the correct angle. This should not
be a problem, provided the station lines were scribed on the
keel at the fabrication stage as suggested earlier in the chap-
ter. The forward end of the keel can be simply raised up,
using a hydraulic car trolley jack, until the station line is

exactly vertical as proved by the spirit-level or by the vertical

plumb bobs. With the keel firmly wedged at this height and
perhaps tack welded to the building jig to ensure that it can't
move, we can move on to fabricating the stem.

Stems
There are many ways of making a stem, including round bar,
tube, flat bar, angle bar or simply plate. All of them have
their merits and are used by different designers. Whichever
type is specified, the shape will be taken from the loftings
first, and the stem will then be set up on the building jig,

taking great care to ensure that it is exactly vertical. To

achieve this, plumb can be set up from the roof or the
lines
top bar of your frame along the centreline of the boat. The
stem can then be sighted down the lines and set up precisely.

126
 KEELS, BALLAST AND BACKBONES

nhiGiLE am _
Stem Support

-r^/ffA/<s-ai/jr?o/\/
BUILPING- XIGr

Fig 39 Stem construction.

Assuming the boat is built right side up, the keel will provide
the anchoring point for the stem, which will be held up at its

forward end by vertical angle bar welded to the building jig.

This angle bar will have to be of substantial section and
girder may be appropriate on larger boats. A second barmay
be necessary at an intermediate point as in Fig. 39. Some
advantage in positioning may be derived if the support is

attached while on the mould can be fitted so as

floor; there it

to be precisely vertical. If a horizontal bar is also tacked on

parallel to the baseline, then setting up can be done precisely
and easily using a triangular support to the stem.
Round bar is commonly used for stems. This is strong,
comparatively easily bent without distortion and you can
grind it down if necessary. Also it is fairly easy to mate in the
plating, as slight cutting inaccuracies can be lost in the join.
Round bar gives a fairly fine entry which is appropriate for a
sailboat, but perhaps not where more
for a power cruiser
flare in the bows is generally fashionable. To avoid the stem
being excessively heavy it is normal to keep the section below
I in. diameter, and iin. would be quite common on boats of

127
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

31 A simple device for bending bar.

around 40 feet. Much less than this diameter and the bar
doesn't have the rigidity to maintain shape during the its

plating, so it is just about the minimum even for boats below

30 feet. Round bar can be quite readily bent using a simple
device as illustrated in the photograph. The trick is to do the
job slowly, making sure that the bar doesn't kink in the
you are trying to bend it, or twist out of fore and aft
direction
alignment (the guides on the bending tool in the photograph
are designed to prevent this). Remember that it is much
easier to bend the bar some more, than to straighten it after
you have gone too far, and that kinks are extremely difficult
to correct. For greatest strength the round bar should extend
right down into the keel or alternatively down the outside so
that it can be fillet- welded for a distance of at least six times
its diameter. There will be a loss of strength if the bar is

simply butted to the keel.

I can see little purpose in using square section bar, but

128
 KEELS, BALLAST AND BACKBONES
there some merit in rectangular orflat bar stems. These are
is

commonly used by a number of designers including Bruce

Roberts, but they have the disadvantage that they are
difficult to bend to the shape of the stem without distorting in

the athwartship plane. It can be done, however, using the

bender in the photograph, but it is advisable to keep the bar
as narrow as possible. Once bent, the flat bar is extremely
strong and the bow plates are easily butted up to it. It may be
a bit floppy in the athwartship direction but this can easily be
cured by using the second vertical support bar mentioned
earlier (Fig. 39) and possibly supporting one or both of them
with triangulation.
Tubular stems are also in common use and are favoured by,
amongst others, Robert Tucker, in most of his designs for
amateur building. The principal advantage of this method is
that, weight for weight, tube has the greatest strength of any
of the sections we have looked at. It will maintain its shape
best in both the fore-and-aft and the athwartship planes, and
is perhaps also the most forgiving when it comes to fitting in

the bow plates. Against this is the fact that tube is compara-
tively difficult to bend without kinking, although the hire of a

32 Tubular stem on a Robert Tucker design.

129
 OWN A STEEL BOAT
pipe bender should solve this problem, and in any event it's

no harder than flat bar. Perhaps more serious is the fact that
unseen corrosion can take place on the inside of the pipe, and
for this reason it is not acceptable to Lloyd's amongst other
construction authorities. Such corrosion shouldn't be a
serious problem if all access of water is prevented by blocking
off each end of the tube, and if the tube is galvanized before
fitting. The galvanizing will cause problems when welding

up the bow plates, so the outside galvanizing must be ground

off where the welds will come, before plating begins.
Problems can arise in joining the tube to the keel. A
straight join can cause a sharp loss in strength. An angle join
will be better but may be difficult to arrange. Some advan-
tage may be gained by slicing off half of the bottom of the tube
and joining it to the keel whole
as in Fig. 40. Alternatively the
tube can be taken to the bottom of the keel and the gap
between tube and keel filled in with fillet welds.

Fig 40 Joining the keel to the stem.

The tube will probably be at least 2 inches in diameter, but

there is some sense bender avail-
in checking the size of pipe
able before finally deciding. The pipe should be of high
tensile steel and drawn, not welded, as the welded pipe will
have tensions locked in which are best avoided. Tube will
it

give a much blunter entry than the previous methods looked

at, depending on its diameter. This is likely to meet with

approval in power boats as a greater flare in the bows can be

achieved, but it may not be so appropriate in sailboats,

130
 KEELS, BALLAST AND BACKBONES

33 Tapered semi-conical section for stem oi a Joshua-cldiss boat,

at META's yard.

although the fine entry is really important only in racing

boats, and even then it is below the waterline that matters
most.
The final option is iht plated stem. Here the bow plates are
run together and welded to each other with no supporting
stem bar. Commonly used in fi'ameless construction, this
calls forextreme accuracy in the plating and it is doubtful if it
will go right at the first offering. However, it has the merit of
being very simple, and by virtue of the angular meeting of the
plates, amply strong in boats below about 40 feet. Where
there is excessive flare, plating up without a stem bar could
be extremely difficult. But in this case it is common practice
to have a tapered semi-conical section made up by sub-
contract, as in photo 33, showing 3i Jos hua-c\a.ss boat building
at META's yard in France. Whatever the bow shape, the
lack of a stem bar seems to me to make life more difficult as
there is nothing to hang the bow plates on to. It would appear
to be most viable if the boat is being built upside down so that

131
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

the plates fall naturally together. One possibility is to have a

bar only behind the flare, and especially where it starts to
increase rapidly towards deck level if a clipper bow effect is
being sought. There would appear to be little advantage in
this other than marginal weight saving. And there is the
additional problem of how to fair the bar into the plated stem
without it being very noticeable.
With regard to repairs, the plated stem will be the easiest
of the lot, especially if there is plenty of flare so that you can
get in behind to cut and bend. The tube will be the most
difficult as collision damage will almost certainly cause a
kink which will be almost impossible to straighten. It will

probably have to be cut out, and a new section welded in.

Round bar will be a bit easier to straighten, but compared

with other parts of the hull any form of stem is hard to repair.
The choice for amateurs? For me flat bar is the best as it is

strong, and can easily be bent using the home-made jigs

illustrated in photographs 31 and 34.

34 Home-made jig for bending flat bar.

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 KEELS, BALLAST AND BACKBONES

Transoms
seldom that the box keel extends right to the transom.
It is

Normally the two will be joined by a longitudinal which vill

carry the skeg a fin-and-skeg design, or allow for an
if it is

inboard rudder. The longitudinal will have to be firmly

supported at its after end by a vertical from the building jig,

as it will have to carry its share of the plating and support the
transom.
The longitudinal can be made up out of any of the sections
that we looked at for the stem, but my preference is for flat
bar. This is because flat bar will fall naturally to the small
amount of curvature normally required, rigidity being
achieved by ensuring that the vertical support from the jig is

strongly secured, particularly in the fore-and-aft direction.

As an additional advantage, the flat bar can be welded easily
and strongly to the keel. The flat bar should be kept fairly
narrow, or it will be difficult to avoid a flat appearance at the
bottom of the transom, which looks unsightly unless it's
below the waterline. Better is to use plate about 6 inches
wide, and a bit thicker than the skin plating, sayiin. (If the
strip chine technique [see p. 8i] is being used, some of that
plating will be ideal.) Before fitting, the after end of this plate
can be gradually shaped to the curve of the transom, by
heating and thumping on an anvil.
Once this longitudinal is fitted, the transom can be cut out
and positioned, perhaps supported by another vertical from
the jig. If you are building on steel moulds, there is some
merit in cutting out the transom slightly oversize so that you
can see how the plates run aft. And they will always run
sUghtly differently because of the tensions set up in the steel
when it was rolled. The transom can then be ground away as
appropriate. An alternative is to fit a hardboard mock-up,
using that subsequently to cut out the steel transom exactly
to suit the plate run. On framed construction (or frameless
with bulkheads as formers), the transom is best cut to shape

133
 OWN A STEEL BOAT
from the plans and welded up strongly to the longitudinal
straight away.
Transoms are often curved. This gives greater strength,
looks attractive and is not difficult to achieve. A curvature of
about 1 : 8 would be reasonable, and the plate would flex to
that without need of rolling. Some stiffening will be necessary
to hold the transom shape prior to plating, and this is

perhaps most easily achieved by cutting stiffeners out of

scrap plate. Round bar
sometimes used to edge the
is

transom and this all adds to the strength. It can also improve
the appearance, as rounded edges will be achieved, and as an
additional bonus the paint will wear better at the corners.
Plating up is also made easier as the round bar will cope with
slight inaccuracies in cutting out the stern plates. The disad-
vantages are the extra weight and the extra demand on your
time.
Portholes are good to have in the transom if the boat has an
after cabin. watch the wake stream out astern is
Being able to
all part of the luxury of this fine design feature, and the extra

light will also be welcome. For both safety and appearance,

the portholes should be recessed and this also gets over the
problem of curving glass to fit the curvature in the plate.
Fitting these portholes (without the glass) is something that
can usefully be done before erecting the transom. Remember
to allow for the transom slope when making the surrounds so
that the window is not only flat but vertical as well.
A rectangular porthole is the easiest to make but looks
Rounding the corners gives an immediate improve-
terrible.

ment in appearance and is not too difficult. A reasonable

approach is to bend two pieces ofiin. plate into a U shape by
beating on the anvil. The two U shapes can then be welded
together, doing the job very slowly to prevent distortion. The
depends on personal preference,
size of the porthole largely
but the width of the surround depends on the slope of the
transom. Assuming a transom that slopes aft, the bottom of

134
 KEELS, BALLAST AND BACKBONES

the porthole surround can usefully be inset about li iuchrs

and the top will be thatmore depending how much slope
bit

there is from the vertical. Once this steel hoop has been
made, it can be offered up to the transom and marked round
the edge. A hole can be cut out with the 'Nibbler' and the
hoop pushed through and juggled until it is horizontal. It can
then be tack welded on the inside and the protruding part of
the hoop cut away with the angle-grinder. The whole thing
can then be welded solid and will act as part of the transom
stiffening.

Skegs
Skegs are normally fitted to sailboats with fin keels,and on
most power boats. They can give somewhere to hang the
rudder and often provide support for the propeller tube.
Most of all, they give considerable directional stability which
would otherwise have to be achieved by an overlarge rudder.

35 Bolted-on skeg, providing support for the rudder.

 OWN A STEEL BOAT

About a third of a rudder's area can be converted to a fixed

skeg without loss of rudder efficiency and with a great gain in
stabiUty. The skeg commonly made out of thick plate on
is

power boats and on some small bilge-keel sailboats. To give

greater resistance against bending sideways on bigger power
boats and most sailboats the skeg will be made up hollow out
of thinner plating. Because of the virtual impossibility of
painting inside it will often be filled with concrete. The skeg
needs to be very strongly attached to the hull as considerable
strain may be imposed upon it if the boat grounds. This
probably won't be achieved by simply butt welding the skeg
to the stern longitudinal, so it's better to cut out the shape of
the top of the skeg in the longitudinal plate and protrude the
skeg through into the inside of the boat. It can then be welded

inside and out and a good strong joint can be achieved. The
fore part of the skeg can be made out of round bar, tube or
plate in the same way as stems. If round bar is used, this can
be extended up into the boat and used to strengthen the joint.
There is no real need to fit the skeg at this stage and it can
well be left till nearer the end of the hull construction, at
which time the stern longitudinal will be strengthened by the
hull plating.
 9
Frames, Bulkheads and Beams

If frames are to
be used (see Chapter 5 for alternatives), the
choice of systems is vast. The traditional approach uses
transverse web frames at between roughly I5in. and 24in.
centres depending on the size of the boat. These frames are
often supported by plated floors at some or all of the centres.
In conjunction with the system, longitudinal framing is

sometimes employed where great strength is required or to

reduce the risk of denting where thin plates or widely spaced
frames have been used. The transversal method is the one
assumed by Lloyd's in their scantling rules, although it is

largely a legacy from the traditional structural thinking of

wooden boats. It works for both round-bilge and chine con-
struction, and in many instances it's the best way to do the
job — but not always.
Longitudinal Framing
Longitudinal framing was first applied to big steel ships, the
reason being that they are relatively weak in a fore-and-aft
direction. This not the case in small boats where plating of
is

5mm. or more can provide ample strength without any fram-

ing at all. The frames are just there to stop denting by
keeping the size of unsupported panel as small as possible.
Provided this objective is achieved it doesn't matter whether
frames go athwartships or fore-and-aft, or both.
Longitudinal framing can make for easy building, whereas
transverse frames can easily lead to plate distortion and
wobbly topsides; longitudinals don't seem to be as prone to
this problem. And such distortion as does occur is less

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 OWN A STEEL BOAT

offensive to the eye on the horizontal as opposed to the vertical

plane. In addition, transverse frames take a relatively long
time to fabricate, whereas longitudinals can simply be wrap-
ped round previously erected bulkheads with perhaps one or
two widely spaced transverse frames. There should be little
need for prior forming provided there isn't excessive flare at
the bows or curvature and provided the frame
at the stern,
scantling is chosen appropriately. One inch by one inch
angle, iin. thick, would probably be suitable on most boats
up to around 40 feet as it can be easily bent. But avoid a
section with a deep inboard web as this would be difficult to
bend.
The main disadvantage of the longitudinal system is that
the frames can act as water traps. But there are a number of
solutions to this problem. If the frames are set at an angle
towards the bottom of the boat, not only does this prevent
water collecting, but bending round the hull is made easier
(Fig. 41 ) . Painting behind angle shaped in this fashion would
be impossible, so flat bar is necessitated by this approach.
Limber holes drilled at appropriate intervals are another

'lop TTMB£R"

OECK PLATE

UUU T>LRT£

Long-'l FRRI^E

Fig 41 Longitudinal framing.

138
 FRAMES, BULKHEADS AND BEAMS
possibility,but they tend to get blocked and you can't see if
they are doing their job behind ceilings. In the cargo holds ol
large vessels it is common practice to make a sloping fillet of
cement in the angle formed by the longitudinal. And I can see
every reason for using the same technique in the boats we are
talking about.
The only other problem with the longitudinal system is the
need to recess the bar into the transverse frames and/or
bulkheads. But this is nothing compared to the time that can

be saved. Fig. 41 shows a hull section with a longitudinal

frame recessed into a main transverse frame more strongly
and more easily than with angle or T bar.

Framed or Frameless

In Chapter 5 we looked at the advantages of frameless con-

struction and saw that one can either use a mould or build on
a bulkhead. With either approach, frames are commonly
added after the hull is complete in order to support the
plating. Working this way round reduces the likelihood of
plate distortion at the frames and can speed up the whole job.
This approach is the one used by England's Robert Tucker in
most of his designs and is common on the Continent of
Europe as well; META of France for example use it in the
production of their 'Defer'.
Surprisingly most designs I have come across that call for

retrospective framing in this way use a transversal system. As

the chines provide longitudinal strengthening would seem
it

logical to continue this on the topside plating by using fore-

and-aft frames, especially as they are normally easier to fit

than transverse ones which require greater forming. De

Groot use longitudinal framing for their hulls and kits which
are very popular in Holland.
Where transverse frames are employed, the section can be
used straight if flat bar fillets are welded in to fill the gap

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 OWN A STEEL BOAT

between the frame and the hull. This doesn't appeal to me,
though, as it seems rather amateurish, and the plating isn't
supported by the whole frame.

Frame Sections

The choice is between angle bar, T bar or flat bar, with angle
being the conventional section approved by Lloyd's.
Angle bar has a number of advantages. It is readily avail-
able from all steel stockists in all sizes usually necessary for
boat construction, and has immense strength when welded to
the hull plating so as to form a channel. It also has enough
strength to keep fairly rigid longitudinally at the framing
stage, unlike flat bar which will be quite floppy.
However, Flat bar, which is also easily available, is simpler
to bend with amateur equipment and has the advantage that
both sides are accessible for welding. It can be difficult to get
the rod in to weld behind angle in some parts of the hull. Flat
bar also saves weight and is easier to maintain than angle

36 Set of flat bar frames ^ov Joshua class.

140
 FRAMES, BULKHEADS AND BEAMS
which creates a rust-trapping 'nook'. And as an additional
bonus it is simpler to attach wooden battens to flat bar when
the time comes for fitting out (fitting the claddmg straight on
to the angle is a longer and
more difficult process).
T bar is a good choice where great strength is required. It
bends more readily without distortion than either angle or
flat bar, and welding accessibihty is not a problem as with

angle. However, it is sometimes difficult to obtain, and it

ofl:en costs slightly more than other sections.

Frame Spacing
The spacing of fi"ames will be decided by a combination of
factors, including plate thickness, size of boat and the use to
which she be put. The thinner the plate and the more
will
rugged the use, the greater the need for closely spaced
frames. But in most small yachts frames serve the principal
purpose of preventing dents in the plates, rather than of
strengthening the structure. Because of this there is a bit
more choice when it comes to frame spacing than for example
in a wooden boat which depends upon its frames to hold all
the separate planks together. Accordingly, frames can be
positioned to suit building convenience up to the maximum
gap which will give sufficient support against denting. There
is no need to have them all the same distance apart and it is

common to have closer spacing at the ends where more

shaping is required. This simplifies plating and makes for a
fairer hull. A clever designer will also have regard to the
interior layout when specifying frame intervals. Bulkheads
and furniture are most conveniently fastened to frames so the
spacing should be made with this in mind. Twenty inches is
often appropriate as four times this amount gives a 6ft. Gin.
berth, and is also an appropriate width for a hanging locker.
Flat bar would be my choice, and it is commonly used by
amateurs and professionals alike. For example, Bruce
Roberts uses it in aU his designs for amateur construction,

141
 .

OWN A STEEL BOAT

and META of France use it for their immensely strong range
of round-bilge voyaging yachts.

Frame Forming
Sophisticated have sophisticated frame-forming
yards
machinery but doubt many readers will be in that league.
I

No matter, because simple devices can achieve the same ends

with not so much more time. Perhaps the best is the simple
frame bender explained by the photograph 3 1
Provided the section is bent gradually along its entire
length and continually checked for distortion, no problems
should be experienced in cold-forming metal of the dimen-
sions commonly used for framing.
An alternative technique for bending angle so that a flat is
presented to the plating (not the strongest form) is to lay the
bar on a flat surface and hammer along the vertical edge. The
trick is to hit the bar hard in the middle, and this action will
tend to bend it up at either end. Then get an assistant to hold
one end so that part of the bar is again flat on the ground.
Bash this bit hard in the middle and again the bar will bend
in the required direction. Then simply continue with this
process sighting along the bar for flat spots and eliminating
them with a hefty thump. Make sure the bar is perfectly level
though, before you hit, or it will be hard on your assistant's
hands! The technique will also work with flat bar. It is easily

possible to achieve a camber of an inch in a foot in this way.

Heavy sections, such as those used under the mast, will not
be so easily formed and will require other techniques. One
way out have this small amount of work done by a
is to
specialist, but even that doesn't always prove successful. I
once had some deck beams made by a firm of ship repairers
and the job was so badly done that I had to scrap several and
cold-form new ones myself. A successful alternative to cold-
forming is to cut the frames out of solid plate. This is not so
time-consuming as it might sound, nor as wasteful. It can

142
 FRAMES, BULKHEADS AND BEAMS
often be quicker to cut out a frame than to attempt to bend it
up without the proper equipment, and cutting out one frame
can form one edge of the next. If greater strength is required
than is provided by the flat plate, then flat bar can be welded
on at right angles. Another old-fashioned alternative is to cut
the standing web
of the angle bar at frequent intervals,
thereby allowing the bar to bend. The cuts are welded up
again, while ensuring that there is sufficient bend to allow for
the pufl of the welding. This is a long tedious process, but it

may be the only way heavy section is required. Better

if very

in my view not to have such sections in the design, and if

extra strength is required at the mast, to use a bulkhead or a
pillar.

Bulkheads and Pillars

I am in favour of steel bulkheads having had a serious fire

contained by one, while in the uncomfortable position of

being only a few miles off the Lizard Point in Cornwall with
an onshore Force 7. But some people don't hke them, arguing
that they add unnecessarily to weight and split up the
accommodation in an inconvenient way. I respect the point,
but believe that the advantages of fire and flood protection,
as well as structural considerations, handsomely outweigh
these problems which can, I believe, be solved by sound
design. Our own boat has two such bulkheads; the forward
one sections heads and forepeak (no bad thing) and
off the
supports the foremast, while the after bulkhead segregates
the sea cabin from the civilized accommodation, and there is
access through both bulkheads via watertight doors. Still, the
steel used in our bulkheads is much too thick, 4- 75mm.
(Ain.) whereas 3mm. would have been quite adequate, and
the thick plate has added unnecessarily to weight. In fact,

quite thin plating can be used successfully (I have seen iVin.)

provided adequately supported. Nor is copious unsightly

it is

framing necessary with clever design. The watertight door

143
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

coamings will give strength, and steel framework for furni-

ture can also be designed to give support. More subtly,
engine-room partitioning, tankage or companionways can
often be arranged in such a way as to eliminate the need for
specifically stiffening the bulkhead.
Partial steel bulkheads extending from the sides inwards
are common on many small boats, particularly those employ-
ing frameless construction. While obviously not giving any
fire or flood prevention advantages, these can provide con-
siderable structural support. They can be used
mast sup- as
ports and to section off the forepeak, or perhaps to form the
basis of a hanging locker. Situated aft they can be used as
part of the engine compartment, or as support for a centre
cockpit. Normally, they will extend in from the hull plating
for the full extent of the side decks, assuming a coach roof is
fitted, and act as a sort of deep frame.

Plywood bulkheads can be used as an alternative and if

well bolted to steel frames they can give some structural
support. Three-quarter-inch ply, however, is probably the
thinnest to serve for this function and this offers no weight
saving on Ain. steel. The wood can give a more attractive
finish, but large areas of exposed plywood are no more
pleasing than a painted steel bulkhead. And in any event the
can be attractively disguised by cladding with cork tiles.
steel
But it must be admitted that plywood does have useful
insulation properties (heat and sound) which the steel plate
won't possess to the same degree.
But watertight bulkheads do give rise to a number of
problems. be watertight they must obviously be
First, to
welded all round and ideally on both sides. Such excessive
welding will not be indulged in at other frames on the
grounds that considerable shrinkage and distortion must
occur with the more serious possibility of stress raisers being
created. One way out of these problems is to skip-weld as
normal at the bulkheads and gain the watertightness with

144
 FRAMES, BULKHEADS AND BEAMS
fibreglass and resin or one of the epoxy fillers. This would
give problems only if you had fire and flood at the same
time — an unlikely occurrence in a steel boat. Along the same
lines is the difficulty of making watertight the inevitable
propeller shaft and cable apertures. The propeller shaft will
clearly need glands but the cables can be run high and
watertightness is probably not vital right up to deck height.
The other serious difficulty is the fabrication of the
watertight doors. A steel version will be very heavy, an alloy
one expensive. Our forward door is steel and has so far only
claimed one fingernail. We understand it, but it has been
known to attack strangers. We vetoed steel for our after door
as this is frequently used at sea. I'd have liked an alloy
version but had no means of welding one up and so had to
resort to the ubiquitous plywood. Asbestos (yes the blue
sort!) sandwiched between plywood provides a measure of
fire resistance, and rubber sealing strips have, I hope, given
an element of watertightness.
Pillars are an alternative to bulkheads where support is
needed for a broad expanse of deck, or for a mast or winch.
Such have to be cleverly designed into the accommo-
pillars
dation plan as no owner will want a pillar coming for
example straight down through his double bunk (one well
known plastic design has exactly this). Such stupidities
should never occur, indeed the pillars should be turned to
advantage inside by using them as hand holds, furniture
supports, tank feeder pipes or even, as I saw on one William
Garden design (wood), as the posts of a four-poster bunk!

Frame Fabrication
Accuracy at this stage is essential in order to avoid a hull
which looks like a ploughed field. Just as a reminder, check
whether measurements are given to the outside or the inside
of the plating — the inside is, of course, necessary for frame
fabrication. The precise procedure for starting will depend

145
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

upon whether the hull has been fully lofted, or templates or

scale drawings are being used (see Chapter 7).
\^ Lofting has already been done, the body-plan can pro-
vide the shape for frame fabrication provided the sections
correspond to the frame intervals (oh considerate designer!).
If not, then critical points will have to be measured off from
the lofted half breadth and hull profile, as at the frame
position. These points, such as top and bottom of keel, chine,
waterline, sheer, deck-edge, etc., can usefully be transferred
from the loftings to the fabrication floor by means of the rigid
sticks mentioned in Chapter 7. This floor, best made out of
plate, can usefully be scribed and centre-punched perma-
nently with the appropriate centreline and base or waterline,
and these will act as reference points for transferring the
loftings.
Where templates are provided by the designer, it is still best
to centre-punch the shape of the frames on to a plate fabrica-
tion floor. This is because the templates will quickly become
damaged with up of frames, and in any
the constant offering
event they can distort through damp by as much as half an
inch in a twenty-foot run.
Dimensions shown on the plans are sometimes used direct
where the designer's figures have been proved by previous
constructions to be sufficiently accurate, and where the
drawings provide sufficient detail (for example META in
France). But with this method, too, it's as well to scribe out
and centre-punch the frame shapes on to a steel fabrication
plate upon which construction can proceed direct.
When it comes to cutting the steel for the frames, I find it
best to cut fractionally over-length then offer up the piece to
its precise spot on the fabrication plate, and finally mark and

cut exactly to size. In my view, the gas cutting torch has no

place in this operation because of distortion. Gilbert Klingel
in his otherwise most useful book Boat Building with Steel goes
to great lengths to describe how to minimize and correct

146
 FRAMES, BULKHEADS AND BEAMS
distortion due to gas cutting, whereas none of it is required if
the metal is cut by cutting disc in the angle-grinder. Simple,
and in many ways more accurate and quick. The same issue
will arise when it comes to plating, but more of that in the
next chapter.
Some beginners tend to join the bits of frame with long
overlaps. This practice which probably stems from wood
construction, looks amateurish and stops the frame lying flat.

It alsoadds unnecessarily to weight and is probably weaker

than a proper butt joint, especially as rust can form between
the mated surfaces. The best procedure is to cut the two
edges to be joined so that they precisely match, and then
bevel them in order to ensure complete penetration.
Great care should be taken not to pull the frames out of
alignment during welding. A tiny movement at the weld can
result in several inches' throw several feet away. So to ensure
against this, it is best to pay particular attention to aligning
the joint and to the welding sequence. A tack in the middle of
the butt shouldn't cause any pull either way, so this is the
best place to start. It can then be useful to triangulate across
the join by tacking on scrap angle. If the angleis tacked on

one side only, it will be easy to knock against the tacks to

break the bar away. This method is probably better than
tacking to the fabrication plate where it may be harder to
break the tacks loose. If triangulation is used to lock the
frame in position, it is still essential to take care over the
welding sequence, or unwanted stresses can be built into the

bar to cause distortion when is released.

the triangulation
Best is to tack progressively outwards from the centre tack on
the side of the bar without the bevel. The tacks can usefully
be made with as low an amperage as possible so as to apply
the minimum of heat. With the frame now solidly joined

together, the bevelled edges can be pass-welded from the

centre outwards, welding as quickly as possible in both direc-
tions one after the other so as to equalize the pull. The tacked

147
 OWN A STEEL BOAT
side can then be welded in like fashion. As this procedure
involves turning over the frames, it is perhaps useful to tack
all the joints at one go, so that each step can be done to all the
joints at the same time. This has the additional advantage of
minimizing distortion by creating a strong hoop effect. For
the pass-welding as well as the tacking, I prefer to use small
rods (maximum 12 s.w.g.) as this enables heat input and
consequent distortion to be kept to a minimum. The same
goes for plating later on.
Quite often plsited floors are specified in thfe design, and
these can be welded into the frame hoop to increase its
strength. They are commonly included towards the ends of
the boat, where strength isn't provided by the keel. The
compartments thereby created can serve for a number of
purposes such as tankage, chain locker or even a lockable
duty-free compartment ason our boat.
Ideally, the floors should be the same thickness as the
frames in order to avoid a weak point at the joint. And the
tops of the floors can usefully be arranged so as to be all the
same height. This simplifies fitting out, but the relatively
complex measurements required may not be warranted, as
levelling ofl^with angle bar after the hull is complete is often
satisfactory. Indeed, the plated floors will need a flat top
anyway if floorboards are to be fitted, and angle bar can be
used for this purpose, and for that of levelling. Bar welded at
a right angle to the top of the floor in this way will also impart
extra strength to the frame hoop.
Sometimes gussets are specified in the absence of complete
floors (see Fig. 42). These are seldom really necessary
strengthwise as properly joined bar of the appropriate size
should be amply sufficient. Gussets are probably a hangover
from wooden construction days and those more used to
wooden design often forget that steel boat frames serve a
purpose from those in a wooden boat. Wooden
different
frames have to hold a number of small planks together,

148
 FRAMES, BULKHEADS AND BEAMS

GlJSS£T CUT To SMffP£-

OF Ff^^MiT

Fig 42 Gussets to strengthen

the frame.

whereas a steel skin has sufficient strength in itself. If gussets

are to be used, perhaps for local strengthening, then they
should be cut to the shape of the frame as in the diagram, and
butted rather than overlapped. They can interfere with the
fitting out process and are in my view only warranted at high
stress points such as, for example, at the mast.
Deck beams should be added at the framing stage, as this
completes the hoop. I am strongly in favour of flush decks for
reasons discussed elsewhere and they also have the
(p. 16),
merit that they considerably simplify making the beams. The
beams themselves will be cambered as this gives the advan-
tage of rapid water drainaway, extra headroom and a more
pleasing appearance. And in a sailing boat camber makes it
easier to walk along the weather deck. Excessive camber,
however, like extremes of anything on a boat, does not look
right and i in. in ft. is about the most that is acceptable to the
i

eye. A butt joint to the frames should be amply strong, but

sometimes brackets are specified by the designer. These
brackets are seldom really necessary and from personal
experience on our own boat I know that they make life harder
at the fitting out stage. Again, they are probably a hangover
from wooden construction thinking. design I know
One
compromises by having brackets at every other frame, but

149
 OWN A STEEL BOAT
this seems to me to be the worst of both worlds. Only a little
time is saved at the fabrication stage and the weight reduc-
tion is minimal, and fitting out is more difficult. In our boat I
made them by sloping the cladding from the
into a feature
ship's side to the deckhead, using battens screwed to the
brackets as support. With intermediate brackets missing, the
support interval would have been too great.
Where a coach roof is included in the design, the framework
for it can be fabricated at the hull framing stage and incorpo-
rated into the hoop. But it may sometimes
beam be better to
right across as though the boat were a flush decker and make
up the coach roof later. In this way the precision job of frame
formation can be achieved without the added complexity of
the coach roofs extra angles. The coach roof can then be
fabricated at workshop floor level and subsequently fitted
after the hull is rigidly welded up. This means that the height
of the roof can be slightly adjusted up or down if it appears
advantageous for headroom or appearance after the hull is
complete. Cutting out the full-width beams in order to fit the
coach roof should be a quick job and it can be done without
distortion if the angle-grinderThe piece cut out will
is used.
then serve as the coach roof beam. This method has specific
advantages where building headroom is limited.

Erecting the Frame Hoops

With the frame hoops all fabricated it is now time to return to
the building floor. If, as has been suggested, you have used
flat bar, your frames will be a bit floppy, and it is a good idea
to tack-weld an angle bar vertically to the hoop, and perhaps
another horizontally. If these bars are attached precisely at
the centreline and at the waterline, then they can be of
considerable assistance in the setting up. With the frame
precisely positionedon the centreline you can use the spirit-
level clamped to the support bars to check that the hoop is
both vertically and horizontally aligned. The plumb bobs

150
 FRAMES, BULKHEADS AND BEAMS
can also help, and as a final check you can take a tape and
measure from a fixed point on the stem to the sheer point on
both sides of the frame hoop. If the measurement isn't exactly
the same, you must adjust, or your boat will turn out
banana-shaped. Once the middle frame and perhaps one or
two more have been set up precisely, then the others can be
set up by measurement from their nearest neighbours, with a
simple plumb bob check on the centreline supports to ensure
that they are vertical.
After each frame is erected it will have to be secured in
position by angle bar up from the jig, or out from the sides of
the building, or cradle. This won't ensure complete rigidity,
which will only start to be introduced when some longitudi-
nals are added. If none of these is included in the design then
it will probably be necessary to tack angle bar fore-and-aft
along the inside of the frames. Tacked on one side only, these
bars should provide sufficient longitudinal strength during
plating, and they will be easily removable afterwards by
knocking against the tacks. However, in my view, some form
of integral longitudinals are necessary in framed construc-
tion and at the very least, chine bars and sheer bars should be
fitted.

The advantages of chine stringers of various section were

looked at in Chapter 5 on steel construction systems and the
discussion of various stem bar types in Chapter 8 is also
relevant here. While there is no purpose in renewing the
discussion, I would reiterate my preference for round bar.
Sheer stringers are also a good idea in view in that theymy
provide additional longitudinal support, can produce a neat
deck-edge and give a line against which to butt the plating.
In general the same arguments with regard to sections apply
to the sheer stringer as to the chine stringer. But I can see a
lotof advantage in using fairly large diameter tube notched
only half-way into the frames so that the other half stands
proud. This then acts as a very neat and very simple rubbing

151
 OWN A STEEL BOAT
strake which can look most attractue if painted a contrasting
colour. Other ideas for finishing off the deck-edge appear in
the next chapter on plating, but I belie\'e this to be as good as
any.
If other longitudinal stringers are used, then there is a
choice between notching-in or cutting the bar to fit between
die frames. The former method is probably stronger, but the
latter simpler and quicker. And as the longitudinals are
reallv onh" there to stop denting, and to help in keeping the
hull fair during construction, it is the method I would
recommend. With the short lengths of bar. no problems
should arise in bending the steel to the foi"e-and-aft cur\'e of
the boat. But this might be a problem with the chine and
sheer stringers, and a pipe bender will be of considerable
assistance. A fair cur\"e in these stringers is essential for the

look of the boat, so e\'er\" care should be taken at this stage.

Accurate notching-in will be critical to achieving this fair
curve, and it is con\'entional to make-up a 'notch template'
for this purpose. The notch is best cut with the cutting disc on
the angle-grinder so as to a\"oid the heat of the cutting torch.
The final job before plating is to make sure that all the
frames are fair by sighting down then using the fairing
batten.
 10

Plating

The Best Approach

Plating is make or break time. So a few words on the overall
approach to the job might be useful before I go into the detail.
The art is to prevent too great a temperature rise in any part
of the structure, as excessive heat causes the plates to shrink
on subsequent cooling and distort. Some distortion is almost
inevitable, but a proper welding sequence can keep it to a
minimum.
First you must mark out the plates. It is normal to mark
out and fit one pair of plates (port and starboard) at a time,
starting from the middle of the ship and working towards
either end. You should only lightly tack the plates in position
until all theframework is covered, and then the seams can all
be tack-welded. It is important to even up the stresses of
tacking, by working on first one side of the boat and then the
other, and by working progressively from the middle towards
either end. I prefer to see the tacking on the inside of the hull
so that the outside seams can be welded free from interfer-
ence by slag-producing tacks. But this is not always easy to
arrange. In any event, the tacks should be widely spaced to
start with, and then the gaps should be gradually reduced to
about 3 inches by working progressively around the boat in
the manner already described. This done, you can fully weld
the seams on the outside, taking care to use the back-stepping
technique (p. 71), and to keep temperature rise to a
minimum. You can then complete the welding of the inside
seams. But before welding to the frames it is best to fair the
hull plating using one of the techniques described later.

153
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

However, the process of welding to the frames can in itself

cause some distortion. So the frame welding must also be
done with great care, working progressively as before, and
keeping the length of run to a minimum.

Marking Out
As with every other stage there is more than one way of
marking out. I know of only a handful of professional yards
that can develop plates straight off the lines plan, so this
highly skilled method is not really open to us. The alterna-
tives are templating or offering the plates up to the framing
and marking out direct, both these ways being used by yards
of my acquaintance. Gilbert Klingel in Boat Building with Steel

comes down heavily in favour of templating, believing the

alternative to be unprofessional and an indicator of shoddy
work. But many highly reputable yards to whom I have
spoken prefer to mark out direct, saying that this can lead to
greater rather than less precision. So the answer must be for
you to choose the method you find easiest. For myself, I have
found it best to plate up direct, but my experience has been
with boats of comparatively simple shape and developed
plates. Once you start getting into compound curvature, I
can well believe that templating would be a must.
If you chose to take templates first, hardboard is as good as
anything to use, being cheap and having similar bending
characteristics to steel. Three-millimetre should be suffi-
cient. Some yards prefer stiff cardboard or even paper, but
this could lead to imprecision around the edges. Klingel
recommends pasting up strips of hardboard into the required
shape, but this seems to me to be unnecessarily messy for a
minimal saving in cost.
My approach is to cut the plate roughly to shape from
measurements, making sure that it is several inches oversize.
I then offer it up to the framing and mark out the exact shape

using french chalk (felt tip pens also work) The plate then
.

154
 PLATING
comes down and is cut to the chalk lines (ahhough in some
cases such as deck-edges, the excess can be cut olTin situ). 1

find this method both quick and accurat'^, the only

to be
disadvantages being the bit of extra cutting and the fact that
up twice. The first problem is offset
the plate has to be offered
by the fact that the hardboard doesn't have to be cut (or
bought!), and the extra plate manoeuvring shouldn't matter
if the job is organized properly.

Cutting and Edge Preparation

We had a look at alternative ways of cutting in Chapter 3,

but I repeat my dislike of gas for this purpose. Assuming that
the 'Nibbler' or cutting discs are being used, the cut edges
will be smooth and straight, but unless welding is by Argon
arc, it is usually best to bevel the edges as well, before welding
begins. Just a few boats are produced with overlapping
seams and those from MET A are an example (see photo 37).

37 Hull made with overlapping seams, at META, France.

(Note hoops for turning hull.)
 OWN A STEEL BOAT
The resultcan be attractive if the seams are made to follow
the sheer, and it is undoubtedly very strong. With an overlap
of an inch or so, the inside and outside welds are spread,
thereby reducing stress. And the stronger fillet- weld form is
required. Another advantage is the fact that the double
thickness of plate acts almost as a longitudinal stringer. But
against all this is the difficulty of keeping the seam following
the shear, and the (slight) risk of corrosion between the
overlapped plates.
A bevel helps ensure that proper penetration is achieved,
and is done on the outboard side of the plate. The
best
outside weld can then be ground smooth and the inside
double weld left proud. This will make for the best appear-
ance and should ensure that the seams are watertight.
(Although 3mm. plate is sometimes welded up without this
edge preparation, I prefer to bevel even this thin stuff.) Even
with the bevel, a gap of about imm. should also be left
between the plates to ensure complete penetration and to
avoid distortion. And if the gap is lost, either by inaccurate
cutting, or by heat distortion, then it must be ground out
using a very thin cutting disc in the grinder. Unless this is

done, the weld bead can just on top of the plates, and when
sit

ground off there may be very little holding the two bits of steel
together. This can obviously lead to weeping at the seams
and ultimate fracture.

Plating Sequence
If strip-chine construction is being used, the chine plate will
be the go up. And this may almost be regarded as part
first to

of the framing process with the plate in the role of a bilge

stringer.
But with the other methods of construction that we looked
at in Chapter 5, there is no hard and fast rule as to the order of
plating. There is a lot to be said in favour of putting the deck
plates on first as this can stiffen up the whole framework

156
 PLATING
before the more rigorous plating begins. An additional
advantage approach is that laying the deck is much
to this
easier plates can overlap the edge and then be trimmed
if the

to size. This will not be possible if the topside plates witli

bulwarks or toe rail incorporated are already in situ.
It is usual to begin the hull plating in the middle of the ship
so as to lock in the initial stresses there rather than at the
ends. And it is necessary to match each plate fitted with its

brother on the opposite side of the boat, again to prevent

undue concentration of stress and to prevent frame distor-
tion. Accordingly, when the plate on one side has been
up and then cut, its opposite number can be cut out to
offered

—
match provided you are confident both sides are exactly
the same. If in doubt, make a template first, or offer up the
plate separately to both sides. Remember, once a plate is

incorrectly cut becomes just scrap. It isn't possible satisfac-

it

torily to fill large gaps with weld metal for anything other
than a very short run.
Only ease of construction dictates whether to fit the top-
side or bottom plates first, and the topsides would seem to be
the best choice. With the bottom plates in first you would
spend a lot of time climbing in and out, although against
that, the bottom would provide a solid base on which to stand
when clamping up the topsides.

Tools

For plating you need a few specialist tools in addition to those

we have already looked at. More

you say, but don't
cost
panic, because most of what you need can be made cheaply
from offcuts. Plenty of the clamps that we made up in Chap-
ter 3 now become necessary; twenty or more won't go amiss.
But you will also need other bits and pieces to persuade the
plate into its rightful place snug up to the framing. 'Dogs' are
useful, and these can be cut out of scrap 5mm. plate as in Fig.

43. These dogs are tacked to the plate so that the right angle

157
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

^c/cs

Fig 43 'Dog' used to

draw in plating.

fRfJME

goes behind the frame, and then a lever can be inserted and
the plate pulled back and tacked. The dog is then broken off
the plate by knocking against its tack. It is useful to make up
a selection of dogs with different length arms so that plate can
be drawn in from any distance.

pLRTe

fjNd-LE BffR

WH£N QOOD
CONT/Jcr IjcHlB^eP

Fig 44 Threaded rod used

to draw in plating.

Ff^RME
 PLATING
A more sophisticated way of doing the same job is to use
threaded steel rod. Two lengths are tacked to the plate either
side of a pair of frames, and angle bar, with holes drilled
appropriately, is fitted on to the rods. The angle is then
progressively tightened up against the frame with nuts,
drawing the plate home as in Fig. 44. The tlireaded rod
approach allows very precise movement of the plate, which
enables gradual bending to the hull shape. And the steel is
always under control, whereas levers and props have a habit
of slipping, sometimes with dangerous results. But using a
prop and wedges to force the plate up against the frames from
outside does mean you don't have to make tacks which can
often pucker the plate and may be visible when the hull is
painted.

Plate Bending

Although it may be impossible to flex some plates in heavily

shaped areas with compound curvature (perhaps at the
ends) by using cold-bending techniques, it should seldom be

Plating. Levers and props are useful, but they can slip.
38
 OWN A STEEL BOAT
necessary to have these pieces rolled, as there are several
other possibilities. Perhaps the best method is to template as
accurately as possible and fit the plate in the normal way,
pulling it as close as possible with the threaded rods. When it
won't go any nearer, then the oxy-acetylene torch comes out
to heat the metal at critical areas. If extra pull is applied
while the metal is hot, little by little the plate should bend
into shape. Most curves can be achieved in this way, but it is

a long process. An alternative is to slit the plate at points

where it won't bend, and then weld together again after it is

in position, but this is messy and shouldn't really be necess-

ary. A final alternative for areas that are obviously going to
be difficult is to use a succession of thin strips which will
easily be bent one at a time. This means a lot of welding, but
may be the only way for a really tricky curve. It should not be
required if the hull has been designed with steel's limitations
in mind, and it's worth checking this out before finally choos-
ing a set of plans.

Fitting the Plates

Steel plates are heavy. Not only are they difficult to move
about, but if they get out of control an edge can make a very
passable guillotine. So the message is that they must not be
allowed to get out of control at any time. That means careful
handling, and it also means having the proper lifting gear.
To move plate from the cutting-out floor to the building
site, rollers are useful. Sophisticated rollers in a frame are
fine, but plenty of oflcuts of steel tube of approximately 2in.
diameter will probably serve just as well. Plate is always best
moved by rolling rather than lifting: if it is lifted it can fall.
But some sort of lifting tackle is necessary at the fitting stage
and the simple eight/ ten part tackles that are commonly sold
for lifting out car engines should do fine for the job. Two or
three would be useful, and you will need some point to hang
them from, although if you are building indoors that should

1 60
 PLATING
not present a problem. But remember to check that the beam
you use has ample strength to cope with the i6o pounds of an
8ft. X 4ft. X Jin. plate. In the open you have more of a

problem and a gantry is really necessary unless you can

afford the luxury of a mini-mobile crane for the few days of
the topside and deck plating work. The gantry will have to be
movable and so constructed that there is no possibility of it
falling over. These requirements make it into a fairly sophis-
ticated piece of apparatus so an alternative is really needed.
If you have not plated the deck already, it is possible to weld
girder section vertically to the frames and deck beams and
use this to achieve the hoist. The danger here is the risk of
frame distortion. The best answer suppose might be an
I

army of strong men to lift the plates into position and a band
of willing helpers ready with the clamps. But they are not
always available. A useful trick when raising steel plates into
position is to weld a length or two of angle just below the
required position of the plate. The web of the angle should
point upwards so as to form a trough into which the plate can
fit without escaping. If the angle is sloped in towards the hull,

the plate will fall into place with its own gravity. It can be
tapped forward or aft precisely into the right spot, and then
clamped up ready for tacking.
The bottom plates are not so much of a problem, as for one
thing there isn't so far to lift them. I have a hydrauHc trolley
jack which I have found excellent for raising these plates
slowly and safely, but bottle jacks aren't so good as they are
prone to toppling over. A perfectly good alternative is to weld
eyes to the inside of the plate, and use the tackle to lift the
steel snug up against the frames. Possible puckering of the
plate by welding on the eyes will not be visible as it will be
below the waterline.

Tacking the Plates

Even a few tacks will stiffen up the hull enormously, so it is

161
 OWN A STEEL BOAT
essential to check that the frames are absolutely fair before
strikingup the welder. Any unfairness should become readily
apparent as the plates are clamped up, if it hasn't already
been spotted and rectified with the use of a fairing batten.
Best to stand well back from a newly clamped up plate and
eye it down its length to make absolutely sure it looks pretty.
Before tacking make sure the seam is perfectly level by
applying a straight edge across the join. It is best to start your
tacks in the middle of the seam and work progressively
outwards, one side of the middle and then to the other.
first to

Spacing can be fairly wide at first (6 inches or so) and then

filled in prior to final welding, so that the final spaces are
about 3 inches. It may be necessary to use spacers to stop the
gap closing as the tacks are made. Pieces of thin welding rod
will serve for this purpose. The plate seams are best welded
up before extensive tacking to the frames, but some local
tacks will be needed to hold the plates in position while the
clamps are removed. Keep these locating tacks to a
minimum until the whole is strengthened by plating: this will
help prevent distortion of the frames. No final welding should
be considered until the entire hull is plated.

The Final Welding

Diligent work up to now, not to mention a lot of expensive
material, can be ruined by carelessness at this final stage.
Nor should you think that hiring a professional welder will
necessarily ensure success. Many welders, as opposed to
platers, are used to having to lay down as much weld metal as
possible, in the shortest possible time. This is exactly what
you don't want for a plating job. Short runs, the minimum
application of heat and a. properly controlled welding sequence are the
keys to success. And this is because when metal is melted, it
shrinks; as much as one inch in fifty if a complete rod is
melted, though much less where the melted piece is con-
strained by solid metal attached (i.e. a weld); here the

162
 PLATING
shrinkage can be around o- 1 per cent. But the restraint of the
surrounding plate can set up stresses at the weld which, if

excessive, can ultimately lead to fracture under load. The less

the heat, the smaller the stresses, and a proper welding
sequence even out those that do occur. It is impossible to
will
eradicate excessive shrinkage and the resulting stresses and
distortion once they have occurred.
In order to keep the heat application down to a minimum,
the amperage of the welder must be kept as low as possible,
consistent with a satisfactory weld. This means using small
rods, and I would not consider larger than 12s; size 1 4 is often
entirely suitable. The technique of skip-welding is also
necessary to minimize the heat applied to a given area. Runs
of no more than 3 inches are used (2 inches might be better on
thin plate), applied first to one then to the other side of the
middle of the seam. Gaps of the same length as the run are left
to be filled by the next sequence of runs. This procedure is
tedious as each run must be chipped and brushed to remove
the slag, and there will be a great many 3in. runs in a 40-foot
boat. Nevertheless, if skip-welding is not strictly followed,

the plates will inevitably buckle and that will be very notice-
able after painting. I thought I knew better than my ship-
wright tutor on one deck job, and used up a complete rod
before stopping. The resulting distortion annoys me to this

day.
A useful technique to keep plates fair by way of a weld, is to
tack pieces of flat bar vertically, at a right angle across the
seam while work is in progress. This serves to minimize the
shrinkage and resulting inward buckling that can so easily
occur. Remember to tack on one side of the bar only, so that a
bash with the hammer against the tacks will readily break
them away.
Ideally, tacking should all have been done on the inside of
the plate so that the outside skip-welding can be free from
interruption by the tack blobs. This also achieves an equaliz-

163
 OWN A STEEL BOAT
ing of the welding on the inside and outside of the hull. It is

the outside run that needs to be perfect to prevent weeping at

the seams; the inside run is just a back-up. But tacking on the
inside like this can sometimes be difficult, especially when
short-handed. So provided outside tacks are properly de-
slagged there should be no real problems, as the distance
between two such tacks will be about the length of a skip-
weld.
It is best to alternate from port to starboard. And while it is
clearly too tedious to swop sides for every skip-weld
sequence, no more than one plate should be welded up before
moving across. A
good idea if two machines and operators
are available is to set one to work on each side.
When all the seams are completed, it is time to fair the
plates, and this should be done before the frames are welded
solid.

Fairing-in the Plates

Fairing-in can only done satisfactorily before the

be
framework is welded solid, and in frameless construction it is
done after the frames have been removed; and therein lies
one of the advantages of this approach. It is much easier to
fair-in plates if they are not constrained by runs of flat bar,
whether welded solid or not.
Some lack of fairness may be regarded as almost inevit-
able, no matter how much care is taken in the welding. And
there are various corrective methods, although none can
cope with excessive distortion. A common problem is weld
shrinkage at seams, which causes the plates to bow inwards.
This should be prevented on transverse butts by using the
technique of flat bar stretched across, already described. And
inChapter 7 I discussed the idea of minimizing the need for
such butts by using continuous lengths of plate. Distortion at
longitudinal butts is not quite so eye-catching.
Where shrinkage has caused an inward bow it may be

164
 PLATING
removed by stretching the weld or shrinking the rest of the
plate. But the shrinking method is really possible only in very
local areas. The shrinking technique involves heating up the
area of the inward bow by first circling an oxy-acetylene
torch over it until the whole area becomes red hot, and then
cooling it rapidly by quenching with water. This will cause
some contraction which should reduce the bow, but the
procedure may need to be repeated a number of times. The
better alternative is weld stretching, and this is achieved by
using a hefty hammer on the inside of the plate in conjunction
with a dolly against the outside. The dolly is needed to

prevent distortion at the point of impact. If this work is done

slowly and systematically, it is possible to stretch the welds

until they conform to the rest of the plating. Ear plugs are a
good idea!
Once the fairing is completed, the plates can be welded
finally to the frames, assuming the method of construction
calls for the framework to be left in. Only battleships require

39 Skip-welding on a deck beam.

165
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

40 Frames 'stitch'-welded to the plate in order to

minimize heat distortion.

plates continuously welded to their frames. In small boats

with their thin plate, the excess application of heat needed for
such welds could result in a weaker, not a stronger job.
Accordingly skip-welds are again used. Starting from the
middle of the frame, short runs of about 2 inches should be
made firstone side of the frame, and then the other. These
runs can be made opposite each other or staggered.
Every effort must be made to minimize the temperature
rise at any one spot. This means working to a strict sequence,

so that adjacent areas have a chance to cool down. It may be

166
 PLATING
useful to mark upthe sequence on the plate before commenc-
ing work, but unless you keep a strict control on local heat-
ing, the all too common 'washboard' effect wUl ue produced
with the ribs more prominent than those on the hungriest of
horses. There is some advantage in welding the longitudinals
before the transverse frames. This is because distortion in a
fore-and-aft direction is much less noticeable to the eye than
weld shrinkage on transverse frames
vertical distortion. Also
can sometimes pull the frames out of vertical alignment.
Distortion at the frames is more difficult to eradicate. Heat
shrinkage will sometimes work and fitting a local stringer
may sometimes help to force a bow into the right shape, but
this looks a bodge anyone who knows. The real answer is
to
not to let it occur and this means minimum welding at the
frames with scrupulous attention to the welding sequence.

Filler

Tf all else fails, there is always the filler', seems to be the

policy of some yards. I hate the stuff and would not have it
anywhere near a boat of mine. I would far rather see a slight
wobble in my plating than contemplate the risk of filler
fall-out and consequent corrosion such as described by Eric
Hiscock in Sou' West in 'Wanderer IV'\ Hiscock reports that his
Dutch builder had applied the dreaded stuff contrary to a
specific request, not only above the waterline but below as
well. Above the waterline is bad enough, but below seems

can hardly offend the eye down there.

pointless, as ripples
Dutch yards do produce lovely fair hulls, but to my cynical
eye a too-perfect steel hull smacks of filler, and I am
interested to know what the filler hides.
 1

Decks

In Chapter 9, 1 suggested making up the deck beams as part

of the frame hoop, but I will now have another look at the
beams in the context of the decks that on them. Decks lack
sit

the shape strength of hulls, and accordingly need greater

support or greater inherent strength in the decking material.
Thus Lloyd's rules require heavier beams than frames, but
that is not normally convenient to the small-craft builder
who will prefer to use the same size. This should not normally
be a problem provided the decks are beefed up by suitable
inclusion of bulkheads or larger beams at masts or other
stress points. But there will be a problem if the frames are
widely spaced (anything more than 18 inches should be
checked) In this case, either extra beams must be included
.

between the frames, or you must use heftier beams plus

stringers to cope with sag. I prefer this latter method as the
shape of the deck
stringers will readily fall to the fore-and-aft
without prior bending. On the other hand these deeper
beams might just take that extra bit of headroom you were
looking for.

Flat bar beams are perfectly satisfactory if a steel deck is to

be used, but angle will obviously be necessary with plywood
or planks, in order to provide points of attachment. The
angle will have to be bent so as to present a flat surface to the
deck and this is its weakest direction. Accordingly, if angle is

used for the frames with the web inboard, then the beams
ought really to be made out of heftier section to avoid a weak
point.
Sometimes wooden deck beams are used with wooden

168
 DECKS
decks but I fail These beams will take longer
to see the point.
to laminate and while they can themselves have sufficient
strength, the join to the frame can be weak. And this is
exactly where strength is required. It is marginally easier to
screw the deck down than to bolt through, but that is a trivial
gain. A more advantage is that it may not be
significant
necessary to line the deckhead, especially if the beams are
made up out of attractive hardwoods. Simply varnish the
beams and paint between; or paint the lot.

Deck Materials
The choice is between steel, plywood or wood planks, or steel
with wood laid on top. There will be very little difference in
cost between ply and steel, and fitting time should be roughly
the same, although someone not familiar with steelwork who
buys a hull for fitting out might find a time advantage in
favour of ply. But normally the deciding factors will be
strength and weight. Steel has a considerable advantage in
terms of strength as it makes the whole hull into one integral
unit each part giving support to the other. Plywood, if well
bolted and used in large sheets, can have something of the
same effect but planks add virtually no stiffness, so you will
be relying almost entirely on the beams. Accordingly if laid

decks are required, it is not satisfactory to fit straight on to

the beams, so a different method is required and this is

discussed later (p. 172).

The weight of a steel deck can sometimes make the boat
crank. Four mm. steel is roughly equivalent in weight to
30mm. plywood, but while 4mm. steel would be reasonable
for most small craft, 20mm. plywood would be ample for

yachts up to 40 feet and this would comply with Lloyd's. It

should not sag even with comparatively wide beam spacing

(6ocm.). Plywood being thicker, and accordingly ply
is stiffer

can afford a valuable 33 per cent weight saving; and on

smaller boats, it could be used at a thickness as litde as

169
 OWN A STEEL BOAT
1 6mm., thereby increasing the saving. Three mm. steel
would theoretically give an obvious 25 per cent reduction in
weight on 4mm., but will tend to sag between beams so that it
will be difficult to achieve a fair deck. Accordingly, narrow
beam spacing or stringers are necessary, and either can
nullify the weight reduction.
I prefer steel for decks, not only because of its strength, but
also because of the ease of adding deck-houses and fittings
and the certainty of complete watertightness. Deck-houses
and fittings can be welded straight to a steel deck, but would
have to be bolted to ply, producing a weak point and a leak
point. The only time I would consider ply is on a flush-deck
boat, and even then precautions should be taken. The ply
must clearly be of marine grade (B.S. 1088 in England) and
should be bought sufficiently wide to span the deck as it is
essential for strength to avoid longitudinal butts. The manu-
facturers produce their ply in 8ft. X 4ft. sheets, but these can
be scarfed together at the factory at comparatively little extra
cost, although usually with some time delay. One and a half
sheets should just span the average deck, but remember that
at least 6 inches could be lost in the scarfing.
Joining transverse butts can be a problem (when will they
invent rods that weld wood!). They cannot be joined over a
deck beam as that will not provide room for the double line of
fastenings. One good idea is to fit steel stringers across the

join, but this can lose some of the weight advantage. An

alternative is to put plywood straps under the deck, but these
will need to be quite wide; perhaps as wide as the beam
spacing. As these should cover the complete join and be
almost as thick as the deck itself, steel stringers would prob-
ably turn out lighter. They would almost certainly be easier
to fit.

Choice of fastening for the ply is another problem. Screws

up from below are possible, but only with stout plywoods of
say 20mm. (fin.). Bolts are stronger, but they can cause

170
 DECKS
leaks, they are more difBcult to fit and they cost more. The
leak problem can be solved by countersinking and filling
(necessary anyway); the fitting should not prove too difficult
iftwo people are available, but the cost of the bolts could be
enormous. Mild steel bolts are cheaper, but I hesitate to
recommend them because of the danger of corrosion. The
cost of stainless bolts could well point you back towards a
steel deck. And even with stainless, electrolysis can prove a
problem, although collars can be obtained to insulate the
bolts.
Ply tends to leak at the edges and if the edges are allowed to

get wet and stay wet delamination could follow. It is best not
to butt ply with vertical edges, as the joint can never be so
perfect as to prevent a thin gap in which water could collect.
Better to bevel the edges as for welding, and fill the bevel with
a flexible seam-filling compound such as Jeffrey's Seamflex.
This will cope with slight flexing of the ply and will not
deteriorate. Exposed ply at deck edges can be coped with in
the same way method of
as at joins. Fig. 45 illustrates a
obtaining a watertight joint between plywood decks and steel
sides. The topside plate can, if required, be extended up
above the deck to form a bulwark with the edge capped.

SefiLirvG-
CoMPOUND

Fig 45 Watertight deck joints.

171
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

Deck Sheathing
Plywood and even steel decks can usefully be sheathed in
fibreglass, the former to prevent leaks and the latter to pre-
vent corrosion. Although the initial cost for materials will be
quite high, taken against long-term maintenance the invest-
ment is probably worthwhile. One problem can be how to
finish off the edges of the fibreglass, but such things as toe
rails or rubbing strakes can be utilized to hide and protect
these vulnerable areas.
Composite sheathing compounds can be obtained, and
most of these are attractive, very hard wearing, and protect
steel decks from corrosion. They go on thick, so they give

some sound and temperature insulation. But they are expen-

sive. Not as expensive as a wooden laid deck, although

getting on that way. Such deck coverings as Trakmark are a

cheaper alternative and give some of the same advantages.
These are stuck on, so they are hard wearing and do protect
the decks against the inevitable chips and scrapes, providing
at the same time an excellent non-slip surface. However, they
are prone to lifting from the deck, so scrupulous attention to
the glueing job is required. For me, I'd choose a good quality
epoxy deck paint, but more about that in -Chapter 15.

Teak Laid Decks

Teak laid decks look beautiful. They are also incredibly
expensive, (Iroko is a cheaper and satisfactory alternative),
require frequent attention and can add considerably to the
deck weight. So I would have nothing to do with them. But
for those who can't resist that luxury look, there are a few
considerations to be taken into account. The woodwork side
I don't pretend to be able to cover (try Chapelle's Boat
Building), but securing the wood to the deck affects the steel-
work. If teak is being laid over the top of steel it is obviously
purely decorative and not intended to give any structural
support. It can accordingly be kept thin. A quarter of an inch
172
 DECKS
is about the minimum
thickness though, and even this can
present fixing and sphtting problems. This thin stufTcan be
simply stuck to the deck using one of the modern epoxy glue«,
and, provided the job done thoroughly, corrosion should
is

not form underneath. But I wouldn't have much confidence

in the lifespan of such a job, and I have met several owners
who have come unstuck with this sort of deck!
If thicker wood can be snugged down on bedding
is used it

compound with countersunk bolts, but the hundreds of holes

that will be required in the deck are bound to cause leaks
sooner or later. A better but more sophisticated alternative is
a machine which spot-welds studs through the wood on to
the deck. Only one or two yards of my acquaintance have
these machines but seems the best answer if you can aftbrd
it

it. Sometime? plywood is laid on the steel first, and the teak

laid on top. This means that very thin teak can be glued and
screwed on to the ply quite quickly, but half-inch ply is about
the minimum to provide any grip for the screws. This, plus
quarter-inch teak, and the steel, adds up to a very heavy deck
indeed. Eric Hiscock attributed the initial crankiness oi Wan-
derer IV to this cause. No, if you want teak, then the answer is

tohave a ply deck and not a steel one. If you do that, the ply
can be reduced to about 12mm. (iin.), provided that the teak
is also at least that thickness.

Deck-edges
In Chapter 9 1 looked at how sheer stringers could be made to
finish off deck-edges. Fig. 46 shows some more examples.
The oval tube could look quite nice, but I don't much care
for the angle bar alternatives. Angle is difficult to bend in a
fair curve and has sharp corners. I much prefer tube in one
form or another as bend to a nice fair curve and
this is easy to

has no corners. Box section doesn't seem easy to bend, and

the one example I saw had its sheer broken in about six
places.

173
 OWN A STEEL BOAT
If you don't want a sheer stringer the following are the
usual alternatives.
Fig. 46 (j) has a lot to commend it in terms of construction.
If the decks are plated first, then the hull plating can be
extended above the required sheerline which can then be
faired in by eye and cut exactly to shape with the grinder.
The plate edge can be finished off with round bar, oval tube
or even box section. Oval is the traditional finish, and
perhaps looks the best.
Fig. 46 (k) is a much stronger weld, and the alternative (1)

could lead to a weakness, especially if the outside weld is

ground down, prior to painting the hull. Additionallv. the

J^OUND TUBE
RcriNd- fl$

(a) (b) (c/)

r.Bffjf flNOlE f{tJ(kL£ O/ffl TVBB

POU&LSS ftS

if) (9)

u
(0

With sheer stringers

Q1=
Without sheer stringers
(j)

W
Fig 46 Deck-edges.
r f (L)
 DECKS
recommended joint gives a more rounded edge which will
keep paint on better.
Toe can be added where the plating doesn't create
rails

them. Flat bar with the edges rounded to keep the paint on
serves well for this job. But a nice alternative one I saw on
is

Joshua and that is flat bar with holes pre-drilled all the way
along. It looked good and made perfect anchoring points for
sheet leads and the like (photo 41).

41 Toe rail made of flat bar with holes pre-drilled.

Rubbing Strakes
I don't like them. A nicely varnished teak rubbing strake
looks fabulous — so long as its owner keeps it firmly tied up in
the marina. But as soon as it makes contact with its first lock
or quay wall then it starts to look tatty; worse, it sticks out
and can easily catch on things. That's what fenders are for,
you say, so why do you need a rubbing strake? One reason, I
suppose, might be that fitting a strake can break up excessive
areas of topside. But a tastefully painted sheerline could
serve just as well.
Another problem with wooden rubbing strakes is how to

fix them. Bolts through the side is the usual method, but this

can lead to leaks, and all the ceiHng will have to be taken
down if the strake is damaged. Studs welded on are better,
but difficult to replace if damaged. Best is to bolt downwards
through two pieces of flat bar welded to the side of the hull.

175
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

Metal strakes are a better idea altogether and in Chapter 9

we saw how the sheer stringer could be made to double for
this purpose. If strakes are used, they are best painted a
contrasting dark colour, not only for appearance's sake, but
also to hide the inevitable scratches.
Rubbing strakes are sometimes welded to the outside of
the hull plating, and Abraxis had acquired these before we
acquired her. Half round bar is normally used, and this can

be made to act as an external longitudinal stringer. However,

the bar has to be welded all round and this can cause plate
shrinkage and distortion.
 12

Deck Fittings

All sorts of boaty bits can be fabricated very cheaply out of

odd scraps of steel. And in the process a considerable amount
of money can be saved. It is best to have your creations
galvanized as it is very difficult to keep paint on them. The

main thing to remember before galvanizing is that the steel

must be scrupulously clean of paint. Rust is all right as it is
removed by the acid bath, but the acid won't touch paint. It
is often useful to have an eye on the top of a bollard to attach a

block for such things as extra sheet leads or boom guys. This
should be done before the job is sent for galvanizing. A useful
way of obtaining eyes is to cut fin. chain links in

half — chandleries that sell chain are often able to make you a
present of these half links.

Bollards

Bollards of many shapes and sizes can be made out of offcuts

of galvanized gas barrel or scaffold poles. The pipe is first cut
to a suitable length (best tobe too short rather than too tall
from a looks point of view) and can then either be welded to
the deck or to a base-plate if the deck is not steel. Many
designs can be invented but Fig. 47 shows a few I have seen.
My favourites are (i) and (2), with (2) making a really secure
moor. To make the curved top (for elegance, to keep paint on
and to prevent excessive chafe) cut a piece of thick steel to the
internal diameter of your tube and weld all round with
several runs if necessary, so as to give a slope. It is then a
simple matter to run the grinder round the top to fair it off.

177
o
bO
C
'u
O
O

1^

bO
 DECK FITTINGS
For the centre bar, 1 2mm. diameter is reasonable. 1 1 is best to
a couple of holes in the tube so that the bar can be
drill

pushed all the way through and then welded at either side. It
is impossible to weld bar to each side but it can be difficult to

get a really strong weldand to keep the bar straight.

Bollard (3) shows agrown-up versionof (i) and (2). It can
be used as a towing bollard or as a strong point on the
foredeck. A large size gas barrel is used here with the top
domed as before. Smaller-sized barrel can then be cut to
length and welded on either side with its ends domed as well.
Bollards (4), (5) and (6) are supposedly more modern in
appearance and they are arguably better for surging rope.
Thick plate welded this time over the top of the barrel, and
is

the edges are ground off. With (4) and (6) the plate is fitted so
as to give a wider lip on the side where the rope will ride up
the slope of the barrel. Bollard (5) isn't much use to my mind
as you can't really attach a line to it if it comes at an angle
down to the deck. Many
mooring situations are like this and
of course the rope could just pull off under tension.
Photo 42 of the foredeck arrangement on tht Jos hua-c\a.ss
Vega, illustrates an interesting bollard and chain snubber.

42 Foredeck on Joshua-dass Vega, showing bollard

and chain snubber.
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

Cleats

Cleats are very easy to make by taking a piece of about

12mm. round bar and bending to a suitable shape. If you
want several, it is best to make up a jig around which to bend
them. The jig can consist of round bar welded at appropriate
intervals to a piece of heavy scrap plate. Heat is necessary to
bend the bar without introducing stress cracks, so oxy-
acetylene gear would be useful. If it is not available, it may
well be worthwhile to obtain a carbon arc torch for use with
the arc welder. This device produces a flame from the arc
which is well suited to heating and brazing tasks, although it

is not suitable for welding. To finish the cleats, it is as well to

taper them and round ofl^ the ends, using the grinder. The
tapering is rounded ends help to
largely aesthetic, but the
prevent chafe. The cleats can be welded straight to the deck
or if the decks aren't steel, it will be necessary to weld on a
base-plate through which bolt holes can be drilled.
In some cases it may be necessary to strengthen the deck
under bollards or cleats. Our big mooring bollard on the
foredeck is strengthened by a pair of stringers running
underneath and joined to the deck-beams. But our cleats for
springs are not strengthened as they are close to the deck-
edges which provide angular reinforcement, and the decks
are of comparatively thick Ain. steel. With thinner plate it

may be advisable to use stringers.

Chain Plates
On many steel boats you will see chain plates which are just
pieces of flat bar welded to the side of the boat so that a couple
of inches protrude at the top, through which a hole is drilled
to take the bottlescrew. This isundoubtedly simple and it
does work. The main thing to watch when fitting is that the
angle of the plate is parallel \o the direction of the load.
Lower shroud plates, for example, will therefore be at a slight
angle to the vertical.

180
 DECK FITTINGS
But I mistrust this system, because of an experience we
had while beating south along the Frisian Islands.
Unknown to me the foremast upper shroud chain plate
parted at the point where it met the deck. I didn't discover it
until we had reached harbour, when I promptly turned
green, as the genoa and fisherman had obviously been hang-
ing on a mast supported only by the lowers for an unknown
period of time (praise be to telegraph poles!). The problem
had been crevice corrosion at the point where the chain plate
joined the deck. An athwartship strain had probably
enhanced the deterioration. For the trip back from Den
Helder I put lashings on all the other shrouds in case any
more of them went. On reaching England I chipped ofi the
paint around the chain plates and found that all of them had
suffered some rusting, but that they could be strengthened by
building up the joint between chain plate and deck with a
fillet-weld. I was content with this for the lowers, but decided
that only a renewal of the upper shroud chain plates would
give me real confidence. Instead of plates I opted for galvan-
ized flanges welded to the deck-edge in a way that would
obviate corrosion. (See photo 43 of broken chain plate and
the eye-flange that replaced it.)

43 Abraxis. Eye-flange replacing broken chain plate.

 OWN A STEEL BOAT
Guardrails
Stanchions are often used as an attachment point for the
upper shrouds on Dutch-built steel boats. The reason for this
is so that the attachment point for the shroud can be at

exactly the same height as the tabernacle pivot bolt for the
mast. This allows the mast to be lowered while keeping
tension on the shrouds, thereby maintaining control. If
stanchions are to double as shroud attachment points in this
way they must be strengthened by triangulation (photo 44).
Additionally, I would prefer to see a triangular gusset-plate
going inboard as in photo 45.

44 Stanchion acting as shroud attachment point.

Many people don't like to see ordinary stanchions welded

straight to the deck, arguing that the attachment point is

subject to corrosion and that the whole tube may need replac-

182
 DECK FITTINGS

45 Stanchion with triangular gusset-plate.

ing after even minor damage. It is true that corrosion can be a

problem at the base, and as much from the inside as from the
outside. Although the outside can be protected by scrupulous
maintenance of the paint coating, the inside needs protection
at the building stage. So galvanized tube should be used and
it is better if partly filled with paint or pitch after it has been
welded to the deck, to protect the inside from any moisture
which gets in.
Those who don't hke the idea of fixed stanchions may
prefer to weld tube sockets to the deck so that the stanchion
will just fit inside, where it may be locked with a split pin
through both tubes (photo 46). Spare stanchions can then be
carried on board and replacement is a matter of minutes. The
same result is achieved by welding a spigot of round bar to

183
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

the deck, and slipping the stanchion over it. The latter looks
neater, and the only disadvantage with either method is the
fact that it is difBcult to prevent rust from appearing around
the base. A spigot cannot be strengthened with a gusset,
which may be a problem with tall stanchions.

46 Guardrail stanchion inside welded tube socket.

The guardrails on Abraxis are of welded tube all the way

round the ship, with gateways on each side and at the stern.
They give an immense feeling of confidence, are useful for
points of attachment and I would have no other system.
There are problems, though, such as susceptibility to
damage while alongside and the difficulty of keeping paint
on. It is especially difficult to get paint to stick on newly
galvanized rails, so they are best let weather for a while to
allow the acids to be released before painting. (Alternatively
etching primers are available to achieve the same end,
although I have not always found them to be successful.)

184
 DECK FITTINGS
These solid rails don't really suit small boats and can give
large ones a rather rugged appearance. They contribute a lot
to our 'batdeship' image. The alternative is wire, which
The wire can be attached to
tends to be a lot less obtrusive.
each stanchion in a number of ways, the simplest of which is
by holes drilled through. This has the disadvantage that the
wire must be unthreaded if a stanchion needs replacing, and
it is also very difficult to keep paint on around the holes which
are in any event a point of access for moisture. An alternative
is channelUng welded to the top of the stanchion into which
the wire is lashed. The middle guardrail can be
laid and
threaded through eyes welded to the inside of the stanchion,
the eyes being cut off should the stanchion need replacing.
The top rail could be secured in the same way.
If a solid rail is not wanted I would choose flexible stainless
wire. Galvanized wire just doesn't last in this job and the
plastic-covered sort is positively unsafe. The trouble with the
plastic-covered wire is partly that you can't see what is
happening underneath its covering,
to it but more
specifically the joint with the usual Norseman type terminal
is highly vulnerable. Usually a slight gap is left between the
plastic covering and the terminal, and it is there that corro-
sion can get a rapid grip. This was brought home to me on a
Yachtmaster practical course that I attended, where the
skipper-owned tuition boat was fitted with this wire. Several
of us pointed out that the wires were badly rusted at the
terminals, but the skipper was convinced that they were all

right as they had been fitted less than a year before. But one
of them did break during the week, and a crew member was
very lucky not to end up in the water. And a brand new Maxi
9*5 that we waved off on a long voyage had the tell-tale rust

marks at the terminals. At the risk of labouring the point, I

repeat my opinion that this type of wire has no place on a

serious cruising boat.

185
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

Pulpits

Pulpits are not difficult to make out of tubular steel: the only
real problem is to get them to look nice. I prefer to make them
out of slightly larger o.d. pipe than the stanchions as they are
more vulnerable and greater reliance is placed on them.
Don't make the mistake of selecting too thin-walled pipe on
the basis that it will be easier to bend, as this will lead to
problems in welding and an inherent weakness. A pipe-
bender is very useful for the job, if not essential. They can be
hired for a small sum and other odds and ends could be bent
up at the sam^e time. Doing the job by hand often leads to
kinks which make the product look a bodge.

Bowsprits and Bowsprit Fittings

Many cruising boat designs have provision for a bowsprit
which spreads the base of the sail plan and enables the use of
shorter masts. Bowsprits are easy to make up out of steel,
using the multi-purpose steel tube. The simplest method is a
large-diameter tube welded to the bow, with a bobstay of
wire, chain, tube or round bar coping with the upward pull of

47 Joshua-class boat with A-frame bowsprit.

(Note all the ancillary fittings.)
 DECK FITTINGS

48 Abraxis. The bowsprit has steel flats welded along the top
of the tubes to enable teak slats to be fitted.

the forestay. Unless the tube is very short you will also need
shrouds back to either side of the hull to prevent sideways
movement. This single tube system can be vulnerable.
Bernard yioittssi^r' s Joshua had this type of bowsprit and it
was badly damaged by a freighter during the single-handed
round-the-world race, whereas an A-frame bowsprit would
arguably have stood a better chance of escaping unharmed.
In fact subsequent boats built to the Joshua design have had
the A-frame bowsprit (see photograph 47). This takes the
form of two tubes welded down either side of the bow and
connected at the outboard end by a short piece of tubing. On
Abraxis flat bar is welded to the tubes so that teak slats can be
bolted on. This makes a good working platform when sur-
rounded by a protective pulpit, although the platform can
sometimes slam in a head sea.

.87
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

A more elegant appearance can be obtained by creating a

clipper bow out of steel and finishing it off with beautifully
carved trail boards. The Hiscocks' Wanderer IV has this fine
arrangement, incorporating a neat anchor stowage. How-
make the comment that the square section, on
ever, Eric does
which Wanderer's clipper bow is based, can tend to slam in
heavy seas thereby impeding forward progress. He recom-
mends that round section should be used.
The pretty Dutch steel yacht Avalon has a neat bowsprit
arrangement designed by the owner and myself The bow-
sprit (an addition to the original design) was to be of wood so
that it could be steeved up in harbour. The bulwarks at the
bows together with bow roller and chain plate had to be
removed to make space for the bowsprit, and a channel-
section housing for the spar was then fitted in their place.
(Incidentally, for the cutting I used a hired BOC 'Portapak',
as discussed in Chapter 3, and the oxygen bottle lasted just
long enough to complete the work.) The roller was fitted by
first welding up a channel-section with chain-retaining

device as in Fig. 48. A hole was then drilled through both

Fig 48 Bow roller.

188
 DECK FITTINGS
sides of the channel so that a bolt could be pushed through
with the roller threaded on. (A stainless bolt might have been
best but we used galvanized.) The protruding bolt was
ground flush and welded, prior to welding the complete job
to the side of the channel bowsprit housing.
I spotted an unusual steel bowsprit on the American sloop
Cariad. The single tubular design seemed quite normal from
a distance, but closer inspection revealed that it was in fact
telescopic! A second tube inside the first could be extended
by a pulley system and then rigged in position to provide an
immense bowsprit for setting extra sails in light weather. I

understand that it didn't work that well in practice, but it is a

very interesting idea!

Hawse Pipes

On a steel boat,anchor chains are commonly led aboard via

a hawse pipe in the side of the hull. The pipe can either be
right over the stem as in the photo 49, or to one side. Or

49 Hawse pipe right in the bows.

189
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

perhaps there couid be one on either side in larger boats. The

anchor can damage the paintwork while it is being hauled in,
as it is But the stainless plate idea illus-
difficult to control.

trated in the photograph is a good one, and can help to

protect the hull. However, this type of installation necessi-
tates the expense of a winch, as it isn't possible to get away
with the chain snubber idea illustrated in photo 42 of the
foredeck arrangement on Vega.
I prefer the simple bow roller format with an anchor
stowed either side of the bowsprit as in Wanderer IV. But the
chain still has to be fed down below. Care needs to be taken
that the tube used is large enough for the job, and that there
are no sharp bends before it reaches the chain locker. Our
originalhawse pipe was not much wider than the chain and it
went vertically downwards with almost a right angle at the
bottom to feed it into the locker. Crazy! Of course it jammed.
This was especially a problem as our windlass was on top of
the hawse pipe, so that if the chain jammed in the pipe, then
the windlass wouldn't work. Accordingly you had to haul in
by hand. A large-diameter pipe (at least three times the
width of the chain) inclined at a slight angle directly into the
locker solved the problem. And it is a problem that many
people have experienced. Eric Hiscock had the same
difficulty on Wanderer IV, and she was built in one of the
foremost steel building yards. His solution was to cut out the
pipe and build in a wooden chute instead.
Before we leave the subject of anchors, it is a good idea to
protect the strip of foredeck where the chain normally
bashes. We have no such protection, and the paint has a hard
time. One way is to weld a thin stainless steel strip down the
deck, and can look quite smart. Alternatively, the deck
this
coverings that were mentioned in the previous chapter (p.
172) will do the job.

190
 DECK FITTINGS
Hatches, Doors and Companionways
Keeping hatches watertight can be a problem in any boat,
and while no more difBcult with steel, it may be considcied
more important as these are just about the only places where
a steel boat can leak. Proprietary hatches are extremely
expensive, so fabrication in steel would seem a reasonable
choice. The main drawbacks are weight, and the dilBculty of
achieving a pleasing appearance.
When we houghx. Abraxis , all hatch-covers were steel and
very heavy indeed. Each consisted of a welded frame with
Perspex bolted to the inside and covered on the outside with a
steel mesh. Rubber strip in channelling around the edge of
the hatches seated down on to flat bar welded at right angles
around the holes in the deck and formed the seal. The system
was leak-proof and burglar-proof, but did make her look a bit
like a prison ship. Worse, it could be positively dangerous as

the means of securing open was inadequate. An engineer

working on the boat in Burnham badly damaged his fingers
when the hatch-cover came crashing down as he was climb-
ing up the companionway. So the main hatch had to go. But
the question of what to substitute for it occupied many a
winter's evening. We eventually settled on a companion-type
hatch (see photo 50), which we hoped would have a number

50 Abraxis. Companion-type main hatch.

 OWN A STEEL BOAT

of advantages. We reasoned that the washboards could be

leftout in most weathers, letting light and air into the cabin,
and letting shouted instructions out of it, without the watch
below getting soaked. We further argued that it would be
fairly easy to open and close from the inside, unlike the
previous hinged type which required superhuman strength
to heave up from below. And above all it would be safe.
Two quotes I received for making up the companion were
incredibly high. So I decided to have the pieces cut, and
make the hatch myself. Each side was cut out as a quarter of a
circle with a porthole in the middle. As we decided on iin.
plate, the back and sliding parts had to be rolled so that they
followed the same radius as the side plates. In fact the Jin.
plate was probably a mistake, as it has made the sliding part
extremely heavy and not that easy to close. One-sixteenth-
inch plate would have been amply strong and would have
halved the weight. As we had the whole lot galvanized before
it was welded to the deck, there would have been no real

problem of corrosion on the thinner plate. Using the thinner

stuff would, as an added benefit, have enabled us to bend the
back and sliding plates by progressively welding around the
radius, and so would have eliminated the need for rolling.
We originally planned to have doors to the scuttle but after
many designs had been put on paper, we eventually settled
for the simplicity of washboards. For slides to take the boards
I welded channelling down the front edge on either side. To
take the sliding hatch, I welded lin. X Jin. flat bar around the
radius of the side plates on the outside. The hatch was
located to these by angle bar rolled to the correct radius.
Had we not been able to get the angle bar rolled, I would
have cut the appropriate radius out of i^in. plate and then
welded i in. X Jin. flat bar to it so as to form a right angle. The
welding would have tended to distort the plate, so I would
have tacked it at intervals to heavy scrap plate while the job
was done. The welding would have had to be back-stepped

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 DECK FITTINGS
with very short steps, allowing plenty of time for the metal to
cool.
A
metal-to-metal bearing surface for the hatch slides was
clearly undesirable, so I obtained Tufnol strip from Thomas
Foulkes in London, where the boat was lying at that time.
This was very cheap and proved ideal for the job when
through-bolted to the sideplates.
We decided to modify the forehatch rather than replace it,

as was much smaller and not often used, other than for
it

letting air in. The mesh was the worst part of it, as it was
impossible to keep painted especially on the underside.
Accordingly, it looked a rusty mess most of the time, and

considerably restricted the light. I took the angle-grinder to

the mesh, and the hatch looked much better for it. But some
sort of protection for the Perspex was still required, so I
settled on galvanized round bar welded across with 4in. gaps.
This has proved very satisfactory as the bars are amply
strong, allow more light in, and don't shed rusty streaks all
over the paintwork.
The rubber sealing strip in the channelling was in a terr-
ible state and had to be replaced. I bought sufficient to do all

the hatches a couple of times as sealing strip does not last

very long. have a habit of always doubling up when I buy
I

parts, on the basis that if they have gone once they can go
again.
The hinges for the hatch were badly corroded and had to
be replaced. They have be raised hinges so that the hatch
to
clears the coaming as it is Ufted. The hinges were easily made
in the following fashion. I obtained fin. round bar and
threaded 2 inches of tube on to it together with a nut at either
end. then bent the round bar as in Fig. 49, and welded the
I

nuts soUd then filed them round. This formed the basis of the
hinge and when welded to the deck all that remained was to
weld 2in. X 3in. X ^in. flat bar to the tube and then to the

hatch. I then drilled a small hole in the tube to allow a few

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 OWN A STEEL BOAT

Fig 49 Hatch hinges.

spots of oil to be squirted in every now and again. The only

problem with this arrangement is the possibility of rusting.
The oil helps to prevent this and in any event it would take a
considerable time for the hinge to deteriorate significantly.
The job is so simple that replacement every five or ten years is
no hardship. Stainless would have been better, but I did not
have any. (Welding stainless to mild steel is not difficult with
the right rods.)
Our watertight doors are made in a similar way to the
forehatch. The hinges are exactly the same (I made up a lot of
these in one go), as is the method of sealing. Two handles
clamp the rubber sealing strip firmly to the angle bar coam-
ing. The handles are simplicity itself, consisting of bent
pieces ofJin. X lin. flat bar bolted through the door as in Fig.
50. The clamping action is achieved by the handle closing on
a wedge-shaped piece of steel.

Our companion ladders are all made out of steel naturally.

Fig 50 Hatch clamps.

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 DECK FITTINGS
and are very easy to produce. Box section seems to look better
for this job than round tubing, so I would recommend using

two bits of this cut to the appropriate length. Pvound bjir of

the appropriate width can then be welded between the two at
top and bottom to provide a strong structure. Nine-inch
would be appropriate for
intervals the steps. So angle bar can
be welded to both sides and 3in. X i in. teak steps can then be
bolted to the angle bar to make a strong attractive com-
panionway. To secure, weld round bar to the sole (or con-
crete it in, if the sole is made of concrete) so that the box
section just fits over. And the top, a hook and eye arrange-
ment, can be welded on, as in Fig. 51. If the companion
ladder more than three or four rungs high, it may be as well
is

to beef it up a bit by having two lengths of box section per

side, secured together by the angle bar step supports.

Fig 51 Companion ladder.

Observation Domes
Observation domes (see photo 5 1 and hatches are becoming
)

very popular now among ocean voyagers. One oi the first to

use them was the famous circumnavigator Bernard Moites-
sier in his ketch Joshua. He fitted one (made
up out of a

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 OWN A STEEL BOAT

washing-up bowl!) for the trip Tahiti—AHcante by way of the

Horn — see Cape Horn: The Logical Route. META (Joshua'?,

builders) now fit a more sophisticated version to all their

voyaging boats. I made a similar version, for i4^raA:w (photo
52), using an angle bar framework with Perspex bolted
around the side. A conventional Simpson Lawrence
aluminium hatch bolted to the top made the creation into an
escape hatch and ventilator as well. We use this observation
box for inside steering, and for standing watch in rough
weather while under self- steering. And it works very well.
Several makes of dome are available, but they are not
cheap.

Tabernacles and Mast Fittings

I have seen tabernacles of two basic types — plate or tube.

They are very simple to make out of iin. plate, but perhaps

51 An 'Embrun' deck, from META. Note the hole in the

foreground ready to accept an observation dome.

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 DECK FITTINGS

52 Observation dome for Abraxis.

look more elegant when made out of tube. Our main mast
tabernacle is made from gin. diameter tube cut so as to allow
the heel of the mast to enter. Plate welded to the inside so as
is

to prevent water collecting. Most mast fittings can be readily

fabricated out of steel. Starting from the top, our main
masthead fittingwas made from steel tube, and fits over the
top of the wooden mast. The top is plated over to stop water
entering, and lugs are welded on all sides to take the shrouds
and stays. If masthead sheaves are to be incorporated, the
job becomes more complicated. Having done it on ours, I
believe that the traditional way of fitting them through the
mast itself is easier. I found it necessary to do the job in three
parts. First I welded a top on a 4in. length of pipe of the
appropriate diameter to fit over the mast, and drilled holes
all around the pipe for locating-screws. Next I cut off a length

of pipe, just longer than the diameter of the sheaves, and then
cut that vertically into four sections as in Fig. 52. The
centre-pieces were then ground down, taking offa Httle more
than the thickness of the sheaves. Four pieces of 4in. plate

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 OWN A STEEL BOAT

Fig 52 Masthead fitting.

were then cut to make the divisions between the sheaves

which also serve to prevent the halyard wire jumping off. The
four pieces of curved steel and the plate were then welded
into three sections as in Fig. 52. These pieces were then
welded to the original bit of pipe and a top plate was fitted. A
further piece of pipe on top to take the lugs, with another
plate on top, completed the body of the fitting. It only
remained to fit the sheaves (galvanized not bronze for obvi-
ous reasons) by through-bolting with a stainless bolt.
The foremast fitting consists of a simple steel band set into
thewood and secured by (but not supported by) screws.
Lugs were welded on to take the shrouds/ stays, and the
sheaves were set into the wood.
Cross-tree supports can be many and varied. The simplest is

probably the best, and I rather like the version on our fore-
mast. Flat bar (Jin. thick) is used to form the basis of the
cross-tree attachment and to form the tang for the lower
shrouds. The bar is through-bolted vertically to the mast and
the bottom on each side is bent outwards and drilled to form

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 DECK FITTINGS
a lug. A spigot of round bar
is welded to it, and the spreader,

which consists of thick-walled aluminium tube, simply fits

over the end. Galvanized pipe could be used but would pdd
unnecessarily to weight aloft. The danger of electrolysis
between the round bar and the aluminium tube must be
guarded against by taping the bar before fitting. This has the
additional advantage of ensuring a snug fit.
Wooden spreaders can be secured in a number of ways of
which the following are but two. The through-bolted flat bar
idea could again be used, but this time with short lengths of
box section welded to it. The wooden spreader will be cut
square at the inboard end so that it fits into the box-section
sockets where it can be secured by a pin. Alternatively, flat
bar can be used to make straps at right angles to the mast and
extending out along the cross-trees. They can be secured to
the cross-trees by screws or through-bolting, and to the mast
by notching in and screws. We have this system on the main
mast and I am not that fond of it, although it does have the
merit of being very simple. The problem is that the straps
tend to pull away from the wood, but I hope that I shall
overcome this by replacing the existing screws with bolts.

Davits
I am a bit prejudiced against davits on anything except quite
large boats and they were one of the first things that I heaved
overboard from Abraxis. But I might not have been so hasty
had they not been a rather crude version consisting just of
bent pipe. And I do think that davits on the stern are a good
idea, and can achieve a useful increase in working space as
well as making dinghy launching simple. However, they
have the severe disadvantage of making the use of self-
steering vane gear difficult, which put them out of the ques-
tion for us. And
don't think that they are really suitable for
I

ocean voyaging because of the danger from following seas.

Quite smart permanent davits can be fabricated fairly

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 OWN A STEEL BOAT

Fig 53 Davits.

quickly provided they are kept simple. The version in Fig. 53

can be constructed by cutting Jin. plate to shape, and streng-
thening with ifein. flat bar welded at right angles around the
edge. Lightening holes, as in the diagram, improve the
appearance (in my view) as well as saving weight. A simple
method of construction, though perhaps not so pleasing in
appearance, is to use a minimum -61 in. box section doubled
as is also shown in Fig. 53. The round bar triangulation
in the diagram is an extra strength feature. It may not be
necessary, depending on the weight of the dinghy, although it
must be remembered that a heavy following sea can put a
considerable strain on both the davits and the point of
attachment. I would prefer to see davits bolted to the deck
rather than welded straight on, as they are susceptible to
damage and will sooner or later need to be removed for repair
or replacement.
I have included just a selection of the bits and pieces that I
have made. Numerous ideas will occur once you start to think
steel. I reckon it is fair to say that virtually any boaty bit can

be made, with a welder, a grinder and a few bits of steel.

 13

Fitting Out
I don't intend to cram the sum total of human knowledge on
out into this one chapter. There are plenty of good
fitting

books on this subject alone (I mention one or two in the

Bibliography). So most of my remarks are directed towards
the problems and advantages that are specific to fitting out a
steel hull. But I have included a few general remarks on
layout, because it is a subject about which I feel strongly.

Many designers seem to produce their layouts on the basis of

cramming at least six berths into anything over 20 feet! And
this often produces a boat that is not suitable for anything.

Layout
I deliberately didn't include any accommodation plans in
Chapter 6 on selecting designs, because it is very easy to be
put off an otherwise attractive boat by an unappealing inside
layout. And these layouts can be very easily altered to suit the
personal taste of an owner. META
have a good idea with
their plans. Two or three suggested layouts are given with an
additional plan consisting of just a bare outline of the boat
with bulkheads fitted. Together with this plan is a page full of
furniture and fittings, all drawn to scale. These can then be

Fig 54 Defer: Interior layout.

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 OWN A STEEL BOAT

Fig 55 Endurance 44: Interior layout.

cut out and juggled into the accommodation plan until an

appealing arrangement is found.
I have included some general arrangements which appeal

to me, with a plan of our own layout on Abraxis. This latter is

the Mark Three version, Marks One and Two having been
scrapped after we had lived with them awhile. The ease with
which we have twice drastically altered the interior layout
illustrate another of the many advantages of steel construc-
tion.
In the matter of layout, I confess that I have indulged my
own special interest — that of boats to be used as voyaging
homes. But many of the ideas could be useful to the weekend
cruising yacht too, and the technical aspects of fitting out will
of course remain the same. Accommodation for permanent
life aboard requires special considerations to prevent the

inevitable lack of space from getting on your nerves. The

most important feature is that there should be separate areas
for living, cooking, sleeping and navigating. None of these

Fig 56 Al Mason 44: Interior layout.

202
Fig 57 Ahraxis: Profile and Interior layout.

203
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

should impinge on any of the others or you will find life

becomes very chaotic. In this respect there is nothing worse

than dual-purpose features, such as the saloon table that
converts to a double bunk. We had this idea at first, but the
resultwas that we ended up with no saloon table except when
we had visitors! You can get away with these dual-purpose
ideas in a weekend cruising boat because you are not aboard
long enough for them to annoy you. But there is no place for
them in a cruising home, as you normally have no need for
the extra bunks they are designed to create. Even in the
family cruiser do you really need all the bunks that boat
salesmen seem to believe are necessary? Wouldn't a more
comfortable layout be better?
Most boats, even cruising homes, spend the greater part of
their lives in harbour, so you need to make yourself comfort-
able there as well as at sea. In this connection, a good-sized
saloon table is well worth having — somewhere to spread
yourself out for such things as writing, repairing odds and
ends, or planning the next passage. And I reckon that a
good-sized double bunk is another necessary requirement for
a happy home! Many people condemn them out of hand as
'no good at sea', but we can just block off half with a bunk
board and use that. In any case we usually try to keep out of
the 'bedroom' at sea so we have a nice snug bunk to jump into
when we reach port.
Two watertight bulkheads are built into our design and
these have a number of advantages. Apart from the obvious
benefit of preventing the spread of fire and flood (we have
experienced the former but not the latter) they effectively
section off from the sea cabin the noise and fumes of the
engine. Additionally they give separate cabins which make
for privacy if there are several people aboard (e.g. charter-
ers).

The sequence of fitting out will be roughly as it appears in

this chapter. But one word of warning. Make sure you have

204
 FITTING OUT
somewhere to feed 8ft. X 4ft. sheets of ply into the hull. 1 have
seen even experienced builders fall into the trap of welding
up the decks so that the only means of access is a 2-foot
square hatch. A plate only tacked in position, a plate left out
between portholes, or the removable cockpit floor o\er the
engine, all will serve the purpose. But make sure that some-
where there is a hole big enough for the ply.

Tankage
The first thing that should be considered is tankage, as this
will affect the next step which is the ballast. For lixing on
board, the maximum amount of fuel and water should be
carried consistent with the problem of weight. We carry 120
gal. of water and 150 gal. of diesel. The diesel capacity may
be a bit excessive as it gives us a theoretical range of 2000
miles under power, but the water I would regard as a
minimum. The tanks should be fitted as low down in the hull
as possible, and it is normally preferable
to keep them as near
to amidships as possible in order to keep weight out of the
ends. I prefer to split the water tanks so that pollution or
leakage in one does not affect the entire supply. To that end
our water supply is split into three separate tanks with inter-
connecting pipes for filling but separate demand systems.
The diesel supply is split into two tanks for the same reason.
I prefer to use the ship's hull as part of the tank. In my
opinion this is better than separate tanks, which can make
some of the hull plating inaccessible, and a likely rust trap.

Best is to build the tanks into the keel as suggested in Chapter

8. And if this is done, it is a good idea to separate the diesel
and the water by a ballast compartment. If there is a choice
between putting water or diesel down the keel, choose the
water as this is marginally heavier (10 lb. /gal, as compared
with 8 Ib./gal.). And this should avoid the necessity for a
diesel hft pump to supply the injector pump: one less thing to,
go wrong.

205
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

One disadvantage of integral tanks is the risk of pollution

in the event of damage or seepage at seams. But this
shouldn't be a problem if the tanks are made as several units.
And the integral tanks could even stop you sinking!
do go for separate tanks a cheap and quick approach
If you
is to buy domestic water tanks. In England these are avail-

able in 14 or 16 gauge galvanized mild steel in standard sizes

of lo-gallon increments. The tanks come open- topped, but
with a flange that is ideal for bolting on a lid. The cost of the
tank is only a little more than the material cost.
Protection needed inside both diesel and water tanks.
is

While diesel oil is an extremely good protection for steel, the

inside of the tank should still be protected, because conden-
sation can form as the tank empties and this can corrode
unprotected metal. Epoxy paints will give good protection
but avoid any bitumen-based paints as diesel is a solvent for
bitumen. For water tanks, International's water tank black
works well, but make sure you let it dry thoroughly before
bolting on the lid. We didn't and we were unable to get rid of
its taste until we did the job again. Cement wash is a treat-

ment which can be successful, but the right cement and the
right application are essential to avoid a lime taste which is
very difficult to remove. (See E. Hiscock, Sou' West in 'Wan-
derer IV', for a story of problems of this kind.)

Cabin Soles
Cement properly applied is probably one of the best protec-
have chipped away 30-year old concrete
tions for bare steel. I
to reveal perfect plating. And there is the additional advan-
tage that cement can (and must) be applied wet to the steel so
that there no problem of scrupulously drying areas as
is

would be necessary for painting. Our bilges and ballast are

cemented, and this seems highly satisfactory as a cheap and
effective sole can be obtained by simply concreting to the
height required and putting a carpet over the top! More

206
 FITTING OUT

sophisticated is to lay wooden flooring on the concrete and

this can look very smart. It obviously scores over the carpet
which you will have to take up when you go to sea. Neverthe-
less special concrete paint can be obtained and this doesn't
look too bad.
There are several choices for a wooden sole. Decking ply,
especially in teak, looks very good in fairly small areas and we
have had very good service out of oursin the galley. This sort
of plywood expensive but can sometimes be obtained
is

cheaply from the factory if a bit damaged or watermarked.

Short lengths of iroko battening can often be obtained from
household suppliers. Designed for flooring in houses, these
battens make an excellent cabin sole. However, beware the
sort of parquet flooring that comes in packets and is stuck on
to a felt backing. We put this down in a galley initially but a
wet passage across to Holland lifted most of the wood away
from the backing and it was a hopeless mess. Lino tiles can be
stuck to the concrete and this is a quick and very cheap way
to do an area that is likely to be covered with a carpet in port
anyway. It is best to use the non-sticky type with your own
glue, as the pre-coated adhesive is easily affected by diesel
and sea water, causing it to peel away. One other alternative
is to just lay lino down, cut to shape.

Insulation

There is a great deal of conjecture about the need for insula-

tion. My own experience is that an air gap between wood
ceilingsand the hull plating is sufficient insulation in itself, to
keep the interior both warm in winter and cool in summer.
And in general steel boats seem to achieve this every bit as
well as their wood or GRP counterparts. As is noted by the
Van de Wieles of their steel ketch Omoo, cabin temperatures
in wooden boats in hot weather can be quite a few degrees
higher than in a well insulated steel boat (see The West in My
Eyes — A. Van de Wiele).
207
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

However if panelling is used by itself, condensation can

form behind. This should not really matter, provided frames
do not trap the water, and provided the hull is well painted.
In any event condensation can be easily eliminated with
anti-condensation paint, such as International Corkon or
Blake's anti-condensation emulsion.
If you
do decide to use insulation, it is important to use the
right sort. I would avoid polystyrene, as even the so-called
fire-resistant types burn very easily and produce a highly
toxic black smoke in so doing. We had a serious fire on board
because of this, and I subsequently ripped out what
remained and substituted fire-proofed fibreglass loft insula-
tion instead. But the polystyrene has the advantage that it
doesn't soak up water. Water-soaked glass fibre makes a very
effective rust trap. So if you do go for polystyrene, test the
type you buy to make perfectly sure that it is self-
extinguishing. The polystyrene bubbles in the self-

extinguishing variety are filled with carbon dioxide, and this

helps to damp down any flame. But the polystyrene will still

burn if a flame is continuously applied to it.

By far the best insulation is a two-part expanded

polyurethane foam. This is bonded directly to the hull, where
it sticks as well as any glue. It not only provides extremely
effective insulation but also gives total and indefinite protec-
tion to the steel. It is expensive, but the long-term benefits are
enormous. In England it is obtainable from Strand Glass.

Panelling and Deckheads

Prior to fitting the hull panelling and deckhead, make sure all
the wiring and plumbing has been installed, as it makes the
job twice as long if it has to be done afterwards. In addition it
is best if all the deck fittings are welded on prior to the

cladding going up, as pulling it down again in the way of a

weld is extremely tedious.
It is best to put the hull panelling up before the deckhead

208
 I

FITTING OUT
as any gap at the join will not be noticed by the eye
slight
looking on a level with the join, and will only be noticed when
looking straight up at it — such as when lying in bunk dcing a
'deckhead survey'!
In order to fasten the cladding to the hull and deckhead it

will first be necessary to fasten battens to the frames unless

the latter are welded in such a fashion that self-tapping
screws can be used to secure cladding directly to the web. (

find this latter system much slower.) Inch-square wooden

battens can be simply secured to the frames by Jin. steel (not
brass!) screws secured through holes drilled in the frames.
The choice of cladding material is large:

1 Varnished plywood is suitable but can look very dreary

in large areas.So it is necessary to break it up by trim.
But even with plenty of luxury trim, Eric Hiscock found
it necessary to paint white several of the varnished
panels in Wanderer IV to brighten up the cabin. Plywood
can be quite tricky to fit without gaps if it has to be spiled
on all four sides, but it has the advantage that it can be
fitted in removable panels for ready access to the plate

^ behind. I prefer matt varnish to the glossy sort it —

seems to me to look more tasteful!
2 Tongue and groove is very simple and fast to fit, as the
pieces you are dealing with are quite small. And it can
be relatively cheap. It is available in a variety of
different woods, with beech particularly attractive, but
easily bruised. Pine is probably as good as any and is
normally the cheapest. And, in any event, ordinary pine
can be made to look sumptuous by staining a deep
mahogany such as in the main saloon of the Thames
sailing barge Xylonite.

3 Formica (and similar laminates) can be used on thin

plywood to make excellent deckheads which are easy to
clean, look attractive and reflect light well. White for-

209
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

mica does, however, have to be split up with wooden

battens to avoid looking too stark, but these can be used
Matt Formica looks a lot nicer than
to cover the joins.
and if scratched can be made to look as
the glossy sort,
good as new by rubbing down with very fine wet and dry
abrasive paper used wet (unlike glossy Formica which,
once damaged, is ruined for ever).
4 Treated cork tiles can make attractive cladding when
stuck on thin plywood.
5 Plywood covered with certain types of vinyl cloth can be
made to look quite sumptuous when fitted in panels
retained in place by screws in brass cup washers.

Furniture

With your cladding in position you can build in the furniture.

This is another area where steel scores, as furniture can be
built in very strongly by welding up the framework in angle
bar and simply screwing plywood to the bars with self-
tapping screws. The structures should of course be welded in
before all the painting and cladding commences, but after-
thoughts are possible. We have made two changes of layout
simply, cheaply and quickly by cutting out the old
framework and welding in new. Remember not to fit the
framework until the boat is ballasted properly, as framework
fitted while she is a bit out of trim can result in bunks which
slope down towards your head and an oven that produces
lop-sided cakes!

Portholes

Portholes can be difficult to fit in any boat, but particularly so

in steel.Ready-made versions are plentiful, but extremely
expensive, and in many cases not designed with steel con-
struction in mind. In a steel boat, there will be a gap between
and the hull sides. This gap will have to be filled
the panelling
by an appropriate porthole design, and most proprietary

210
 FITTING Ol'T

53 Rectangular portholes with rounded corners, as in Abraxis.

portholes do not allow for this. So the best idea is to make

your own, and the possible variations are limited only by
your ingenuity.
Porthole shape is critical to the look of the boat, so it is well
worth making up cardboard patterns and offering them up to
the hull so as to see the effect. I prefer rectangular portholes
with the corners rounded, as you may see from the photo-
graph ofAbraxis. Our approach was for cheapness and speed,
but it did work well. We cut holes to the appropriate shape in
our after cabin sides, and then bolted iin. Perspex (known
under the trade-name of Plexiglass in the USA) on the
inside. The bolts were countersunk into the plate and filled
over with epoxy putty, so that they don't show from the
outside. We used stainless bolts, but I think mild steel would
do if you coat them plentifully with something like pitch. Our
cladding (plywood with decorative cork finish) was screwed
to wooden battens which were in turn screwed to the frames.

We cut holes in the cladding to match up with the portholes,

and then were left with a gap to fill between the ply and
Perspex. To do this job we used oflfcuts of ply cut so they

211
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

overlapped the window an inch and a half all the way

around. And then we cut out the shape of the porthole in
these pieces of ply. We then laminated them together until
there was sufficient thickness to fill the gap between cladding
and window. We then screwed these mock frames to the back
of the ply and faired them in with more epoxy filler. We
painted the frames white, but if you use offcuts of real tree
wood, you could varnish them instead.
A more sophisticated alternative is to use thin (3mm.) flat
bar the width of the gap between porthole and cladding and
bend to shape using the porthole itself as a jig. A flange
around the inside edge can be used to retain the Perspex
when pushed in from the outside. The Perspex can be fixed in
place with epoxy glue or through-bolted (I prefer glue). But
it is obviously best to weld up the whole frame to the hull

before you fit the Perspex. You can secure the cladding to the
porthole frame, either by lugs welded to the frame or by
battens screwed around it. Insetting the portholes in this way
not only looks professional, but it also helps to protect them
from damage. If this technique is used, toughened glass can
be substituted for Perspex. Glass is far more satisfactory as it
is not prone to surface scratching and crazing in the same

way as Perspex.
Finally, a quick and easy system is to through-bolt Perspex
on to the outside of the plating. While marginally acceptable
for coach roofs, I don't like the system for flush-deckers as the
portholes can be very vulnerable.
Financial circumstances dictated that we had to live on
board while fitting out, but if it is at all possible this is best
avoided. We
were forever moving gear backwards and for-
wards from one end of the boat to the other in order to get at a
particular job. At worst try and get a store nearby ashore
where loose gear can be safely left. However, there is one
advantage to living amidst all the wood shavings and paint
—
fumes it is a real incentive to getting the job done quickly.
 14
Machinery and Steering

Steering

The first choice to be made is inboard or outboard rudder.

Although this will be dictated by the design, a few words
about the relative merits are appropriate here. It is generally
held that the inboard version is harder to fit because of the
difficulty of making it watertight, but this problem is of little
consequence in a However, the internal rudder
steel boat.

post can seriously impinge on accommodation, especially if

the boat has an after cabin, and can make the rudder difficult
to remove should repairs be necessary. Arguments against
the outboard rudder centre on its susceptibility to damage in
crowded harbours or in heavy following seas, with some
people additionally claiming that it is aesthetically less pleas-

ing. And another problem is the difficulty of fitting standard

wind-vane steering systems. Nevertheless, ease of construc-
tion and repair makes an outboard fitting the one for me. (See
photo 55 of Vega's rudder with trim tab for self-steering
attached, and tubular bumkin acting as protection.)
If an inboard rudder is called for in the design, it will
probably be made watertight by a rudder tube extending up
above the waterhne and welded to the hull plating (Fig. 58).
If the tube is made to go well above the waterline no capping
will be necessary to keep the water out. But if not, then
bearings and gland packing can be used as an alternative, as
in Fig. 59. Tufnol or similar is better for this purpose than a
straightforward metal bearing which will not last long
especially under water. The tube itself should be made out of

213
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

W/wmk^^^^^^^
*#/
^^HH^^

54 Semi-balanced rudders are unsuitable for sailing boats.

as thick a section as possible^ as wastage is inevitable over a

period of time. The tube should be galvanized, but even so
the proximity to the propeller and difficulty of painting inside
can result in a limited life through But this is not
electrolysis.
a major problem. The rudder tube on Abraxis was eaten away
paper thin when we acquired her, but that after many years.
And the job of replacing only took an afternoon.

Fig 58 Rudder-post tube.

214
 MACHINERY AND STEERING

CRefuse NiPPL e

Fig 59 Rudder-post bearing.

The rudder post itself should be made out of solid round

bar of at least 30mm. diameter, to take the considerable
strain and give plenty of margin for corrosion. But if this bar
goes straight up through the tube to the stock, then there will
be a problem in removing it for damage repair. The boat will
have to be jacked up sufficiently high for the entire post and
rudder to be dropped down and out through the tube, or
dropped down while afloat. Neither option is a good one, so
for this reason rudders are sometimes bolted to the post with
flanges as in Fig. 60. This is not entirely satisfactory as the

FlrN&£ KEYBD Ohh-o

f{UDP£R SHflF-r

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RUOPBR,.

Fig 60 Rudder flanges.

 OWN A STEEL BOAT

bolts will corrode, causing a weak point, considerable drag-

forming turbulence will be created, and the join will look ugly
if it appears above the waterline. Another option is to join
just inside the boat, with a bearing to keep out the water, but
this is a potential leak. Our choice on Abraxis was a solid post
which would need to be cut to remove the rudder, although
most repairs can be done in situ However, we did make sure
.

that the prop shaft would come out past the rudder and that
the propeller could be taken off without rudder removal. We
achieved this by having the rudder tube of internal diameter
sufficient to enable the post to be manoeuvred to allow
clearance. But in certain types of installation, even this may
not allow propeller removal, so a section may need to be cut
out of the rudder as in Fig. 6i: this should not result in a
weakness because of the inherent strength of the steel, but
could result in reduced efficiency.

Fig 6 1 Section of rudder cut out to allow propeller shaft removal.

As to the type of rudder itself, this will depend largely on

the type of boat. But worth making the general comment
it is

that semi-balanced rudders with the usual accompanying

large propeller aperture, while OK
in power craft, are not
suitable for a sailing boat (photo 54). They create drag and
can destroy the feel essential for a sailing boat's helm. (See E.
Hiscock, Sou' West in 'Wanderer IV'). Rudders can be cut out of

216
 MACHINERY AND STEERING

^^1 'Tim' '

•^^^^^^__B^^^^"^*
^ 2
^^veS^^
^^^^^^^b m.~~~~——-__

^^ i
'^^'l!?

^^
\
^^^M|gi
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^^^i^^ 1

55 Vega's rudder with trim tab for self-steering,

and protective bumkin.

flat plate, or made up hollow. Weight for weight the

made-up
version will be stronger and arguably more hydrodynamic
than flat plate, so this would be my choice. For a hollow
rudder, 3mm. plate should be amply thick and sometimes
even less is used, whereas at least 7mm. is necessary if the
rudder is of solid plate. Fabricating the hollow rudder should
be Httle more difficult than cutting out of flat plate. And the
join to the rudder post can be stronger because of less weld
concentration. Fig. 63 illustrates different methods of weld-
ing the post to the rudder.

217
 Hollow Rudpsr
SPRCIh/& MFIY B£ NBCESSRRY -To

RDI>moNfiL f^OUNO BRR /s

Sometimes welde'p p^ouno
THE EPGe EOR_ GrREFITER STF^ENGFm

Fig 62 Hollow rudder fabrication.

It is often asserted that the thin plate used in hollow

rudders can be subject to corrosion, especially from the
inside. But the plate will only corrode from the inside while
there is oxygen, and this will quickly be consumed as the steel
oxidizes. Once this has happened there should be no further
wastage, and it will only recommence if a weld fails. But in
any event the whole problem can be virtually eliminated by
having the entire rudder hot-dip galvanized before it is instal-
led. An easy, cheap and worthwhile task, and then the rudder
should well outlast the rest of the boat. For the purpose of

VJeuD

FLF^r BRR.

m..

^4
Kil

P/LffrPurrE h^LOEP SEMI-BffLRNCEO SEMI-BftLRNCEP

•To f^oUfto BRR— RUODER—
E)(CESS/V£ WELt>lh/G- THE BFILFIr^CE SHOULD Krlf-pouHd Welded either
COULD CffUSE StR£SS BE 1^0 More turn oive SIDE WITH FLRTSm W the-
Point WHiCH could lerp FiPTH ON 7UE FORE- Middle to Mrke up the
To Fq8crJR£ IF ThE PLRTE SIDE ro FOURFlF-mS I^UDDER Post:
IS THihJ. fiFT.

Fig 63 Welding rudder-post to rudder.

218
 MACHINERY AND STEERING
galvanizing, holes (minimum half-inch) will need to be dril-
led in the rudder, to let the zinc inside
and to prevent the
assembly exploding in the hot zinc bath. This hole can be
plugged after galvanizing is complete. And as a belt and
braces approach, the hollow rudder could be filled with oil
via the hole to further prevent interior corrosion. Alterna-
tively the rudder could be protected by oil in this way without
the galvanizing.
Attaching the rudder to the boat is and this
the next task,
will normally be achieved using the pintle and gudgeon
method. Although these are sometimes welded straight on to
the keel and rudder, a better scheme is to have them solidly
bolted through. This enables their easy removal for building
up when the constant wear has made them sloppy. Solidly

56 Pintle and gudgeon rudder attachment; sometimes welded, but

better through-bolted.

219
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

bolting pintles to the thin plate of a hollow rudder can be

difficult as the bolt holes can tend to enlarge with wear. So a
compromise is to have just the gudgeon removable from the
keel, which will probably be of thicker plate. However, it is
possible to take out excessive wear with everything in situ, by
cutting in half pipe of approximate size to fit the pintle and
then welding this into the gudgeon.
Plastic bearings can be obtained from, amongst others,
META in France, and their use will avoid direct metal to
metal contact which has but a short life.

Some power boats have short spade rudders unsupported

below the waterline, but this does not seem to be satisfactory.
If a keel is probably better
not available to act as support, it is

to weld up a bar skeg which can also be used as support for

the propeller tube. This can have the additional advantage of
giving some protection rudder and propeller against
to the
the attacks of loose lengths of rope, plastic bags and the like.
If the boat is to be steered by tiller, few further construc-
tion problems arise. But most boats over about 35 feet tend to

57 A spade rudder.

220
 MACHINERY AND STEERING

The s/csi^ 3(Jr g-iv£s some support

filNP PROP£lJ.EP{ SHFJprruHE.

Fig 64 Skeg bar.

be fitted with wheel steering, and with a centre cockpit this

will usually be unavoidable. There are several possible ways

of connecting up the wheel and the following are some
examples:

Worm drive
Quadrant and wire
Hydraulic
Cable

Worm Drive
A good old-fashioned system this one (seephoto 58 of worm
gear on the steel Thames barge Zy/ow^V^). However, although

58 Worm gear for steering on Thames barge Xylonite.

 OWN A STEEL BOAT

^^_
1^^ ^~~--:^^|H^
H
^M^ff ^
^^^^^n

U ^^^K ^H
H 11
I |Hb^J **
P^I^^B

^^^^^^^^^H

If
A worm and peg gearbox for steering.
1J
59

their robustness and virtual infallibility make worm drives

ideal if you are fitting out an ex-trader, most of the versions to
be found are much too big and cumbersome for consideration
aboard a yacht.
A more compact and equally satisfactory alternative is a
worm and peg gearbox that can be mounted straight on to
the rudder shaft and powered by direct rod linkage to the
steering wheel. Such boxes can often be obtained very
cheaply from lorry breakers and an example is featured in
photo 59. Some form of universal joint will be required at the
input side, as it will seldom be possible to line up the gearbox
shaft exactly so that the drive rod goes at right angles to the
wheel. Again the scrapyard can come to our rescue, as the
universal joints on front- wheel-drive cars (e.g. Austin 1100)
will serve excellently for our purpose. (Again see photo-
graph.) On Abraxis the gearbox was made to serve both an
insideand an outside steering position, by brazing a second
input shaft on to the aft side of the worm.

222
 MACHINERY AND STEERING
The worm in a worm and peg gearbox cannot be turned
from the rudder end, and therefore does not transmit much
'feel' back to the wheel. But we have not found this to be a

significant problem in practice. Non-reversibility can, in

fact, have its advantages when it comes to leaving the helm
unattended. However, I would not recommend the system
for a racer.
You will need to check that the gearbox you buy has
sufficient reduction for the job. The maximum angle from
centreline atwhich the rudder is reckoned to be still effective
is 34 degrees i.e. 68 degrees from lock to lock. Two turns of

the wheel from lock to lock is normally the minimum con-

sidered sufficient to allow for fine adjustment of course.
Accordingly the gearbox will have to provide a reduction of
(360° + 36o°)/68° or approximately 10:1.

Quadrant
Perhaps the most common type of steering system is quad-
rant drive on the rudder shaft which is connected to the wheel

60 Quadrant for steering.

223
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

by wires. It is certainly cheap. The quadrant pictured in

photo 60 is a cast version, but one could easily be made up
from bits of steel. The arc of the quadrant should be kept a
fraction smaller than that of the rudder (i.e. a bit less than 68
degrees), as this will ensure that the rudder can't be pulled
hard over against its stops.
The number of turns, lock to lock, will be dictated by how
the wire is connected to the wheel. The two main methods are
sprockets or a drum. The first way uses motor-bicycle chain
connected into the wire by shackles, and passing over a
sprocket attached to the wheel. The alternative is a drum
with the wire wrapped around it; at least four turns to get
sufficient grip. This latter system will call for greater tension

in the wire, although both methods will call for some way of
taking up slack, and it is normal to put a rigging screw into
the wire on either side of the quadrant for this purpose. The
drum or sprocket diameter will dictate the number of turns
required to move the rudder from lock to lock — the bigger
the diameter, the fewer turns. To calculate the appropriate
size accurately, measure along the arc of the quadrant. This
length will then be the circumference of drum to necessitate
one turn lock to lock. As three turns are normally about right,
divide the arc length by three. To turn this circumference
into diameter, use the formula D = C/tt (tt = 3*142). If the

.^*-f«^ 1*

224
 MACHINERY AND STEERING

6 1 and 62 Drum steering on Joshua.

sprocket option is chosen, remember

measure the to
diameter to the inside of the sprockets. Simpson Lawrence
(and others) market all the components for such a system,
but they can all be made up very readily with the welder. The
main items I would buy would be special pxlastic pulleys for
wire leads. (See photos 61 and 62 of drum steering on Joshua
for an illustration of how simple this method can be.)

Hydraulic Steering
Hydraulic steering is often found on larger craft and especi-
ally inmotor boats, but it is not well suited to sailing boats as
no transmitted back from the rudder. The hydraulics
feel is

give effortless power and there is the additional advantage

that the pipes can be led along much more tortuous angles
than either rod or wire linkages. A hydraulic system is

normally fairly reliable, but the initial cost is very high.

However, such a system might be the only answer where it
proves impossible to arrange an appropriate lead for wires or
rods. Among others, W. H. den Ouden in Schiedam, Hol-
land (British Agents, A. N. WaUis), market systems suitable
for most boats.

225
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

Cable Steering
Another possibility is a cable steering system, such as the
ones marketed in England, by Teleflex/ Morse. Quite com-
monly fitted to small runabout craft, cable steering can also
be obtained in sizes suitable for relatively large boats. But the
cost is high.

Rod and wire are the cheapest, and perhaps the most
reliable. I would opt for one of these and find ways of over-
coming the possible impingement on accommodation. But
whatever form of wheel steering you choose, it's normal to
have some sort of fall-back tiller device as well. On an inboard
system, this is commonly achieved by continuing the rudder
post up through the deck with a square drive at the top of the
post to take a tiller. With an outboard rudder it is common to
have a permanent tiller fitted as an alternative form of steer-
ing, or sometimes the wire drive from the wheel is linked
direct to a tiller, instead of to the quadrant.
It is a common practice among ocean voyagers to drill a
hole in the top of the rudder itself, to take a shackle. (In a
hollow rudder watertightness can still be achieved by weld-
ing a tube between the two holes.) In the event of total
steering breakdown, a shackle can be fitted and ropes down
from either side of the boat used to give a temporary but
effective means of control —
provided the rudder hasn't
dropped off as well!

Engines
It is often advocated that engines should be fitted almost as
soon as the hull is complete on the grounds that access will be
the easiest at this stage. While there is a lot of sense in this,

there is always the danger that you might ignore the engine in
subsequent fitting out and end up with it stuck in the boat for
life. It will need to come out sooner or later, so it is best to
make sure that hatches are large enough to allow for this, and
226
 MACHINERY AND STEERING
that surrounding woodwork isn't made too permanent.

Engine Installation
The engine is best installed over ballast rather than tanks, as
the tanks will need to be accessible for periodic inspection
and cleaning. The ballast will need to be plated over to
protect from water and oil drips from the engine; bilge
it

water down inside ballast is impossible to remove and could

lead to electrolysis.
Bear in mind accessibility. The tendency in modern yachts
is to install the engine so that it impinges the least on accom-
modation. This follows from the apparent need to cram as
many berths as possible into the tiniest of boats. The net
result isthat the engine becomes difficult to work on, jeopar-
dizing regular maintenance. Accordingly access should be to
all four sides, and I hke to have a built-in method of hoisting

the engine out. On our boat, an eye flange is permanently

welded directly above the engine. And a tackle led down to a
pulley and up through the hatch to the main halyard lifts the
engine out effortlessly.
While a separate walk-in engine room with steel bulkheads
and steel watertight doors to contain fire, flood and fumes,
is a highly desirable feature, this is difficult to achieve
on anything much under 50 feet. However, asbestos-
sandwiched plywood makes a good fire retainer and serves as
a sound barrier as well. (Take care to avoid breathing asbes-
tos dust when working with the blue sort, because of the
danger of asbestosis.) Our engine cover is made like this and
all parts can be readily dismantled for all-round access. One
of our watertight bulkheads on the aft side of our engine,
is

and the forward accommodation is protected from migrating

bilgewater by a partial bulkhead and a large sump.
It follows from my comments on accessibility that I don't

much like engines fitted down in the keel. They can be almost
impossible to work on, although it has to be admitted that

227
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

there an advantage in terms of keeping weight down low.

is

Engine installation on some shallow-draft boats is often

extremely difficult because of the impossibility of getting the
engine low enough without encroaching on the accommoda-
tion, but Volvo Penta have recently introduced an angle
drive that can sometimes solve the problem.
Or how about considering belt-drive instead of the con-
ventional gearbox? Both these methods allow the engine to be
installed in the often wasted space towards the stern of the
boat. Yet another possibility is hydraulic drive, which allows
the engine to be sited anywhere in the boat. The cost is little
higher than that of the gearbox it replaces.
The engine bearers themselves should be made as long as
possible to spread the load. While this is nowhere near so
important on little boats as it is on ships, engine vibration
over a period of time could weaken welds on short bearers
and lead to ultimate failure. And short bearers can place
undue strain on a small part of the hull fabric. For similar
reasons, it is best to avoid welding the bearers directly to the
hull plating, as attaching to the frames further spreads the
load. It can be quite tricky to get the bearers at exactly the
right height. Too high is a disaster, as they will have to be cut
out and the job done again. (See E. Hiscock's problems in
Sou' West in 'Wanderer IV\] Too low can be coped with by
using packing pieces, but not if they are very low. The only
real answer is to fit the stern gear first, and then with the
engine suspended in position, tack weld the bearers into
place. Alternatively, an engine mock-up can be used, but it
will have to be very accurate.
I would recommend flexible rubber mountings, together

with a flexible propeller-shaft coupling. These can do much

to reduce the drumming and noise transmission that can
sometimes occur in a steel hull. And there is also the advan-
tage that slight inaccuracies in alignment will not be quite so
serious as in a rigid installation. Another advantage is that

228
 MACHINERY AND STEERING
most flexible couplings are
designed to shear under a shock
load, thereby saving the gearbox from damage (but carry a
spare set of rubber coupling doughnuts) But the biggest plus.

is the fact that the mounts and coupling can electrically

isolate the engine from the hull, thereby reducing the risk of
electrolysis.
The fitting of the engine itself is really outside the scope of
this book, as my stated intention is to deal only with those
aspects of fitting-out as are specific to steel, and to leave other
matters to the myriad of specialist fitting-out books.
Nevertheless engine installation is critical. So I am going to
include some straightforward ideas on layout which can
perhaps prevent the usual mistakes, that can be both expen-
sive and dangerous.

Engine Ancillaries
I work on the premise that if you are going to have an engine
aboard, it has got to be reUable. Better none at all than one
that fails to start when you are relying on it. I also believe that
an oil (diesel) engine is a must. With the modern light-weight
diesels that are available, there can be little justification for
fitting a petrol version. Petrol engines are expensive to run,
unreliable, relatively short-lived, and above
fumes all petrol
are highly dangerous in the confines of a small boat. With an
oil engine in good condition (and even one in very bad

condition) you need only to make sure fuel and air are getting
to the engine, and that the exhaust is getting away, and the
thing must run. Hence every effort must be made to ensure
that these parts of the system work and keep working.
Fuel tanks can usefully be installed slightly above the level

of the engine, so that the fuel feeds in by gravity. If not, there

may be a need to raise the fuel by a Hft pump in addition to
the fuel injection pump, and that gives one more thing to go
wrong. I prefer to install at least two separate tanks so that if
one tank is contaminated, then you don't lose the whole

229
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

supply. Also the tanks should have ready access for examina-
tion and cleaning out sludge periodically. This can be
achieved by having a hole cut in the top or side with a plate
that bolts over the top. Best to make the hole at least the
width of your shoulders so you can really get inside to give it a
good clean. But I prefer to have the whole tank top remov-
able, and this is in many respects easier to construct. Simply
weld up the tank without a top, then weld flat bar around the
edge. Now cut out plate for a lid. With the lid in place
(perhaps lightly tacked to prevent it moving) drill holes all

around the edge at no more than 2in. intervals to take a ^in.

bolt. Now remove the lid and poke the bolts up through the
flat bar from below, and weld in place. You can now bolt the

lid on after sealing with a gasket or silicone rubber (ordinary

rubber will not do as it will be destroyed by the diesel) But .

just a final word before you bolt it up solid. If it is a big tank,

then it will need baffles to stop the oil slurping around inside
as the ship rolls. I prefer baffles every i8 inches or so, and
they should be welded to the sides leaving a gap top and
bottom. Don't do without them for a quick job. You will
regret it when you are trying to get some sleep to the accom-
paniment of a loud slopping in your ear.
The tanks will need a stop-cock each, to cut off' the fuel
should that be necessary, and they will also need a means of
draining. This latter is best suited below the take-off' point for
the supply to the engine, so that periodically the sludgy oil at
the bottom can be drained off'. The pipes themselves should
be metal not plastic as an obvious fire precaution, and theor-
etically they should be of steel and not copper, as the latter
But we have
reacts with diesel to the detriment of the pipe.
copper pipe and have had no trouble. So I would risk them,
rather than the steel which can corrode from the outside.
Keep a look-out, though, for possible fractures. Also impor-
tant, is to secure the pipes solidly to guard against fracture
through vibration. And it is necessary to provide some means
230
 MACHINERY AND STEERING
of absorbing vibration where the pipe leaves the engine and
joins the tank. One way is to have a steel walled flexible pipe
(but make sure it is suitable for diesel); an alternative is to
bend the pipe in a spiral so that this absorbs any movement.
Exhausts can be either wet or dry, and of the two much 1

prefer the former. Wet exhausts are quieter, longer-lived and

much less prone to fume leakage than the dry sort. Dry
exhausts need means of absorbing the vibration at the engine
end, and this will normally consist of a piece of flexible steel
exhaust welded into the soHd exhaust pipe. The flexible can
be obtained in either stainless or mild steel, with the stainless
being a lot better bet (but see Chapter 4 for the special rods to
weld stainless to mild steel). Mild steel flexible pipe seems
very prone to corrosion, and has a very short life. It is also
prone to leak fumes even when new. And it can fracture
through vibration.
If sea-water cooling is used, then the cooling water can be
fed into the exhaust pipe thus cooling the exhaust, and
enabling rubber exhaust hose to be used. The rubber absorbs
vibration, should be totally fume proof and does a lot to
deaden noise. But correct installation is critical to avoid the
potential disaster of cooling water back in the engine. And
this is particularly a problem where the engine is installed
below the waterline.
When the engine is running, the cooling water will be
blown out of the pipe by the exhaust fumes. But when it
stops, water can filter back down into the engine. As some of
the valves will inevitably be open, the water will get into the
bores,where it can do irreparable harm. Several precautions
have to be taken. There should be an elbow at the exhaust
manifold to prevent water running back into the engine, and
the water inlet should be angled away from the engine. (The
elbow must be metal as be water-cooled.) It is
it will not

useful next to incorporate a water trap into the system to

catch the unexhausted water which will run back when the

231
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

engine is stopped. Another necessary feature is a swan neck

in the system,, with the pipe carried up above the waterUne
and then back down again in order to prevent sea water being
forced into the system by wave action at the outlet end.
With engines fitted below the waterline, there is the risk of
water forcing its way past the water pump impeller and into
the exhaust system with the engine stationary. Water can
then build up in the system, until it overflows the trap and
filters back into the engine. One way to prevent this is to

carry the spent water pipe from the engine well up above the
waterline and down again before injecting it into the exhaust
pipe. Accordingly if water is forced past the impeller, it won't
go above the waterline and won't, therefore, be able to reach
the exhaust system. Another safeguard is to put a vent in the
spent water pipe to prevent this siphon effect.
One further precaution is to turn the inlet water seacock off
a few seconds before stopping the engine. This shouldn't
really be necessary if all the previous safeguards are
observed, and it can damage rubber impellers if the engine is

allowed to run for too long dry. It is useful to up the revs for a
few seconds before stopping to help blast the water out. If on
the other hand the engine is allowed to idle for a long time
before it is stopped, this can lead to a build up of spent water
in the system which can then filter back into the bores.
If this does need not be too disastrous provided
happen, it

that it is discovered quickly enough. (If it is left for a long

time the whole engine could seize solid.) You can discover
the water through emulsified oil and a high level on the
dipstick or by oil seepage around the joints. The dipstick can
usefully be checked every time the engine is run, but if you
don't discover it before you try to turn the engine, you will
quickly discover it then. The engine will normally be imposs-
ible to turn, because of the water in the bores. If this is the
case stop trying instantly or you will cause severe damage by
trying to compress the water. The answer is to open the

232
 MACHINERY AND STEERING
decompressors, and to slowly turn the engine over,
preferably by hand. The water should then be forced out \ ia
the valve holes which are held open by the decompressor-. A
few turns should get rid of most of the water. But if water has
got into the sump, you will need to drain the oil, chanj^c the
filter and flush through with several lots of clean oil before
further use.

Heat Exchangers
Many modern diesel installations call for freshwater cooline;
with heat exchangers, and this will definitely be the case if an
automobile engine conversion is being used. Steel boats can
score here, as it is often possible to use the hull itself as the
heat exchanger. A fresh-water tank in the keel may he all that
is necessary with the cooling water drawn from one end at the
bottom and the hot water from the engine fed back in at the
top. The heat from this closed circuit system will then be
dissipated through the hull plating, cooled by the sea water
passing outside. The greater the area of plating, the more
effective this system will be, so tanks should be as long as
possible. Neat and simple, but remember to leave access to

the tank for periodic de-scaling. The system can also be used
to provide hot water for the galley, proved there is a means of
replenishing the water as it is used.
An alternative system, often encountered on work boats, is

to pipe the cooUng water through tubes actually welded to

the outside of the hull. This gives a large area over which the
heat can be dissipated, but in my view the method is unsatis-
factory as the pipes are very susceptible to damage, especi-
ally on shpping. This in turn could result in unseen damage
to the engine, through pollution of the cooling water by salt.

Electrics

With the fuel supply and the exhaust installed, the engine

should now run. But electrics are useful; indeed many units

233
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

require electric starting. So some comment on electrical

installation is appropriate.
I would go for an all 12-volt supply. Although 24 volt has
greater power for driving accessories, which will also be more
robust, everything in 24 volt costs a lot more and can be
difficult to obtain. Whereas in 1 2 volt, a lot of mass-produced

car and caravan equipment can readily be adapted to work.

For example, I carry two spare alternators, obtained in
excellent condition from a car breaker. And the pair cost me a
tenth of the likely cost of one 24- volt unit. (Check that they
are negative earth.)
It is useful to split the batteries into two lots. One bank for
engine starting, and the other for ship's supply. Battery sizes
are quoted in amp hours which is most readily understood as
the length of time a amp bulb would take to completely
i

flatten the battery. (Technically capacity is calculated on a

greater draw per hour than this, and a slow draw would
flatten the battery slightly more quickly than its stated capac-
ity.) The amp hours capacity given should be regarded as a

maximum, and will reduce as the battery gets older. The

minimum power necessary to turn over a smallish engine is
about 60 amp hours and bigger machines may need substan-
tially greater power. The required capacity for the ship's use

should be calculated as the maximum demand likely for

navigation lights and domestic use for the maximum period
likelybetween recharging, plus an inefficiency factor of up to
20 per cent. As an example, we carry three 130 amp hour
batteries for the ship's supply, and one at 80 amp hours for
the engine.
The two banks can usefully be interlinked for charging,
and for combining battery power if the engine battery is low.
But ship's supply should only come from the ship's bank or
you may run down the engine battery and accordingly have
no means of starting. A blocking diode, a sort of electrical one
way valve, can be used to allow the charging of both banks to

234
 MACHINERY AND STEERING
prevent withdrawal from the engine bank. But I don't like
blocking diodes. Like all electrical equipment, they are prone
unsympathetic environment aboard a boat.
to failure in the
And they go wrong, you have no means of telling before
if

your batteries are run down. In certain cases they can also
damage electrical equipment if they fail. Simplest and far the
best is a hand operated isolator switch. To fit such a switch,
first connect all the batteries in parallel, but omit the positive
lead to the engine battery. This lead can then be fitted from
the engine battery to a point near the switchboard where the
isolator switch can be installed. And from there the wire will
be led back to the ship's battery bank.
If the alternator is connected to the engine battery it can
charge that first. And when fully charged, as denoted by the
ammeter, the switch can be thrown and the domestic bank
charged as well. To a certain extent, it doesn't much matter
whether you apply the charge to the engine's or the ship's
batteries, as electricity, like water tends to flow so as to even
So the charge in the engine battery will flow across
itself out.

the ship's batteries as soon as the switch is open. But what

does matter is that you take the ship's requirements only
from the ship's battery bank, and that the switch is closed
except when charging. Failure to observe this could allow the
engine battery to be flattened by domestic use.
All electrical fittings should be connected to a twin cable
double-insulated circuit. On no account should the hull of

the boat be used as the earth as in a car, as this will con-

siderably exacerbate electrolysis. For the same reason every
precaution must be taken to prevent electrical seepage,
where, for example, fittings are attached to the hull. One
difficult area is the engine itself. The engine will usually be
earthed for starting purposes, so it must be insulated from the
hull. This insulation can be readily achieved using the flex-
ible mountings and coupUngs that I recommended earlier in

the chapter.

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 OWN A STEEL BOAT

Propeller Tubes and Shafts

Bronze and stainless steel shafts are commonly used in boat-
building, but a case can be made against both of them for
steel boats. Bronze and steel are a long way apart in the
cathodic scale so electrolytic reaction between a bronze shaft
and the steel hull will be almost inevitable. And if the stern
tube is steel, then the problem could ultimately be serious.
Nor is an entirely satisfactory solution. Although it
stainless
sets up less electrolysis, it is prone to shielding corrosion (see
Chapter 15), and recent research has made a strong case
against its use under water. Stainless steel depends upon
oxygen to maintain its molecular structure. If deprived of
oxygen, the rapid corrosion can result. And one way that
oxygen deprivation can occur is if barnacles attach them-
selves under water. This can result in serious pitting and
ultimate failure. There is little to choose between stainless
and bronze in terms of cost, with bronze being softer and,
therefore, cheaper to work. But this softness can lead to much
more rapid wear, which may well make stainless more
economic in the long term.
I prefer steel shafts and steel stern tubes, thereby keeping
electrolysis to a minimum and incidentally cutting costs.
Corrosion will still be a problem, though, because of the
water which will inevitably be slopping around in this area.
So every effort must be made to protect the steel. Galvanizing
the shaft and tube before fitting is a good first step, and
binding with fibreglass tape and resin should provide total
protection (epoxy paint would do as an alternative) There . is

some merit in welding the coupling flange on to the shaft

before galvanizing, as this can save the cost of cutting a
keyway. But you won't then be able to get the shaft out
without first removing the engine. If the stern tube is welded
into the boat, the galvanizing will obviously be destroyed at
the weld point. So it may be best to secure the tube with bolts.

And this will have the additional advantage of making

236
 MACHINERY AND STEERING
replacement easier, should this ever be necessary.
Galvanized steel doesn't make a good bearing surface. To
overcome problem, the shaft can be white metalled or
this
metal sprayed (usually with some form of stainless steel) in
the region of the bearings and stern gland. This process can
normally be arranged through most good engineering shops,
and will probably be cheaper than a stainless or bronze shaft.
Bearings and glands are usually only available in bronze, so
probably have to be used. The outboard bearing is
this will
sometimes hard rubber, sometimes all bronze, with the rub-
ber perhaps being preferable on a steel boat from the point of
view of electrolysis. The inboard bearing will provide for
gland packing, and sometimes the outboard bearing will
have similar provision, thereby providing two lines of
defence against leaks. Provision will be required for lubricat-
ing the glands and bearings, if they are not lubricated by
water. A standard grease gun can be made to serve this
purpose if linked to the gland via a steel tube.

Propellers

It would be logical to use a steel propeller as nearly every-

thing so far has been steel. But here we run into difficulties.
Whereas steel tube and shaft are readily available from most
stockists, steel propellers are difficult to obtain as the market
is geared to bronze. A steel propeller could be made specially,
but its cost would probably be in excess of that of a bronze
version despite the higher price of this material. And there
would probably be a considerable delay. In any event, as
propellers are made by casting, a steel propeller would have a
sHghtly different electrolytic potential than the rolled steel

plate of the hull, so electrolysis problems wouldn't be com-

pletely avoided. And
danger of electrolysis between
there is

unprotected cast propellers and bronze bearings to the

detriment of the propeller. And as it is almost impossible to
keep paint on propellers they are difficult to protect.

237
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

Stainless props are a possible alternative, and have now

become only a little more expensive than bronze. But I
suspect them on account of the previously discussed prob-
lems of using stainless steel underwater. So bronze may be
the best answer for propellers after all. Provided local anodes
are fitted in close proximity to the propeller, and the hull is

kept well protected, no problems should result.

Variable-pitch propellers have much to recommend them.
This book is no place for a full discussion, but their advan-
tages include the possible avoidance of the need for a gear-
box, ability to adjust pitch precisely to engine speed, and the
ability to set blades fore-and-aft so as to create minimum
drag when sailing.

Sumps and Pumps

The engine will need a drip tray to catch all the spots of diesel
and lubricating oil that will inevitably collect. There will also
need to be a sump to catch any water that comes in via the
stern gland, or from elsewhere. (Not that there should be
very much water aboard a steel boat. If there is, something is

wrong.) In Chapter 8, 1 pointed out the advantages of build-

ing in the sump when making up the keel arrangement; but if
this wasn't done, then a concrete version can rapidly be
made. It should be deep rather than wide, as this will prevent
the bilge water slopping around the plates, and will provide
somewhere to locate the bilge pumps.
Commercial vessels built to Lloyd's are required to have a
complex system of central bilge pumps with interconnecting
pipes through to each watertight compartment. This is not
desirable on a yacht. If the yacht does have watertight com-
partments, then it is much better and cheaper to have a
separate bilge pump for each, with perhaps a portable spare.
have drain holes in the bulkheads and these will
It is useful to

normally be fitted with bungs. If the holes are made of such a

size that their water throughput can be coped with by the

238
 MACHINERY AND STEERING
pumps in the adjacent compartments, then the advantages of
the Lloyd's system are gained without the complexity. Our
own boat has this arrangement, with electric pumps in e^ch
of the three compartments, a manual pump in the eni^inc
compartment and a manual spare. An engine-driven pump
for emergencies completes the system.

Seacocks

Engines need seacocks and so normally do galleys, heads and

pumps. And all these can add up to a lot of holes in the side of

the boat, each of which is a potential leak that could sink her.
Eric Hiscock, in a rather despairing article on the joys of
Wanderer IV s machinery, counted no less than eighteen of the
wretched things. But I have cut ours down to six and I am
still considering getting rid of a further two by resorting to the
famous Herreshoff cedar bucket. Apart from the heads, our
only seacock below the waterline is the sea-water cooling
inlet for the engine, and that has to stay. The pump outlets
are all well above the waterline (to hell with the topside
paint!), but even then seacocks are essential. I didn't think so
at first, and wondered why we shipped water on one tack and
not on the other! Our sink outlets have long since been
welded up. That job was done straight after one of their
seacocks failed in a strong blow off the Lizard Head in
Cornwall. A simple problem to fix, but a lot of water found its
way aboard before we found the source of the leak. The sink
now drains into the sump. 'Don't do it,' everyone said; 'bits of
food in the bilge will smell terribly.' But we find it works well,
and it is a lot better for my peace of mind. The sump is
pumped out instantly after the sinks have been drained, and
a dash of disinfectant keeps it smelling sweet and pure. And
as for a salt water tap — well, I believe that if the water is pure
enough washing up, then the weather will probably
to use for
be healthy enough to do the washing up on deck in the bucket
anyway.

239
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

For those seacocks that are between

essential, the choice is

bronze, steel or plastic. (I would veto stainless on the

grounds of expense, scarcity and the crevice corrosion prob-
lem.) I would choose plastic for anything well above the
waterline, and bronze for anything below. Plastic, because it
is tough and durable and doesn't give electrolysis problems.

But I wouldn't use plastic seacocks below the waterline

because fire will destroy them. So a steel boat's resistance to
fire would be lost. Marginally acceptable is to use metal

seacocks in the engine room and plastic elsewhere, but I

would not risk it. Steel seacocks are a possibility, but their
susceptibility to corrosion puts them out of the question for
me, for such a vital piece of equipment. Alternatively steel
standpipes can be welded into the hull so as to come up above
the waterline, but even these are not the complete answer. It
is difficult to protect the inside of such tubes, so they can
eventually be eaten away by electrolysis. Galvanizing
doesn't cure this, as the zinc is anodic, so will be eroded.
Coating in pitch is probably the best bet.
On balance I would go for a bronze seacock, but I see the
advantages of standpipes. The bronze can of course set up
electrolysis to the detriment of the surrounding plate. And a
cheap brass version could de-zincify and collapse itself. But
provided the seacock is of proper bronze, and is well insu-

lated from the steel hull when it is fitted (Jeffrey's Seamflex

will do and provided the hull itself is well
for this job),
insulated with an epoxy paint scheme, no problems should
result. As a precaution, should the paint be damaged, I

additionally fit a local anode close to each of the seacocks.

 15

Corrosion Protection

A well maintained steel boat will last as long, probably

longer, than one made of any other material. (Our boat is 30
years old, incidentally.) And even if a substantial re-skinning
is required, this easy because of the great local strength of
is

steel. However, with the modern protection schemes avail-

able, there no reason why such re-skinning should ever be
is

necessary. And a steel boat will never wear out through use
and exposure to sunhght in the way that a GRP version can.

Electrolysis

Rust is traditionally thought of as the enemy of steel. But it is

not the real enemy. In fact, rust is easy enough to keep in
check, even with a conventional paint scheme. And the ugly
rust streaks that result from chipped paint are seldom serious
unless left for a long time. No, it is electrolysis that presents
the real danger. Electrolytic action will occur when metals of
different electrical potentials are immersed in an electrolyte
such as sea water. An electric current will flow between the
metals causing the decay of the least noble. And this problem
will become the more acute, the warmer and more saline the
water is, and the more stray electrical currents there are
flying around the boat. Nor is it necessary for different metals
to be present for electrolysis to occur. Because of the molecu-
lar structure of steel, especially stainless steel, varying elec-
trical potentials wifl arise in different areas of the metal itself,

with some areas having sHghtly higher negative electrical

potential (anodic) relative to other areas (cathodic). Cur-
rents will flow between the anodic and the cathodic areas, to

241
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

the detriment of the former. At the anodes, iron will go into

solution and react in the presence of oxygen with the hydrox-
ide at the cathodes, causing decay. This problem is worse
near the waterline where the sea water is heavily saturated
with oxygen giving greater corrosion potential. And this is
just where the paint is subject to damage from scraping
against quays etc.

Anodes
The best way to prevent electrolysis is from
to seal the plate
the electrolyte, i.e. to paint it. However, as the paint can be
damaged, some additional protection is required. This can
be achieved by fitting zinc sacrificial anodes to the hull.
These anodes are less noble than steel and will be wasted
away gradually and in so doing prevent the steel itself from
wasting away.
Sound electrical contact of the anodes to the hull is essen-
tial, and the easiest way to ensure this is to weld studs to the

hull and simply to bolt the anodes on. When the time comes
for renewal, wasted anodes unbolt very easily, and bolting on
a new one is the work of a few minutes between tides. As well
as proper attachment, the correct positioning of these anodes
is crucial. M. G. Duff (also agents worldwide) will advise on
positioningand supply the anodes, but as an example, I cite
the arrangement on our own boat. We have two 1 2in. anodes

WfrrsRuf^e

S^/JCOCK

LfilRO-E fiNODES

Fig 65 Anode layout.

242
 CORROSION PROTECTION
bolted on each side of the boat at the turn of the bilge, as in
Fig. 65. Additionally, there is a local anode bolted right next
to each of the underwater bronze fittings — the two seacocks
and the propeller.
only in the area of our seacocks and propeller that any
It is

serious wastage has occurred. Here we have lost up to 25 per

cent of the plate thickness, and when we bought the boat, the
rudder tube had wasted away to such an extent that
replacement was essential. But all
this had occurred through
a long period of neglect, with no cathodic protection, and
with virtually no underwater paint. Until we could get a
sound paint scheme on the bottom, we had to rely on anodes
to hold the electrolysis in check. They wasted away quite
quickly (the big ones lasted about a year, the local ones about
six months). But now we have an epoxy scheme, and the
anodes last far longer.
From all thisyou might reasonably conclude that it would
be wise to avoid bronze underwater fittings at all costs. But as
—
we saw in the last chapter they are not very easy to avoid.
One more obvious point about anodes. Make sure that no
paint gets splashed on them, or this will destroy their effec-

tiveness. This is watched at antifouling time,

especially to be
if you have a willing but unknowledgeable band of helpers

(personal experience!).
I think that it is fair to say that even the experts in the field

don't fully understand all the problems associated with elec-

trolysis, so all potential risks should be avoided. For
example, would keep away from alongside any copper-
I

jheathed boat. However, the well-painted boat protected by

anodes should not be in danger. But a word of warning: the
trend in modern steel boats is to use thinner and thinner plate
to save weight and money. While there is ample strength in,
say, 3mm. plate, there is Htde margin for corrosion, so the
owner must be all the more vigilant. The plating on older
boats, such as ours, even with 25 per cent local wastage, is

243
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

Still thicker than that on some newer boats.

Blast Cleaning
Our problems in surface preparation have always been
real
below the waterline. We have spent weeks scraping, wire
brushing, electric sanding and painting. And none of it was
worth it, because the paint just would not stick. We tried four
times with different paint schemes, but all was a waste of time
and paint. We finally decided to do the job properly rather
than on the cheap. So we booked for a haul out and blast
clean so as to apply an epoxy paint scheme. I wish I had
made that decision earlier. All the hours we have put into
scraping and sanding would have more than covered the cost
of the haul out and blast clean. And the cost of the paint was
no more than any of the previous years.
in
After carefully going into the economics of the job, I had
decided to employ a firm rather than to hire the gear and do
the work myself. Hire of the gear, compressor and the cost of
the grit together with the cost of getting it all to the slipway,
would have come about two- thirds of the price quoted by
to
our contractors, not to mention the trouble. The difference
did not seem worth it, especially as hiring contractors would
save me time. However, the cost of the grit could have been
avoided. A friend of ours took the sand straight off Ramsgate
beach and said that this did a fine job of cleaning although it

took a lot longer than But this was on ferro, and sand
grit.

does not produce such a good surface as grit on steel boats.

Proper surface texture is important if epoxy paints are to
adhere properly. The safety experts have banned sand-
blasting in commercial use because of the danger of silicosis
to the operators, but a one-off operation shouldn't be fatal,

provided proper helmets and face masks are worn.

The surface produced by grit blasting gives a perfect key
for paint, better than any amount of wire brushing or power
sanding could ever achieve. Electric sanding polishes the

244
 CORROSION PROTECTION

63 Proper helmets, gloves and breathing apparatus are

essential for grit-blasting.

metal, whereas blasting produces a surface like fine emery

paper, and the paint can really grip. But take care not to
press your bare hands on the steel as this will leave a greasy
patch. The only faulty paint we found on subsequent slipping
was exactly in the shape of a hand-print.
Three people are really needed for the grit blasting
—
job one blaster, one feeder and one painter. One missing
from the team makes the job take a lot longer, and slip time is
money. If the blaster has to feed his own abrasive, it means
removing the helmet each time and this is very tedious. And
if sand is used to save costs, clogging often occurs unless
someone is on the machine all the time. The third member of
the team is needed because the blasted area needs painting
with primer as soon as possible (on our job, I was the
painter). This is necessary to ensure that the paint goes on to
a perfectly clean and dry surface; and the first coat is the one
that counts. Additionally, epoxy paint has to go on at a

245
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

minimum temperature of lo degrees C. (50 degrees F.) and

this should be ensured if thepaint is put on within about half
an hour of blasting, when the steel will still be warm from the
impact of the abrasive. The absolute maximum time-lag
before painting is four hours —
after that rust can start to
form, and this will seriously diminish the paint's effective-
ness.
Our job took about a day a side — 5 square yards an hour
seems to be a good average. We organized it so that a quarter
of each side was done at a time, I then splashed on paint
furiously while the operator had a rest. When he started
again it was on the opposite side and at the other end of the
boat to the newly painted bit. This worked well, and we
didn't get any dirt in the paint, although I was careful to dust
off the surface before beginning. There is a type of blaster
that recycles its shot, and thus keeps everywhere reasonably
clean. But these are expensive and comparatively rare. And
in any event shot does not produce as good a surface as grit
does on steel.
It seems that the price I was quoted was very low, and

certainly I was more than satisfied. So if you can't get a

sensible quote and you decide to do the work yourself, some
blast-clean companies hire out the gear, or it may be
obtained from some of the larger plant-hire firms.

Paint Schemes
As to the paint itself, for me the modern two-part epoxies are
the only answer. They adhere to steel far more strongly than
conventional paints, are almost completely impervious to
water, last almost indefinitely, and have a strong resistance
to chipping. There is a choice between epoxide resin compos-
ition with polyurethane on top, or epoxy tar, the latter being
considerably cheaper. It is arguably harder wearing too,
with considerable resistance to mechanical abrasion. It

smudges rather than chips. But there is a snag as you niight

246
 CORROSION PROTECTION
have guessed. Epoxy tar is bitumen based, as its name
implies, and will bleed through overpainting with a dark
stain. So your smart white coat will end up looking sorr.e-
thing hke a Friesian cow. But for us, staining was no problem
as we prefer black top-coat — although we acknowledge that
light-coloured topsides can be advantageous in hot sun as a
way of keeping the boat cool.
As a compromise to cut down costs, if you do want light
topsides, one possibihty is epoxy
below the waterline, and
tar
epoxide resin and polyurethane above. But I don't like this
solution, because the join will be vulnerable; and the
waterline is where you want the most protection. No, I
just
am afraid that a 'yachty' appearance just necessitates
'yachty' prices, so epoxide resin all over is the proper answer.
But plain or fancy, epoxy can give a protection that will last
almost indefinitely provided it is looked after. So in the long
run it will probably work out cheaper than conventional
high-build paint systems. And the protection afforded will be
far greater.
In England International Paints supply both systems:
Epoxy Tar or Epoxide Resin Composition followed by 70^
Polyurethane. However, it pays to shop around, as epoxy
paints are produced for industrial and big-ship use, and these
are much cheaper. We discovered that 'Protecton Epilux' 5
Pitch Epoxy Coating (from Berger Paints) would serve our
purpose, although it was sold as a general protective coating
for industry. 'Protecton',which is less than half the price of
International Epoxy Tar, went on very easily and compara-
tively quickly, which was a great advantage as I was trying to
bat it on between blasting sessions. And it dried almost
instantaneously so that there was no risk of the rust from
subsequent blasting getting stuck into tacky paint. The
International epoxy tar system on the other hand does not
use a thin primer so takes longer to apply and to cure. The
result of our efforts seemed fine the next time we slipped, and

247
 OWN A STEEL BOAT
I have no hesitation in recommending 'Protecton'. And my
decision was backed up recently by a well-known designer,
who told me that he now recommends Berger paints because
they are so much cheaper. Incidentally, Berger Epoxide
Resins and conventional high-build paints (Little Ship
brand) are also considerably cheaper than those of Inter-
national.
Conventional Oil-based paints should not be used with
epoxies, because they react together and the conventional
paint will wrinkle up and eventually detach. I would recom-
mend epoxies all over the outside, with oil-based paints being
reserved only for the inside. And here I don't think there is
anything to beat International Bare Plate Primer. This really
seems to give a protection that alternative versions just don't
appear to achieve. Why not epoxy inside as well? I would use
epoxy inside, on a new boat, but to be effective, epoxy paint
really needs blast-prepared steel. It can be worse than con-
ventional paints without this treatment. And, unless the hull
is bare, blasting inside is almost impossible.

Hot Zinc Spraying

Hot zinc spraying is in my opinion the ultimate protection for
a steel boat. In this process, zinc is melted by an oxy-
acetylene flame, and sprayed on the plate with a special type
of gun. This gives an immensely tough coating which 9an be
hammered and scraped with little adverse effect. The coating
is itself normally protected by a layer of paint. But if the paint
is chipped, the zinc prevents the usual ugly rust streaks from
forming, and stops the corrosion from creeping under the
surrounding paintwork. The chips can be touched in at
leisure, largely for appearance's sake, as the zinc itself will

last unprotected for some considerable time before wasting

away.
However, perhaps the greatest advantage of all is the
galvanic protection that zinc spraying offers below the

248
 CORROSION PROTECTION
waterline. Although it is sometimes argued that the zinc
underwater will rapidly be depleted by electrolysis, this is
really true only if there is plenty of bronze about and no p^int
protection. Andany event, better the zinc to waste away
in
than the steel. If the zinc coating is damaged and bare steel is
exposed, the surrounding zinc will be sacrificed first. So the
steel could in fact be left unprotected underwater for some
time before being in danger.
So why is zinc spraying rarely done? The reason can't be
cost alone, as expensive boats seldom get the treatment
either. One argument is that modern epoxies have solved the
problem of corrosion anyway. While I agree that epoxies are
good, any paint can be damaged, and once it is damaged,
creeping rust begins, whereas zinc has self-healing proper-
ties. I think that the real reason for the infrequent use of zinc
spraying is again the lack of familiarity with steel boats in the

UK. And borne out by the fact that zinc spraying is

this is
much more common in Holland and Belgium, where they
have lived with steel boats for a lot longer.
Metco Ltd are one of the leading suppliers of metal spray-
ing equipment, and were very helpful in providing informa-
tion about the process. Sprayed metal coatings can be either
anodic or cathodic to the steel. Anodic metals corrode
through electrolysis, whereas cathodic metals are protected.
Accordingly if steel is oversprayed with a cathodic metal,

damage to the coating will result in the rapid deterioration

of the underlying anodic steel. Hence we can deduce that
cathodic coatings are not the ones for us (although they are
used for certain applications).

249
 OWN A STEEL BOAT
TABLE OF GALVANIC SERIES OF METALS
Anodic (corroded) end
Magnesium
Zinc
Aluminium
Cadmium
Steel or iron
Cast iron
Chromium-iron (active)
18/8 Chromium-nickel-iron (active)
18/8/3 Chromium-nickel-molybdenum- Stainless steels
iron (active)
Lead-tin solders
Lead
Tin
Nickel (active)
Inconel (active)
Brasses
Copper
Copper-nickel alloys
Monel
Silver solder
Nickel (passive)
Inconel (passive)
Chromium-iron (passive)
18/8 Chromium-nickel-iron (passive)
18/8/3 Chromium-nickel-molybdenum- Stainless steels
iron (passive)
Silver
Graphite
Gold
Platinum

Cathodic (protected) end

note: As can be seen, there are several varieties of stainless

250
 CORROSION PROTECTION
Steel, and each type can have difTerent percentages of the
alloys, giving them a different electrolytic potential. Some of
the stainless steels are anodic to commonly used metals (e ".
bronze). BEWARE OF STAINLESS BELOW THE
WATERLINE.
However, only a fev^ metals are anodic to steel (see table,
p. 250), and of those available, only aluminium and zinc are
suitable on practical and expense grounds. Both make excel-
lent anodic coatings, and there is very little to choose
between them in terms of ease of application or expense. Mr
L.J. Walters of Metco Ltd, in an article on hot zinc spraying
in the Tna.ga.zme Anti- Corrosion, states 'sprayed zinc coatings
are not suitable for sea-water immersion except in very
specialized applications. Corrosion of zinc in both full and
half tide immersion is rapid and non-uniform, and when bare
steel is exposed it apparently receives no galvanic protection
after the first few years.' However, this is to be read in an
industrial context, and yachts should never go 'a few years'
without a hull inspection, so this amount of protection should
be amply long enough for us. And although aluminium had
greater impermeability and insolubility, it doesn't offer as
good galvanic protection as zinc. And this is important. So in
spite of Mr Walters' comments, zinc would seem to be the
best choice, especially if it is itself protected by overcoating.
Zinc can be left unprotected, but it is far better painted in

order to reduce permeabihty and to prevent anodic wastage.

Metco recommend an epoxy system, but one school of
thought suggests that this is unnecessary as the zinc has
already encapsulated the steel, so that the much cheaper
oil-based paints can be used, thereby reducing the relative
cost of the total job. be that antifouling below the
So it may
waterUne and a conventional paint scheme above will be
sufficient.
Well, what about the cost? There seems to be a large
disparity, even discounting relative travelling times of con-

251
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

tractors. So it would pay to shop around. There are plenty of

firms to choose from, as zinc spraying is a standard industrial
process. As a rough guide, the cost of spraying would be fairly
similar to the cost of grit blasting. But it would seem best to
hire the same firm to blast clean and to zinc spray, as a
powerful compressor is needed for both jobs, and the spray-
ing must be done immediately after the blast cleaning.
Preparation is critical. Only blast cleaning will do, and
even then the work has to be done to a very high standard.
(British Standard 4232/1, or the Swedish standard SA 3 are
often quoted.) And only pure metal should be used (zinc of
99*9 P^r cent purity to British Standard 1475).
The sprayed coating cools in a few seconds and provides
instant protection. However, it is important to spray the
metal on thick enough so that patches are not missed, or only
thinly coated. Consequently, all areas should be sprayed
with at least two passes. British Standard 2569 lays down the
specification for anodic coverings, but it is up to the pur-
chaser to state the thickness required. Some boats which are
advertised as having zinc sprayed protection have only been
flash sprayed for cheapness. So it is important to discover just
how thick the coating is. Absolute minimum for a zinc coat-
ing would be O'003in., but 0'005 to o*oo6in. would be far
better.

Zinc-Rich Paints
Another system which has retained its popularity for a long
time is that of zinc-enriched paints, often known as cold
galvanizing. META in France treat all their boats this way,
and the results are certainly impressive. Jo jama's sister ship,
Vega, was hauled out at META's yard when I visited there
once. She had just come back from ten years in the West
Indies, and although the paint was terrible, there was not a
trace of rust anywhere. I was convinced. But zinc paint is not
cheap, although it compares quite favourably with other

252
 CORROSION PROTECTION
epoxies. META have perfected their version Metagrip (for-
merly Dox- Anode) over a long period of time now, and there
are a lot of rustless boats around to recommend it. It is
obtainable from META
direct. There is some debate as to
whether the Metagrip should be overpainted below the
waterline. Bernard Moitessier left the underwater paint
bare, and claimed that the bare zinc acted as good anti-
fouling. (See Bernard Moitessier, Cape Horn: The Logical
Route.) However, he does stress that there should be no
bronze fittings below the waterline. On the other hand

META overpaint after allowing the zinc to weather for a

couple of weeks, and this would seem to be safer.
In Britain, Expandite Ltd, who make the well-known
Galvafroid, also produce a two-part, epoxy-based Galvafroid
EV, which is intended for professional use and is not to be
found in shops.
However, good though they are, these epoxy-zinc paints
do not give the same protection as hot zinc spraying because
the paint's electrical bonding is not so good. This is under-
standable, because each particle of zinc is surrounded by an
insulating layer of resin.

Chlorinated Rubber

Chlorinated rubber is another preparation which has its

advocates. This tough, leathery substance offers substantial

resistance to mechanical abrasion, and complete impermea-
biUty. The steel yaicht Jonelle was treated with chlorinated
rubber as a protection against electrolysis below the

waterline, and the owner was delighted with it. The surface
preparation was done purely by scraping and wire brushing,
and the cUmatic conditions during application were not
ideal. Although initially the rubber hung in curtains and did
not look very impressive, apparendy the whole coating
shrunk on to the steel and in a short space of time looked
extremely smooth. And in the process it acquired a grip on

253
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

the Steel far exceeding that of paint.

Limpetite is a derivative of the same system. This product
was originally designed for the ends of chemical outfall pipes,
where neither galvanized nor stainless steel would cope with
the scouring effect of the outfall mixed with sand. It has
tremendous resistance to mechanical abrasion, is totally
impervious to water and has immense grip on the steel. I

don't personally know of any steel boats that have been

treated with Limpetite, but it was used on the beautifully
renovated wooden smack Gladys in order to protect her from
the dreaded Teredo worm on a trip to tropical waters. And
the owner was extremely pleased.

Cheap Paints
The traditional treatment, red lead, deserves a few words.
Once, most steel boats were painted with it. Now it is

generally not well regarded. Below the water it saponifies

and gradually detaches, then washes away. Above, it takes
longer to dry than gloss topcoats. So this makes the whole lot
unstable.
Is there a cheap way out? I don't think there is. And we
have certainly looked for one, wasting a lot of paint in the
process. With proper protection from the start, a steel boat
requires no more maintenance than a two- or three-year-old
resinglass craft after the gel coat has aged to the point where
it starts to need cosmetic attention. With the inadequate

protection afforded by 'economical' paints, you will have a

constant battle against ugly rust streaks and corroding plates.
If foryour own good reasons, you must make do without
proper preparation, and that means abrasive blasting, the
only stuff that seems to stick below the waterline is good,
old-fashioned black varnish. And this is so sticky it clings to
anything. But it seems to need doing regularly; it cracks after
a while, and antifouling isn't very happy over the top. It is at
best a temporary measure, but it does work, and it is cheap if

254
 CORROSION PROTECTION
you are hard up. works on the topsides too, but is really
It

suitable only for work-boats as it looks terrible and can be

very messy. However, conventional high-build oil paints ^re
OK above the waterline provided you keep your paint pot
handy all the time.

Maintenance
For maintenance, as well as complete painting, surface prep-
aration is still critical and it is important to ensure that all
traces of grease and rust are removed, with any loose paint
that has started to flake. The angle-grinder used with a
sanding disc is useful for cleaning back really nasty areas, but
is a bit vicious for run of the mill maintenance. Rubber-
backed sanding discs in the electric drill are ideal for produc-
ing a good clean surface with feathered edges. Coarse-grade
wet and dry sand paper (grade 120) used wet, or production
paper (grade 80 or less) will do equally well if electricity is not
available. Ordinary sandpaper is useless as it does not last
five minutes. Sanding may not remove all the rust if pitting

has occurred, and it is essential to dig out all loose rust

otherwise it will react with the good metal and eventually
bubble away the paint. It may be necessary to chip and
scrape it away with a gouging tool. Chemical solutions such
as 'JenoHte' can be useful in clearing up areas of pitting, but
in my experience they don't work well on any but the least
affected areas. It seems best to remove all traces of such

solutions before overpainting.

Stainless Steel

I have often heard the comment that would

stainless steel

make the perfect boatbuilding material if only it were cheap

enough. However, most 'authorities' to whom I have spoken
have warned me of the dangers of using stainless steel any-
where on a boat, and especially under water. So I now tend to
mistrust stainless for any purpose on a boat where strength is

255
 —

OWN A STEEL BOAT

a requirement as opposed to pure decoration.

The problem is 'shielding' corrosion —a sophisticated
form of electrolysis. If a part of a piece of stainless is shielded
from oxygen, while other parts are exposed, then an electrical
current can be set up and electrolysis can begin. The critical
factor is the amount of oxygen over the surface of the steel,
and this is why one often hears that stainless has to 'breathe'.
It doesn't, but one part must not be starved of oxygen while

another has it freely available. This is known as 'oxygen

differential', and its presence can result in the frighteningly
fast deterioration of the metal. The deterioration is usually
local, quite often at a crevice and seldom detectable until too
late. So if you do use would seem prudent to have
stainless, it

it only above the waterline. Even then fittings should be

located so as to avoid an area where puddles could collect.

And every fitting should be attached in such a way as to avoid
the tiniest crevice which could possibly trap water.

Cor-Ten
I have mentioned this type of semi-high-tensile steel as a
possible answer to corrosion in Chapter 7, when discussing
choice of steel-plate. Please see page 107.

Conclusion

Corrosion protection and electrolysis are immensely compli-

cated subjects, and even the experts disagree, and give con-
flicting advice. Whole books have been written on corrosion
(see T. Howard Rogers, Marine Corrosion) and there is even a
magazine on the subject Anti- Corrosion, mentioned earlier.
I have sifted through the available advice, sorted out some of

the areas of common ground, and qualified this with my own

experience. But you will have to make up your own mind as
to what is best for you. I would say that a zinc-sprayed boat,
epoxy-painted, would have the best protection current tech-
nology can provide. However, someone will probably even
disagree with that!
 i6

Repairs and Alterations

The ease with which repairs can be made on a steelboat must

rate as one of the big advantages of the material, and it is
especially an advantage for the impoverished second-hand
buyer (such as me!). This ease of repair stems from the high
local strength of steel; a damaged piece can be cut out and a
new piece inserted with virtually no loss of strength. Con\ er-
sions can readily be carried out for the same reason. None of
thisis the case with GRP, ferro or wood. With GRP and ferro

you may never be able to regain the original strength after

damage, and a damaged wooden boat will probably require a
substantial rebuild.
Most of the principles that we have looked at under weld-
ing and construction apply when it comes to repairs or
alterations, but a few extra ones apply as well.

Renewing Plate
Cutting out and replacing plate is in fact a very straight-
forward job, which can be done afloat if the damaged area/
corroded area is above the waterline. For cutting, I much
prefer to use the cutting disc in the grinder, as there is much
less risk of plate distortion, the jobis cleaner and the grinder

can readily be carried as part of the ship's equipment.

Let us start with the simplest type of repair. For example,
Abraxis had a vent on her topsides, supposedly for the air
conditioning unit (no sign of that though!). The vent had to
go, as it was rusty and let in water, and its decease left a hole
Gin X i2in. in the side of the hull. This was easy to fill as
it was virtually flat at this point. First we cut a hardboard

257
 OWN A STEEL BOAT
template to the size of the hole. Then was used
the template
to cut a piece of ^in. plate to size, leaving a slight gap all
around for better penetration. The plate was bevelled around
the edge and tacked into place. It is best to tack at intervals
all around the plate before you start to weld up, or there is

serious risk of distortion. If the hole is larger than a foot or so

square, to prevent distortion you may need to tack bar to the
new plate and to the hull as in Fig. 66.

Tack on one edge of bar only so that the bar can be knocked
against the weld to break it.

Fig 66 Fitting a new plate.

Small patches, or ones with little curvature can be put on

between tides, andwould probably risk cutting the necess-

I

ary hole in the boat. However, it is certainly preferable to

RUBBER

FELT WASHER
Fig 67 Damage control device.

258
 REPAIRS AND ALTERATIONS
haul out, SO that the repair doesn't need to be rushed and can
be properly painted. If the job is to be done between tides a
damage control device such as in Fig. 67 would be a usdul
precaution (we carry these in case any of the portholes stave
The plywood is
in). placed over the outside of the hull and
drawn up flush by tightening up the bar of wood on the
inside.

Bending Plates
If the plate to be replaced curved then some means of
is

bending will be required. The plate-bending techniques that

we looked at in Chapter 10 will be appropriate, but another
version specific to repairs can also usefully be tried. The
principle is best explained by the photo sequence overleaf of
the tool in use on Vic 32. It is very simple and quick to make
out of scrap steel, and it is effective and powerful, enabling
Ain. plate to be pulled around quite substantial curves. The
basis of the tool is a threaded rod poked through a hole in a
short piece of angle. The angle acts as a universal joint, and is

securely welded to the existing hull plating adjacent to where

the plate is to be bent. Next, a piece of girder section with a
hole in it is slipped over the threaded rod so as to clamp up
against the plate. The lazy end of the girder is packed out
from the existing plating and this helps to exert tremendous
pressure when the nut is tightened with the home-made
wrench.
It is often useful to tack bars across the inside of the hole
so that the template and then the plate can be offered up
without shoving it right through! (This may be a good idea
even with flat plates.) With the plate cut to the right
sizefrom the template, tack along one side of the plate so
that the curvature is away from the tack as in Fig. 68.
Then progressively tack on one side then the other while
puUing the plate home with the appropriate bending tool.
If there is excessive double curvature, straightforward

259
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

64, 65 and 66 Tool used for bending on Vic ^2.

bending will not work as the plate will be distorted inwards

or outwards even if it can be forced home at all. Shrinkage or
cutting as discussed in Chapter 10 may work, but it is prob-
ably simpler to plate up the area of double curvature in

260

«
 REPAIRS AND ALTERATIONS

Fig 68 Plate bending.

narrow strips. These will twist to the required shape much

more readily than a large plate.

Concrete Ballast

Many boats, including ours, have their ballast cemented into

the bilge; this can make it harder to cut out a damaged area
of plate. The only tool for this job is the grinder fitted with a
cutting disc. Gas cutting will not work well as the concrete
will prevent the molten metal from being blown through.
The cutting disc can be made to cut out the damaged plate
neatly and quickly, and will leave edges which are suitable
for welding. However, the seal between cement and steel will

be destroyed, and will need to be re-created in some way to

prevent the plate from rusting behind. The traditional
treatment is to coat the back of the plate with white lead
before installation. This does not harden and will prevent the
back of the plate rusting should any of the welds develop a
weep. But every precaution should be taken to ensure that
the welds are as perfect as possible, as they can't be double
welded from the inside. This means careful preparation of
the butts, so that there is an even gap and proper bevelling.

Doubling
To use a doubUng plate is a doubtful practice, and many
surveyors will not accept it. There are a number of reasons

261
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

for this. It is not possible to weld on both sides of a seam, so

perfect exterior welds are necessary in order to avoid leaks.
And the existing plate to which you will be welding may be
suspect if doubling is required, so the strength of the welds
may Another disadvantage is that rust can
also be suspect.
form behind the plate, and as rust expands it can eventually
break the welds away. Weight will also be considerably
increased by the use of doubling plates, so all in all it would
seem better to avoid them.
Cutting out the old plates and accurately templating the
new ones, while not difficult, will take longer than simply
sticking new plate on top. But in my view such extra time is
worth it, as doubling smacks of a bodged job and once you

67 An Al Mason 45 with bilge plates cut away, ready for fitting

anew. The was eaten away paper thin because of six years
steel

of drying out every tide in a mud berth with no maintenance

in that time.

262
 REPAIRS AND ALTERATIONS
Start bodging on a boat it is difficult to stop. However, for
replating large boats, such as ex-tradcrs, it may be imposs-
ible to avoid doubling, as the lime and expense oi'^utting om
willprobably just not be worthwhile. And doublini^ does
mean that the job can be done between tides, thereby savini^
expensive shpping costs. On large boats, the extra weight ol
the doubHng plates will probably not be significant and can
usually be compensated for by removing some of the ballast.
Indeed the extra ballast may even be welcome on ex-traders
which seldom handle at their best unladen. Where doubling
is decided upon it will be very necessary to ensure that the

plate is sound where the doubler plates are to be attached.

However plate usually wastes in specific areas, such as on the
waterline, next to bronze underwater fittings, or under the
engine. So normally it will only be these areas that require
doubling and the surrounding plate will usually be
sufficiently strong. In order to attach the new plate more
securely to Vic J2 Nick Walker (see Chapter 2) cut lots of
small holes in the existing plate before doubling began. Then
after the new plates were in position he welded old to new
from the inside of the ship through these holes.
The traditional way of preventing rust behind the plate is
to coat it in white lead before offering it up, and this was the
technique used by a professional yard of my acquaintance
during the doubling of the big iron schooner (now ketch)
Make. Alternatively you can just paint bitumen on the back of
the plate as was done on Vic 32.

Doubling on the Inside

We have in fact doubled one oiAbraxis' plates on the inside.

Aft of the rudder post, a floor without a limber hole had

caused an accumulation of water which over the years had
resulted in a rusty patch about 6 inches in diameter. This
combined with electrolysis on the other side (near the prop)
led to a leak in one spot when the scale was chipped away. I

263
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

drilled the hole out to the size of a bolt — water every-

where — and I then quickly screwed the bolt down as tight as
possible and stopped most of the water. A little patience
this
enabled me to weld around the bolt and stop the leak. Ideally
the plate should have been cut out in that area and new plate
welded in, and I promised myself I would do it one day, but
for the time being I cut out iin. plate to fit over the rusted area
and tacked on the inside (cutting a hole for
this to the plating
the bolt head). Suitable tacking and beating with a hammer
was enough to bend the iin. plate to the curve of the hull. I
then welded it up to the good steel surrounding the rusty
patch, making sure that the welds were as perfect as I could
make them. The next time we dried the boat out I cut the bolt
off flush to the outside of the hull, put a weld over the top and
painted. I wasn't proud of the job, but it did get me out of the
trouble, and would appear to be perfectly strong enough.
One proviso: I wouldn't advise too much welding on the
inside of the plates below the waterline without taking the
boat out of the water. The danger is that after welding the
steel will be cooled very rapidly by the outside water and can
become brittle with a risk of cracking.
It is perfectly possible toweld up leaks with water seeping
in, provided the steel is reasonably thick, although it is not

good practice. The secret is to turn the amperage higher than

normal and weld round the edge of the leak. If you are lucky
the heat will be enough to dry the seepage sufficiently for a
reasonable weld. If not, build up around the edge of the
seepage and when it is just stopped, put a broad weld over the
top.

Riveted Boats
If you have acquired a riveted boat, you will quite often find
that some of the rivets are weeping. There is a temptation to
try and weld these up from the inside, but bear in mind that
the heat off the welder will expand the steel at the join and

264
 REPAIRS AND ALTERATIONS
that you could end up chasing the leak Ibr a long way. It is
best to weld up such leaky rivets from the outside, but even
then keep the heat input to a minimum and run a bead down
the seam for some distance away from the rivet which is
leaking, and then seal with a good quality paint, preferably
an epoxy.

Iron Boats

You will sometimes come across an iron ex-trading boat, and

these can represent good value. Usually of riveted construc-
tion, iron boats were not built much after the 1930s. With the
popularization of mild welding techniques permitted
steel,

much more rapid construction than slow hand-ri\eting, so

ironwent out of favour. Iron is difficult to weld, as the area in
the region of the weld can become brittle. However, I do
know of two iron sailing barges that have been successfully
doubled with steel plates. Ordinary rods can be used for the
job, but better results will be gained with the special rods
discussed in Chapter 4 (p. 62).
Iron boats do last extremely well. They are nowhere near
so prone to corrosion as their modern steel counterparts and
I have seen several iron barges in as good a condition as when

they were first launched. If you come across one she will be
well worth considering.

Under-Water Epoxy
A useful temporary repair material to carry on board is Aqua
Poxy. This can be used below the waterline while still afloat,
as it bonds strongly in the presence of water. It bonds to any
damp surface because it dries out moisture as it cures. The
brand name mentioned is obtainable in the US from Tarth-
ang Technics. A similar product called Plastic Putty is avail-
able in England and is manufactured by Blue Peter Marine.
It is also useful to have a bag of cement on board, as this

can often be used for a temporary repair while afloat. I know

265
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

of at least two boats (who shall be nameless) that were held

afloat for the purposes of sale, purely by hardboard and
cement.
 17

Instrumentation

Special considerations are necessary when it comes to put-

ting the instruments into a steel boat. The compass is the
most affected, and can suffer real problems if care is not
taken.

Compasses
Most big steel ships use gyro compasses, and these will be
freefrom the magnetic interference of the hull. But they are
bulky and very expensive, and so are totally out of the
question for the boats in our size-range. Accordingly, mag-
netic compasses will have to be used.
Most steel boats have a strong magnetic pull in N-S or
W
E— directions, usually due to magnetism set up in 'the boat
when building. You may well ask, what does it matter if it can
be corrected, but it is not quite as simple as that for the
following reasons:

1 Excessive deviation is extremely difficult to correct

satisfactorily without making the compass sluggish.
2 Heeling error is the deviation which arises because the
boat heels and shifts its magnetic field relative to the

compass and the direction of travel. It can be split

between 'permanent' error and 'soft iron' error. Perma-
nent error can be eliminated using vertical corrector
magnets but will change if the ship goes well into the
hemisphere opposite to the one for which it has been
adjusted. 'Soft iron' error changes with the course and
latitude. It can be corrected for one latitude, but not for

all.

267
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

3 Deviation in steel boats is not a static problem. It can

—
change for a variety of reasons lying for too long in one
direction in a marina or ashore; alterations made to the
steel structure; grit blasting or chipping; electric cables
strung across the boat for a long time; even being on
passage in the same direction for a long time; all can
send ship's magnetic compasses crazy.
4 More of a problem to the voyaging steel boat is the fact
that deviation changes across the world. In particular
when going from the Northern Hemisphere her com-
passes will need to be reswung.
5 Finally, if you have an enclosed steel wheelhouse it

can be difficult to persuade the magnetic compass to

perform satisfactorily inside.

Deviation isan immensely complex subject, and I have

only sketched over some of the main points. For a good, but
lengthy exposition, see The Complete Coastal Navigator by
Charles H. Cotter.
However, electronic magnetic repeater compasses are
available, and in so far as the master compass can be sited at
the null point on the boat (normally on the centre-line,
roughly amidships), and it can be kept well away from her
magnetic field, the effects of the magnetic field can be minim-
ized. Accordingly the problems we have looked at will be less
significant. Most systems can be made to power at least two
repeater units, so one can be sighted at the inside steering
positions and one outside. Perhaps the best-known make in
England is 'Neco', made by Neco Marine Ltd. A slightly
more expensive version is made by Cetrek Ltd.
We have a 'Neco' and it does an extremely good job. Sited
lo feet up the mast, it is out of the strongest pull of the steel
hull, and before correction it gave only about 14 degrees
deviation on East and West headings and virtually none
—
when going North or South this compared to the 45
268
 —

INSTRUMENTATION

68 'Neco' electronic magnetic repeater compass on mast ofAbraxis.

degrees on the Danforth second compass sited down on deck.

The electronic repeater is easy to read, and the movable grid
makes it very easy to see the course to be maintained.
There are disadvantages, of course, and a big one is the
initial expense. More important perhaps than the cost is the
fact that it is risky to rely solely on a repeater because of the
danger of electronic failure. Accordingly, a properly sited
conventional compass must be carried. (Two compasses are
a wise precaution anyway.) The electrical drain of the
repeater is very slight o-y amps. But be careful about
running the batteries right down unwittingly because that
can cause the compass to give very strange readings. A more
technical problem is the very shght delay between the master
compass registering the course and its repetition on deck.
This doesn't normally matter much exceptwhen the boat is
being thrown around a lot, for example when motoring in a
choppy sea left after a gale. Then the needle wanders, and it
can become very difficult to steer a compass course, although
thiscan be in part alleviated by scrupulous care in making
sure that the gimbals of the master compass are moving

269
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

69 Danforth 'Corsair' magnetic compass mounted on

wood block on Abraxis.

freely. A quite different problem is the danger of electronic

equipment becoming rapidly outdated, with the consequent
difficultyand expense of having repairs done.
We did manage to get our Danforth 'Corsair' magnetic
compass to work entirely satisfactorily at the outside steering
position. We discovered the trick of mounting it on a solid
block of wood 6 inches high. And this substantially cut down
the deviation. It also. gave somewhere to screw the corrector
magnets. It is best to mount the compass as high as you can,
so as to keep it as far as possible from the ship's magnetic
field.

As a general point when planning instrumentation,

remember that all the normal rules about the proximity of
instruments to the compass apply especially to steel boats. I
like to make sure that all radios, speakers, depth sounders,
autopilot, magnetic sensors etc. are at least 3 feet, but
preferably 6 feet, away from the compass.

270
 INSTRUMENTATION
Before we leave the compass, just a word about the hand-
held sort. They are difBcult to use on a steel boat because the

deviation will change, depending whereabouts you are

standing. We did some experiments and found one spot,
hanging out over the stern, where deviation was down to
5
degrees in East-West heading, and nothing on North-South.
(Most boats will have such a null point on the centre-line
roughly amidships.) Good enough for a rough check if we
make sure we stand in the right place. Better, though, is to
use the hand compass not to get position lines, but to obtain
position circles. If you take your bearings of terrestrial objects
from the same position on the boat and you maintain a
constant course, the deviation in the bearings will be con-
stant. Accordingly, while the bearings themselves will be
wrong the angles between them will be correct, and if you
have three objects in the shore this will give you two position
circles and you will be at their intersection. Reed's Nautical
Almanac gives a full description of this method of position
fixing, which I would say is essential to the steel-boat

navigator. It can equally well be used with horizontal sextant

angles or with the ship's compass and a pelorus.

Radio
persuade portable radios to work inside a steel
It is difficult to

hull. Our Hitachi just wouldn't do it. But its replacement, a

National Panasonic GX.600, can usually be coaxed to per-
form. The National is, in fact, a remarkable radio and is the
only one we have found for under £100 that will cover almost
the entire short-wave band for receiving time signals world-
wide (2-4-30 megacycles). It also has a direction-finding
ferrite rod aerial, but that is not of much use on a steel boat.

The Brookes & Gatehouse 'Homer Heron', the Electronic

Laboratories Seafix and the Hitachi portable, all have this
system. And none is suitable for a steel boat.
For this purpose an enclosed loop is essential and Brookes

271
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

70 A 'Woodson' DF loop.

& Gatehouse of Lymington recommend a very satisfactory

version called the 'Woodson Loop'. It seems expensive for a
comparatively simple piece of equipment, but it is easy to
install. And the only other loop readily obtainable in
England is the very sophisticated and even more expensive
Sailor version. The 'Woodson' can incidentally be used with
other than the B. & G. set. The loop will give an RDF
bearing relative to the ship's head. It is comparatively
difficult to use in practice, because the null and the ship's
head have to be read simultaneously —
not easy in a choppy
sea. For this reason I do not rely on accurate position fixing
with RDF but find it very useful for rough position checks
and, in particular, for homing.
Accurate installation of the loop is essential, to ensure that
the North point on the loop's compass card lines up with the

272
 INSTRUMENTATION
ship's head. Any inaccuracy here will be reflected in liie
resulting bearing. Ideally the installation should he rali-
brated by taking bearings of one distant station at pcinis
reladve to the boat's head equivalent to all the cardinal and
way any efi'ect oithe steel struc-
intercardinal points. In this
ture on the radio waves can be extracted by plotting the
bearing noted at each point of the ship's head. A closed
metallic loop around the boat, such as steel guard rails can
have a powerful distorting effect. It should be interrupted on
both sides by some insulating device.
We ourselves have the Brookes & Gatehouse Homer radio,
which we use with the 'Woodson Loop'. But for ordinary
medium frequency reception a separate aerial is necessary.
And the correct aerial installation is essential. Many people
use shrouds for this purpose. A shroud being used as an aerial
has to be properly insulated from the rest of the boat, or the
interference will be impossible. Brookes & Gatehouse supply
special thimbles, but even with these we had trouble using a
shroud, and abandoned that in favour of using thin insulated
aerial wire taped to the backstay. This has produced a satis-

factory performance. Even so, the receiver seems particularly

susceptible to electrical interference, especially from fluores-
cent hghts, even with the latter well insulated from the steel.

It doesn't seem to be relevant how far the lights are away

from the radio; so for this reason and the fact that fluorescent
Hghts of all types appear to have a fairly limited life, we have
largely gone back to filament bulbs, with parafBn as a
standby.

Radio Transmitters
We find the 'Seavoice' VHF transmitter to be a most useful
navigadonal tool, especially when cruising in strange waters.
Our aerial is carried on top of the main mast, about 48 feet

above the water. This gives us an incredible receiving range

of over 100 miles and transmissions to shore stations of 60/70

273
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

miles. Reception is excellent and I attribute this largely to the

fact that the aerial wire is very heavily insulated (UNI Radio
67) and there are no joins in the cable. The only thing that
worried me is that if we lose the mast, a time when the radio
may be needed to shout for help, the aerial would be out of
action. For this reason I have fitted a whip aerial to the stern
for use in emergency, but the latest version of Seavoice has its
own aerial to meet this situation.
Many other makes are available, but the 'Seavoice' is, at
the time of writing, the cheapest and is extremely reliable.

Electric Autopilots

Electric autopilots for the boats in our size range will

inevitably be based on a magnetic compass, so that all the
problems looked at earlier on in the chapter will also hold
true here. So it is important to look for a system where the
compass can be mounted remotely, out of the boat's
magnetic field.
Neco Marine and Cetrek (both mentioned earlier).
Marine Autopilots Ltd (Pinta), and Sharp & Co. Ltd all
make suitable systems for wheel steering. My own preference
would be for a 'Pinta' as I have heard nothing but favourable
reports, and they certainly appear to be a robust unit. Eric
Hiscock has a 'Pinta' fitted to Wanderer IV and praises it
highly.
The compasses on autopilot are not quite so critical as the
steering sort because it is only relative bearings that count.
So some deviation will not matter, provided the magnetic
field is not so strong as to cause a null either side of the
heading sensor. This would obviously prevent course
changes from registering and the autopilot would accord-
ingly fail work properly.
to
Several makes of tiller-drive autopilots are also available,
but take care to choose one with a remcfte compass. Sharp's
and Nautech Ltd. produce a suitable unit, as do Electronic

274
 INSTRUMENTATION
Laboratories Ltd. We
have an Electronic Laboratories
'Sea-Course', modified to power our 'Hydrovane' wind steer-
ing gear.

Logs
Many types of electronic log are now available, but my own
preference is for the Doppler variety of which Space Age
Electronics produce an excellent and economical version.
The Doppler is ideally suited to steel as the transceiver
units can be fitted to the inside of the hull plating, simply
secured with plastic padding or similar. No through-hull
fittings, so nothing to leak, and the installation is done in a

very short time. This can only be done on steel or aluminium

(or with a bit of luck GRP) as wood and ferro do not allow the
sound waves to pass through (they require through-hull
fittings). These units are very accurate once calibrated and

the 0-8 knot speedo-scale demonstrates slight changes of

speed — useful for sail trimming.
I prefer the Doppler to electromagnetic logs (such as the
Electronic Laboratories version or the Brookes & Gatehouse
'Harrier') because of the risk of this type of unit exaggerating
the effect of electrolysis. The Doppler works by sound waves,
so does not set up electric currents within the steel hull. This
advantage is in addition to the obvious one of being able to fit
the unit afloat without the necessity of cutting holes in the
boat.
 i8

Buying Second-hand
or for Home completion

Assessing a Second-hand Steel Boat

What do you look for when buying a second-hand steel boat?

When we first went to look at Abraxis^ we hadn't a clue. We
were lucky, although we might easily not have been. So here
are a few points to watch out for, that we -have discovered
subsequently. I'm not suggesting that these ideas will be a
substitute for a professional survey, but they might save you
survey money on unsuitable boats.
You will need buy out of the water, with
to see a potential
any growth removed so as to get a good look. And the first
thing to look at will be the anodes. These can give a good clue
as to the diligence of the owner, and accordingly the likely
condition of the hull. Are there any anodes at all? If so, are
they wasted? There will probably be a white powdery sub-
stance on the surface of the anode, and this should be chipped
back to bright zinc. The white powder is depleted zinc which
offers no further protection.
If the anodes are gone, and if the paintwork is rough, then
the hull may be suspect. But not necessarily. Fortunately, it
is not difficult to test the strength of a steel hull. Whereas with

ferro or GRP, the strength largely depends on the skill of the

builder, with steel . . . well, the plate is either there, or it isn't.

And if it isn't, you can tell that with a hammer. I would

always go on an inspection armed with a light, round-headed

hammer^ and a marline spike: the hammer to tap around the hull
for soft spots,and the spike to dig out pitting. Your seller
might be reluctant to let you loose with these weapons, but he
hasn't got much of a case if the paint is flaking or non-

276
 BUYING SECOND-HAND OR FOR HOME COMPLETION
existent. And if the paint
good condition, with no sign of
is in
scahng underneath, then you have some assurance thai the
plating is sound. This is so, because wasling metal vviil
quickly lift the paint off the hull. So
if I were confronted with

a well-painted hull, well protected with anodes, and if she

were what I wanted, I would probably go ahead
witli the
professional survey (subject to a few other points mentioned
later).
Assuming we can get to work with our hammer, then the
first areas to look at are those around the propeller and
around any brojize underwater fittings where electrolysis is
most hkely. Listen for changes in note as you tap. A change
might simply be due to the stiffening of a frame, but it might
indicate a soft spot. In general a drop in note, or a soggy note
could indicate a dodgy plate. But active electrolysis can also
be detected visually. Look out for a rust-coloured crumbly
growth on the surface after the boat has dried out. Scrape this
off, and you will probacy find a black crumbly surface

underneath. Take the marline spike to this and dig away,

until you have cleaned out the wasted steel and revealed the
pit. Then check the maximum depth of the pits and compare

this with the plate thickness (a useful depth check tool is the
sort used for checking car tyre treads). About the maximum
wastage normally reckoned acceptable is 25 per cent, but it
clearly depends on the original thickness of the plate. And
remember that pitting will necessitate grit blasting in order
to clean up the surface sufficiently to get paint to stick. While
isolated pitting can be cleaned up and painted, extensive
pittingbeyond 25 per cent may well necessitate repairs.
However, the need to make repairs is not necessarily a
reason for rejecting an otherwise satisfactory boat; it is
simply a reason for reducing the price.

The traditional way of testing plate thickness is to 'drill

test'. Normally at least half a dozen holes will be drilled in the

hull, with most of them at the suspect areas. After testing, the

277
 OWN A STEEL BOAT

holes are welded up inside and out. However, I am not keen

on this system. I don't like drilling and welding unnecessarily
and I was not prepared to go along with my insurance
company's request to drill test Abraxis. And eventually they
backed-down and accepted a hammer test.
Ultrasonic testing is an alternative, and this can work (not all
that effectively) through paint, but not through scale. How-
ever, the latter is easy enough to rernove at the point of
testing. Strangely enough, our insurance company were not
prepared to accept ultrasonic, although it would now seem to
be general practice. So check with your insurers before you
commission the job. The job itself should not be particularly
expensive, although remember travelling costs if the tester
has a long way to come.
So far I have dealt with the critical plates below the
waterline, but you will need to take a look inside as well. The
bilges are the place to concentrate on, as if water has been
allowed to accumulate inside the hull, corrosion could well
be occurring. Excessive scale should be watched for, and here
the hammer can help us again. But remember that a substan-
tial amount of scale is produced for a minimal loss in good

steel.

Some boats have standpipes welded into the hull for rudder
tubes, sink outlets etc. Because these pipes are difficult to
protect they frequently corrode from the inside. So check
them thoroughly for signs of weeping or softness, particularly
around the base.
Many steel boats have concrete in the bilges. This is a
perfectly acceptable practice, but beware any signs that the
concrete has been put in recently. If so, it may well have been
put in to hide thin plates. But even if the concrete appears
original, it is still important to check around the edges and to
make sure it isn't breaking away from the steel. If the con-
crete is breaking up then there is a chance of water getting in
between concrete and hull plating, causing corrosion. If

278
 BUYING SECOND-HAND OR FOR HOM F. COMPLETION
cracks are present, the only solution is to chip out all the
concrete and replace after checking the condition of the
plates. A big job —
worse than replating.
And on deck. li the boat has been
finally take a look
neglected, there will probably be tell-tale rust streaks across
the decks and down the topsides, though these are seldom
serious: nothing that a chip and repaint won't cure. And rust
streaks do make excellent bargaining factors.
many bargains to be had in second-hand
In fact there are
steel boats. People not in the know are put o(Y by a tew
streaks, and the price tumbles. So you may well find it a lot
cheaper to buy second-hand and renovate, than to build
anew.

Hulls for Home Completion

Fitting out a hull can save you more than 50 per cent
on the price of a finished boat. But don't be deceived by the
amount of time it is likely to save. To some idea, we
give
took more than three years of part-time work to fit out and
rig our 40-footer. A friend took over eighteen month's full-

time work to fit out his 45-foot William Garden design,

and that with a highly skilled shipwright for half of the
time. The job can be done in less, though: for example,
another friend designed, built and fitted out his 32-foot steel
sloop in less than a year of weekends and evenings. However,
you have got to be a fast worker, and it is difficult to avoid a
rather raw look around the edges. But it depends what you
want, a work of art or a boat to sail. And there is no doubt
that for someone who wants the strongest possible boat in the
shortest possible time, steel offers very real advantages. Take
Bernard Moitessier's Joshua: telegraph poles for masts,
homemade sails, basic steering and frugal interior, but a boat
that could sail anywhere.
A steel hull can now be as cheap to buy as its equivalent
size in ferro-cement, and the fitting out is much easier. Decks

279
 .

OWN A STEEL BOAT

go on with no problems in fixing; furniture is simply and

strongly made by tacking angle to the right shape and clad-
ding with ply. And engine installation is comparatively
straightforward
You should not necessarily feel restricted to a home-built
hull. English readers could well consider French and Dutch
boats, but transport costs will be a consideration — although
what about fitting out in the South of France or in Spain? At
the time of writing, prices in certain Spanish yards are very
competitive. Or if you are thinking of a Dutch or French
boat, how about having the yard fit hatches, portholes, stern
gear, engine and steerage? You could then bring her home
through the canal system. All the Dutch yards have access to
the system, which can take you to Calais. in France META
are on the canals too, but allow a good three weeks for the
trip.

One word of warning. It is compare hull

very difficult to

prices because different builders base their prices on different

stages of completion. And as it is the finishing off that tends to
cost the money, can be misleading. Accordingly it is very
this
important to check exactly what is included in the
price —
decks? engine bearers? rudder? steering? hatches?
portholes? etc. However, most builders are prepared to finish
their hulls to whatever state you want, and this can offer
opportunities for saving money. For example, a basic hull
without the decks and without the welds ground smooth
could cost less than half the price of a completed hull. In my
opinion, such an option is well worth considering. You avoid
the skilled and heavy jobs of framing and plating and are left
with the time-consuming but less tricky finishing jobs. That's
not to say that these jobs can be approached lightly, but this
method is compromise between the daunting prospect
a fine
of a pile of steel plates and the other extreme of a hull all
ready for The considerable saving can mean the
fitting out.

difference between having and not having a boat.

 Appendices
A
Addresses of Manufacturers and Suppliers Mentioned in Text
Berger Paints, Freshwater Rd., Dagenham, Essex (epoxy
paint)
Blue Peter Marine, P.O. Box lo, Lancaster la i 4UA (plastic
putty)
Brookes & Gatehouse Ltd, Bath Road, Lymington, Hants.
S04 9YP (instruments)
Cetrek Ltd, Balena Close, Creekmoor, Poole, Dorset. Tel:
0202 697373 (compass)
M. G. Duff & Partners Ltd, Chichester Yacht Basin, Bird-
ham, Sussex (anodes)
Electronic Laboratories Ltd, Fleets Lane, Poole, Dorset
(autopilots)
Expandite Ltd, Bracknell, Berks, (zinc paint)
J & C (Tools & Accessories) Ltd, Fairfield Rd, West
Drayton, Mddx. Tel: West Drayton 45941 (Nibbler)
Marine Automatic Pilots Ltd, Waterloo St., Hove, Sussex
(autopilots)
META, B.P. 109, 69170 Tarare, France (zinc paint)
Metco Ltd, Chobham, Woking, Surrey (metal spraying
equipment)
Nautech Ltd, Airport Service Road, Portsmouth, Hants.
(autopilots)
Neco Marine Ltd, Walton Rd., Eastern Rd., Cosham,
Portsmouth, Hants. Tel: 07018 70988 (compass)
P. G. Steelcraft (Marine) Ltd, 8 Cornwall Rd., Twickenham,
Mddx. (steel in kit form)
S.LP (Industrial Products)Radnor Ltd, Rd., South
Wigston, Leicester leb 2XY (Monowelder)

281
 APPENDICES
Sharp & Co. Ltd, Richborough Hall, Ramsgate Rd.,
Sandwich, Kent (autopilots)
Space Age Electronics Ltd, Spalding Hall, Victoria Rd.,
London NW4 2 be (log)
Strand Glassfibre Ltd, Brentway Trading Estate, Brentford,
Mddx. Tel: 01 568 7 191 (expanded polyurethane foam)
Tarthang Technics, P.O. Box 1278, Berkeley, Cal. 94701,
USA (underwater epoxy)
A. N. WaUis & Co. Ltd, Greasley St., Bulwell, Nottingham.
Tel: 0602 27 1 72 1 (hydraulic steering)

B
Designers

AUSTRALIAN
Bruce Roberts (Branches in UK, USA, Canada),
Bruce Roberts Boat Plans (UK) Ltd., 73 High Street,
Bexley, Kent
BRITISH
Robert Tucker, 58 Southbury Road, Enfield, Middx.
Alan Pape, Haye, Courtenay Close, East Looe, Cornwall
Maurice Griffiths, c/o Bruce Boat Plans (UK) Ltd., 73 High
Street, Bexley, Kent
Peter Ibold, 15 Rue Seguier, 75006 Paris, France
FRENCH
Joseph Fricaud, META, Route de Lyon, B.P.109, 69170
Tarare
DUTCH
E. G. Van de Stadt and Partners B.V., Postbus 193 Wormer-
veer
USA
Al Mason, P.O. Box 5177, Virginia Beach, Va. 23455
Weston Farmer, 18970 Azure Rd., Wayzata, Minn. 55391
Jay Benford, P.O. Box 399, Friday Harbour, Wash. 98250
282
 APPENDICES

c
Bibliography, Including Books Mentioned m the Text

Arthur Reiser, The Proper Yacht, Adlard Coles 1978

Howard Chapelle, Boat Building, Allen & Unwin 1941
Charles H. Cotter, The Complete Coastal Navigator, Mollis &
Carter 1964
L. Fougeron, Si pre s du Cap Horn, Ed. du Pen Duick, Paris
1974
Eric Hiscock, Sou' West in 'Wanderer IV', Oxford University
Press 1973
Gilbert Klingeland Thomas Colvin, Boat Building With Steel,
International Marine Pub. Co. 1973
David Lewis, Ice Bird, Collins 1975
Ferenc Mate, From a Bare Hull, Westsail Corporation (275
McCormick Avenue, Costa Mesa, Calif. 92627) 1975
Bernard Moitessier, Cape Horn: The Logical Route, Adlard
Coles 1969
Ian Nicolson, Designer's Notebook: Ideas for Yachtsmen, Adlard
Coles 1970
Ian Nicolson, Small Steel Craft, Adlard Coles 1971
Bruce Roberts, Buildfor Less Bruce Roberts (UK) Ltd. 1977
,

T. Howard Rogers, Marine Corrosion, Newnes-Butterworth

1968
Robert Tucker, Fitting Out Ferro-cement Boats, Adlard Coles
1977
A. Van de Wiele, The West in My Eyes, Rupert Hart-Davis
1955
Reeds Nautical Almanac
Anti-corrosion, Sawell Publications, 127 Stanstead Rd.,

London SE23 ije

 4

Index

Abraxis, 13, 15, 20, 28-30, 61, Chain plates, 180-1

82,84, 176, 187, 191, 196, Chalk, French, 53
200, 202, 211, 214, 222, 257, Chine construction, Multi-,
263, 278 77-8
Alterations, 257-66 ,Rounded, 78-9
Aluminium for boats, 18, 24 , Single, 75-7
Amateur construction, 15 , Strip-, 81-2, 156
Anchors, 189-90 Chisel, Cold, 53
Angle-grinder, 48-51 Clamps, Q-, 53, 157
Anodes, 242-3, 276 Cleats, 180
Arc-eye, 46 Clothing, Protective, 51-2
Arc- welder, 41-8 Coach roof, 16, 1 50
Argon gas-shielded welding, Companion ladder, 194-5
48, 107, 108, 155 Companionway, 191—
Autopilot, Electric, 274-5 Compass, Ship's, 267-71
Avalon, 30-2, 75, 81, 188 Condensation, 12
Corrosion, 12, 107, 119, 123—4,
Ballast, 84, 119, 1 20- 1, 124, 130, 183, 236, 237, 239,
205, 261 241-56
Barge, Steel, 34-5 Cor-Ten steel, 64, 107—8
'Beagle' (Tucker), 91 Cost factors, 16-20, 27, 43, 48,
Beiser, Arthur, 19 88-9, 108, 109, 280
Benford, Jay, 96-7, 108 Cutting gear. Gas, 54-9
Blast-cleaning, no, 244-6
Bollards, 177-9 Davits, 199-200
Bowsprit, 186-9 De Rietpol, Scheepswerf, 86-7
Brush, Wire, 53 Deck, 14-16, 148-50, 157,
Buckling of plates (in welding), 168-76
70 beams, 149-50, 168
Bulkheads, 143-5, 204 edges, 173-5
fittings, 177-200
Cabin soles, 206-7 , Flush, 16, 86, 149
Camber, 149 heads, 208-10
Cariad, 189 ,Laid, 15, 172-3

284
 INDEX
materials, 169-71 Framing, Longitudinal, 137-9
sheathing, 172 Frameless construction, 83-7,
'Defer' (META), 95, 139, 202 131, 139
Designs, 88-102 Frames, 137-43
'Dogs', 157-8 'Francis Drake' (Grilfiths), 92
Draft, 81,82 Fuel pipe, 230
tank, 205-6, 229-31
Furniture, Cabin, 210
Electrics, 233-5
Electrodes, 47
Electrolysis, see Corrosion Galvanic series, 250
1 19,
Tim, 34
Elliff, Galvanizing, 177, 214, 218,
'Embrun' (META), 95 236, 237, 239
'Endurance 44' (Ibold), 93-4, Gas cutting gear, 54-9
202 i Gladys, 254
Engine heat-exchanger, 233 Gloves, Welding, 52
installation, 227-33 Goggles, Protective, 51
Epoxy, Under-water, 265-6 Griffiths, Maurice, 92-3
Exhaust, 231-3 Grit blasting, 1 10, 244-6
Eyes (for blocks), 177 Guardrails, 18 1-5
Gussets, 148

Farmer, Weston, 99-102

Fibreglass deck sheathing, 172
Hammer, Chipping, 52-3
File,
Hatches, 191 -4
53
Filler, 167
Hawse pipes, 189-90
Fire resistance, 15 Hiscock, Eric, 17, 83, 167, 173,

Fishing boats for conversion, 188, 190, 209,228,239, 274

Hull materials, Comparison of,
35-6
Fitting out, 201-12 22-4
Floors, 148
plating, 153-67
Frame fabrication, 142-3,
Hulls for home completion,
279-80 and see Kit form
145-50
hoops, 148, 150-2, 168
Hundy, Robert, 38
sections, 140-1
spacing, 141-2 Ibold, Peter, 93-4
, Transverse web, 137 32-3, 83
Ice Bird, 13,

Framed construction, 85-6, Instrumentation (Problem in

139 steel boats), 12-13

285
 1 1

INDEX
Instruments, 267-75 MET A shipyard, 94-5, 105-6,
Insulation, 207—8 III, 131, 139, 142, 155, 196,
Iron boats, 265 201, 220, 252-3, 280
Minots Light, 19

Jig, Building, 103-4 Modification, Ease of, 21-2,

Joints, Butt and angled, 70 26-40, and see Alterations

Jonelle, Moitessier, Bernard, 82, 94,
253
Joshua, ^2,^^, 175, 187, 195- -6, 187, 195-6, 253, 279

279
Joshua-c\a.ss boat, 131 Narrow bo^ts, 38—9
'Nibbler' plate-cutter, 59-60,
107, 108, 155
Keel, 117-26
, Bolt-on, 124
Observation domes, 195-6
, Box-section, 11 7-21
'Offshore 38B' (Roberts), 90
,Cast, 123
Omoo, 30, 207
, Fin and bilge, 122, 135
Overlapping seams, 155—6
, Setting up, 125-6
Kit form, Steel in, 1 1 1-12
Paint, 177, 184, 242, 246-8,
252, 254, 265-6, 276
Layout of accommodation, Panelling, 208-10
201-5 Pape, Alan, 92
Lead, Red, 254 Pillars, 145
'Levanter 33' (Griffiths), 93 Plans, Steel-boat, 88-102
Lewis, David, 13, 32-3, 83 Plate bending, 159-60, 259-61
Lifting tackle, 1 60- , Doubling, 261-4
Lighter for conversion, 34—5 fairing- in, 164-7
Lofting, 1 10-16 fitting, 1 60-
Log, Electronic, 275 renewing, 257—9
, Steel, 104-10
Magnetism, Shipboard, 12, tacking, 161 -2
267-8 thickness, 13, 42, 48-9, 108,
Make, 263 277
Mask, Welding, 46 (boat accessories), 117,
Mason, Al, 96 122, 143, 192, 217
Mason '44', 202 (deck), 169
Mast fittings, 197-9 (hull), 28, 29, 33, 82, 83,

'Mauritius 43' (Roberts), 90 84,99

286
 INDEX
Plating, 153-67 Shears, Plate, 60
Plywood bulkheads, 144 Shields, Arc-welding, 51-2
decks, 169-71 Shrinkage in welding, 164-7
Porter, Tony, 26-8, 87 Site for building, 103
Porthole, 134, 210-12 Size of boat, 88-9
Propeller, 237-8 Skeg, 135-6
shaft, 216, 236-7 Skip-welding, 163, 166
Pulpit, 186 'Spray 40' (Roberts), 90
Pump, Bilge, 238-9 Square, Set, 53
Stainless steel, 255-6
'R383' (Tucker), 91 Stanchions, 184
'RW31' (Tucker), 91 Steel compared with other
Radio, 271 boatbuilding materials,
Direction Finder, 271-3 11-25
Transmitter, 273-4 , High-tensile, 107
Repairs, 257-66 , Mild, 105
, Ease and cost of, 20 plate, 104-10
Replating, 20 Steelaway, 26-8, 75, 81, 87
Riveted boats, 264-5 Steering, 213-26
Roberts, Bruce, 88, 89, 105, , Cable, 226
1 10, 141 , Hydraulic, 225
Roberts '34',
90 ,
Quadrant-drive, 223-5
Rod, Threaded steel, 159 , Worm-drive, 221-3
,Welding, 62-4 Stem, 126-32
Round-bilge construction, Stern tubes, 236
82-3 Strength of small steel boats.
Rubber, Chlorinated, 253-4
Rubbing 175-6
strake, 152, Stringers, Chine, 151

Rudder, 135-6, 213-26 , Sheer, 151

Rule, Engineer's, 53 Sump, 238
Rust, 12, 84, 107, 177, 184,
241, 263 Tabernacles, 196-7
'Table Bay 39' (Hundy), 98
'S87' (Mason), 96 'Tahitiana' (Farmer), 99-101
'Scylla 45' (Tucker), 91 Tanks, 205-6, 229-31
Seacock, 239-40 Tape, Metal, 53
Second-hand steel boats, Template, 115, 146, 154
18-20, 276-9 Tiller, 226

287
 INDEX
Time factors, i8, 87 Watertightness, 14-15
Toe rail, 1 75 Weight of steel plate, 15, 108,
Tools, 41-61, 157-9 169
Transom, 133-5 Welder, Arc-, 41-8
TrigilliSy 24 Welding, 47-8, 62-74, 147-8,
Tucker, Robert, 88, 90-1, 105, 162-4
129, 139 , Back-step, 71
'Turanna' (Tucker), 78, 91 , Fillet-, 71

, Gas-shielded, 47-8
'Vamos' (Tucker), 91 , Skip-, 163, 166
Van de Stadt, 97-8 Wire, Galvanized, 185
Van de Wiele, A., 30, 207
Vega, 179, 190, 213, 252 Xylonite, 33-4, 209, 221
Vic 32, 21,36-7, 259, 263
'Zeebonk' (Van de Stadt),
Walker, Nick, 21, 37, 263 97-8
Wanderer IV, 17, 83, 173, 188, 'Zeehond' (Van de Stadt), 98
190, 209, 239, 274 'Zeelust'(Van de Stadt), 97-8
Watertight doors, 194 Zinc protection, 248-9, 252-3
 :

InternationalMarine l^iblishini; C:«)mpanv

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Boatbuilding with Steel

and Boatbuilding with .Muminiim
by Gilbert Klingel and Thomas Colvin.
A comprehensive volume on steel boatbuilding,
with 40 pages on aluminum construction. 260
pages, 1 54 illustrations. Si 5.00.

Boat Repairs and Conversions,

Second Edition,
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The standard work for do-it-vourselfers, with
a special emphasis on converting lifeboats.

335 pages, 1 18 illustrations. S9.95.

Marine Metals Manual

A Handbook for Boatmen, Builders,
and Dealers
by Roger Pretzer.
Complete guide to the metal parts of a boat; their
selection, application, and preservation. 80 pages,
20 tables. S5.95.

Surveying Small Craft

by Ian Nicolson.
Practical guide to assessing the condition of used
boats; advice on recognizing and correcting
faults. 224 pages, illustrated. SS12.50.

The Proper Yacht,

Second Edition,
by Arthur Beiser.

A classic completely rewritten, with 58 new

designs from the boards of 33 designers. 376
pages, 8J" X 1 1", 300 illustrations. S25.00.

International Marine
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Camden, Maine 04843
MIKE PRATT. 1 he yearning to cross oceans, latent in most cruising
people, was more powerful in Mike Pratt than in most. A forty-

footer was the requirement, but finances almost ruled this out.

However, Mike found a very rusty steel boat in the right price-

range. He moved aboard, and then had to find out how to make her
seaworthy. The resulting work stimulated an interest in steel boats

that led to this book. Mike is giving up his job as a Senior Lecturer

in Accounting at a London Polytechnic, to wander the world and

to write.