Globalisation: A Double-Edged Sword

Otho H. Hadi *)

Introduction

It is well understood that the tendency of globalisation cannot be blocked and it is indeed
inevitable. The global transformation process, which underway today has been basically generated by
two major influences, namely the advancement of technology and commerce or trade. Both are
interrelated and supporting one to the other. The increase of trade activities is not only magnetising the
transfer of technology, but also eventually bringing the reinforcement of technology itself. Like wise,
the advancement of technology expedites the flow of good and services. Interaction between the
advancement of technology and commerce has strong influence over the economic structural
adjustment in many countries, both in developed and developing countries. Overall process yield
world economic more and more become integrated.

The wave of change happened so swiftly, and the process of it bears challenges that must be
answered by Indonesian. These challenges can be treated as opportunities that must be exploited, but
also can be seen as constraints that must be overcome. Hence, the process of change can be useful and
should be harmless for Indonesia in the future.

One of the opportunities is the boost of market. In this situation, production and commerce
can be paced in line with our competitiveness. An example is the fast growing of Asia-Pacific region.
In 1990s annual growth in this region was approximately 4 percent. If we exclude Japan, the annual
growth of this region is more than 7 percent. This figure is actually higher than world rate of growth,
i.e. 3 percent in total average or even higher than level of growth of industrial countries which is only
2.5 percent per annum. Certainly, the vastly growth allowed the increase of trade transaction volume.
The augmentation of export in Asia region was twice higher than any place in the world. The core
problem now is whether or not we could exploit the opportunity.

What is globalisation?

Recently, globalisation has become the topic of many discussion and forums, both from the
perspective of social culture, social politics, and economy. The impact of globalisation had been very
often discussed and reviewed after Seattle meeting in 1994 regarding APEC (Asia Pacific Economic
Cooperation) where Indonesia has signed an agreement (understanding) along with other 20 country
leaders to establish a cooperation forum. Besides, the economic crisis undergone in 1997 opened a
relevant question whether Indonesia will be quite fragile to the globalisation of economy.

Discussing globalisation, we have to define first what the globalisation is:

 Globalisation is world amalgamation swayed by access of technology, information, and mass

communication with its impacts in the field of economy, politic, social, and culture (Limas
Sutanto, 2001)
 Globalisation is a neo-colonialism of economy and culture (Y.B. Mangunwijaya, 1998).
 Globalisation is a form of US Hegemony (Sugiono, 1999)
 There are also some other points of views on globalisation:
a. A dreadful attack of foreign to local companies in domestic market.
b. A positive challenge for local /national company to enter international market.
c. A challenge to conquer market segmentation (Alberto Daniel Hanani, 2000).
* )
Otho H. Hadi, MA adalah Staf pada Direktorat Politik, Komunikasi dan Informasi, Bappenas-red

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 Since the definition is varied, there is a need to narrow the focus of this paper, and I would
think that deeper and more comprehensive thoughts are needed to apprehend the meaning of
globalisation.

As we are all aware, globalisation is a post-cold war phenomenon that cannot be avoided. The
ruin of Berlin’s wall is not only a symbol of the collapse of a cold war physical building that had been
separating people, but also values of civilization. The cold war that was monumented by the bulky
walls, ruined at the same time the opening of partitions dissociating nations, so that we now live in the
world without boundary. 1

No one can stay away from this kind of

situation. In the past, in the cold war, enemies
we fight against are those who are living
outside the wall. Now, since the wall was
ruined already, our enemies are actually resided
in our environment, and even among us. The
instance is the war against terrorism that we are
now combating. Yet, appearance of Osama bin
Laden as figure daunted, can be seen as
globalisation phenomenon. Why? It is Guerrilla
News Networks because that globalisation,
according to Thomas L Friedman, has bear
superpower, supermarket and super-empowered
individual.
Source: Guerrilla News Networks
If there is an “angry” super-powered
individual, he or she can put across his or her insanity in the world podium. It is the values embraced
by super-empowered individual. Consequently, terrorism will be a significant phenomenon of
globalisation for they can pour their own insanity anywhere in this world. In such a situation, it is
realized that the dominant value will be value of the era. Globalisation, according to Thomas L.
Friedman, contains two dimensions, i.e. ideological dimension, that is capitalism, and economic
dimension, that is free market. In addition, it also contains a dimension of technology, i.e. information
technology (IT) that has been unifying the world. Consequently, as Friedman states, we should be
dressed in “a new dress” or suitable software in order to be able to bound into globalisation. The new
dress replaces the old one during the cold war, for instance, outfit ala Mao, Nehru, or costume dressed
by Russian.

To be compatible to the new dress, every country should have applied the principles as follow:

1. Prioritising private sector as the main generator of economic growth,

2. Maintaining inflation rate at a very low level and stabilizing price of goods and services,
3. Trimming down the role of bureaucracy,
4. Upholding balance and surplus budget,
5. Removing or reducing any import tariff,
6. Vanishing any restriction of foreign investment,
7. Removing all kind of monopolies and quota
8. Increasing export and privatising industry of goods and services,
9. Opening industry and stock market for directly foreign investor ownership,
10. Growing of competition, fighting against corruption in bureaucracy environment,
11. Opening the banking system and telecommunications for ownership of private sector,
12. Giving opportunity to all citizens to choose pension system based on competition, including
those offered by overseas company.

1
Thomas L Friedman, Lexus and the Olive Tree, New York : McGraw Hill, 2000

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 If we have fully complied in accordance with those principles, we are then suitable to the
golden straight jacket. As a consequence, this will transpire the so-called democratisation of
technology, fiscal and monetary, and democratisation of gaining information. What will happen then?
Furthermore, when a country has complied in accordance with those principles, the country will have
spacious chances or options in their economy. Unfortunately, there are very little options in politics.
As stated by Friedman, the political preference is only “pepsi” or “cola”.

In the presidential election in some countries, South Korea for instance, there is no difference
between the contestants in terms of political vision. However, if the country is not ready yet but
strongly tries to apply the principles of globalisation, as a result the rich-poor discrepancy will be
broader. This is the concern of Friedman as a senior journalist, that with globalisation there will be a
wider gap between the rich and the poor inter-country or even within the country.

Friedman gives an example, owing to the globalisation, i.e. the basket ball superstar Michael
Jordan. He earned 40 million US dollar per year. Why so high? One reason is because that the MJ T-
shirts were bought by teenagers from all over the world, from Jakarta to
Moscow. What does it really mean? If teenagers in Indonesia buy the MJ T-
shirt and since a piece of his income is given away to pay tax, it is then obvious
that Indonesian teenagers also pay tax for US government indirectly. It also
prevails in other businesses, McDonald for instance. Then, globalisation will
eventually widen the gap between the rich and the poor country. Similarly,
within a country, those who have no adequate capacity to compete will be left
far behind. Despite a person like MJ who earns about 40 million dollar per year,
there are many homeless people as well in the United States. They do not have
permanent shelter, sleep restlessly under shop porchs, chipped by food stamp
program from the government.

Cruising the globalisation

Facing the world existent changes, we are likely imposed to swim voyaging the deep blue
ocean. If we do not wear suitable swimsuit (the golden straitjacket), it is likely that we will be guzzled
and drifted by vast wave. In that case, then, we need a sufficient preparation or say it a well-prepared
strategy to enter the era of globalisation. We have to fully figure out that globalisation is inevitable
phenomenon. As stated by Joseph E. Stiglitz, Nobel Prize winner in economics in the year 2001 and as
the advisor of [ex] President Clinton, and also as [ex] Chief Economist of the World Bank, the most
important thing is how the globalisation is dealt with. 2

Part of the problems, according to Stiglitz, was instigated by or rests upon the IMF, World
Bank, and WTO constituting rule of the games of globalisation. Regrettably, the rule of the games is
more likely favourable for developed countries, and more specifically for the interest of faction in
internal politics and administration of developed countries, rather to the interest of developing
countries.

Friedman’s advice on understanding globalisation is reflected on his book “Lexus and The
Olive Tree”. Lexus represents a Japanese luxurious car, and olive tree is a tree grown in Jerusalem. If
Lexus is a symbol of developed countries, olive tree corresponds to developing countries; he
recommends that olive tree should have an extremely sturdy root in order to be able to compete with
lexus. Otherwise, olive tree cannot be able to face globalisation.

Having said so, Indonesia and other developing countries should aware of these two advices:
how to deal with globalisation and how to reinforce nationhood (“akar kebangsaan”) – to increase

2
Joseph E Stiglitz in his book Globalization and its Discontent.

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potential of nation to handle globalisation. Hence, it is wise to observe what have been done by other
countries or even by multinational corporation in reinforcing its competition capacity.

Western European countries, as we are all aware, established “The European Union.” They
have already had their own European currency namely Euro and almost all European countries have
become members. What is the impact? Such a cooperation brings about the increase of their capability
to deal with other countries, including the United States, particularly in developing aircraft industry
such as Airbus – a joint venture among some European countries such as Germany, France, Spain, The
Netherlands, etc. Today, they can even compete with the United States Boeing.

Some of the immense enterprises accomplish merger or joint operation to achieve efficiency
and expand their market, so as to increase their competitiveness, for example Chrysler and Mercedes
Benz, or between KLM and Northwest. Taking into account those examples, in dealing with
globalisation, not only do we have to fortify our nationhood, but also call for cooperation with other
countries. This is the strategic value of ASEAN as regional cooperation forum which eventually will
strengthen the bargaining position of its members.

Strategies on how to strengthen nationhood, how to increase capacity to face globalisation,

and how to reinforce Indonesia as a Unitary State are of great consequence. In contrast,
decentralisation or regional autonomy that set off likelihood for Indonesia to become more fragmented
will drive down the capacity of Indonesia’s bargaining position. Subsequently, we have to be able to
excavate our own domestic potential in order to strengthen Indonesia’s nationhood. The increase of
human resource quality, domestic resource and fund mobilisation such as applying national social
security program, the use of local content, and nation solidarity enhancement, are indeed significant
steps in the era of globalisation. Without strengthening our nationhood and sturdy regional
cooperation, it is likely difficult for Indonesia to compete in this globalisation era.

Challenge of Globalisation for Indonesia

a. Challenge in Economic Area

Entering the 21st century, Indonesia is determined to resemble the stance of countries whose
economy are more enhanced. It is useless, nevertheless, if we do not move from now on to carry out
concrete actions to attain distribution of prosperity. The real challenge in front of us now is that of free
trade, the agenda for Asia-Pacific region in the year 2020 as agreed in the conference of APEC in
Bogor.

Many people perceive sceptically to the idea of liberalization. In their point of view, it is more
beneficial for developed countries vis avis developing countries. They perceive that for countries with
inadequate quality of their human resources, social, politics, and economic institutions, liberalization
will lead to more extensive dependency toward developed countries in terms of economy as well as
culture. On the other hand, there has been evidence that countries complying to free economy path
have grown faster than those conform to other path. Various studies show that world trading will
increase in line with the prevailing free trade regime. The increase of trade activities will intensify
level of production, expand labour force and ultimately increase income per capita and prosperity.

International trade is perceived as an effective evolvement drive and it is proven by the

acceleration of industrialisation and economic growth in newly industrialising countries, which base
their strategy on export. Nowadays, the predicament is not whether we agree or disagree, join up or
leave. No country in this world can decide not to join, meaning that they will be excluded from the
stream of world trade as well as economic cooperation. International relation, including trade, takes
up the principle of reprocity. If we intend to enter international market, we should open our domestic
market to other sides. Consequently, the disparity between domestic and international market will
become smaller and indistinct.

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 The issue right now is not debating the principles, but how to take advantage and to reduce its
negative impacts. The answer is there: increase competitiveness as a part of strengthening our
bargaining position. The increase of competitiveness should be derived from the increase of efficiency
and productivity. Protection can still be used to support competitiveness in domestic market. However,
it should be gradually released, the sooner the better, since the protection will surely lead to
inefficiency.

Competitiveness enhancement to lead swiftness of commerce in global market relates to

various factors, i.e. among others quality improvement of human resources and apprehension of
technology and institutional strengthening. As argued by Lester C. Thurow (1994), now we are
heading to the world that are dynamic, and characterised by brainpower industries and synthesized
comparative advantage. In consequence, in implementing programmes of nation building, those two
aspects should be put as high priority. Prominent human resource is that of progressive, open minded,
productive and professional. With this quality, we develop science and technology since its role is not
only reflected by equipment we owned, but creative and innovative ability of human resources. In
addition, economic policies both macro and sectoral, monetary and fiscal, should be dense and in
harmony to support the effort of human resource quality enhancement. The problems that we have to
overcome are to improve prosperity, particularly over the grassroots economy as a consequence of
liberalization of economy.

Quantitatively, the picture of people-oriented economics can be studied from data BPS
indicating that in the year 1999 as much 97,4% or 32 million from domestic entrepreneurship
produced the output less than Rp50 million in average per year. Mostly that is 68,9% among other is in
agriculture area. They are the group that have to be paid attention to. Despitefully we also have to pay
attention to that 14% Indonesia people or about 26 million people live below poverty line.

Our problem, in fact, in facing this globalisation tendency is how to guarantee that economic
benefit from liberalisation will reach widely the people in such a manner so that we really head for the
manifestation of UUD 1945. We may not forget that the objective of state-run is to realize the social
justice for all citizen. It is that prosperity of people to be prioritised, not individual. Thereby big
challenge of globalisation (liberalization) is how to prevent the widening of discrepancy. We have to
be cautious to accept the view that growth yielded by international trading which more and more wide
because free of resistance automatically will improve the distribution of income. Expert like Michael
Todaro (1977) shows clearly that matter. His research conclude that: “There was no evidence if any
automatic “trickle down” of the benefits of economic growth to the very poor. On the contrary, the
growth process experienced by (the) LDCS has typically led to a “trickle up” in favour of the small
middle class and especially the very rich.”

Free competition is rather unfair for the situation of people-oriented economic is still waste
away, it is not factious, and hence inequitable. Without directional effort, economic growth and
improvement of prosperity will only be bypassing the majority of people, and enjoyed by only a few.
The answer is truly side-taking that is realized in strategic stages to improve the deprivation and
strengthen the economic competitiveness of the people-oriented economics.

b. Challenge in Political Area and Security

The ebb in international politics and relation bear the political tendency and security in various
areas. Global environment is faced by a world of full of distortion and loaded by unpredictability.
International political constellation progressively departs from optimism of Post Cold War that is
predominated by economic issues, democracy, human rights and environment. The issues reflect very
significant impacts and becoming apparent, i.e. terrorism and mass proliferation of weapon.

Halaman 5
 In line with strategic development undergone, Indonesia is dealt with a dynamic international
environment, marked by the happening of various international relation friction like bi-polarism to
multi-polarism and then appearance of tendency of unipolarism, the appearance of non-state actor and
global issue like human rights, democracy, environment, good governance, and terrorism. Responding
those issues, a favourable external environment is needed, i.e. stable, peaceful environment and
prosperity representing the part of constitution commendation. To translate it in a perspective of geo-
politic, hence, a significant effort taken is to formulate a political policy and international relation
based upon a more constructive, realistic, and moderate to create the balance and harmonious of inter-
state relation.

For Indonesia which is now developing institution of democracy ("transition to democracy"),

presumably become clear of what factors or actors that can be the barrier. In a situation weakened by
IMF and international creditor, Indonesia is in this time at the most a hunt farm of all global capitalists
that ready to attack properties asset in it, inclusive of national asset. All executive, legislative, and
judicative-political elites came across vast difficulty to be able to detain the obsession and deception
of all capitalist to uphold the democracy. Whilst democracy institution is still weak, that way they
think, why don’t we take opportunity to dredge up the advantage? And, it is happened, the dirty
conspiracy between those who own power and capital, with the effect that the embryo of democracy
will be passed on before it grows. If the established democratic country find difficulties to barricade
the global capitalist deception and entwist, it is most likely for countries that are learning toward
democratisation.

This newly international configuration basically alters the context whereas government play a
part. Government structure and system of policymaking should be adjusted when the government will
function effectively in a global policy environment. And it has various potentials to strengthen the
governmental policy and effectiveness.

Globalisation is peeping out the wide care that sovereignty of a nation is gnawed. The
government nowadays has to admit and work in an environment whereas most solving of problem
should be formulated by paying attention to global world. We have experienced, fiscal and monetary
policy can no longer be taken on the basis of domestic consideration. About USD 1,5 trillion are
commercialised every day in world finance market. This is more than 10 times the money required to
support the volume of world commerce now. This means 90 percent of that activity can be seen as an
incarnation of activity of efficiency seeking in market or currency speculation. This amount is far
above the intervention ability of the central bank, especially because of lack of coordination. We also
experience of how our finance policy is basically determined by International Monetary Fund with its
Letter of Intent and World Bank, and also donor countries.

Competition for international investment means the traditional national policy, like education
and practice, taxation, social protection, economic settlement, or labour (code/law), are becoming
global policy concern. Even, public management policy is watched because the policy can influence
the efficiency and effectiveness of their policy. As a result, policy should be made consistently or
competitive with the tendency of our especial trade partner.

The answer to globalisation or strive to look for the solution to global policy dilemma also
affects for sovereignty. Taking part in international organization or taking a side on international
agreement also limit the policy preferences for government. This new environment even obliges us to
alter the domestic or international practices. The example is our international relation policy such as
“bebas aktif”. Then the question is whether this policy that prevailed since 1948 is still relevant. It is
whether the congeniality of “bebas” for our international relation policy can still be maintained as its
original spirit to confront the change of international configuration that has been intensified by
globalisation.

The question is whether the government has no what we call effective control. It is obvious,
interdependency indeed narrow the degree of independency of national policy. It is also true, unilateral

Halaman 6
action is more difficult to be used in making the policy or fulfilling the requirement of world society
whose independency has already been so excessive. The government can no longer fulfill a lot of
important policy target. In facing environmental deterioration, international crimes, narcotic
commerce, a nation-state concerns can only be realized through international cooperation. This is the
entry point toward the advancement of nation sustainability, such as cooperating in compiling policy
strategy, or cooperates in formulating rule of the game for development and the use of international
information band or global financial system. However, opportunity opened by globalisation can only
be utilized optimally if the government accommodates the structure or governmental management so
as to function effectively in the new world. The government should inquire the globalisation impacts
on the development process of national and international policy, and also inter-relation among actors
constituting policy in it. This is aimed to protect and strengthen the principles of democracy that are
required for the governance of national and global.

In the security area, in general, globalisation is seen as a positive factor since the increase of
investment flow, commerce, technology, communication and information will give the advantage of a
stable international environment. However, securities advantages from globalisation are limited by
many contradict pressures. First, a nation-state still represents the vitally strategic actor. Second,
globalisation tendency is followed by the emergence of regionalism, especially in the area of security,
where the end of Cold War had removed the attention from global strength balance to a series of
system of regional strategy, including Asia Pacific region. Third, integrative tendency from
globalisation can be so fragile to intervening security environment. In other words, two sides of
globalisation which is contradicted one to the other is often described as a contradictory process
between variety and uniformity, unity and dissociation, integration and fragmentation, or centralisation
and decentralisation.3

Globalisation impact in the area of security and defence are among others: First, progressively
the opening of national economics in consequence of global economics integration can bear the
challenge to sovereignty, including Indonesia. Second, unsymmetrical interdependency between
developed countries and developing countries bear the developing nations are more depending upon
market, investment, and technology of developed countries. These matters cause the nations round into
fragile over the pressure of developed countries which in the end can generate the social crisis,
economic, politics and security. Third, globalisation also soars the crisis in consequence of foreign
penetration that oversteps state boundary, such as capital flow, ideas, and population mobility, and
also peep out non-state actors. It is obviously depicted by the increasing of threat of non-military and
trans-national predicament, trans-national crimes in the form of environmental deterioration problems,
illegal immigrant, piratical, illegal fishing, gun and, people smuggling, commerce of children and
woman, narcotic commerce, and terrorism.4

Terrorism itself is seen as a phenomenon of global nightmare

creation using international transaction and network, regional and national.
Terrorism represents one form of violence by using a very organized network
so that become unpredictable and intangible threat to a state and also
individual. Incident of terrorist attack in the United States on 11 September
2001 with the violence scale and methodologies commemorate that threat
forms are rather asymmetrical and represent the real challenge for national
security and defence. In Indonesia, also faces terorism such as bombing
tragedy, murder and crime, although sporadic in nature. Bali bombing which
killed more than 180 people and injured more than 300 people, and other
such happenings, have opened the eyes of some world leaders that terrorism
is not a mere figment. Even, it is revealed that a number of radical movement which grow in some
3
See White Book of Indonesia Defence Policy 2002, Department of Defence, forthcoming, and Australian Commonwealth of,
Australia’s' Defence Policy. Defence 2000: Our Future Defence Force, Canbera: Defence Publishing Service, 2000.
4
Ikrar Nusa Bakti, The Significance of Asia Pacific Geopolitics for Indonesia in coming future", a seminar paper, "Constellation of
Asics Pacific Geopolitics: Challenge And Opportunity For Indonesia", conducted by the Directorate for Political Affairs and
Communication and Information, Bappenas in collaboration with FISIP Unpad, UNSFIR, and Department of Foreign Affair, Bandung 16
January 2003.

Halaman 7
ASEAN countries as in the Philippine, Singapore, Malaysia, and even possible in Indonesia is closely
related to international terrorism network. In consequence, it is not a taboo for Indonesia to initiate
closed cooperation and coordination within national environment and also in ASEAN, as well as
international to overcome the terrorism predicament. Terrorist attacks raging in this last decade have
also opened the opportunity for cooperation of inter-intelligence bodies and inter-responsible units for
handling terrorism and international crime, i.e. intelligence bodies, police, military, immigration and
custom offices, department of health etc. both nationally and internationally.

c. Challenge in Cultural and Social Area

Globalisation shows a big change in world society. What shown is not a trivial thing. It is not
solely the problem of adding modern equipment, such as video, fashion, television, computer, etc. in
way of living. We live in a world experiencing a remarkable transformation whose impacts are almost
knock over every aspect of life. Whether you like it or not, we are pushed to come into the global
constellation which is not fully comprehended by anyone, but its impact can surely be felt.

The phenomenon is not merely an economic terminology. Globalisation also contains

political, technological, cultural and religious dimensions. It is erroneous assuming globalisation only
relates to main system, such as worldwide economy constellation. Globalisation does not what is out
there, truly apart, and far from everyday life. It also represents the phenomenon " here", which directly
influences the system of our life and belief.

The advancement and sophistication of media technology enable us to witness the forms of
life and different belief system. A society also views the other one in a variety of life style, different
religious orientation, ethnic groups, different languages, etc. Even, globalisation, as expressed by
Anthony Giddens, also represents the long distance effect (time-space distanciation). Meaning, what is
going on one place, can also happen in the other hemisphere. For example, bomb terror in Bali
concurrently influences the life of people in the other parts of the world. Basically, global society life
now should deal with plurality of culture that is influencing each other, what we have never conceived
before.

This will indeed generate excessive

conflict, upholding and endless. As stated by
Samuel Huntington, borderline in the world of
cold war era does not come from politics or
ideology, but culture. In his controversy book,
“The Clash of Civilization” (1993), Huntington
has a notion that the bond of modern society is
likely determined by their religion heritage,
language, history, and tradition or what we
called as civilization.
Source: BBC Online

As civilization convenes with one another, through globalisation, if there is no

communications channel, hostility germs become lumpy and ready to burst. For most people living in
Europe and North America, globalisation is irewed unpleasantly, like westernisation or
Americanisation in other parts of the world.

Conflicts occurred in the modern world, even within one civilization. According to Kenichi
Ohmae, in the same civilization, society often battle among its components. For example, conflict in
Northern Ireland between Protestants and Roman Catholics. 5

5
Kenichi Ohmae, The End of Nation State, NY: Macgraw Hill, 1995

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Conclusion

Globalisation can be seen as a double-edged

sword. In one side it has borne an integration process,
interdependency, and homogenisation, but at the same
time, on the other hand, it bears also a process of
disintegration, dependency and heterogenisation in
almost every field of life, economic, social, cultural,
politics, security, etc. usher and in state

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 Bibliography

Bakti, Ikrar Nusa, The Significance of Asia Pacific Geopolitics for Indonesia in coming future", a
seminar paper, "Constellation of Asics Pacific Geopolitics: Challenge And Opportunity For
Indonesia", conducted by the Directorate for Political Affairs and Communication and
Information, Bappenas in collaboration with FISIP Unpad, UNSFIR, and Department of
Foreign Affair, Bandung 16 January 2003.

Department of Defence, White Book of Indonesia Defence Policy 2002, , forthcoming, and Australian
Commonwealth of, Australia’s' Defence Policy. Defence 2000: Our Future Defence Force,
Canberra: Defence Publishing Service, 2000

Friedman, Thomas L, Lexus and the Olive Tree, New York : McGraw Hill, 2000

Huntington, Samuel, 'The Clash of Civilization" , Cambridge. Polity Press, 1993.

Ohmae, Kenichi, The End of Nation State, NY: Macgraw Hill, 1995

Stiglitz, Joseph E in his book Globalisation and its Discontent

Todaro, Michael, Economics for a Developing World, Pearson Higher Education,1977

Giddens, Anthony., The Consequences of Modernity. Cambridge. Polity Press, 1993.

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