K J SOMAIYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, MUMBAI-77

(CONSTITUENT COLLEGE OF SOMAIYA VIDYAVIHAR UNIVERSITY)

Course Name: Additive Manufacturing
Presented by:
Dr. Ramesh Lekurwale
HOD
Department of Mechanical Engineering

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 Module No: 4
Rapid Tooling and Reverse Engineering

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 Rapid Tooling
Rapid tooling can be grouped into two categories
 Indirect Rapid Tooling Processes
In these processes the starting point is the rapid prototype of the component for which
the tooling is to be manufactured
 Direct Rapid Tooling Processes
In these processes the tool is directly manufactured in layers.

Indirect Rapid Tooling Processes involves the use RP part as the master pattern for the
tool

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 Indirect Rapid Tooling

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Outline Outline
• Introduction (Indirect RP Tooling)

• Silicone Rubber Molding

• Epoxy Tooling

• Spray Metal Tooling

• Cast Kirksite Tooling

• 3D Keltool

• Conclusions

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 Introduction

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Rapid Manufacturing (Tooling) –
Various Routes
Unlike the layered manufacturing approach of RP, RM would require multi-faceted
and hybrid approaches to meet the varied needs.
RM

RM for RM for RM for

Polymers Metals Ceramics

Material Geometry
Subtractive RM Best Best
Indirect Routes Best Ok
Additive RM Ok Ok
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 Indirect Routes for RM of Polymers
• Subtractive RM will continue to dominate when the quality of the material and
geometry are high.
• Additive RM: Additive RP methods discussed earlier can be used for one or two
parts. Their limitations were discussed earlier.
• Hybrid RM: There are not many processes for polymers.
• Indirect RM: These are very promising. The following are the routes:

Silicone Rubber Molding It is a Room Temperature Vulcanized (RTV) rubber mold. It is also known as
Vacuum Casting.
Epoxy Tooling It can be neat epoxy or Aluminum-filled Epoxy Tooling (AIMS) for better
conductivity and strength.
Spray Metal Tooling It uses cold metal spray. HEK-MCP is a commercial system.

Cast Kirksite Tooling Molds from soft alloys

3D10/16/2020
Keltool From 3D Systems. It uses SLA, Vacuum Casting and post-processing of SLS 8
to obtain injection molds.
 Silicone Rubber Molding (Vacuum Casting)

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 Video of MK on Vacuum Casting (14 min)

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 Features
• This process is also known as vacuum casting (as applied to non-metals!).
• Silicon rubber molds can be used to make polyurethane parts such as the bodies
of telephone and other gadgets. These latest polyurethane materials are
competing with ABS, Nylon and Polypropylene (PP) which were popular in these
applications. Table in the next slide gives a comparison of these materials.
• Room Temperature Vulcanizing (RTV) rubber is used to make the mold.
• Typical yield is 15 to 50 parts depending on the geometric complexity. Therefore,
this is ideal for “soft tooling” and to some extent for “bridge tooling”.
• RP has linear cost. Therefore, it will be economical to make the first part with RP
and replicate it using vacuum casting.

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 Steps
• A master pattern is prepared. Formerly this used to be prepared using hand carving,
manual or CNC machining. Now these master patterns can be made using RP. Almost any
RP model can be used. SLA, SGC, SLS, LOM and FDM models have been successfully
tried. The master pattern should be nicely polished and cleaned before use. This is because
the process can faithfully reproduce even finger prints on a glass. SLA is the most
preferred.

• A sprue is mounted on the master and glued. This assembly is wiped clean with a soft
cloth moistened with isopropyl alcohol. Hand gloves are to be used during handling these.

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 Steps …
• A wooden or metal box is used for preparing the mold. The pattern-sprue assembly is
placed inside on top of thin supports. If feasible, it can be suspended by a thread from the
sprue.

• The liquid silicone RTV resin is mixed with its hardener under vacuum to eliminate air
bubbles.

• It is then poured into the box over the pattern while still under vacuum.

• The assembly is then placed in a low temperature curing oven maintained at about 50°C
for about 6-12 hours. Thus curing takes place under vacuum at a slightly elevated
temperature.

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 Steps …

• This process is exothermic. Thus, some parts of the mold will have more temperature than
the oven. Therefore, after the curing period, the oven should be slowly cooled to room
temperature.

• The solidified RTV mold is extracted from the mold box. This is split into two halves by
cutting along an appropriate wavy parting surface using a sharp knife or scalpel. The
parting surface must be wavy at the outside so as the locate the halves on each other.
However, the inside of the parting surface shall be smooth and ensure extraction of the
part. Cutting this parting surface is a skilled job mastered over a period.

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 Steps: Part Preparation

• Master model can be created using any one

of the current modeling techniques.

• Establish the model’s eventual parting line

using clear adhesive tape.

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 Steps: Mold Preparation

• Color the tape edge with a marker pen to

assist in removing master model from
mold. Alternately, a colored tape could
have been used.

• A casting frame is constructed. Casting

gates are attached to the model.

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 Steps: Mold Preparation …

• Model is suspended in the casting

frame and venting rods are attached

• De-gassed Silicone rubber is then

poured into the casting frame

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 Steps: Mold Preparation …

• Further degassing in the Vacuum

Casting Chamber the tool is moved to
Oven for further curing

• When fully cured , the silicone rubber is

then cut following the visible parting line
marked on the tape edge

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 Steps: Mold Preparation …

• The master model is removed from the

mold.

• The tool is taped together and prepared

for casting. One can also use stapling.

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 Steps: Part Production

• Part A & B are precisely measured by

weight as per part weight. Color
pigments may be added as required.

• Part A & B containers are kept in the

chamber, mixed and stirred. It may
also be done manually outside.

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 Steps: Part Production …

• A + B is mixed and poured down

through the flexible hose into the mold

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 Steps: Part Production…

• After curing in the oven the cast resin

prototype is removed from the tool

• Casting gates and the runners trimmed

off….

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 Wavy Parting Surface in Silicone Rubber Mold

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 Advantages
• Fast and economical.

• As it is flexible, slight reentrant or undercut features can be produced. There is also no need
for draft. So it produces accurate parts.

• Reproduction accuracy is extremely high. Even transparent parts such as lamp lenses can
be made. Even fine scratches on the master get reproduced faithfully. Therefore, the master
should be polished and cleaned before used for mold making.

• Used in jewelry industry for producing the wax patterns.

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 Limitations
• As the mold is soft and will deform under pressure, it cannot be used for injection
molding. Only vacuum casting is possible which is labor intensive. Clamping and
injection pressures have to be low.

• Not suitable for metals.

• Long cycle times of 4-6 hours of part curing for a size of about 8 in3. This is due to
poor heat conductivity of the mold.

• Relative strength of mold limits its life. Therefore, high piece price . Few suppliers
(Huntsman, GE Silicon etc.)

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 Silicon Rubber Mold Application - Golf Club

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 Silicon Rubber Mold Application - Bracket

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 Vacuum Casting Silicone Mold Made from
Kira’s Paper Master

Silicon Mold

Master Urethane Sample

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 Applicable materials

• Rubber
• PP + PE
• ABS + Glass filled ABS
• Clear transparent

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 Epoxy Tooling

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 Features

• Silicon rubber mold is for making part that may have little undercuts. Epoxy tooling is
meant for parts that can allow draft. This is because these molds are more rigid than the
rubber molds. Epoxy is stronger and cheaper than rubber. Therefore, it can be used on
an injection molding machine or on a press.

• Two-part, neat or Aluminum-filled epoxy(AIMS) is cast onto a pattern. When

Aluminum powder is mixed with epoxy, it is called Composite Aluminum Filled Epoxy
(CAFE) tooling. This enables the process used for making stronger parts or more shots.
AIMS is an epoxy process patented by 3D Systems.

• Typical yield is 100 to 200 injection molded parts.

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Comparison of Silicon Rubber Molds and Epoxy Molds

Silicone Rubber Mold Epoxy Mold

No need to make the mold in two halves. As Similar to sand mold preparation, the mold will be made in 2 parts.
it is transparent and soft, the parting surface Since single pattern only is commonly available, this means double
is made after making the mold. curing time – one for each mold half.
Flexible and hence tolerant to reentrant Hard and hence reentrant profiles are not allowed. These can be
profiles. achieved using cores. Patterns preferably should have allowances
and drafts.
Parts are to be produced manually. Parts can be produced automatically by mounting the halves on an
injection molding machine or press.
Typical yield is 15 to 50 injection molded Typical yield is 100 to 200 injection molded parts
parts
Limited to producing parts of low melting In addition to these materials, Aluminum filled epoxy tools can be
materials such as wax, polyurethanes etc. used for ABS, glass fiber-filled plastics etc. and even for simple
stamping of sheet metals.
Suitable only for plastic parts. Suitable only for plastic as well as sheet metal parts.

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 Steps

I. Mold box preparation:

• A master pattern is prepared. It is polished to remove stair steps and cleaned.

• A thin film of commercially available mold release agent is applied on the pattern.

• Prepare a mold box of suitable size keeping in mind the dimensions of the
injection molding machine. Note that the outer surfaces of the mold halves will be
used for location and hence the interior surfaces of the box shall be accurate.

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 Steps …

• The pattern is then placed in the mold box at the desired orientation. By this time,
a parting surface should have been identified. If it is planar, a simple wooden
parting board can be used. However, if it is more complex, then a machined
parting board is to be used. As the entire weight of the liquid epoxy is supported
by the parting board, it must be strong enough.

• Conformal cooling ducts can be obtained by placing suitably bent copper tubes
that run close to the contours of the pattern with adequate clearance.

• Location pins can be placed if required.

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 Steps …
II. Epoxy preparation:

• A suitable two-part epoxy (resin and hardener) is mixed in the specified proportion
and quantity.

• Required quantity of finely ground Aluminum powder is mixed with this.

• This is kept in a vacuum chamber to degas the bubbles.

Note:The epoxy for each side should be prepared separately as there is considerable time gap between the two
pours. The other alternative is to make the master pattern in two halves as is done in sand molding – along
with the parting surface in one of them. However, this is generally not practiced as (i) RP patterns are
expensive and (ii) mold shift will affect accuracy.

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 Steps …
III. Pouring:

• After keeping the mold box prepared earlier, this composite epoxy liquid is poured
over the pattern under vacuum. If possible, vibration can be provided during
pouring. In order to reduce the cost, the pieces of old molds can be added.

• It is allowed to cure for a few (6 to 12) hours.

• Then the mold is inverted and the parting board is gently removed. The release
agent is applied on the exposed surface of the epoxy and additional coat of release
agent can be given on the pattern also.

• Pour the freshly prepared composite epoxy on this side as before.

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 Steps …
III. Finishing:

• After curing, the two parts are separated and the pattern is removed.

• Ejection holes are drilled and ejection pins/ plates are installed. For
small batch, these may not be required as one can remove the part
manually.

• Finally the mold is mounted on standard tool base. Other assemblies

such as connections to cooling channels are made.

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 Advantages and Limitations

Advantages:
• Fast and economical
• Suitable for many resins
• Can be used for injection molding
Limitations:
• Relative strength of tool
• Low clamping and injection pressures
• Long cycle times
• High piece price
• Few suppliers

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 Epoxy Tooling of an Injection Mold

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 Epoxy Tooling of an Injection Mold

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 Epoxy Tooling of an Injection Mold

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 Epoxy Tooling of an Injection Mold

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 Epoxy Tooling of an Injection Mold

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 Epoxy Tooling of an Injection Mold

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 Spray Metal Tooling

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 Features
• Metal spraying or plasma spraying technology, sometimes known as Hard facing
exists for a long time. This spray can be used in two ways:

(i) Making the surface conductive. This is called metallizing. The metallized
prototype can be used as a EDM electrode or polished and used in an application
directly.
(ii) Making it stronger by building a thicker layer. This can be further backed up
and used as a mold.

• Metal is melted using an electric arc, atomized and sprayed directly onto a pattern.
Note that the metal is almost at room temperature when it falls on the pattern. The
resulting shell is backed with a rigid material.

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 Features

• The most commonly used spray metals are alloys of zinc (eg. Kirksite), nickel,
copper and aluminum.

• Typical yield is 100 to 1,000 injection molded parts.

• As the mold cavity is metal, it is possible to even mold metals using this process.

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 Demonstration of Coldness of Metal Spray

• This tin-coated balloon is an extreme

example of rapid solidification. The
alloy dissipated enough heat so that it
did not burst the balloon on contact.

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 Principle

• The metal to be sprayed is available in the form of wire similar to MIG welding.
Two wires are fed from two spools. These wires are two ends of a AC power
supply.

• The wires are continuously fed to maintain the required deposition rate. Initially
a short circuit occurs causing the ends to melt. Subsequently a constant gap is
maintained in which an arc is sustained. When compressed air is passed through
the arc, it atomizes the molten plasma and sends it as a spray. The air also is
responsible for the rapid cooling of the jet which reaches the pattern at a
sufficiently low temperature as not to damage the pattern.

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 Coating Using Cold Metal Spray

This metal component on the right was produced by spray depositing tin onto the
plastic pattern on the left. Virtually any common tooling alloys, as well as exotic
materials can be used for the spray.
[http://www.memagazine.org/backissues/june00/features/tools/tools.html]
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 Steps

• The pattern and mold preparation is very similar to epoxy tooling.

• The master pattern is prepared as usual. A thin film of commercially available

mold release agent is applied on the pattern.

• The pattern is kept inside a mold box. A parting board is placed.

• When the spray stabilized, it is sprayed so as to create a consistent shell of about 1

to 2 mm thick on the pattern and parting board. The temp of the spray is from 50°C
to 100°C depending on the application.

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 Steps …
• Subsequently it is backed up with mixed two-part resin and solid resin particles.

• After the resin backing is cured, it is reversed and the parting board is removed.
The releasing agent is sprayed again.

• The metal spray and backing up are repeated for the second half also.

• Finally, the two halves can be prepared for whatever application it is meant for.
These halves can be used for thermoforming, injection molding, blow molding,
sheet metal forming, vacuum casting etc.

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 Steps: Preparing the Mold

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 Steps: Cool Spraying the Model

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 Steps: Backing up the Sprayed Shell With High
Temp Resin

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 Steps: Finished Mold

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 Tool Steel Inserts Made Using Metal Spray

• These P20 tool steel inserts are used for plastic injection molding. The cavity on the left has
been prepared for use in a mold base, enabling completion of tools in a matter of days.
[http://www.memagazine.org/backissues/june00/features/tools/tools.html]

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 Advantages and Limitations
Advantages:
• Fast and economical
• Suitable for many resins and metals
• Suitable for large, highly contoured parts
• Size is not a limitation.

Limitations:
• Relative strength of tool
• Low clamping and injection pressures
• Narrow, deep features are difficult to replicate
• High piece price
• Few suppliers
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Cast Kirksite Tooling

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 Features
• Kirksite is a Zinc alloy.

• It can be used for making the tools for

o Deep-drawing, forming, punching and blanking of light alloy brass and steel
sheets
o Plastic injection
o Thermoforming and Blowing.

• This tool is made using gravity die casting.

• Typical tool life is 500 to 1000 injection molded parts.

• Kirksite offers optimum economy for parts (sheet or plastic) production in small
and medium series and for tooling setting.

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 Features …

• The fluidity of Kirksite being excellent, dies can reproduce the thinnest details
and deformation during cooling is minimum, enabling a considerable reduction or
even elimination of post-foundry operations (machining, fitting).

• Kirksite has good friction properties, satisfactory wear resistance, ease of

polishing, suitability for tool storage in atmospheric conditions and recyclability
(being Zinc alloy).

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 Features …

• To improve the mechanical functions such as handling of these tools, lugs,

reaction plates, locating pins, guide-rails etc. may be integrated as steel inserts.

• Kirksite tooling generally is less accurate and more expensive than aluminum-
filled epoxy, or spray metal tooling.

• Kirksite tools have about the same life as spray metal or aluminum-filled epoxy
tools.

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 Advantages and Limitations
Advantages:
• Mechanical properties
• Molding temperatures and pressures
• Suitable for nearly all resins
• Recyclability of the material

Limitations:
• Accuracy
• Fine features
• Possible distortion of tool during casting process
• Limited supplier selection

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 A Sheet Metal Forming Die

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 One Half of An Injection Mold

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 3D KelTool

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 Features…

• This is an indirect metallic RT from 3D Systems. This was originally developed

by 3M (manufacturer of magnetic tapes, adhesive sprays etc.). Historically 3D
and 3M are together. The ground work for SLA was also done originally by
3M.

• This is a secondary process suitable for making all kinds of tools for making
parts of all materials. This can be used for bridge tooling as well as production
tooling in “prototype timeframe”.

• The hardness of the inserts is 30-34 RC and 46-50 RC after heat-treating. This
hardness is comparable to the conventional made tools.

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 Features…

• This is a combination of silicon rubber molding and the post-processing used in

SLS. Hence, it involves a two-level molding.

• Typical tool life is dependent on the selected material, but capable of producing
in the 100,000's.

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 Steps

• The CAD models of the inserts for core and cavity are made with suitable
allowances. These patterns are then made using SLA. In principle, any RP
process can produce this pair but SLA is used for two reasons:
− KelTool is from 3D Systems and hence they will prefer SLA.
− SLA parts are the most accurate.
• Once these core and cavity patterns have been polished to the desired surface
finish, silicone rubber is cast against them to create molds. The obtained molds
will be negative of the desired molds.

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 Steps…

• Into this silicon negative molds, a mixture of metal powder and binder is poured,
packed and cured. The metal mixture consists of finely powdered A6 tool steel
and even finer particles of tungsten carbide.

• At this point, the cast core and cavity inserts exist in a green state. These green
inserts are fired in a hydrogen-reduction furnace to burn away the binder, sinter
the metal particles and infiltrate copper into the inserts. This produces solid
metal inserts that are approximately 70 percent steel and 30 percent copper with
physical properties similar to that of P20 tool steel. The inserts are finish-
machined, drilled for ejector pins and fitted into mold bases.

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 Steps …

• Need for a two-level molding unlike epoxy tooling:

- Excellent reproduction accuracy of silicon mold.
- Flexibility of rubber enables easy removal of the tool in green state.

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 Advantages and Limitations

Advantages:
• Mimics properties of aluminum/steel tools
• Excellent detail and surface finish
• Presence of copper improves conductivity

Limitations:
• Maximum insert size of 5.9" x 8.5" x 4"

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 SLA Pattern, RTV Rubber Mold and Steel Inserts

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 SLA Pattern, RTV Rubber Mold and Steel Inserts

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 Conclusions

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 Conclusions

• Very ideal for small volume production.

• Poor dimensional accuracy.
Silicone Rubber Molding It is a Room Temperature Vulcanized (RTV) rubber mold. It is
also known as Vacuum Casting.
Epoxy Tooling It can be neat epoxy or Aluminum-filled Epoxy Tooling (AIMS)
for better conductivity and strength.
Spray Metal Tooling It uses cold metal spray. HEK-MCP is a commercial system.
Cast Kirksite Tooling Molds from soft alloys
3D Keltool From 3D Systems. It uses SLA, Vacuum casting and post-
processing of SLS to obtain injection molds.

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 Direct Rapid Tooling

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 Outline (Direct RPT)

• Introduction
• Laminated Manufacturing
• Powder-bed Technologies
• Deposition Technologies
• Conclusions

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 Additive Manufacturing
3 routes

1. Laminated Manufacturing
2. Powder-bed technology
(a) Binder-based (3DP)
(b) Sintering-based (SLS including EBM)
3. Deposition or cladding technology

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 Laminated Manufacturing

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 Laminated Manufacturing
Principle

• Laminated Manufacturing is not same as Layered Manufacturing.

Laminated Tooling < Laminated Manufacturing < Layered Manufacturing

• This is very similar to LOM in principle.

• Laminated Manufacturing has been in practice even before RP was developed.
Prof. T. Nakagawa of Tokyo University is a pioneer in this field.
• Although it is older than RP, no automated process is available today. This may
be due to patent issues as well as limited scope of the process.

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 Laminated Manufacturing
Principle …

• Unlike LOM which follows a “paste-then-cut” strategy, “cut-then-paste” strategy

is popular in LM as
- Metallic sheets do not glue well as they are too strong. A better joining process is required.
- As the sheet comes from a roll (sheet thickness 0.3 – 0.5mm), it refuses to flatten easily leading to air
pockets and uneven surface.
- Laser power required will be high.
- Decubing is nearly impossible.

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 Laminated Manufacturing
Applications in components

Transformer core

Locks
10/16/2020 Fluidic devices 83
 Laminated Manufacturing
Laminated Tooling – Slicing strategies (Uni/Adapt & 0th/ 1st Order)

• Uniform slicing 0th order edge: Most popular for metals now.
• Adaptive slicing within a few discrete thicknesses is possible. However, it
increases the raw material inventory. Note that the stocks of different lengths
(and width in the case of cut sheets) are required to be stored. So maintaining
these in many thicknesses complicates it further.
• It is possible to have 1st order edges. This can be achieved with a 4 axis laser
or water-jet cutting or end milling.
• In the case of valves, the “coarse slicing” alone is enough.

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 Laminated Manufacturing
Laminated Tooling – Slicing strategies w.r.t. parting direction

• The following two possibilities exist:

1. The slice is perpendicular to the parting direction
(Horizontal)
2. The slice is parallel to the parting direction
(Vertical)
• The slice along the parting direction can have infinite orientations in the case of
the slices parallel to the parting direction. However, it is enough to consider just 2
of them, viz., parallel to the faces of the die. This decision will depend on the
following factors:
- Number of layers (slicing along the longer side will lead to minimum number of layers)
- Space availability for clamping bolts (in the case of mechanical clamping)
- …
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 Laminated Manufacturing
Laminated Tooling – Slicing strategies w.r.t. parting direction

Parallel to the Parting Direction Perpendicular to the Parting Direction

Infinite such orientation exist. However, only the two Only one such orientation exists.
orientations along the faces of the die are significant.

Only one piece per layer exists. This makes More than one piece per layer is possible.
manufacturing and handling easy.
The pieces will have 3 sides common with the die The pieces could be quite arbitrary in shape.
faces. The pieces inherently can be nested since we Specialized nesting program will be required. Then
make a die pair at a time. The maximum efficiency of also, very high nesting efficiency is not possible due to
nesting is achieved in the case of punching/ blanking the arbitrary shapes.
dies.

Suitable for bolted joining Suitable for surface joining (bonding, brazing etc.)
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 Laminated Manufacturing
Cutting & Joining methods

• Laser cutting • Mechanical joining

- No deburring is required. - Fastening by bolts and nuts
- Fastening by long rivets
• Water-jet cutting
- No deburring is required. • Soldering/ brazing
- It is possible to order for precut sheets coated with the solder
• End milling or braze
- Cheap. - The solder and braze are also available as foils
- Deburring is required. • Adhesive bonding
• Turret punch press - Use precut sheets coated with the adhesive
- Adhesive can also be sprayed
- No deburring is required.
• Spot welding
- This creates undesirable warpage

• Diffusion bonding
10/16/2020 - No filler is used. Molecular adhesion takes place under 87
elevated temperature and pressure
 Laminated Manufacturing
Laminated tooling – punching, blanking, piercing …

10/16/2020 Laminated Tooling [Nakagawa, Japan] 88

 Laminated Manufacturing
Laminated tooling – stamping, injection molding

Bolted laminates Brazed laminates

[DaimlerChrysler, Germany]
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[FhG-ISW, Dresden] 89
 Powder-Bed Technologies

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 Powder-Bed Technologies

1. Binder-based (3DP) Binder approach is popular for

polymers and ceramics; energy
2. Sintering-based (SLS & EBM)
approach is for metals.

• Two methods of powder dispensing: Hopper-based powder dispensing is better than

bottom feeding as (i) the entire hopper can be replaced for material change and hence less
contamination, (ii) inventory of material is less as there is only one hopper and (iii)
replenishing from the top is easier.
• Three methods of powder levelling: (i) Contra-rotating roller, (ii) wiper blades and (iii)
brush. the first is popular for polymers and the second and third are for metals and ceramics.

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 Powder-Bed Technologies

Metal Ceramics
Binder-based ExOne-Metal ExOne-Sand
(not popular for critical VoxelJet
applications due to the
binder contamination)
EoS-M, SLM Solns, EoS-S
Sintering-based Renishaw (Not popular any more)
Arcam’s EBM

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 Powder-Bed Technologies

• EBM: EBM has the unique advantage of building in vacuum. So, very suitable for critical
applications such as Ti implants as contaminations are strictly prohibited.
• ExOne & VoxelJet: Binder-based process. Best for sand as (i) plain sand can be used and
(ii) theirs is the largest sand machine (1800mm long). Not suitable for metals due to (i) fragile
green part, (ii) contamination by the left over binder as well as copper impregnation to fill
pores.
• EoS: Best for metals; not for sand molds.
• Phenix (now belongs to 3DS): Suitable for metal and ceramic for dental applications. They
have also integrated with a dental scanner.

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 Powder-Bed Technologies

• Precise (0.020mm layer thickness);

• Mature technology well-established for several materials such as Fe,
Al, Ni, Ti etc.
– Low hanging fruits: Two wheeler parts
– Al molds for rubber parts like tyres etc.
– Injection molds with conformal cooling channels
• For serious applications of aerospace and medicine, one machine for
each material, some times one machine to be dedicated for a single
part. So, the most generic machine becomes a SPM!
• small parts only (250 x 250 x 250)
There is just one company selling EB-based system. Its parts have high integrity
due to vacuum. Its energy efficiency is better than laser. But the need for high
vacuum and poor finish are its limitations.
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 Deposition or Cladding Technologies

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 Deposition Technologies
Types
• Feedstock forms: Powder, wire and strip. When powder is used, it is also referred as
Powder-feed technology.
• Material yield is very less in powder as the entire powder does not fall into the moving
elliptic molten pool. Wire and strip have very high yields.
• Energy sources:

Laser Electron beam Arc

Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS) None so far commercially. These 3D Welding of Nottingham Univ,
of OptoMec may emerge soon.
SDM,
Laser Augmented Manufacturing
(LAM) of Aeromet KIST,

Direct Metal Deposition (DMD) of SMU,

POM10/16/2020 IIT Bombay 96
 Deposition Technologies
Powder-Bed vs. Deposition Technologies

Powder-Bed Technology Deposition Technology

(DMLS of EoS, Germany)
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 Deposition Technologies
Powder-Bed vs. Deposition Technologies …

Powder-Bed Technologies Deposition Technologies

Spreading powder on a wider area and sintering/ Deposition of metal only in the required areas
binding only where required (selective sintering/ (selective metal deposition)
binding)
- Only powder can be used + Powder as well as wire can be used
- Powder particles are coarse as they are + Powder particles are fine, as small as a few µm,
mechanically spread (> 20µm). as they use fluidized feeding.
+ Inherent support mechanism. - Support mechanism is yet to be established.

- Not readily amenable for FGM (exception: 3DP) + Readily amenable for FGM

Tools: Laser, EB and binder Tools: Laser, EB and arc

SLS, 3DP, Arcam LENS, LAM, HLM etc.
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 Deposition Technologies
Laser-based: Laser Engineered Net-Shaping (LENS)

A Pair of Moulds
Made Using LENS

(Sandia National Labs &

Optomec)

Video03-LENS
•Too expensive (Rs. 5-6 crores)
•Finish-machining is required
•It is nothing but CNC, i.e.,
path planning is manual

A near-net turbine Repair of a rotor

99
10/16/2020 blade built using LENS using LENS
 Deposition Technologies
Laser-based: Laser Augmented Manufacturing (LAM)
Aeromet, Minneapolis, USA

• HT preceded finish-machining. These parts were functional on Boeing aircraft. So LAM is the best
example for Rapid Manufacturing of Metallic Objects.
• But a commercial failure – company was closed down in Sep 2005. Reasons:
– Poor power efficiency of 2-5%  18kW laser consumes over 400 kW.
– Poor powder efficiency of 10-15%.
– High Argon consumption.
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– Safety hazards and bulky and slow
 Deposition Technologies
Laser-based: Laser Augmented Manufacturing (LAM)

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 Deposition Technologies
Laser-based: Direct Laser Forming (DLS)

(Fraunhofer IPT, Aachen)

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 Deposition Technologies
Laser-based: Precision Object Manufacturing (POM)

(Prof. J. Mazumder, Michigan State

Univ.)

2.4 kW CO2 laser; Deposition rate: 4

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g/min; H13 tool steel
 Hybrid Layered Manufacturing (HLM)

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 Hybrid RM

Hybrid RM (HRM) combines the benefits of additive and subtractive processes

bypassing their limitations. As the focuses in both these steps are different, they are
individually very fast. Therefore, HLM is their synergy and not a compromise.

Additive Stage: Subtractive Stage:

Focus is on the Focus is on the
interior  ensuring exterior  ensuring
desired quality of desired quality of
matrix. Layered geometry. CNC
manufacturing machining approach.
approach. Result is Result is the finished
a near-net shape. component.

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Note: Hybrid approach is not new to RP community. Eg.: LOM, SGC, ModelMaker II
 Hybrid Layered Manufacturing (HLM)
Motivation for HLM

LAM LENS

Arcam
DLF
All deposition processes including laser and EB produce near-net
shapes only. Hence finish-machining is unavoidable in all.
MIG-HLM
Therefore, why not use the cheaper and safer arc welding?
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 Hybrid Layered Manufacturing (HLM)
Motivation for HLM …

• Laser and EB based HLM are too expensive (starts at

Rs. 3.5 crore)
• Poor power efficiency (2-5% for lasers and about
15-20% for EB)
• Poor powder efficiency of 10-15%. Laser and EB are overkill for regular
engineering applications of
• High Argon consumption components and tooling!
• Safety hazards
• Bulky
• Slow (0.1-10g/min vs. 100-400 g/min)
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 Conclusions

• It was shown that Laser and EB-based methods are expensive, harmful and slow;
they are overkill for tooling and components. Arc welding would be adequate and
attractive option. Subsequently, Arc HLM, at an advanced stage of development at
IIT Bombay was presented along with a case study and its future evolutions.

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 Reverse Engineering

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 Reverse
Engineering

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 Outline
• Definition

• Digitizing Methods

• 3D Reconstruction

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 Definition
• Reverse Engineering is the practice of studying a finished product, a physical device or a
software package, in order to learn something about how it works or how it was
manufactured. We shall be concerned with RE of physical objects only.
• Traditionally, RE is an accepted, legitimate practice, both in the competitive marketplace
and in technical education. It is comparable to literature survey. It becomes unethical only
when it is launched as a product in competition to the original product – it is illegal only if it
is prohibited in the form of patent or copyright which is zone-specific.
• (Geometric) Reverse Engineering (RE) is the process of creating a mathematical
representation or CAD model of an object from its physical form. Identification of the
following are equally important:
- Tolerances and surface finish
- Reconstructing missing parts
- Material details (composition and condition)
- Process followed.

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 Need for Reverse Engineering
• A part is first modeled in clay, wood or foam by the stylist and needs to be
transferred into a CAD model.
• Only 2D drawings or master models of the tools exist.
• A change has been made into a physical part or tool. The CAD model should be
updated with this change.
• Final parts have to be verified against the original CAD design.
• An old equipment or a vital military hardware has broken down. The supplier no
longer exists or unwilling to supply the spare or it is too expensive or it takes too
long to import.
• A patient’s left bone is damaged and an implant is required to be prepared from the
right side bone. There are many such medical applications where RE, RP and RT
play vital roles.
• A10/16/2020
competitor's product needs to be analyzed (copied !). 113
 Phases of Reverse Engineering
Geometry

i. Digitizing: Acquiring the point data

- This is known as digitizing.
- Several types of hardware are used to acquire data

ii. Reconstructing the 3D CAD model

- This is processing of the data using a software.

iii. Reconstruction of the missing parts

iv. Tolerances and fits

Material

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Process
Digitizing

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Sensors

• Touch probe
• Laser scanning
• Camera systems

116 116
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 Touch Probe Measurement
• The probes are available in different orientations and end
shapes so that different features in various orientations can
be measured in the same set up.

• The required probe is chosen or activated.

• The probe often has a calibrated spherical end. Calibration is

required after every physical change of probe or a collision.
For this purpose, special calibration spheres are available.

• The load at which the probe must press the part can be set.
As the probe presses the part, when the load exceeds the
pre-set limit, it signals the CMM to stop. It also passes on the
force vector from which the CMM calculates the coordinates
of the contact point.
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 Laser Scanners

+ Non-contact - Less accurate

+ No collision - Only visible surfaces
+ Fast data capture 118
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+ Soft material
Laser Scanners - Principle
Triangulation method:

• An emitter and a receptor are integral

with the measuring head at a constant
distance. These two, together with the
point of measurement – the point
where the emitted pulse of ray falls –
form a triangle.

• When adequate level of signal is

received, the point on the surface can
be calculated from the current position
of the measuring head and time taken
for the flight of a pulse from the emitter
to receptor.

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 Camera Systems : Photogrammetry

• One or more views of the object are captured as an image on film

or on an electronic image sensor. The points are marked and
referenced at distinct features on the object (a,b,c).
• The software calculates the position of the camera for each photo.
• It calculates the intersection of light rays from each of the photo
positions out into 3D space.
• By using multiple photographs, you can capture the whole object
or scene.

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 Camera Systems : Photogrammetry
Take pictures using digital, film, or video
cameras, and load them in to PhotoModeler.
Shoot two or more overlapping photos from
different angles and then import them into the
program.

Next, mark and reference features on

the photographs using PhotoModeler's
Point, Line and Edge tools. Using the
referencing functions, instruct
PhotoModeler by matching up points
across the photos.
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 Camera Systems : Photogrammetry
Now PhotoModeler is ready to process the
camera and referencing data. Using the
"Process" menu, PhotoModeler adjusts the input
data and creates 3D point data to produce an
accurate 3D model.

One can view, zoom, rotate, or measure the 3D

model in PhotoModeler's 3D Viewer. The Point Table
allows one to view and manipulate XYZ point
coordinates. Finally, export the model to CAD,
animation, or rendering program or continue adding
more photos, points, lines, and edges with
PhotoModeler's advanced marking tools to model
NURBS curves, cylinders, and surfaces.

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 Camera System : White Light Scanning

Pair of
cameras

LCD projector that throws

strip patterns
on the object Video: Rivage - Beginning to End.avi
123
10/16/2020 Video: White Light Scanning - ATOS1.avi
 Camera System : White Light Scanning

16 10/16/2020
October 2020 www.whitelightscanning.c
124
om
 Camera Systems : Handiscan

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 Digitizing Methods
2D/
Contact/ Destructive/ Non-
Method Slice/
Non-contact destructive
3D
Manual measurement 2D/ 3D Contact Non-destructive
Profile projector 2D Non-contact Non-destructive
Touch probe mounted on a CMM 3D Contact Non-destructive
Laser scanning 3D Non-contact Non-destructive
Industrial Computer Tomography (CT) Slice Non-contact Non-destructive
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Slice Non-contact Non-destructive
Ultrasonic scanning Slice Non-contact Non-destructive
Photogrammetry 3D Non-contact Non-destructive
White light scanning 3D Non-contact Non-destructive
Face milling
10/16/2020and measuring Slice Both Destructive
126
 Comparison of Contact & Non-contact Types

Contact Type Non-contact Type

+ Accurate - Less accurate
- Slow + Very fast
- Labor-intensive
- Cannot reach deep interior features

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Capture devices

CMM

Machine tool

Dedicated scanning machine

10/16/2020 (Eg. Renishaw’s
128 Cyclone)
128
 Capture devices

Machine tool
Advantages :-
• Machine may already exist
• Fast when integrated
• Familiar to user
• Large scanning area
Disadvantages :-
• Machine not cutting when scanning
• Slow with touch-trigger probe
•Retro of old machine often is difficult.
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 Capture devices

CMM

Advantages :-
• As it is meant for this
application, it is optimal.
•Large scanning area
Disadvantages :-
• CNC Machine tool released for
cutting
• Slow data capture
• Very accurate • Few CMMs have laser scanning
capability

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 Capture devices

Scanning machine
Advantages :-
• Fast data capture
• Small styli - fine detail
• Leaves machine tool for cutting
• Purpose built for scanning
Disadvantages :-
• Limited working range
• Limited to data digitising
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Cyclone
Scanning machine

Stand alone scanning system.

Supports contact & non-contact scanning
• Performance 1000 - 3000 mm/min
• Up to 1000 points per second prior to data
filtering. Video: Cyclone.avi
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 Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)

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Huge Gantry-Type CMM
• Make: DEA
• The floor itself is used as the table.
• The probe or the laser scanner is mounted
on a gantry.
• Accuracy of 0.0002” over an envelope of
150” x 100” x 100”.

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 FARO Arm Portable CMM
• Normally CMMs have only 3 axes. But Faro arm will have 6 or 7 rotary joints or axes. In
other words, its kinematics is same as that of an articulated or jointed-arm robot. Each joint
has an encoder which helps the controller keep track of its tip’s position.

• FARO Arm recovers data on detailed features within its reach (up to 20 feet).

• It finds application where

– Equipment is too large or awkward to get accurate measurements.
– Complex surfaces or profiles are difficult to measure with hand tools.
– Relation between different features of equipment is difficult to measure.
– Inspection with hand tools is prohibitively time consuming.

• It is possible to move the Faro arm over the surface while the controller records the
positions.

• It can be interfaced with a Laser Tracker or Theodolite system to accurately recover details
on much larger pieces of equipment.
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FARO Arm Portable CMM

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 Layered Milling and Scanning

Integrated milling and

scanning machine

Image processing

Preparation of
soft replica

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 Industrial CT Scan
• Human bodies can be scanned using Computer Tomography (CT). The result is a
picture of the human body part in slices.

• Computer Tomography (CT) uses radiation in the form of a highly collimated X-ray
fan beam to slice the object. This results in points arranged in parallel planar slices
or loops. CT was initially developed for medical applications. Of late, it is finding
industrial applications.

• When carrying out image processing of these slices, rings of points can be obtained
by marking the interfaces between the various body parts. These rings of points are
then combined to form CoPs.

• Standard CT scanners achieve a resolution of 512 x 512 elements within a layer.

• Today, CT scan is slow due to the rotation of the emitter-receiver assembly and
hence gives only static images.
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 Principle of CT Scan

• X-Ray can penetrate most objects;

• Each absorb it based on their material characteristics and X-Ray wave length.
• The detector records the remaining intensity. Note that this is just a single value and gives no clue
about the objects along the path of the ray.

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 Principle of CT Scan …

• The X-Ray transmitter and detector

assembly is rotated around the
object making the measurements of
intensities at regular angular
intervals.

• Using a very complex transformation,

P(θ,n) values can be converted into
the loops.

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 Principle of CT Scan …

• The data obtained from all the slices

can be rendered in the form of
voxels.

• This can further be processed to

obtain B-Rep models.

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 Industrial CT Scan – Example

10/16/2020 142
 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is yet another technique used in the medical
field to produce high quality images of the inside of the human body.

• MRI images are obtained based on different tissue characteristics by varying the
number and sequence of pulsed radio frequency fields in order to take advantage of
magnetic relaxation properties of the tissues. MRI differs from CT in at least two key
aspects:
i. MRI measures the density of a specific nucleus
ii. The MRI measurement system is volumetric, i.e., interrogation of the entire body, within the
measurement volume, is done all at one time.

• CT and MRI represent the finest resolution capability available in diagnostic systems
achieving volumetric resolutions. During the scanning process, the patient is stepped
through the measurement plane 2-3 mm at a time. The information from each plane
can be put together to provide a volumetric image of the structure as well as the size
and location of anatomical structures. The scanned model becomes a virtual volume
of the patient’s bone(s).
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 Principle of MRI

• MRI is based on the principles of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), a

spectroscopic technique used by scientists to obtain microscopic chemical and
physical information about molecules. The technique was called magnetic
resonance imaging rather than Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging (NMRI)
because of the negative connotations associated with the word ‘nuclear’ in the late
1970's.

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 Principle of MRI …

• The principle of operation of CT scan and MRI are very similar.

• The patients is placed in a very strong but biologically harmless magnetic field, and a
microwave radio signal is beamed through the body at a specific frequency which
interacts with the water molecules in the body, causing them to absorb a tiny amount
of energy. These molecules then produce their own little radio signals as they re-emit
the energy they absorbed from the excitation beam.

• Computer software calculates the density of the body tissues at each point in the
slice and constructs an image. As with the CT scanner, the software can manipulate
the images to differentiate tissue types as well as produce three-dimensional views,
longitudinal slices, and so forth. MRI, since it is basically imaging water densities, is
best for soft tissue and least useful for bony structures (for which CT scanning is
best).

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 Principle of MRI …

• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is yet another technique used in the medical field to produce high
quality images of the inside of the human body.
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 Principle of MRI …
X-Ray : Captures only bones
Harmful
3D imaging not possible

MRI : Captures soft objects such as tissues nicely

Safer. So used in children.
3D imaging possible

CT scan : Captures all objects with good clarity.

Safer than X-Ray but more harmful that MRI.
3D imaging possible

Ultrasonic : Captures soft objects but dynamically.

3D imaging possible
10/16/2020 Not harmful at all 147
3D Reconstruction

10/16/2020 148
 3D Reconstruction
• The points obtained from the device could be
– Simply a cloud of points (E.g.: photogrammetry)
– Organized sets of points (E.g.: Points along a scan line can be treated as a curve in
cases such as optical scans. Similarly, the points are available as loops and slices in CT,
MRI and ultrasonic scans.)

• Adequate planning of the scanning process and partitioning the scanned boundary is
extremely important as
– handling the cloud of points is very tough. Any existing pattern among them simplifies
the process.
– If a certain zone is of a known geometry such as fillet or cone, the reconstruction will be
easier, faster and more accurate.
– It will be very frustrating at the time of reconstruction to realize that some zones were not
scanned.
– In optical methods, the measurement of surface points close to its tangent will not be
accurate. Proper planning will help avoid this.

• Reconstruction involves arranging the scanned points in suitable topological fashion. The
hierarchy is vertices, edges, faces and solids.
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 3D Reconstruction …
• When the measurements are made from various direction, each resulting patch needs to be
oriented. This requires the knowledge of the view point w.r.t. a global reference.

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 GOM – Products

ATOS PONTOS
3D Digitizer
TRITOP Photogrammetry Dynamic Photogrammetry

ARGUS ARAMIS
Forming Analysis TRITOP Deformation
Deformation Analysis
Static Deformation Analysis

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16 October 2020 By Anil Gupta
 Conclusions
• Direct or contact methods are more accurate but laborious and indirect or non-contact
methods are faster but less accurate.

• Some digitizing methods are suitable for any object. E.g.: CT scan, MRI scan, Ultrasonic
scan etc.

• Some others, such as optical techniques, require different settings to absorb the entire data.
This requires
– overlapping of surfaces during scanning
– registering or assembling the various scans using appropriate transformations.

• Some interior hidden features cannot be captured at all using these methods.

• The knowledge of the scanning pattern helps a lot during reconstructions. This knowledge
helps in segmenting the cloud of points into more organized arrays of points.

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