CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background to the Study

Education is more than reading, writing, and arithmetic. It is one of the most important

investments a country can make in its people and its future. Education is also critical to reducing

poverty and inequality by equipping students with critical skills and tools to help them better

provide for themselves. According to the Value of Education report (2014): a new global

consumer research study commissioned by HSBC, more than half (58%) of parents say that

paying for a child’s education is the best investment anyone can make and that a good education

should help their children to become independent and build a worthwhile career. In other words,

education is an important enabler in a competitive and increasingly globalized employment

marketplace.

Academic achievement or academic performance is the outcome of education, that is, the

extent to which a student has achieved their educational goals. 80% of parents say that paying for

a child’s education is the best investment anyone can make and that a good education should

help their children to become independent and build a worthwhile career. In other words,

education is an important enabler in a competitive and increasingly globalized employment

marketplace.

Academic achievement or academic performance is the outcome of education, that is, the extent

to which a student has achieved their educational goals. Academic achievement is commonly

measured by examinations or continuous assessment. Attaining a high level of academic

performance is what every parent or guardian as well as teacher wishes for their children, wards

1
and students respectively. Schools and teachers are generally graded qualitatively based on the

academic performance of their students.

Few problems in Nigerian education today rival that of bridging the gap between students who

are academically successful and students who are falling behind. Many theories exist on how to

effectively educate all our students and to bridge the gap between those who are flourishing and

those who are failing. At the center of this problem is the persistent academic underachievement

of students especially at the West African Senior Secondary School Examinations (WASSCE)

and the National Examinations Council (NECO) Examinations. Academic success at school

obviously requires students to meet a certain minimum standard of academic performance with

the focus being on standardized measures of academic or cognitive abilities. However, there has

been a recent movement to evaluate the non-cognitive factors specific to achievement (Sellers,

Chavous& Cooke, 1998)

The 21st century has brought a new view of the more diverse reality of human

functioning and we are slowly but surely becoming aware of the need for schools and the society

to address the emotional and social aspects of education. Increasingly, researchers' attention has

turned towards the complex role that non-cognitive skills play in facilitating educational

achievement (Heckman et al., 2006; Cunha & Heckman, 2018; Borghans&Weel, 2008;

Leininger&Kalil, 2008).

We educate students with one main objective in mind: their success. What then is the

measure of success? Is it only a strong scientific mind and nothing else? A century of research on

general intelligence and cognitive performance has overshadowed the role that other non-

cognitive factors may play in academic achievement. There is a consensus among educators that

2
cognitive factors, like grades or scores on intelligence tests, predict student performance.

However, many students still fail to live up to their true potential despite their IQ or previous

academic performance. Conversely, some students with mediocre grades have managed to

complete a college or university education. Both of these examples suggest that other factors,

specifically non-cognitive factors may be at work. One of psychology’s open secrets is the

relative inability of grades, IQ or examination scores, despite their popular mystique, to predict

unerringly who will succeed in life (Goleman, 2017)

With the gathering interest in the non-cognitive (affective) aspects of students’ learning arose the

need to study the varied psychological constructs that underpin students learning. Each student

presents to the classroom with a unique personality and set of capabilities otherwise known as

individual differences; this is because no child has been raised in a vacuum. Students are a

product of the primary environment in which they grow and live in, which is chiefly the home.

Children's semi-structured home learning environment transitions into a more structured learning

environment when children start school. An awareness of how these psychological constructs

impact students’ participation in the learning process and how these constructs help students if at

all, achieve their educational goals is pertinent if educators keen about helping students improve

academic performance and ultimately attain educational objectives.

Emotional Intelligence is one of such constructs. Simply put, Emotional Intelligence

refers to a person’s ability to perceive emotions, assimilate emotion-related feelings, understand

the information of those emotions and manage them. Emotional intelligence (EI) as a construct is

relatively new (Mayer &Salovey, 2017).

3
It has often been said that obtaining a good education is the key to being successful in the world.

But what determines being successful while in school? While many things may contribute to

school achievement, one psychological variable that is often overlooked is locus of control.

Locus of control is one of the personality constructs that has attracted many researchers because

this construct, particularly among students, is an important element in determining future

behavior (in the case of the present study, academic achievement). Locus of control is

meaningfully related to several variables associated with academic achievement (Bernstein,

Stephan, &Davis, 1979; Dollinger, 2000). In the context of education, locus of control typically

refers to how students perceive the causes of their academic success or failure in school. If

someone believes that his or her successes and failures are due to factors within their own

control, such as effort or ability, then that person is said to have an internal locus of control. On

the other hand, if someone believes that his or her successes and failures are due to factors

outside of their own control, such as fate or luck, then that person is said to have an external

locus of control. Students with an “internal locus of control” generally believe that their success

or failure is a result of the effort and hard work they invest in their education. Students with an

“external locus of control” generally believe that their successes or failures result from external

factors beyond their control, such as luck, fate, circumstance, injustice, bias, or teachers who are

unfair, prejudiced, or unskilled.

Whether a student has an internal or external locus of control is thought to have a

powerful effect on academic motivation, persistence, and achievement in school. In education,

“internals” are considered more likely to work hard in order to learn, progress, and succeed,

while “externals” are more likely to believe that working hard is “pointless” because someone or

something else is treating them unfairly or holding them back. Students with an external locus of

4
control may also believe that their accomplishments will not be acknowledged or their effort will

not result in success. Internals have been found to not only regulate themselves (self-regulation);

they can also reinforce themselves (self-reinforcement) and motivate themselves (self-

motivation). A student’s internality or externality therefore has a profound impact on his/her

academic achievement

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The ability to pay attention to their emotions, experience feelings with clarity and be able

to recover from negative states of mind will be a decisive influence on students’ mental health

and this psychological balance in turn is related to and ultimately affects academic performance.

Are students with limited emotional and social skills more likely to experience stress and

emotional difficulties during their studies, and consequently suffer from poor academic

performance?

Are students who believe that their performance at tests and exams depends on their

ability rather than on luck and chance likely to do better?

Do the high achievers have a high emotional intelligence level or isn’t there any relationship

between their achievement and their emotional intelligence?

Also, do the low achievers have a low emotional intelligence level or isn’t there any relationship

between their achievement and their emotional intelligence?

5
1.3 Objective of the Study

The purpose of this study is to determine the ability of Emotional Intelligence and Locus of

Control to predict the academic performance of secondary school students in Lagos metropolis.

Specifically, this study was undertaken to find out:

i. The relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement of

secondary school students

ii. The relationship between locus of control and academic achievement of students

iii. If students with internal locus of control will differ significantly from students with

external locus of control with reference to academic achievement.

iv. If there will be any differences in male and female secondary school students with

reference to emotional intelligence

v. If there will be any differences in male and female secondary school students with

reference to locus of control

1.4 Research Questions

i. Is there any significant relationship between emotional intelligence and academic

achievement of secondary school students

ii. Is there any significant relationship between locus of control and academic

achievement of students?

iii. Will secondary school students with internal locus of control significantly differ from

students with external locus of control with reference to academic achievement?

iv. Is there any significant difference between male and female secondary school

students with reference to emotional intelligence?

6
 v. Is there any significant difference between male and female secondary school

students with reference to locus of control?

1.5 Hypotheses

1. There is no significant relationship between emotional intelligence and academic

achievement of secondary school students

2. There is no significant relationship between locus of control and academic

achievement of secondary school students

3. Secondary school students with internal locus of control will not differ significantly

with respect to academic achievement from secondary school students with external locus

of control.

4. There is no significant gender difference in Emotional Intelligence of secondary

school students

5. There is no significant gender difference in Locus of Control of secondary school

students

1.6 Significance of the Study

Emotional Intelligence of children starts developing long before they ever enter a

classroom even though each child’s level will vary widely, depending on the home environment

from which he or she comes from.

First and foremost, this study is an attempt to draw attention to the fact that the affective aspects

of education are just as important as the cognitive features.

This study is of great potential value to educators this is because it is possible for teachers to

modify students’ personalities through educational practices in order to affect motivational

7
development positively. According to Stipek&Weisz (1981), students’ personalities are more

adaptable to change than their educational abilities through educational practice. Thus teachers

must be able to recognize those children whose emotional literacy needs a boost and be ready to

talk about feelings in the classroom.

Furthermore, this study seeks to help teachers and counselors reach a better understanding of

their students, and help the teachers determine how to treat students to attain educational

objectives.

In 2002, UNESCO launched an international campaign to promote emotional learning in the

classroom. The U.N. body sent a statement of 10 basic Emotional Intelligence principles to

education ministries throughout the world. This study hopes to attract the attention of policy

makers and curriculum planners on the need to include courses/subjects that cater to the affective

aspects of education

1.7 Scope of the Study

This study is limited to both male and female students in secondary schools in Obi Local

Government Area of Nasarawa State, Nigeria. The study focused on the students’ scores in

English Language as the measure of academic performance

1.8 Limitations of the study

One of the limitations of this study is the self-reporting nature of the questionnaires used

to collect data. It is well known that self-reporting questionnaires are prone to exaggeration and

embellishment especially in the case of secondary school students trying to ‘look good’

8
Also the paucity of time and financial resources available to the researcher posed a certain

limitation to the study in general.

Another limitation stems from the fact that both of standardized instruments used were

developed for western populations. Elsewhere in this research work, it has been recommended

that educational psychologists focus on the development of indigenous emotional intelligence

scales.

1.9 Definition of Terms

Emotional Intelligence: Is the ability to monitor our own and others' feelings and emotions, to

discriminate among them, and to use this to guide our thinking and actions. The emotionally

intelligent person is skilled in four areas: Identifying, using, understanding, and regulating

emotions

Achievement: Achievement encompasses student ability and performance. Merriam Webster

defines achievement as the quality and quantity of a student's work.

9
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Conceptual Framework

2.1.1 Concept of Emotional Intelligence

For decades Intelligence Quotient (IQ) has been accepted as the best gauge or predictor

for an individual’s success in life. In spite of this many individuals with high IQ scores were not

realizing their perceived potential. Subsequently the last 30 years has seen increasing attention

given to the possibility that emotions may moderate intelligent behavior by an individual’s

reaction to, and their interpretation of information (Salovey & Mayer, 1994). It is now proposed

that Emotional Intelligence (Salovey & Mayer, 2017) may be a better predictor of success in life

than IQ. Emotional intelligence (EI) is increasingly relevant in business and organizations and is

now an important consideration in human resources, job profiling, recruitment interviewing and

selection, management development, customer service and more.

The concept of EI was brought into the public domain in 1996 by Daniel Goleman’s

international best-selling book: Emotional Intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. The

book captured the attention of the world media, researchers and the general public claiming that

EI can be “as powerful and at times more powerful than IQ” in predicting how successful one is

in life (Goleman, 1996, p. 34). He also maintains that IQ at best contributes approximately 20%

of the factors that contribute to life success, leaving 80% to other forces Definition of emotional

intelligence.

10
Developing on the concepts of ‘non-cognitive’ and ‘social intelligence’, (Salovey & Mayer

2017) were first to propose a formal definition of EI as “a subset of social intelligence that

involves the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate them

and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions” . They viewed emotions as

organized responses that incorporated many psychological disciplines including physiological,

cognitive, motivational and experiential.

Emotional intelligence has been defined as an ability to understand and comprehend the

emotions in order for assessing thoughts, manners and to put them in a way that makes emotion

and intelligent growth and elevation (Goleman, 2018). Emotional intelligence is a topic that

attempts to explain and interprets the human excitement, feeling and capability status ( Hasan

zadeh, 2018).

The concept of emotional intelligence gives a new depth to the human’s intelligence, this

intelligence is a tactical competency (personal performance), whilst the recognition intelligence

is a strategic capability (long term capability). The emotional intelligence makes it possible to

predict the achievement because it demonstrates how a person applies knowledge in an

immediate success. It is a form of social intelligence which is a suitable predictor in special areas

such as job and educational performances. In the other word, it has an ability to control feelings

and excitements by one and others (Bar-on, 2000).

In 2018, the emotional intelligence has been defined in more details. This Definition is as follow:

The emotional intelligence points to the ability to recognize and differentiate feelings,

excitements, meanings and concepts, the relations between them, to reason about them and to

solve problems by them .The emotional intelligence includes the ability to receive emotions, and

11
coordinate them to understand the information related to them, it also manages them (Mayer,

Salovey, and Caruso, 2018).

Another definition of the emotional intelligence is as follow: A series of unrecognizable abilities,

powers and skills that have an effect on the ability to encounter wills necessities and

environmental pressures successfully (Bar-on, 2000). Intelligence Quotient (IQ) in its best form

causes only 20 percent of life successes and all 80 percent remaining depends on another factor

and the human’s fate in the most cases depends on the skills that link to the emotional

intelligence to provide person adaptability with the environment and is a better predictor of

success in university, work and home than the analytic intelligence (Mayer and Salovey, 2016)

Psychologists have begun to address what has historically been regarded as the soft side of

individual differences. This includes mood, feelings and emotions all in relation to academic

achievement. Increasingly, researchers' attention has turned towards the complex role that non-

cognitive skills play in facilitating educational achievement (e.g. Heckman et al., 2006; Cunha

and Heckman, 2018; Borghans and Weel, 2008; Leininger and Kalil, 2008). Goleman (1998)

asserts that using knowledge as a yardstick for measurement has been substituted by the new

yardstick that measures how well we handle ourselves and others.

Why are some students more motivated to learn than others? Why do some students learn more

effectively than others? Every day, teachers deal with such questions in their professional

practice. More specifically, school counselors address these questions as they work with students

who want to increase their levels of academic success. The answers to these questions are likely

to be found by combining knowledge in many fields, for example personality, cognition, and

learning (Boekaerts, 2017).

12
2.1.2 Emotional Intelligence

Over the past century psychologists studying intelligence remained focused on its

cognitive aspect. Though Thorndike’s concept of social intelligence and Gardner’s personal

intelligences were important milestones in the explanation of the affective aspect of intelligence,

this type of intelligence had not been directly associated with academic achievement or success

in life. However, since the last two decades a new dimension of intelligence, termed as emotional

intelligence, has received much attention as being more responsible for success than IQ

(Goleman, 2018). The term Emotional Intelligence was coined by Peter Salovey and John D.

Mayer in their academic paper in 2017 to describe qualities like understanding one’s own and

others’ emotions and to use this information for guiding thoughts and actions (Mayer and

Salovey, 2017).

In the field of psychology, the construct of emotional intelligence (EI) was first formally

defined by Salovey and Mayer (2017) as a set of skills relating to “the ability to monitor one’s

own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information

to guide one’s thinking and actions (p. 189).” They justified the label of “emotional intelligence”

on the grounds that it demands processing of specific emotional information from within the

organism, and because some level of competence at these skills is required for adequate social

functioning.

Salovey and Mayer’s (2017) definition of EI is, in part, derived from Gardner’s earlier

concept of personal intelligence. In Gardner's (1983) theory of multiple intelligences, he

proposed that the awareness of one’s own and others’ emotional states are interconnected

components of what he termed, the “personal intelligences.” This definition is comprised of two

13
subtypes – intrapersonal intelligence (the ability to access one’s own feelings) and interpersonal

intelligence (the ability to read the moods, intentions, and desires of others). Gardner (1983)

claimed that these abilities are biologically based information-processing capacities that all

individuals have to some extent. These two subtypes of personal intelligence are embedded in

the construct of Emotional Intelligence, which requires emotional knowledge on both the

intrapersonal and interpersonal levels.

Mehrabian (2000), for instance, states that the term is widely used to explain "individual

differences associated with life successes that are not specifically measured with traditional

intelligence measures" (p.134). Kapp (2002) defines emotional intelligence as "that part of the

human spirit which motivates us to perform, which gives us energy to demonstrate behaviors

such as intentionality, persistence, creativity, impulse control, social deftness, compassion,

intuition and integrity" (p.152).

Indeed, Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2018) affirm that emotional intelligence is part of a

class of intelligences comprising the social, practical, and personal intelligences. They have

referred to these types of multiple intelligences as “hot intelligences” (Mayer & Mitchell, 1998;

Mayer &Salovey, 1993) to signify that these intelligences function on hot cognitions, or

cognitions concerned with issues of personal and emotional relevance to the person (Abelson,

1963; Zajonc, 1980).

BarOn (2006) defines emotional intelligence in terms of such emotional and social skills

that influence our understanding and expression of ourselves, our understanding for others and

interaction with them, and the ability to deal with everyday demands.

14
From the above, it should be clear that, regardless of what one's view of what intelligence

actually comprises, IQ alone does not account for the variance in achievement and indeed, the

degree to which individuals deal with everyday life problems. In fact, researchers have long been

interested in identifying other contributing factors instead of merely relying on a solitary IQ

score. There has been a move toward a more inclusive definition of intellectual functioning,

mainly "as a result of the limited predictability of cognitive potential in determining success in

life" (Bradley, 1998, p.18).

2.1.3 Models of Emotional Intelligence

Since the time of Thorndike, a number of different conceptualizations of emotional

intelligence have appeared, creating an interesting mixture of confusion, controversy and

opportunity regarding the best approach to defining and measuring this construct. The

Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology (Spielberger, 2018) recently suggested that there are

currently three major conceptual models:

 The Salovey-Mayer model (Mayer &Salovey, 1997) which defines this construct as the

ability to perceive, understand, manage and use emotions to facilitate thinking, measured

by an ability-based measure (Mayer et al., 2002)

 The Goleman model (1998) which views this construct as a wide array of competencies

and skills that drive managerial performance, measured by multi-rater assessment

(Boyatzis et al., 2001)

 The Bar-On model (1997b, 2000) which describes a cross-section of interrelated

emotional and social competencies, skills and facilitators that impact intelligent behavior,

measured by self-report (1997a, 1997b) within a potentially expandable multi-modal

15
 approach including interview and multi-rater assessment (Bar-On & Handley, 2003a,

2003b).

2.1.4 The Salovey and Mayer model

The Salovey and Mayer model views emotions as useful sources of information that help

one to make sense of and navigate the social environment. The model proposes that individuals

vary in their ability to process information of an emotional nature and in their ability to relate

emotional processing to a wider cognition. This ability is seen to manifest itself in certain

adaptive behaviors. Salovey and Mayer originally outlined three mental processes involving

emotional information:

1. The appraisal and expression of emotions in self and others

2. The regulation of emotions in self and others

3. The use of emotions adaptively to achieve one’s goals.

Mayer et al (2000) proposed a four-branch model of emotional capacities which are

hierarchically arranged from lower, more molecular skills to higher, more molar skills. In each of

these branches, skills range from those more basic to the more complex depending on the stage

of development.

Emotional Perception: Emotion perception involves the ability to recognize emotion in body

language and facial expressions. It involves the ability to perceive emotions verbally and

nonverbally through facial expression, voice intonation and postural expression.

16
Integration of Emotion in thought: This branch involves the ability to use emotional

information in guiding cognitive activities, for example, by using emotions to direct attention,

reason, plan, and problem-solve.

Understanding Emotion: The ability to understand emotions involves the capacity to reason

about emotions and where they stem from. It includes the capacity to understand how emotions

evolve. For instance, some people realize that fear often turns into relief, sadness segregates us

from others, and anger arises from perceived injustice. Branch three also involves a

developmental aspect as it corresponds to language development and propositional thought.

Thus, an adolescent would be able to label and discriminate feelings better than a 5-year-old, and

a 30-year-old would perform even better.

Managing emotions: The fourth ability and highest level of emotional skills requires the

regulation and management of emotions in both self and others. This ability would include

knowing how to relax after feeling angry or being able to alleviate the anxiety of another person

(Mayer et al., 2000; Mayer &Salovey, 1997; Mayer,Salovey& Caruso, 2018).

2.1.5 The Daniel Goleman model

The model introduced by Daniel Goleman focuses on emotional intelligence as a wide

array of competencies and skills that drive leadership performance. Goleman's model identifies

four main domains of emotional intelligence that comprise 20 competencies. The four major

domains are as follows:

1. Self-Awareness: It includes three competences: Emotional Self-Awareness, Accurate

Self-Assessment, and Self-Confidence.

17
 2. Self-Management: It involves six competences: Self-Control, Trustworthiness,

Conscientiousness, Adaptability, Achievement Drive and Initiative.

3. Social Awareness: It includes three competencies: Empathy, Service Orientation and

Organizational Awareness.

4. Relationship Management: It includes eight competences: Developing Others,

Influence, Communication, Conflict Management, Leadership, Change Catalyst, Building

Bonds and Teamwork & Collaboration.

2.1.6 The Bar-On model

After 17 years of research, BarOn developed the Bar-On EQi that is a scientifically

developed and validated measure of emotional intelligence. This inventory consists of five major

components and 15 subscales of these components. The five composite scales include:

Intrapersonal Component, Interpersonal Component, Stress Management, Adaptability and

General Mood. A brief description of these scales is given below:

1. Intrapersonal Component: The intrapersonal component of emotional intelligence

emphasizes self-awareness and self-expression. It includes the following five subscales:

 Emotional Self Awareness involves the awareness and understanding of one’s

own emotions.

 Self-Regard involves the understanding, acceptance and respect of the self.

 Self-Actualization refers to the ability to strive for personal goals and actualize

one’s potentials.

 Assertiveness is the ability to effectively express and defend one’s beliefs and

thoughts.

18
  Independence is the ability of being self-directed and self-controlled.

2. Interpersonal Component: The interpersonal component of emotional intelligence

model is concerned with social awareness and interpersonal interactions. It includes

following subscales:

 Empathy is the ability to be aware of and understand how others feel.

 Social Responsibility is the ability of being a cooperative, constructive and

responsible member of the society.

 Interpersonal Relationships refer to the ability to establish pleasant relationships

and healthy interaction with others.

3. Stress Management: This component of EI involves managing and regulating emotions

and includes two sub-scales:

 Stress Tolerance is the ability to withstand the difficult conditions and unpleasant

events by constructively managing emotions.

 Impulse Control is the ability to resist or delay a desire, a drive or a temptation by

controlling one’s emotions.

4. Adaptability: This component of EI model is concerned with the ability to adjust with

change and cope with the problems that come with the change. It includes following sub-

scales:

 Reality Testing which basically means the ability to objectively judge the external

reality and the internal feelings.

 Flexibility is the ability to adapt one’s thoughts and emotions according to the

changing situations and adjust in new situations.

19
  Problem Solving refers to the ability to identify the problem and to put forward an

effective solution.

5. General Mood: This component of emotional intelligence includes the competencies

related to self-motivation. It includes two sub-scales:

 Happiness refers to the satisfaction with one’s life, and the ability to express

positive feelings and enjoy life.

 Optimism is the ability to think positively, to keep in view the bright side of the

life and remain hopeful in the face of difficulties and negative feelings.

2.1.7 Emotional Intelligence and Academic Achievement

Effective learning takes place when students have an understanding of how to learn and

this understanding requires such emotional skills as confidence, self-control, the ability to

communicate and the ability to cooperate with others. Many studies have found positive

correlation between emotional intelligence and academic achievement.

Goleman (2018) cites a longitudinal study in which the level of impulse control or self-

regulatory behavior among 4 year old children correlated to their later academic performance

based on standard measures such as grade point average (GPA). There is also evidence that a

higher level of emotional intelligence correlates with goal orientation and life satisfaction among

adults (Martinez-Pons, 1997). The findings of the study, conducted by Fannin (2000), showed

positive correlation between emotional intelligence and achievement scores. There is also some

evidence that emotional intelligence affects the way cognitive intelligence is used (Reiff, et al,

2001). Rozell, Pettijohn, and Parker, (2002) found relationship between emotional intelligence

and CGPA of undergraduate students of Mid-Western University.

20
 Farooq (2003) examined the effect of emotional intelligence on academic performance of

246 adolescent students and found that students with high emotional intelligence show better

academic performance than the students with low emotional intelligence. A study to determine

the correlation between the MSCEIT and standard cognitive ability markers has determined that

“EQ” is a standard form of intelligence and can be measured if reliable test instruments are

developed and validated (Reid, 2003).

The study conducted by Nelson and Low (2018) revealed the importance of emotional

intelligence during transition period of high school graduates in the first year of college. They

emphasized the importance of emotional intelligence skills as influencing variables in students’

achievement and retention. Parker, Summerfeldt, Hogan and Majeski (2018) found emotional

intelligence a predictor in identifying academically successful and academically unsuccessful

students during transition period. Marquez, Martin and Brackett (2006) found relationship

between emotional intelligence and academic achievement. Abdullah (2006) also found that

some dimensions of emotional intelligence significantly predict academic performance of college

students. After reviewing research studies about emotional intelligence in relation to university

students, Abraham (2006) concluded that training in appropriate emotional skills is necessary for

career success and fulfillment.

A study conducted by Jaeger and Eagan (2018) revealed Interpersonal, Stress

Management and adaptability scales of BarOnEQi as significant predictors of academic

performance of students in the first year of university.

21
Gender Differences in Emotional Intelligence

As regarding gender differences in emotional intelligence, psycho-educational research

has demonstrated some degree of a relation between the two; however, this relation has not been

clearly established. The results of some studies indicate significant gender differences in

emotional intelligence and those of others contradict the notion. Popular literature apparently

suggests that men and women significantly differ in their styles of emotional intelligence.

Women and girls are generally considered more caring and emotionally responsive than men and

boys (Eisenberg, 1994). BarOn (1997) asserts that there are no gender differences in terms of

total emotional intelligence, nevertheless, difference may be found in some emotional capacities.

Goleman (1998) also denies the idea that women are smarter than men regarding emotional

intelligence and vice versa. Mandell and Pherwani (2003) found a significant difference in

Emotional Intelligence scores of male and female managers in a study of the relationship

between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership style. The study, conducted by

Harrod and Scheer (2005) on 200 youths of age 16-19, revealed a significant difference in the

scores of males and females on emotional intelligence with females reporting higher Emotional

Intelligence levels. Also Katyal and Awasthi (2005) conducting a study on adolescents of

Chandighar, showed females with higher Emotional Intelligence scores even though the

difference was not as significant to be conclusive but only suggestive of the trend. Adeyemo

(2008) found a significantly higher emotional intelligence in female workers in different

organizations than their male counterparts. Other studies revealed gender differences in some

aspects of emotional intelligence (Reiff, et. al., 2001; Petrides and Furnham, 2000; Sutarso, et.

al., 2017; etc.).

22
2.1.1.1 Locus of Control

Locus of control is a personality variable which refers to an individuals’ perception of the

main causes of events in life. Locus of control can be divided into internal locus of control and

external locus of control. Individuals with internal locus of control are called internals. They

believe that they have control over their destinies. They tend to be convinced that their own

skills, abilities, and efforts determine the bulk of their life experiences. Individuals who have

external locus of control are called externals. They believe that their destinies are controlled by

external forces such as luck, chance, fate, or powerful others (Rotter, 2018).Rotter cautioned that

internality and externality represent two ends of a continuum, not an either/or typology.

Locus of control is embedded within Rotter’s (1954) social learning theory of personality

which postulates that behaviour is a function of expectancy and reinforcement value in a specific

situation. In other words, a particular behavior is more likely to occur if it is associated with high

reinforcement value and expectancy. Reinforcement value is the degree of preference for a

particular reinforcement if various alternative reinforcements are available. Expectancy is the

probability that the particular reinforcement will occur as a result of an individual’s behavior

(Rotter, Chance, &Phares, 1972). The potential for a particular behavior to occur therefore is a

function of the expected occurrence of reinforcement following the behaviour (Rotter, 1954).

The term locus of control simply refers to the extent to which one believes that events in one’s

life are contingent on one’s own behaviour. According to the internal-external locus of control

construct, persons with internal expectancies for control of reinforcement believe that their own

behaviour determines the reinforcement they receive. These persons are called internals. A

person with internal locus of control attributes change to himself and to his actions. They believe

23
and act as if they control their own futures and see themselves as effective agents in determining

the occurrence of reinforcing events in life.

In contrast, a person who believes in external control of reinforcements attributes their

outcomes to chance, luck, fate, powerful others, and so on. These people are called externals. A

person with external locus of control attributes changes to external sources, and believes that

powerful forces such as fate, luck, chance, powerful others, social constraints ,or instructions are

important factors determining the occurrence of reinforcing events in his life. He or she also

believes that reinforcement does not depend on his actions or behaviour but is the result of luck,

chance, fate, as under the control of powerful others or is unpredictable because of a great

complexity of forces (Rotter, 2018). The implication of this is that individuals with internal locus

of control may likely change their behaviour following reinforcements than those individuals

with external locus of control.

Rotter measured locus of control by the using the Internal/External (I-E)Scale on which

high scores reflect external locus of control and low scores reflect internal locus of control

(Rotter, 2018).

Psychologists typically believe that locus of control forms during childhood and stabilizes during

adolescence; also parents can influence their children's locus of control through their parenting

style. Children are more likely to develop an internal locus of control if their parents encourage

autonomy and consistently use a system of rewards and punishments. Stressful life events may

result in a higher likelihood of having an external locus of control. Finally, although the

empirical evidence is inconclusive, individuals' locus of control may evolve over their life-cycle

as physical and mental health changes.

24
2.1.1.2 Locus of Control and Academic Achievement

How are students’ educational outcomes related to their locus of control? Does locus of

control have differential effects on educational attainment and educational achievement?

Researchers opine that because those with an internal sense of control believe that success comes

from hard work, they are more likely to be aware of information that is useful for future

decision-making, are more willing to take action to improve their performance, and are less

likely to surrender to peer pressures (Andrisani, 1977). Wang et al., (1999) conclude that an

internal locus of control is associated with superior academic performance. A sense of personal

control is thought to increase effort, motivation, and persistence in problem solving all of which

are expected to improve educational outcomes (Ross and Broh, 2000).

A study on locus of control among Iranian students by Barzegar (2001) using the

Internal-External locus of control Scale by Rotter indicates that locus of control was a factor

predicting students’ academic performance. Anakwe (2003) examined the relationship between

locus of control and secondary school students’ academic performance. The findings showed a

significant positive relationship between academic performance and locus of control. Shepherd,

Owen, Fitch and Marshall (2006) found that students with higher GPA reported higher score in

internal locus of control.

Knowles and Kerman (2018) found that students with internal locus of control tend to

perform better in academic courses compared to those with external locus of control. Nejati,

Abedi, Agbaci&Mohammadi (2012) investigated the relationship between locus of control and

the academic performance of students by considering the role of life quality and satisfaction with

25
life. The outcome of the study revealed that locus of control significantly correlated with the

academic performance of the students.

2.1.1.2.1 Locus of Control and Gender Differences

Gender roles are made of social, familial, and interpersonal traits of what a man or a

woman should be (Karen Horney, 2016). Based on the belief that males are more independent

than females, it is expected that as a result of different gender roles, each sex should have a

difference in perceived locus of control. In other words, males should have a more internal locus

of control, while females should have a more external locus of control

Levenson (1981) noted that males had a more external locus of control than females.

Cairns et al (2017) noted the opposite, that males have a more internal locus of control than

females. However, the predominant trend in literature is that males have a more internal locus of

control than females (Chubb et al., 2017)

Manger, T. & Eikeland, O.-J. (2000) in their study of a sample of Norwegian 14- and 15-

year-old students discovered no significant relationship between total externality-internality

score and level of ability. However, a significant relationship was found between ability and a

subscale of locus of control related to degree of belief in the impact of school effort. The

analyses of gender differences showed that girls had significantly higher total internal locus of

control scores than boys. Boys were, however, significantly more internally oriented than girls

on a subscale related to the respondents’ general belief in luck, while girls were significantly

more internally oriented than boys on a school effort scale. The inconsistent findings on locus of

control and gender could be the result of many different factors. Some believe that too little

research exists to reveal a trend (Archer et al., 1988).Others believe that many of the studies are

26
no longer pertinent because they were performed prior to the 1980s (Chubb et al., 2017). Both of

these findings suggest that the solution is to perform current research with a modern population.

Worthy of note is the fact that as individuals grow older, they hold a stronger belief in an

internal locus of control (Blanchard-Fields et al., 1988; Cairns et al., 2017). Since females

mature physically before males, females might shift towards a more internal locus of control

earlier. This has not been tested in the literature.

2.1.1.2.2 Locus of Control and Emotional Intelligence

As emotional intelligence is related to close constructs such as personality and self-

concept, it is important to account for them in the analysis of academic success. With reference

to identifying, using, understanding and regulating emotions, it appears that expressing an

internal locus of control is more beneficial than expressing an external locus of control. This is

because a person must perceive that he or she has control over those things they are capable of

influencing, particularly the source of their emotions, before they are likely to be successful at

controlling them.

Locus of control is related to what individuals attribute the cause of their emotional behavior.

Individuals with an internal locus of control view their emotional state as a result of their own

thinking. People with an external locus of control view their emotions as being under the control

of external factors, such as the way other people behave.

Locus of control may have a profound effect on overall psychological well-being. If people feel

they have no control over their emotions (that the cause of how they feel comes from something

external of them), they are less likely to seek or apply solutions to their emotional problems. The

27
far-reaching effects of such maladaptive behaviors can have serious consequences in many areas

of life.

In the classroom, Downey et al. (2008) posit that the relationship between emotional intelligence

and academic achievement can be moderated by other personality variables. For example, high

emotional intelligence contributes to increased motivation, planning and decision making, which

positively influence academic performance.

Individuals who can utilize their emotions wisely towards the aims that they want to achieve in

their work, education or private life and who can achieve these aims may be defined as

intelligent with regard to emotions (Yeşilyaprak, 2001)

2.1.1.2.4 Academic Achievement

Academic performance among secondary school students has garnered national attention

in recent times with the failure rate in nationwide exams grabbing headlines. Parents, teachers

and the society in general are much worried and apprehensive about the dwindling results of our

school system. Academic achievement is used to measure the extent to which a student, teacher,

school or institution has achieved the stated educational goals. As a measure of educational

outcomes, academic achievement among students is paramount to the economic, scientific and

technological advancement of a nation because as the saying goes, “they are the leaders of

tomorrow”. Parents send their children to school and teachers educate students with one aim in

mind, to improve their academic performance and thus improve their chances of future success.

Educational success requires self-regulated learning practices, sustained effort, managing time

demands and academic stress, as well as successfully navigating the social landscape. IQ alone is

no more the only measure for academic achievement; emotional intelligence, social intelligence,

28
and luck also play a big role in a person's success (Goleman, 2018). More recent studies of

emotional intelligence in educational settings have begun to explore the ways in which cognitive

ability, and related variables such as locus of control interact to influence academic achievement.

Academic Achievement and Gender

Examining sex-related difference in classroom grades, Kimball (2017) finds that in contrast to

standardized measures of mathematics achievement tests like SAT, female students outperform

males in math classes.

Baker and Jones (1993) analyzed sex differences in the eighth grade mathematics performance of

over 77,000 students in 19 developed and developing countries. They find no evidence of a

significant gender gap. Both cross-national variation in sex differences in mathematical

performance and the trend toward less of a difference between males and females question any

innate male superiority in intelligence. Stage and Kloosterman (2018) note that although gender

differences in math achievement continue to exist on high cognitive level tasks at the high school

level, such differences appear to be declining.

Flynn (1998) finds no gender difference while examining two tests administered by The

Israeli Defense Forces which qualify as IQ tests. Wilberg and Lynn (1999) arrive at a similar

conclusion for history tests. The authors explain this pattern by stating that females tend to work

more conscientiously and have a stronger work ethic than males. They also tend to have better

language abilities including essay writing skills, vocabulary and word fluency which contribute

to better course work.

Young and Fisler (2000) examining SAT scores of high school seniors, find males to

score better than females. Researchers have explained this gap between male and female

29
achievement by adhering to such factors as differences in course taking behavior, classroom

experiences and cognitive processing (Byrnes, Hong and Xing, 1997; Young and Fisler, 2000).

Jacobs, (2002) posits that most studies show that, on average, girls do better in school than boys.

Girls get higher grades and complete secondary school at a higher rate compared to boys

2.2 Emotional Intelligence and the Curriculum

If emotional intelligence is considered nowadays vital for success, then why haven’t we

started teaching its components to our students at school? If it affects student achievement, then

it is imperative for schools to integrate it in their curricula, hence raising the level of student

success.

Richardson and Evans (1997) explored some methods for teaching social and emotional

competence within a culturally diverse society. Their purpose was to help students connect with

each other, in order to assist them in developing interpersonal, intrapersonal, and emotional

intelligences, arguing that these intelligences are essential for personal accomplishment. The

emotions, feelings, and values are vital for a person’s well-being and achievement in life,

according to Ediger (1997). He also states that science teachers should stress on the affective

domain that cannot be separated from the cognitive domain. Quality emotions and feelings help

students give their best potential in the classroom. The students who are aversive and think

negatively cannot concentrate for a long time and have more difficulty in reaching their potential

than others.

At La Salle Academy, a private school in Providence, Rhode Island, students are given

lessons in emotional intelligence across the curriculum. This is part of an exhaustive program in

social and emotional education called "Success for Life." The school’s academic council voted to

30
approve this program by 20-0 vote. (Pasi, 1997). Carolyn Pool, the senior editor of Educational

Leadership magazine, stated in an article she wrote in 1997 that emotional well-being is a

predictor of success in academic achievement and job success among others. Finnegan (1998)

argues that schools should help students learn the abilities underlying emotional intelligence.

According to him, possessing those abilities, or even some of them, can lead to achievement

from the formal education years of the child and adolescent to the adult’s competency in being

effective in the workplace and in society (p. 23). Students often experience failure in school, at

home, with friends, and on the job because they have poor communication skills, suggests

Cangelosi and Petersen (1998).

In the U.K., the dreadful UNICEF results regarding well-being of their minors generated

a great debate about the inability of a wealthy, ultramodern society to make its youth happy. One

of the first reactions to this report was the creation of a State Secretariat for “Children, Schools

and Families” (http://www.dfes.gov.uk/) in June 2018, for the purpose of assuring satisfaction

and happiness in children and youth.

The principles of SEL involve practical development of children’s social and emotional

skills in a positive, stimulating atmosphere (Greenberg et al., 2003; Weissberg& O’Brien, 2018).

The SEL programs are based on the concept of Emotional Intelligence developed by Peter

Salovey and John Mayer in 2017 (Salovey& Mayer, 2017) and propagated with great

commercial success by Daniel Goleman in 2018 (Goleman, 2018). The SEL programs offered

training in basic skills directly related to emotional intelligence, such as emotional perception,

emotional understanding, emotional regulation, as well as broader, higher level aspects linked to

personality, such as self-esteem, perseverance, assertiveness and optimism (Zins, Weissberg,

Wang, & Walberg, 2018).

31
Over the past few years, children in a growing number of schools throughout the United States

have been introduced to the “Self-Science” curriculum that was developed by Karen Stone-

McCown and her colleagues 40 years ago

2.3 Summary

This study was conceptualized to explore the relationship between emotional intelligence

and academic achievement on the one hand and the relationship between locus of control and

academic achievement on the other among secondary school students in Lagos metropolis. As

noted earlier, overall student achievement is on the decline in Nigeria. The consistent downward

slide in student performance in the W.A.E.C, N.E.C.O and J.A.M.B examinations respectively is

evidence of this trend.

Many scholars have acknowledged that the necessary emotional and social competencies

for coping adequately with negative, destructive emotions generated in such a competitive

context as school have not been explicitly taught in our culture; this is because in our society and

specifically at school, only the intellectual and academic aspects of students are given priority

while consigning their emotional and social development to the private sphere, where each

individual is responsible for his or her own personal development.

In the light of previous studies it can be said that a relationship may exist between

emotional intelligence and academic achievement. Also students with a higher internal locus of

control tend to do better academically than their counterparts with a more external outlook on

life. Furthermore, the gender differences in locus of control and emotional intelligence were

discussed, though previous studies proved inconclusive and researchers differed widely on the

issue.

32
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1. Research Design

The research design adopted for this study is the descriptive survey research design. The

descriptive survey research design provides in-depth, comprehensive and ordered information

concerning the units under investigation. In this research work, questionnaire survey was

employed to explore how emotional intelligence and locus of control can predict academic

performance among secondary school students.

3.2 Population

The population of the study consists of male and female Senior Secondary School

students in both public and private schools in Obi Local Government Area of Nasarawa state,

Nigeria

3.4. Sample Size and Sampling Technique

Simple random sampling was used to select the three schools in Obi Local Government

Area from which the sample was drawn.

The sample size for this study consists of 20 SS2 students (boys and girls) drawn from three

secondary schools in Obi Local Government Area of Lagos state.

The sample for this study was also drawn using random sampling technique.

3.5. Research Instruments

Two sets of instruments were employed in the study namely: Locus of Control of

Behaviour Scale by Craig, Franklin and Andrew (1984) and the Trait Emotional

Intelligence Questionnaire – Adolescent Short Form (TEIQue-ASF)

33
A demographic form was developed and attached to the instruments to collect information on the

subjects’ ages, gender and class.

The Locus of Control of Behaviour Scale (see appendix I) is a standardized psychological

assessment instrument used to assess the main behavior characteristics of internal and external

locus of control among adolescents (confidence, hard work etc.).

The 17- item scale was constructed with reference to Internal and External Control of

Reinforcement scale by Rotter (2018) and is scored on a 0 to 5 point scale as follows:

Strongly Disagree = 0. Generally Disagree = 1. Somewhat Disagree = 2. Somewhat Agree = 3.

Generally Agree = 4. Strongly Agree = 5.

The TEIQue-ASF (see appendix II) is a simplified version, in terms of wording and

syntactic complexity, of the adult short form of the TEIQue (Trait Emotional Intelligence

Questionnaire).

The ASF comprises 30 short statements, two for each of the 15 trait emotional

intelligence facets, designed to measure global trait emotional intelligence. Responses are given

on a 7-point Likert scale, with 1= strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree. Example items

include:

“I can control my anger when I want to,”

“I feel good about myself,”

“I’m good at gettingalong with my classmates.”

3.6. Validity of Research Instruments

The validity of an instrument refers to the extent to which that instrument measures what

it is supposed to measure.

34
 Evidence of the TEIQue-ASF’s criterion and incremental validity comes from its

administration in British, New Zealand and Spanish populations (Petrides and Furnham 2001;

Petrides and Furnham 2003; Petrides et al. 2018a). The form has been used successfully with

children as young as 11 years.

The Locus of Control of Behaviour scale has been found to have a convergent validity of

0.56 (Abdollahia et al, 2014)

The English Language achievement test underwent content validation by English Language

teachers

3.7. Reliability of Research Instruments

According to Nunnally (2016), the coefficient alpha for the 17 items of the Locus of

Control scale was .79. This demonstrates that the scale has high internal reliability. A test-retest

reliability of the scale was determined by Salami (1999) using Nigerian students. Salami reports

a reliability coefficient of .75. This correlated with Rotter’s Internal and External Control of

Reinforcement scale (r = .67 for males and r = .67 for females). This shows that the instrument is

suitable for Nigerian respondents.

In the same vein, the internal consistency of the global score of the TEIQue-ASF usually exceeds

.80. (Petrides et al, 2006)

3.8. Administration of the Instruments

The research instruments and test were administered by the investigator through personal

visits to the selected schools. The researcher with the cooperation of the teachers participated in

the distribution and collection of the questionnaires and English achievement test in the

respective schools.

35
 Respondents were told to record their agreement or disagreement with each of the

statements by ticking the corresponding spaces provided

3.9. Scoring of the Instruments

For the TEIQue-ASF, items 2,4,5,7,8,10,12,13,14,16,18,22,25,26 and 28 were reverse

scored before obtaining a total score for each respondent. Higher scores on the TEIQue-ASF

indicate higher levels of trait Emotional Intelligence.

Similarly, in the Locus of Control of Behaviour scale, items 1, 5, 7, 8, 13, 15 and 16 were

reverse scored before item scores were summed to obtain a total score. The maximum score is

85, while the minimum is 0 (Craig et al., 1984). Lowe scores indicate greater internal control

(which is desirable) and higher scores indicate greater perceived internal control over the

person’s actions.

The English Language Achievement test was manually scored using the scoring key

vetted by English Language teachers.

3.10. Procedure for Data Analysis

Each of the hypotheses raised was tested using specific statistical tests. The hypotheses

and corresponding statistical tests are outlined below:

Hypothesis One: There is no significant relationship between emotional intelligence and

academic achievement of secondary school students

a. Independent Variable: Emotional Intelligence

b. Dependent Variable: Academic Performance

c. Statistical Test: Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation Coefficient

Hypothesis Two: There is no significant relationship between locus of control and academic

achievement of secondary school students

36
 a. Independent Variable: Locus of Control

b. Dependent Variable: Academic Performance

c. Statistical Test: Chi- square test

Hypothesis Three: Secondary school students with internal locus of control will not

differ significantly with respect to academic achievement from secondary school students

with external locus of control.

a. Independent Variable: Locus of Control

b. Dependent Variable: Academic achievement

c. Statistical Test: t-test (test of difference between two independent means)

Hypothesis Four: There is no significant gender difference in Emotional Intelligence of

secondary school students

a. Independent Variable: Emotional Intelligence

b. Dependent Variable: Gender

c. Statistical Test: t-test

Hypothesis Five: There is no significant gender difference in Locus of Control of

secondary school students

a. Independent Variable: Locus of Control

b. Dependent Variable: Gender

c. Statistical Test: t-test

37
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Introduction

This chapter presents data derived from the research findings carried out by the researcher on

this study. The data was collected for the purpose of providing answers to the research questions

and analyzing research hypotheses designed for this study.

4.2. Results

This section will be divided into two parts namely:

1. Distribution based on Gender

2. Research Hypotheses

4.2.1. Distribution Based on Gender

Gender Percentage Cumulative

distribution Percentage

Male 38 38.0 38.0

Female 62 62.0 100.0

Total 100 100.0

Table 4.1: Distribution of respondents by gender

From Table 4.1, we can see that out of 100 respondents sampled for this study, only 38 students
were male thus representing 38% of the population of respondents, while 62 students were
female thus representing 62% of the population.

The information is present below graphically using a bar chart.

38
Fig. 4.1: A bar chart showing distribution of respondents based on Gender

4.2.2. Research Hypotheses

Hypothesis 1

This hypothesis in a null form states that there is no significant relationship between emotional

intelligence and academic achievement of secondary school students.

Pearson Product Moment Correlation coefficient was the statistical tool used to test the above

null hypothesis.

Table 4.2: An ‘r’ statistical table showing the relationship between emotional intelligence
and academic achievement of secondary school students

39
 Variables N r-cri Df r-cal Decision

Emotional
Intelligence Ho is
100 0.205 98 0.86 rejected
Academic
Achievement
p<=0.05; df=98; r-crit =0.205; r-cal=0.86
Interpretation

FromTable 4.2above, the r-calculated (r-cal=0.86) is greater than the r-critical(r-crit=0.205) at

98 degrees of freedom and 0.05 level of significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected

while the alternate hypothesis which states that there is a significant relationship between

emotional intelligence and academic achievement of secondary school students is upheld.

Hypothesis 2

This hypothesis in a null form states that there is no significant relationship between locus of

control and academic achievement of secondary school students

Chi-square test was used to test this hypothesis. The results of the test are presented below

Table 4.3: Chi-Square table showing the relationship between locus of control and

academic performance

Total df t-crit t-cal Decision

Observed 55 31 04 10 100 1 3.84 6.23 Ho is

rejected
Expected 50.74 35.26 8.26 5.74 100

p<=0.05; df=1; r-crit =3.84; r-cal=6.23

Interpretation

40
From Table 4.3above, the r-calculated (r-cal=6.23) is greater than the r-critical(r-crit=3.84) at 1

degree of freedom and 0.05 level of significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected while

the alternate hypothesis which states that there is a significant relationship between locus of

control and academic achievement of secondary school students is upheld.

Hypothesis 3

This hypothesis states in a null form that secondary school students with internal locus of control

will not differ significantly with respect to academic achievement from secondary school

students with external locus of control.

In testing this hypothesis, independent t-test was used as the statistical tool, which is test of

difference between the sample mean of two groups. The results are shown below:

Table 4.4: An independent t-test statistical table showing the difference between internal

and external students in terms of academic performance

Locus of control N X SD Df t-cal t-cri Decision

Internal 59 49.91 14.56 98 2.59 1.66

External 41 41.34 18.35

p<=0.05; df=98; t-crit =1.66; t-cal=2.59

Interpretation

Table 4.4aboveindicates that the t-calculated (t-cal=2.59) is greater than the t-critical (t-

crit=1.66) at 98 degrees of freedom and 0.05 level of significance. The null hypothesis is

therefore rejected and the alternate hypothesis which states that secondary school students with

41
internal locus of control will differ significantly with respect to academic achievement from

secondary school students with external locus of control is upheld.

Hypothesis 4

This hypothesis states in a null form that there is no significant gender difference in respondents’

Emotional Intelligence.

In testing this hypothesis, independent t-test was used as the statistical tool, which is test of

difference between the sample mean of two groups. The results are shown below:

Table 4.5: t-test statistical table showing differences in Students’ Emotional Intelligence

based on gender

EI N X SD Df t-cal t-tab Decision

Male 38 50.65 11.47

98 0.03 1.65
Ho is
accepted
Female 62 50.54 9.09

<=0.05; df=98; t-crit =1.65; t-cal=0.03

Interpretation

Table 4.5, shows that at 98 degrees of freedom and 0.05 level of significance, the t-calculated (t-

cal=0.03) is less than the t-critical (tcrit=1.65). The null hypothesis which states that there is no

significant gender difference in emotional intelligence is therefore maintained while the alternate

hypothesis is rejected.

Hypothesis 5

42
This hypothesis states in a null form that there is no significant gender difference in respondents’

Locus of Control.

In testing this hypothesis, independent t-test was used as the statistical tool, which is test of

difference between the sample mean of two groups. The results are shown below:

Table 4.6: t-test statistical table showing differences in Students’ Locus of Control based on

gender

Locus of control N X SD Df t-cal t-tab Decision

Male 38 53.21 9.84

98 0.41 1.65
Ho is
accepted
Female 62 51.76 10.35

<=0.05; df=98; r-crit =1.65; r-cal=0.41

Interpretation

Table 4.6 shows the gender differences in respondents’ Locus of Control. Once again, the t-

calculated (t-cal=0.41) is less than the t-critical (tcrit=1.65) at 98 degrees of freedom and 0.05

level of significance. Consequently, the null hypothesis which states that there is no significant

gender difference in students’ locus of control is retained while the alternative hypothesis is

rejected. This implies that male and female students are not significantly different in terms of

their perceived Locus of Control

4.3. Discussion of Findings

This study set out to examine how well Emotional Intelligence and Locus of Control predict

43
academic performance among secondary school students in Lagos state. At 0.05 level of

significance, three of the hypotheses were tested using t-test; one was tested using Pearson

moment correlation coefficient while the final one was tested using Chi-square test.

Hypothesis 1, 2 and 3 were rejected while 4 and 5 were accepted

Hypothesis1

This hypothesis states that there is no significant relationship between Emotional Intelligence

and academic achievement.

The results of testing this hypothesis reveal that Emotional intelligence and academic

achievement are positively and significantly related. This finding is supported by Fannin (2000),

who posited that there is positive correlation between Emotional Intelligence and achievement

scores. Similarly, Marquez, Martin and Brackett (2006) found the relationship between

emotional intelligence and academic achievement to be positive. Also, Farooq (2003) examined

the effect of emotional intelligence on academic performance of 246 adolescent students and

found that students with high emotional intelligence show better academic performance than the

students with low emotional intelligence while Parker et al (2018) found emotional intelligence a

predictor in identifying academically successful and academically unsuccessful students during

transition period.

Hypothesis 2

This hypothesis states that there is no significant relationship between Locus of Control and

academic achievement.

44
After testing this hypothesis, the results show that there is a positive and significant relationship

between Locus of Control and academic achievement. This finding is consistent with a study on

locus of control among Iranian students by Barzegar (2001) using the Internal-External locus of

control Scale by Rotter indicating that locus of control was a factor predicting students’

academic performance. Anakwe (2003) also examined the relationship between locus of control

and secondary school students’ academic performance and found a significant positive

relationship between academic performance and locus of control. Similarly, Nejati et al (2012)

investigated the relationship between locus of control and the academic performance of students

by considering the role of life quality and satisfaction with life. The outcome of the study

revealed that locus of control significantly correlated with the academic performance of the

students.

Hypothesis 3

This hypothesis states that secondary school students with internal locus of control will not differ

significantly with respect to academic achievement from secondary school students with

external locus of control.

The results of testing this hypothesis indicate that there is a significant difference between the

academic performances of internally inclined students and the academic performance of

externally inclined students. This is consistent with the findings of Knowles and Kerman (2018)

who found that students with internal locus of control tend to perform better in academic courses

compared to those with external locus of control. Shepherd, Owen, Fitch and Marshall (2006)

also discovered that students with higher GPA reported higher score in internal locus of control.

45
Similarly, Wang et al., (1999) conclude that an internal locus of control is associated with

superior academic performance. The findings of Ross and Broh, (2000) in their study lend

credence to the fact that a sense of personal control is thought to increase effort, motivation, and

persistence in problem solving all of which are expected to improve educational outcomes.

Hypothesis 4

This hypothesis states that there is no significant gender difference in Emotional Intelligence of

secondary school students.

After testing this hypothesis, the null hypothesis was upheld. This result corroborates the

findings of BarOn (1997) who asserts that there are no gender differences in terms of total

emotional intelligence. Similarly, Goleman (1998) denies the idea that females are smarter than

males regarding emotional intelligence and vice versa.Zomer (2001) found no genderdifferences

with respect to trait EI measures while Westeret al. (2002) believe that there are few or no sex-

based differences in emotional experience

Hypothesis 5

This hypothesis states that there is no significant gender difference in Locus of Control. After

testing this hypothesis, the null hypothesis was maintained.

This means that male and female students will not differ in their locus of control orientation.

This is consistent with the findings of Manger, T. and Eikeland,O.-J.(2000) in their study of a

sample of Norwegian 14- and 15-year-old students. They discovered no significant relationship

between total externality-internality score and level of ability. Bar-Tal and Dorom (1979)

reported no difference in male and female locus of control scores. Also, among bright elementary

46
school children, no relationships were found between sex and locus of control according to

Johnson and Kanoy (1980)

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the summary of the study, conclusions and recommendations reached by

the researcher

5.2. Summary

This research was carried out to investigate how well the constructs of Emotional Intelligence

and Locus of Control are able to predict Academic Achievement.

A random sample of 100 SS2 students from three secondary schools in Eti-Osa Local

Government Area was utilized for the study. The research instruments used were Locus of

Control Scale by Craig and Franklin (1984), Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire –

Adolescent Short Form (TEIQue-ASF as well as an English achievement test. The data collected

were analysed using simple percentage and frequency counts while the five formulated

47
hypotheses were analyzed using Pearson’s moment correlation co-efficient, chi-square and t-

testat 0.05 level of significance. The research findings were illustrated using tables and graphs.

At the end of the analysis, the following results were obtained:

1. There is a significant relationship between emotional intelligence and academic

achievement of secondary school students

2. There is a significant relationship between locus of control and academic

achievement of secondary school students

3. Secondary school students with internal locus of control will differ significantly with

respect to academic achievement from secondary school students with external locus

of control.

4. There is no significant gender difference in Emotional Intelligence of secondary

school students

5. There is no significant gender difference in Locus of Control of secondary school

students

5.3. Conclusion

Based on the above findings, the following conclusions were reached:

1. Emotional intelligence and locus of control significantly influence the academic

achievement of secondary school students.

2. An internal locus of control is associatedwith more positive educational outcomes.

3. Locus of control can differentiate between high achievers and low achievers.

48
 4. Male and female students do not differ in their emotional intelligence.

5. Gender differences do not exist with respect to locus of control.

5.4. Recommendations

This study has some implications for policy makers, curriculum developers, teachers/counselors,

parents and students alike.

1. The inclusion of a focus on emotional intelligence as part of the standard secondary

school curriculumcould lead to a variety of positive personal, social and societal

outcomes. Increasing emotional intelligence may not only facilitate the learning process

and improve career choice and likelihood of success, but could also enhance the

probability of better personal and social adaptation in general.

2. Teachers should lay emphasis on hard work as the path to success to enhance students’

determination and disabuse their minds of the idea of luck, fate or powerful others as

determinants of their success

3. Parents need to encourage self-reliance, self-confidence and independence in their

children so as to foster in them (children) an internal belief that they can control their

own affairs.

4. The educational experience should adopt a more balanced or holistic approach by

focusing on educating the whole person. There could also be beneficial effects for the

school, improving the environment in which the educational experience occurs.

5. Cultural views of causality, attributing events to fate, gods, taboo or the power of the

unknown, should be discouraged among students and this orientation can be changed

through teaching, evaluation and counseling.

49
5.5. Suggestions for Further Research

It is recommended that further research focus on the development of a culture-

specific emotional intelligence scale for Nigerian students as opposed to the foreign

ones currently being used. It is also suggested that this study be replicated in a rural

setting

50
 REFERENCES

Abdullah, S. H. (2006). Emotional Intelligence and Academic Achievement: A Study

InKolejMatrikulasi Perlis, Unpublished thesis, Faculty of Business Management,
University Utara Malaysia.

Abelson, R. P. (1963). Computer simulation of 'hot cognition'.In S.Tomkins and S. Messick

(eds.) Computer simulation of personality. New York: Wiley.

Abraham, A. (2006). The Need for the Integration of Emotional Intelligence Skills. The
Business Renaissance Quarterly, 1(3), pp. 65-79.

Adeyemo, D. A. (2008). Demographic characteristics and emotional intelligence among workers

in some selected organizations in Oyo State, Nigeria, Vision. The Journal of Business
Perspective, 12(1)

Amirkhan, J. H. (2017). A factor analytically derived measure of coping: the coping strategy
indicator. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1066–74

Anakwe, A.I. (2003). The relationship among locus of control, academic performance and school
adjustment of senior secondary school students in Plateau state.Dissertations and These.
Retrieved on July 7, 2014 from http://dspace.unijos.edu.ng/handle/10485/1849

Andrisani, P. J. (1977). Internal-external attitudes, personal initiative, and the labor market
experience of black and white men. The Journal of Human Resources 12 (3), 308(328)

Archer, S. L., & Waterman, A. S. (1988).Psychological individuation: Gender differences or

gender neutrality. Human Development, 31, 65-81.

Baker, D. P. and Jones, D. P. (1993) Creating Gender Equality: Cross-national Gender

Stratification and Mathematical Performance, Sociology of Education, 66, pp. 91-103

Bandura, A. (1977) Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behaviour change. Psychological

review 84, 191-213

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundation of thought and action: A social cognitive theory.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman

51
Bar-On, R. (1997). EQ-i. Bar-On emotional quotient inventory, technical manual. Toronto,
Canada: Multi-Health Systems.

Bar-On, R. (2000). Emotional and social intelligence: Insights from the Emotional Quotient
Inventory (EQ-i). In R. Bar-On & J. D. A. Parker (Eds.),Handbook of emotional
intelligence. San Francisco: Jossey –Bass.

Bar-On, R. (2002). Bar-On emotional quotient inventory: short (Bar-On EQ-i: S), technical
manual. Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems.

Bar-On, R. (2003). How important is it to educate people to be emotionally and socially

intelligent, can it be done? Perspectives in Education, 21(4), 3-16.

Bar-On, R. (2005). The Bar-On model of emotional-social intelligence.In P. Fernandez

Berrocal& N. Extermera (Guest Editors). Special Issue on Emotional Intelligence,
Psicothema, 17

Bar-On, R. (2006). The Bar-On model of emotional-social intelligence.Psicothema, 2006(18),

13-25.

Bar-On, R., & Handley, R. (2003). The Bar-On EQ-360: Technical manual. Toronto, Canada:
Multi-Health Systems.

Bar-On, R., & Parker, J. D. A. (2000). The Bar-On EQ-i: YV: Technical manual. Toronto,
Canada: Multi-Health Systems.

Bar-On, R., Tranel, D., Denburg, N. L., &Bechara A. (2003).Exploring the neurological
substrate of emotional and social intelligence. Brain, 126, 1790- 1800

Barzegar, M. (2011). The relationship between learning style, locus of control and academic
achievement in Iranian students, Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference on
Education and Technology, 13, 195-1999

Blanchard-Fields, F. & Irion, J. C.(1988). The relation between locus of controlling coping in
two contexts: Age as a moderator variable. Psychology and Aging,3, 197-203.

Boekaerts, M. (2017) Personality and the psychology of learning. European journal of

personality 10(3) 377-404

Borghans, L., Duckworth, A.L., Heckman, J.J. &terWeel, B. (2008).The Economics and
Psychology of Personality Traits. Working Paper 13810, National Bureau of Economic
Research

Borghans, L., H. M. and B. Weel (2008).The role of non-cognitive skills in explaining cognitive
test scores.Economic Inquiry 46 (1), 2(12)

52
Boyatzis, R. E., Goleman, D., & Hay Group (2001). The Emotional Competence Inventory
(ECI). Boston: Hay Group.

Bradley, .B. (1998).Extrinsic Value. Philosophical Studies, 91: pp. 109-126.

Bradley, C. G. (1998). The relationship between emotional intelligence and under achievement
in adolescence. Unpublished MA Dissertation. Pretoria: South Africa: University of
Pretoria.

Byrnes, J. P., Hong, L. and Xing, S. (1997) Gender Differences on the Math Subtest of the
Scholastic Aptitude Test May Be Culture-Specific, Educational Studies in Mathematics,
34, pp. 49-66.

Cairns, E., McWhirter, L., Duffy, U., & Barry, R. (2017). The stability of self-concept in late
adolescence: Gender and situational effects. Personality and Individual Differences, 11,
937-944.

Cangelosi, B. R., & Peterson, M. L.(1998). Peer teaching assertive communication strategies for
the workplace. (Clearinghouse No.CE078025)_Montgomery, AL: Auburn University at
Montgomery, School of Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.
ED427166)

Caruso, D. R., Mayer, J. D. and Salovey, P.(2002). Relation of an Ability Measure of Emotional
Intelligence to Personality, Journal of Personality Assessment, 79 (2), pp. 306-320

Chamorro-Premuzic, C.T., &Furnham, A.(2003). Personality predicts academic performance:

Evidence from two longitudinal university samples. Journal of Research in
Personality, 37, 319-338.

Chamorro-Premuzic, T., &Furnham, A. (2006). Intellectual competence and the intelligent

personality: A third way in differential psychology. Review of General Psychology, 10,
251–267.

Chubb, N. H., &Fertman, C. I. (1997). Adolescent self-esteem and locus of control: A

longitudinal study of gender and age differences. Adolescence, 32, 113

Craig, A. R., Franklin, J. A. & Andrew, G. 1984. A scale to measure locus of control of
behaviour. British Journal of Medical Psychology 57:173-180.

Cunha, F. and J. Heckman (2018).The technology of skill sormation.American Economic

Review 97 (2), 3147

Ediger, M. (1997).Affective objectives in the science curriculum.(Clearinghouse No.

SE060514)_Montgomery, AL: Auburn University at Montgomery, School of Education.
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED412070).

53
Fannin, B. E. (2002).The Contribution of Emotional Intelligence to Academic Achievement and
Production. Dissertation Abstract International, 62, 12-A

Farooq, A. (2003) Effect of Emotional Intelligence on Academic Performance, Unpublished

Thesis, Institute of Clinical Psychology

Fernandes, C. and Rego, A. (2018) How emotional intelligence explains students’ life
satisfaction, physical ill-health and academic achievement, Paper presented at the
European Conference on Educational Research, University of Crete, 22-25 September
2018 Retrieved July15, 2014, from http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/
documents/00003732.htm University of Karachi, Pakistan.

Finegan, J. E. (1998). Measuring emotional intelligence: where we are today.(Clearinghouse No.

TM029315)_Montgomery, AL: Auburn University at Montgomery, School of Education.
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED426087).

Flynn, J. R. (1998) Israeli Military IQ Tests: Gender Differences Small; IQ gains Large, Journal
of Biosocial Sciences, 30, pp. 541-553.

Gardner, H. (1983) Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic
Books.

Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligences reframed: Multiple intelligences for the twenty-first century.
New York: Basic Books.

Goetz, T., Frenzel, A.C., Pekrun, R.,Hall, N.C. (2006). The Domain Specificity of Academic
Emotional Experiences. The Journal of Experimental Education, 75(1), 5–29. University
of Munich

Goleman, D. (2018). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.

Goleman, D. (2017) Emotional Intelligence: why it can matter more than IQ. London:

Bloomsbury Publishing.

Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.

Greenberg, M. T., Weissberg, R. P., O 'Brien, M. U., Zins, J. E., Fredericks, L., Resnik, H., &
Elias, M. J. (2003). Enhancing school-based prevention and youth development
through coordinated social, emotional, and academic learning. American Psychologist ,
58, 466-474.

Harrod, N. R. and Scheer, S.D. (2005).An Explanation of Adolescent Emotional Intelligence in

Relation to Demographic Characteristics. Adolescence, vol. 40, 159, pp. 503-512.

54
Heckman, J. J., Stixrud, J., &Urzua, S. (2006).The effects of cognitive and non cognitive abilities
on labor market outcomes and social behavior. Journal of Labor Economics 24 (3), 411

Horney, K. (2016).Feminine Psychology .New York: W. W. Norton

In Zins, J.E., Weissberg, R.P., Wang, M.C., &Walberg, H.J. (Eds., Building academic success on
social and emotional learning: What does the research say? (pp. 3-22). New York,
NY: Teachers College Press

Jacobs, J. A. (2017) Gender Inequality and Higher Education, Annual Review of Sociology,22,
pp. 153-185

Jaeger A. J. and Eagan M. K. (2018).Exploring the Value of Emotional Intelligence: A Means to

Improve Academic Performance. NASPA Journal, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp.512-537

Kalil, A., Kanjanapan, W. &Sartbayeva,A. (2010). Non-cognitive skills and the transition to
adulthood for Australian youth. Australian Government Department of Education,
Employment and Workplace Relations (deewr), Paper prepared for presentation at the
Annual Meetings of the Population Association of America, Dallas TX

Kapp, C. A. (2002). Emotional intelligence (EQ) and success in post-graduate studies: A pilot
study. SA Journal of Higher Education, 14(3), 151-160.

Katyal, A. and Awasthi.E. (2005).Gender differences in emotional intelligence among

adolescence of Chandighar. Journal of Human Ecology, 17, 2, pp. 153-155

Kimball, M. M. (2017) A New Perspective on Women’s Math Achievement, Psychological

Bulletin, 105, pp. 198-214

Knowles, E. & Kerman, D. (2018).An Investigation of students’ attitude and motivation toward
online learning.Students Motivation, 2, 70-80.

Kyllonen, P. C., Lipnevich, A. A., Burrus, J., & Roberts, R. D. (2009). Personality, motivation
and college readiness: A prospectus for assessment and development. Unpublished
manuscript. ETS, Princeton, NJ

Leininger, L. J. &Kalil, A. (2008).Cognitive and non-cognitive predictors of success in adult

education programs: Evidence from experimental data with low income welfare
recipients. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 27(3), 521(535)

Levenson, H. (1981). Differentiating among internality, powerful others, and chance. In H. M.

Lefcourt (Ed.), Research with the Locus of Control Construct, Vol. 1,15-63. New
York: Academic Press

55
Low, G. and Nelson, D. (2018). Emotional intelligence: Effectively bridging the gap from high
school to college. TAXAS STUDY Magazine for Secondary Education, 13, 2, pp. 7-10

Mandell, B. and Pherwani, S. (2003). Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and

Transformational Leadership Style: A Gender Comparison, Journal of Business and
Psychology, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 387-404

Manger, T. and Eikeland, O.-J. (2000). On the relationship between locus of control, level of
ability and gender. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 41: 225–229. doi:
10.1111/1467-9450.0019

Márquez P. G., Martin R. P. and Brackett M. A. (2006) Relating emotional Intelligence to social
competence and academic achievement in high school students. Psicothema, Vol. 18,
supl., pp. 118-123

Martinez-Pons, M. (1997) The relation of emotional intelligence with selected areas of personal
functioning. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 17, 3-14

Matthews, G., Zeidner, M., & Roberts, R. D. (2006) Personality, affect, and emotional
development.In P. A. Alexander & P. H. Winne (Eds.). Handbook in educational
psychology(2nd ed., pp. 163–186).Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Mehrabian, A. (2000). Beyond IQ: Broad-based measurement of individual success potential or

"emotional Intelligence." Genetic, Social, and General Monographs, 126(2), 133-239.

Naemi, .B.,Burrus, .J., Kyllonen, P.C., Roberts, .R.D. (2012). Building a Case to Develop
Noncognitive Assessment Products and Services Targeting Workforce Readiness at ETS.
ETS Research Memorandum Series

Parker J. D. A., Summerfeldt L. J., Hogan M. J. and Majeski S. A. (2018).Emotional intelligence

and academic success: examining the transition from high school to university.
Personality and Individual Differences,Volume 36, No. 1, Pages 163-172

Pasi, R. J. (1997). Success in high school and beyond. Educational Leadership, 54(8), 40-42.

Petrides, K. V., &Furnham, A. (2003). Trait emotional intelligence: Behavioural validation in

two studies of emotion recognition and reactivity to mood induction. European Journal of
Personality, 17, 39-57.

Petrides, K. V., Sangareau, Y., Furnham, A., & Frederickson, N. (2006). Trait emotional
intelligence and children’s peer relations at school. Social Development, 15, 537-547.

Pool, C. R. (1997).Up with emotional health. Educational Leadership, 54(8), 12-14.

56
Qualter, P., Whiteley, H.E., Hutchinson, J.M., & Pope, D.J. (2018).Supporting the development
of emotional intelligence competencies to ease the transition from primary to high school.
Educational Psychology in Practice, 23, 79-95.

Reiff, H. B., Hatzes, N. M., Bramel, M. H. &Gibbon, T. (2001).The Relation of LD and Gender
with Emotional Intelligence in College Students. Journal of Learning Disabilities, Jan 01,
2001 Retrieved Jan 25, 2018 from
http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/browse_JJ_J024

Rhinehart W., Stone-McCown, K., Jensen, A. L., Freedman, J. M., Rideout, M. C. (1998). Self-
science: The emotional intelligence curriculum. San Mateo, CA: Six Seconds.

Richardson, R. C., & Evans, E. T. (1997). Social and emotional competence: motivating cultural
responsive education. (Clearinghouse No. PS025638)_Montgomery, AL: Auburn
University at Montgomery, School of Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service
No. ED411944).

Ross, C. E. and B. A. Broh (2000).The roles of self-esteem and the sense of personal control in
the academic achievement process.Sociology of Education 73, 270(284).

Rotter, J. (2018).Generalized expectancies of internal versus external control of

reinforcements.Psychological Monographs 80

Rotter,J.B., Chance, .J. &Phares E.J. (1972) Applications of a social learning theory. New York:
Holt, Rhinehart and Wilson

Rozell, E. J., Pettijohn, C. E. &Parker, R. S. (2002). An Empirical Evaluation of Emotional

Intelligence: The impact on management development, Journal of Management
Development, 21, 4, pp. 272-289

Salami, S.O. (1999).Demographic, locus of control and self-concept as determinants of career

maturity among Nigerian adolescents. Nigerian Journal of Applied Psychology, 5(1),
150-161

Salovey, P. & Mayer, J.D. (2017).Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition and

Personality, 9, pp185-211

Salovey, P., Mayer, J.D., Goldman, S., Turvey, C. and Palfai, T. (2018). Emotional attention,
clarity and repair: exploring emotional intelligence using the trait meta-mood scale. In:
Pennebaker, J.D. (Ed.), Emotion, Disclosure, and Health, pp. 125–154. American
Psychological Association, Washington, DC

Salovey, P., Woolery, A. and Mayer, J. D. (2001). Emotional intelligence: conceptualization and
measurement. In: Fletcher, G. and Clark, M. (Eds.). The Blackwell Handbook of Social
Psychology, pp. 279–307. Blackwell, London.
57
Schutte, N. S., MaIouff, J. M., Hall, L. E., Haggerty, D. J., Cooper, J. T., Golden,C. J.,
&Dornheim, L. (1998). Development and validation of a measure of emotional
intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 25, 167–177.

Sellers, R. M., Chavous, T. M., & Cooke, D. Y. (1998).Racial ideology and racial centrality as
predictors of African American college students' academic performance. Journal of Black
Psychology, 24 (1), 8-27

Shepherd, I., Owen, D., Fitch, T.J. &Marsall, J.L. (2006).Locus of control and academic
achievement in high school students.Pyscho.Rep., 98(2), 318- 322.

Spielberger, C. (Ed.) (2018). Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology.Academic Press.

Sternberg, R. J. (1997). Successful intelligence: How practical and creative intelligence

determine success in life. New York: Plume.

Thorndike, E. L. (1920a). Intelligence and its uses. Harper’s Magazine, 140, pp. 227-235.

Thorndike, E. L. (1920b). The Psychology of the Half-Educated Man. In Karier, Shaping the
American educational state, pp. 238-244. Monticello, IL: Vance Bibliographies.

Wilberg, S. &Lynn, R. (1999) Sex Differences in Historical Knowledge and School Grades: A
26 Nation Study, Personality and Individual Differences, 27, pp. 1221-1229

Yeşilyaprak , B. ( 2001). Emotional intelligence and implications for education. Theory and in
practice, Journal of Educational Management, 7(25), 139-146

Young, J. W. and Fisler, J. L. (2000) Sex Differences on the SAT: An Analysis of Demographic
and Educational Variables, Research in Higher Education, 41, pp. 401 - 416.

Zajonc, R. B. (1968).Attitudinal effects of mere exposure. Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, Monograph, 9(2, Part 2, 1-28).

Zajonc, R. B. (1980). Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no inferences. American

Psychologist, 35, 15 1 - 175.

Zeidner, M., Matthews, G., & Roberts, R. D. (2001). Slow down, you move too fast: Emotional
intelligence remains an “elusive” intelligence. Emotion, Vol. 1 (No. 3), 265-275.

Zins, J. E., Bloodworth, M. R., Weissberg, R. P., & Walberg, H. J. (2018).The scientific base
linking emotional learning to student success and academic outcomes.

58
APPENDIX I

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS

FACULTY OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS, AKOKA YABA
LOCUS OF CONTROL OF BEHAVIOUR SCALE

Instructions: Below are a number of statements about how various topics affect your personal
beliefs. Please answer by ticking the number that best shows how much you agree or disagree
with each statement below. Work quickly, but carefully. There are no right or wrong answers.

1. Strongly Disagree
2. Generally Disagree
3. Somewhat Disagree

59
 4. Somewhat Agree
5. Generally Agree
6. Strongly Agree

SECTION A: PERSONAL INFORMATION

NAME OF SCHOOL: _______________________________________________________

NAME OF STUDENT: ____________________________________________________

CLASS: ________________AGE: __________________GENDER: Male □ Female □

SECTION B

S/N STATEMENTS 0 1 2 3 4 5

1 I can anticipate difficulties and take action to avoid them

2 A great deal of what happens to me is probably just a matter of chance

3 Everyone knows that luck or chance determine one’s future

4 I can control my problem(s) only if I have outside support

5 When I make plans, I am almost certain that I can make them work

6 My problem(s) will dominate me all my life

7 My mistakes and problems are my responsibility to deal with

8 Becoming a success is a matter of hard work; luck has little or nothing

to do with it.

S/N STATEMENTS 0 1 2 3 4 5

9 My life is controlled by outside actions and events

10 People are victims of circumstance beyond their control.

11 To continually manage my problems I need professional help

12 When I am under stress, the tightness in my muscles is due to things

outside my control.

13 I believe a person can really be a master of his fate

60
14 It is impossible to control my irregular and fast breathing when I am
having difficulties.
15 I understand why my problem(s) varies so much form one occasion to
the next.
.
16 I am confident of being able to deal successfully with future problems.

17 In my case maintaining control over my problem(s) is due mostly to

luck

APPENDIX II

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS

FACULTY OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS, AKOKA YABA

TRAIT EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE QUESTIONNAIRE – ADOLESCENT SHORT

FORM (TEIQUE-ASF)

Instructions: Below are a number of statements about how various topics affect your personal
beliefs. Please answer by putting a circle around the number that best shows how much you
agree or disagree with each statement below. If you strongly disagree with a statement, circle a

61
 number close to 1. If you strongly agree with a statement, circle a number close to 7. If you’re
not too sure if you agree or disagree, circle a number close to 4. Work quickly, but carefully.
There are no right or wrong answers.

SECTION A: PERSONAL INFORMATION

NAME OF SCHOOL: _______________________________________________________

NAME OF STUDENT: ____________________________________________________

CLASS: ________________AGE: __________________GENDER: Male □ Female □

SECTION B

S/N STATEMENTS Agree Disagree

1 It is easy for me to talk about my feelings 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2 I often find it hard to see things from someone else’s point of view 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

3 I’m a very motivated person. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

4 I find it hard to control my feelings. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

5 My life is not enjoyable. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

6 I’m good at getting along with my classmates. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

7 I change my mind often. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8 I find it hard to know exactly what emotion I'm feeling. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

9 I’m comfortable with the way I look. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

10 I find it hard to stand up for my rights. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Agree Disagree

STATEMENTS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

11 I can make other people feel better when I want to. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

12 Sometimes, I think my whole life is going to be miserable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

13 Sometimes, others complain that I treat them badly. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

62
14 I find it hard to cope when things change in my life 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

15 I’m able to deal with stress. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

16 I don’t know how to show the people close to me that I care about 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
them.
17 I’m able to “get into someone’s shoes” and feel their emotions. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

18 I find it hard to keep myself motivated. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

19 I can control my anger when I want to. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

20 I’m happy with my life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

21 I would describe myself as a good negotiator. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

22 Sometimes, I get involved in things I later wish I could get out of. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

23 I pay a lot of attention to my feelings. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

24 I feel good about myself. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

25 I tend to “back down” even if I know I’m right 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

26 I’m unable to change the way other people feel. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

27 I believe that things will work out fine in my life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

28 Sometimes, I wish I had a better relationship with my parents. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

29 I’m able cope well in new environments. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

30 I try to control my thoughts and not worry too much about things. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

APPENDIX III

ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEST

Instruction: Kindly read through the questions below and choose the correct answer(s)

from the options given.

63
 1. It is advisable to accept to do it _______________ oneself (a) at (b) to (c) by (d) for

2. This unhappy situation results _______________ my giving you unlimited freedom (a) in

(b) to (c) from (d) with

3. After this, I hope to be safe ____________ further embarrassment (a) from (b) with (c) in

(d) on

4. ________________ second thoughts, I decided to stay for some days. (a) for (b) with (c)

in (d) on

5. Jummai is very keen ___________ marrying him (a) by (b) for (c) to (d) on

In each of the following questions, choose the most appropriate option opposite in meaning

to the words in italics

6. The priest was invited to consecrate the new building (a) destroy (b) abuse (c) tarnish (d)

pollute

7. The majority of candidates who sat for the last jamb examination are sanguine of success

(a) hopeful (b) pessimistic (c) unsure (d) disheartened

8. When we woke up in the morning the sky was over-cast (a) cloudy (b) clear (c) shiny (d)

Brilliant

9. Enemies of progress covertly strive to undermine the efforts of this administration (a)

secretly (b) boldly (c) consistently (d) overtly

From the lists of words lettered A to D, choose the word that is most nearly opposite

in meaning to the underlinedword.

10. The author wrote more comediesthan ___________ (a) plays (b) melodramas

(c) tragedies (d) tragicomedies

64
 11. Mary is a frugal housewife but her husband is _________ (a) rich

(b) extravagant (c) poor (d) free

12. A comprehensive report of the incident is necessary because anything ___________ will

be adequate (a) precise (b) winding (c) unabridged (d) verbose

13. The capital of that country is a mixture of luxury and ___________ (a) depravity

(b) decadence (c) antiquity (d) squalor

14. Nneka was convinced that the plan would work but even after explaining the reason in

detail, her mother remained __________________ (a) annoyed

(b) sincere (c) eager (d) skeptical

15. Although MrSanusi was reputed to be partial, his successor was a _____________

administrator (a) fair (b) careless (c) corrupt (d) wicked

Choose the option nearest in meaning to the word or phrases in Italics

16. He lost his voice momentarily(a) in a moment (b) in a split moment (c) for a brief period

of time (d) without delay (e) instantly

17. In some parts of India, people are ostracized simply because of their ancestry

(a) abandoned (b) shut out from society (c) refused education (d) rendered unhappy (e)

hated

18. The gunman killed his victim without the slightest compunction (a) provocation (b)

mercy (c) uneasiness of conscience (d) trace of previous disagreement

19. I cannot condescend to that (a) agree (b) refuse (c) disagree (d) lower myself

20. He became disconsolate after hearing the result of his examination

(a) unhappy (b) happy (c) indifferent (d) delirious.

65
66