UNIT IV PASSIVE AND ACTIVE MICROWAVE DEVICES

Microwave Passive components: Directional Coupler, Power Divider, Magic Tee, attenuator,
resonator, Principles of Microwave Semiconductor Devices: Gunn Diodes, IMPATT diodes,
Schottky Barrier diodes, PIN diodes, Microwave tubes: Klystron, TWT, Magnetron.

4.1 MICROWAVE PASSIVE COMPONENTS

• Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths ranging from
1m to 1mm, or frequencies between 300MHz and 300GHz.
• At microwave frequencies ( above 1GHz to 100 GHz ) the losses in the two line
transmission system will be very high and hence it cannot be used at high frequencies,
hence microwave signals are propagated through the waveguides in order to minimize
the losses.
• A waveguide consists of a hollow metallic tube of either rectangular or circular cross
section used to guide electromagnetic wave. Rectangular waveguide is most commonly
used as waveguide. Waveguides are used at frequencies in the microwave range.

• In waveguides electric and magnetic fields are confined to the space within the guides.
Thus no power is lost through radiation, and even the dielectric loss is negligible, since
the guides are normally air-filled.

4.1.1 Properties and Characteristics of Waveguide

• The conducting walls of the guide confine the electromagnetic fields and thereby guide
the electromagnetic wave through multiple reflections.
• When the waves travel longitudinally down the guide, the plane waves are reflected from
wall to wall, the process results in a component of either electric or magnetic fields in the
direction of propagation of the resultant wave.
• TEM waves cannot propagate through the waveguide since it requires an axial conductor
for axial current flow.
• When the wavelength inside the waveguide differs from that of outside the guide, the
velocity of wave propagation inside the waveguide must also be different from that
through free space.
• If one end of the waveguide is closed using a shorting plate and allowed a wave to
propagate from other end, then there will be complete reflection of the waves resulting in
standing waves.
4.1.2 Microwave Systems
A microwave system normally consists of a transmitter subsystem, including microwave
oscillator, waveguides and a transmitting antenna, and a receiver subsystem that includes
receiving antenna, a transmission line or waveguide, a microwave amplifier or a receiver.
Fig.4.1 shows a typical microwave system.

Figure 4.1 Microwave system

4.2 DIRECTIONAL COUPLER

A directional coupler is a passive microwave component used for power combining. It is a
four port-waveguide junction as shown in Fig.4.2. It consists of primary waveguide 1-2 and
secondary waveguide 3-4. When all ports are terminated in their characteristic impedance,
there is free transmission of power between port 1 and port 2 (without reflection), there is
no transmission of power between port 1 and port 3 or between port 2 and port 4 because
no coupling exists between these two pair of ports. The degree of coupling between port 1
and port 4 and between port 2 and port 3 depends on the structure of the coupler.

Figure 4.2 Directional Coupler

Assuming that the wave is propagating from port 1 to port 2 in the primary line, the
coupling factor and the directivity are defined respectively by,
𝑃1
Coupling factor (dB) = 10 log 10 𝑃4  (4.1)
𝑃4
Directivity (dB) = 10 log 10 𝑃  (4.2)
3
𝑃1
Isolation (dB) = 10 log 10 𝑃3  (4.3)
𝑃1
Insertion Loss (dB) = 10 log 10 𝑃  (4.4)
2

where 𝑃1 = Power input to port 1

𝑃2 = Power output from port 2
𝑃3 = Power output from port 3
𝑃4 = Power output from port 4
The coupling factor is a measure of the ratio of power levels in the primary and
secondary lines. The directivity is a measure of how well the forward travelling wave
in the primary waveguide couples only to a specific port of secondary waveguide. An
ideal directional coupler should have infinite directivity. In other words, the power at
port 3 must be zero because port 2 and port 4 are perfectly matched. Actually, well
designed directional couplers have a directivity of only 30 to 35 dB. Several types of
directional couplers exist, such as a two-hole directional coupler, four-hole directional
coupler, reverse-coupling directional coupler , and Bethe- hole directional coupler.

Figure 4.3 Different directional couplers (a) Two hole directional couplers (b) Four
hole directional Couplers (c)Schwinger Coupler (d) Bethe-hole directional Coupler

4.2.1 Two Hole Directional Couplers

A two hole directional coupler with traveling wave propagating in it is illustrated in
Fig.4.4. The spacing between the centers of two holes must be
λ𝑔
𝐿 = (2𝑛 + 1) 4
 (4.4)

Where, n is any positive integer

A fraction of the wave energy entered into port 1 passes through the holes and is
radiated into the secondary guide as the holes act as slot antennas. The forward
waves in the secondary guide are in same phase, regardless of the hole space, and
are added at port 4. The backward waves in the secondary guide are out of phase
and are cancelled in port 3.

4.2.2 S Matrix of a Directional Coupler

In a directional coupler all four ports are completely matched. Thus the diagonal
elements of a S-matrix are zeros

𝑆11= 𝑆22 = 𝑆33 = 𝑆44= 0  (4.5)

As there is no coupling between port 1 and port 3 and port 2 and port 4, Thus
𝑆13= 𝑆31 = 𝑆24 = 𝑆42 = 0  (4.6)
Directional Coupler is a four port junction, the S-matrix is given by

𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 𝑆14

𝑆21 𝑆22 𝑆23 𝑆24
𝑆= 𝑆31 𝑆32 𝑆33 𝑆34  (4.7)
𝑆41 𝑆42 𝑆43 𝑆44
Using the property of directional coupler (equation 4.5 and 4.6 in 4.7), the S matrix
becomes,
0 𝑆12 0 𝑆14
𝑆21 0 𝑆23 0
𝑆= 𝑆32 𝑆34  (4.8)
0 0
𝑆41 0 𝑆43 0

From Unitary property of S matrix, 𝑆 𝑆* = 𝑈  (4.9)

Substituting eqn. (4.8) in eqn (4.9),
0
0 𝑆12 0 𝑆14 0 𝑆∗12 0 𝑆∗14 1 0 0 0
𝑆∗ 𝑆∗
𝑆21 0 𝑆 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
23 21 23
=  (4.10)
0 𝑆32 0 𝑆34 0 𝑆∗32 0 𝑆∗34 0 0 1 0
𝑆41 0 𝑆43 0 𝑆∗41 0 𝑆∗43 0 0 0 0 1
Equation 4.10 can be reduced further by means of zero property of S matrix,
𝑆12 𝑆∗+ 𝑆32 𝑆∗= 0  (4.11)
14 34
𝑆21 𝑆∗+ 𝑆41 𝑆∗=0  (4.12)
23 43
From the unity property of s-matrix we can write,
𝑆12 𝑆∗+ 𝑆14 𝑆∗= 1  (4.13)
12 14
Equations (4.11) and (4.12) can also be written,
𝑆12 𝑆14 = 𝑆32 𝑆34  (4.14)
𝑆21 𝑆23 = 𝑆41 𝑆43  (4.15)
Since 𝑆12 = 𝑆21 , 𝑆14 = 𝑆41 , 𝑆23 = 𝑆32 and 𝑆34 = 𝑆43 , then
𝑆12 = 𝑆34  (4.16)
𝑆14 = 𝑆23  (4.17)
Let, 𝑆12 = 𝑆34 = p
where p is positive and real. Then from equation (4.12)
p (𝑆∗23+ 𝑆41) = 0  (4.18)
Let, 𝑆23 = 𝑆41 = jq
Where, q is positive and real. Then from equation (4.13) 𝑝2 + 𝑞2 = 1.

0 𝑝 0 𝑗𝑞
𝑝 0 𝑗𝑞 0
S-Matrix of a directional coupler is reduced to  (4.19)
0 𝑗𝑞 0 𝑝
𝑗𝑞 0 𝑝 0
4.2 Power Divider
• Power Dividers are passive components used for power division. In power
division, an input signal is divided into two (or more) output signals of lesser
power.
• The divider may have three ports, four ports, or more, and may be ideally
lossless.
• Power Dividers usually provide in phase output signals with an equal power
division ratio (3 dB), but unequal power division ratios are also possible.

Figure 4.4 (a) Power Division (b) Power Combining

• All the power dividers and couplers as shown in Fig.4.4 split/combine

electromagnetic signals.
1. The T Junction Power Divider
The T-junction power divider is a simple three-port network that can be used for
power division or power combining, and it can be implemented in virtually any type
of transmission line medium. Fig 4.5 shows some commonly used T-junctions in
waveguide and microstrip line or strip line form. These junctions are lossless
junctions. These junctions cannot be matched simultaneously at all ports.
1. Lossless Divider
The lossless T-junctions dividers of Fig. 4.5 can all be modelled as a junction of
three transmission lines as shown in Fig. 4.6

Figure 4.5 (a) E-Plane waveguide Tee. (b) H-Plane Waveguide Tee
(c) Microstripline T-junction divider
In order for the divider to be matched to the input line of characteristic impedance
𝑍0 , we must have
𝑌𝑖𝑛 = 𝑗𝐵 + 1 𝑍+ 1
=
𝑍2
1
𝑍0
 (4.20)
1

If the transmission lines are assumed to be lossless, then the characteristic

impedances are real. Assume B = 0, then Equation (4.20) reduces to
1
+ 1= 1  (4.21)
𝑍1 𝑍2 𝑍0

In practice, B is not negligible, some type of discontinuity compensation or a reactive

tuning element can usually be used to cancel this susceptance, at least over a
narrow frequency range.

Figure 4.6 Transmission line model of a lossless T-Junction divider

The output line impedances, 𝑍1 and 𝑍2, can be selected to provide various power
division ratios. Thus, for a 50 Ω input line, a 3 dB (equal split) power divider can be
made by using two 100 Ω output lines. If necessary, quarter-wave transformers can
be used to bring the output line impedances back to the desired levels. If the output
lines are matched, then the input line will be matched. There will be no isolation
between the two output ports, however, and there will be mismatch looking into the
output ports.
4.2.1.2 Resistive Divider
If a three-port divider contains lossy components, it can be made to matched at all
ports although two ports may not be isolated. The circuit for such divider is
illustrated in Fig 4.7 using, lumped-element resistors. An equal split (-3 dB) divider is
shown, but unequal power division ratios are also possible. The resistive divider can
be easily analysed using circuit theory. Assuming that all the ports are terminated in
characteristic impedance 𝑍0 , the impedance Z looking into 𝑍0 /3 resistor followed by
a terminated output line, is

𝑍 = 𝑍03+ 𝑍 0 = 4𝑍0  (4.22)

3
𝑍
Then the input impedance of the divider is 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 03+ =𝑍
2𝑍0
3 0  (4.23)

Which shows that the input is matched to feed line.

The network is symmetric , the output are also matched. Thus 𝑆11 = 𝑆22 = 𝑆33 = 0
The voltage at port 1 is 𝑉1 , voltage V at the center of the junction by voltage
division is,
2𝑍 0/ 3 2
V= 𝑉 1 𝑍0/3+2𝑍 0/3
= 3
𝑉1  (4.24)

Then the output voltages are

𝑍0 3 1
𝑉2 = 𝑉 =3 𝑉 𝑍0+𝑍0/3
= 4
𝑉= 2
𝑉1  (4.25)

Fig.4.7 An equal-split three-port resistive power divider

Thus, 𝑆21 = 𝑆31 = 𝑆23 = ½, so the output powers are 6 dB below the input power
level. The network is reciprocal, so the scattering matrix is symmetric, and it can be
written as
0 1 1
1
𝑆 = 2 1 0 1  (4.26)
1 1 0
1 𝑉2
The power delivered to the input of the divider is 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 1
2 𝑍0
 (4.27)
2
1 (1/2𝑉1 )
while the output powers are 𝑃2= 𝑃 3 =
2 𝑍0
 (4.28)

which shows that half of the supplied power is dissipated in the resistors.
4.2.1.3 The Wilkinson Power Divider
• The disadvantage of lossless T Junction : Not Being matched at all ports and
doesnot have isolation between output ports.
• The disadvantage of Resistive Power divider : Can be matched at all ports,
isolation cannot be achieved.
• The Wilkinson Power Divider is a lossy three port network having all ports
matched, with isolation between output ports.
• The Divider can be made with arbitrary power division. This divider is often made
in microstrip line or strip line form as depicted in Fig. 4.8 (a) and the
corresponding transmission line circuit is given Fig. 4.8 (b). The circuit is analysed
by reducing it to two simpler circuits driven by asymmetric and antisymmetric
sources at the output ports.

Figure 4.8 (a) An equal-split Wilkinson power divider

(b) Equivalent transmission line circuit
Even-odd Mode Analysis

All impedances are normalized to the characteristic impedance 𝑍0 and the Fig. 4.8
(b) is redrawn with voltage generators at the output ports as shown in Fig.4.9

Figure 4.9 The Wilkinson power divider circuit in normalized and

symmetric form

The network is symmetric across midplane, the two source resistors of normalized
value 2 combine in parallel to give a resistor of normalized value 1, representing the
impedance of a matched source. The quarter wave line has a normalized
characteristic impedance Z, and shunt resistor has a normalized value r , Z= 2 and
r=2 as given in Fig.4.8.
Two separate modes of excitation for the circuit Fig.4.9
The even mode where Vg2 = Vg3 = 2 V0
The odd mode where Vg2 = -Vg3 = 2 V0

Super imposition of these two modes effectively produces an excitation of Vg2 = 4 V0

And Vg3 = 0, from which we can find the scattering parameters of the network.
Even Mode : For even mode excitation V g2 = Vg3 = 2 V0, so 𝑉2𝑒 = 𝑉 𝑒3, and therefore
no current flows through the r/2 resistors or the short circuits between the inputs of
the two transmission lines at port 1. The Fig.4.9 is bisected at this point with open
circuits to obtain the network of Fig.4.10(a). Then looking into port 2 the impedance
Z2
is 𝑍𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 2 since transmission line looks like a quarter wave transformer.

Figure 4.10 Bisection of the circuit of Fig.4.9 (a) Even-Mode Excitation

(b) Odd Mode Excitation
Thus, if Z= 2, Port 2 will be matched for even mode excitation. Let x=0 at port 1
and x= -λ/4 at port 4 then the voltage on transmission line section.
 (4.29)
Then,
 (4.30)
 (4.31)
The reflection Co-efficient Γat port 1 looking toward the resistor of normalized value
2 , Γ= 2− 2 and 𝑉1𝑒 = -j V 0 2
2+ 2
Odd Mode : For odd mode excitation V g2 = -Vg3 = 2 V 0and so 𝑉 𝑜2= −𝑉𝑜, 3and there
is voltage null along the middle of the circuit in Fig.4.9. This circuit is bisected at this
two points by grounding on its midplane to give the network of Fig.4.10 (b). Looking
into port 2, we see an impedance of r/2 since the parallel connected transmission
line is λ/4 long and shorted at port 1, so looks like an open circuit at port 2. Thus
port 2 will be matched for odd-mode excitation with r=2 . Then 𝑉 𝑜2= V 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0 𝑉𝑜 =
1 0

all powers will be delivered to r/2 resistors. Finally, the input impedance at port 1 can
be determined by terminating ports 2 and 3 in matched load. The resulting circuit is
shown in Fig. 4.11 (a). No current flows through resistor of normalized value 2, so it
can be removed, and shown in Fig. 4.11 (b). The input impedance is

The Scattering parameters for Wilkinson divider is

Figure 4.11 (a) The terminated Wilkinson divider (b) Bisection of the
circuit in (a)

When the divider is driven at port 1 and the outputs are matched, no power is
dissipated in the resistor. Thus the divider is lossless when the output ports are
matched.
4.3 MICROWAVE HYBRIB JUNCTIONS
A microwave circuit ordinarily consists of several microwave devices connected in
some way to achieve the desired transmission of the microwave signal. The
interconnection of two or more microwave devices may be regarded as a microwave
junction. Commonly used microwave junctions include such waveguide tees as E-
Plane, H-Plane, Magic-Tee, hybrid ring, directional coupler and circulator. From
network theory, a two port network can be described by number of parameter sets
such as H,Y,Z and ABCD. All these network parameters relate total voltages and total
current at each of the two ports. For instance,

 (4.32)
 (4.33)
If the frequencies are in the microwave range, the H,Y and Z parameters cannot be
measured for the following reasons:
1. Equipment is not readily available to measure total voltage and total current at
the ports of the network.
2. Short and open circuit are difficult to achieve over a broad band of frequencies
3. Active devices, such as power transistors and tunnel diodes, frequently will not
have stability for a short or open circuit.
A new method of characterization is needed to overcome these problems. The logical
variables to use at the microwave frequencies are travelling waves rather than the
total voltages and total currents. These are the S parameters which are expressed as

𝑏1 = 𝑆11 𝑎1+ 𝑆12 𝑎2  (4.33)

𝑏2 = 𝑆21 𝑎1+ 𝑆22 𝑎2  (4.34)
4.3.1 Waveguide Tees
Waveguide tees may consist of E-plane tee, H-plane tee, Magic tee, hybrid rings,
corners, bends and twists.
Tee Junctions
In microwave circuits a waveguide or coaxial line junction with three independent
ports is commonly referred to as a tee junction. The waveguide tees are used to
connect a branch or section of waveguide in series or parallel with the main
waveguide transmission line either for splitting or combining power in a waveguide
system. Tee junction must be characterized by a matrix of third order containing nine
elements, six of which should be independent.
4.3.1.1 E-Plane Tee (Series Tee)
• An E-plane tee is a waveguide tee in which the axis
of its side arm is parallel to the E field of the main guide.

Fig.4.12 E Plane Tee

• If E-plane tee is perfectly matched with screw tuners or inductive or capacitive

windows at the junction, the diagonal components of the scattering matrix,
𝑆11, 𝑆22 , 𝑆33 are zero because there will be no reflection.

• When the waves are fed into the side arm (port 3), the waves appearing at port 1
and port 2 of the collinear arm will be in opposite phase and in same magntitude.
Therefore, 𝑆13 = - 𝑆23

Figure 4.13 (a) Input through main arm (b) Input from side arm

• The negative sign means 𝑆13 and 𝑆23 have opposite signs. The S matrix is given of a E-
plane tee is given by
𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13
S= 𝑆21 𝑆22 𝑆23  (4.35)
𝑆31 𝑆32 𝑆33
• From the symmetry property of S-matrix, the symmetric terms are equal and they are
𝑆12 = 𝑆21 𝑆31 = 𝑆13 𝑆23 = 𝑆32  (4.36)

• From the zero property of S-matrix, the sum of products of each term of any column (or
row) multiplied by the complex conjugate of the corresponding terms of any other
column (or row) is zero and it is

𝑆11 𝑆12∗ + 𝑆21 𝑆22∗ + 𝑆31 𝑆32∗ = 0  (4.37)

• Assume that the port 3 is perfectly matched 𝑆33 = 0  (4.38)
• Substitute equation (4.38) and (4.36) in (4.35), the S matrix can be written as,
𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13
S= 𝑆12 𝑆22 −𝑆13  (4.39)
𝑆13 −𝑆13 0
• From the unitary property, 𝑆 𝑆 * = 𝑈  (4.40)
𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 𝑆∗11 𝑆∗12 𝑆∗13 1 0 0
𝑆12 𝑆22 −𝑆13 𝑆∗12 𝑆∗22 −𝑆∗13 = 0 1 0  (4.41)
𝑆13 −𝑆13 0 𝑆∗13 −𝑆∗13 0 0 0 1
• Multiplying we get
R1C1 : 𝑆11 𝑆∗ 11 + 𝑆12 𝑆 +12𝑆13 𝑆 =1
∗ ∗
13  (4.42)

𝑆11 2 + 𝑆12 2 + 𝑆13 2 = 1

 (4.43)
R2C2 : 𝑆12 𝑆∗+
12𝑆22 𝑆 + 𝑆1322
∗ 𝑆∗=1 13  (4.44)
𝑆12 2 + 𝑆22 2 + 𝑆13 2 = 1  (4.45)
R3C3 : 𝑆13 𝑆∗+
13 𝑆13 𝑆 =1 13
∗  (4.46)

R3C1 : 𝑆13 𝑆∗−𝑆1113 𝑆∗= 0 12  (4.47)

Equating equations (4.43) and (4.45) , we get

𝑆11 = 𝑆22  (4.48)

1
From equation (4.46), 2 𝑆13 2 = 1 or 𝑆 13 =  (4.49)
2
From equation (4.47) 𝑆13(𝑆∗11- 𝑆∗)12= 0  (4.50)
From equation (4.50) 𝑆11 = 𝑆12  (4.51)
From equation (4.48) 𝑆11 = 𝑆12 = 𝑆22  (4.52)
Using this equation (4.52) in 𝑆11 2 + 𝑆11 2 + 1= 1
2
Or 𝑆11 = 2
1

Substituting above values in (4.39)

1 1 1
𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 2 2 2
1 1 1
S= 𝑆12 𝑆22 −𝑆 13 = −  (4.53)
2 2 2
𝑆13 −𝑆13 0 1 1
− 2
0
2
4.3.1.2 H-Plane Tee (Shunt Tee)
• A H-plane tee is a waveguide tee in which axis of its side arm is “shunting” the E-
field or parallel to the H field of the main waveguide as shown in Fig.4.14.

Figure 4.14 H-Plane Tee

• If two inputs are fed into port 1 and port 2 of the colinear arm. The output wave
at port 3 will be in phase and additive.
• The property of H Plane Tee can be explained by S matrix.
• It has 3 inputs and output ports, the S-matrix is 3X3 matrix.
𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13
S= 𝑆21 𝑆22 𝑆23  (4.54)
𝑆31 𝑆32 𝑆33
• If the input is fed into port 3, the wave will split equally into port 1 and port 2 in
phase and in the same magnitude.
• So, the S matrix of H-plane tee is same as E-plane tee except that
𝑆13 = 𝑆23 (4.55)
• The port 3 is perfectly matched to the junction, 𝑆33 = 0  (4.56)
• From the symmetry property of S-matrix, the symmetric terms are equal and they
are
𝑆12 = 𝑆21 𝑆31 = 𝑆13 𝑆23 = 𝑆32  (4.57)
• Substituting equations (4.55),(4.56) and (4.57) in (4.55)
𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13
S= 𝑆12 𝑆22 𝑆13  (4.58)
𝑆13 𝑆13 0

• From the unitary property, 𝑆 𝑆* = 𝑈  (4.59)

𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 𝑆∗11 𝑆∗12 𝑆∗13 1 0 0
𝑆12 𝑆22 𝑆13 𝑆∗12 𝑆∗22 𝑆∗13 = 0 1 0  (4.60)
𝑆13 𝑆13 0 𝑆∗13 𝑆∗13 0 0 0 1
Multiplying we get,
R1C1 : 𝑆11 𝑆∗+11𝑆12 𝑆∗+ 𝑆1312𝑆∗=1 13  (4.61)
𝑆11 2 + 𝑆12 2 + 𝑆13 2 = 1  (4.62)
R2C2 : 𝑆12 𝑆∗+
12𝑆22 𝑆 + 𝑆13
∗
22𝑆 =1
∗
13  (4.63)
𝑆12 2 + 𝑆22 2 + 𝑆13 2 = 1  (4.64)
R3C3 : 𝑆13 𝑆∗+
13 𝑆13 𝑆 =1 13
∗  (4.65)
𝑆13 2 + 𝑆13 2 = 1
2 𝑆13 2 = 1
1
𝑆13 = 2
 (4.66)
R3C 1 : 𝑆13 𝑆11∗ +𝑆13 𝑆∗ 12 = 0  (4.67)
From equation (4.62) and (4.64), 𝑆11 = 𝑆22  (4.68)
From equation (4.67), +
( 𝑆11
𝑆 13 ∗
𝑆 ) 12
∗
= 0  (4.69)
𝑆13 ≠ 0 , 𝑆∗= - 𝑆∗
11 12
So, 𝑆11 = −𝑆12 Or 𝑆12 = -𝑆11  (4.70)
Substitute equation (4.66) and (4.70) in (4.62), then
𝑆11 2 + 𝑆11 2
+ 21= 1  (4.71)
2= 1
, 𝑆11 = 2
1
2 𝑆11 2
 (4.72)

From equation (4.70), 𝑆12 = - 12  (4.73)

Equating equations (4.62) and (4.64) , we get
𝑆11 = 𝑆22  (4.74)
1
From equation (4.72) and (4.74), 𝑆 22 = 2
 (4.75)
Substituting (4.72), (4.73), (4.75) in (4.58)

1 1 1
𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 2 2 2
1 1 1
S= 𝑆12 𝑆22 𝑆13 = 2 2 2
 (4.76)
𝑆13 𝑆13 0 1 1
2 2
0
4.3.1.3 Magic Tee (Hybrid Tees)

• A magic tee is a combination of the E-Plane tee and H-Plane tee.

• The magic tee has several characteristics:

Figure 4.15. Magic Tee

• If a signal of equal phase and magnitude is sent to port 1 and port 2, then the
output at port 3 is zero and the output at port 4 will be the additive of both the
ports 1 and 2.
• If a wave is fed into port 4 (the H arm), it will be divided equally between port 1
and port 2 of the collinear arms and will not appear at port 3 (the E arm)
• If a wave is fed into port 3 (the E arm), it will produce an output of equal
magnitude and opposite phase at port 1 and port 2. The output at port 4 is zero.
That is 𝑆43 = 𝑆34 = 0.
• If a wave into one of the collinear arms at port 1 or port 2, it will not appear in
the other collinear arm at port 2 or port 1 because the E arm causes a phase
delay while the H arm causes phase advance. That is 𝑆12 = 𝑆21 = 0.
• The properties of magic tee can be explained by 𝑆 4x4 matrix
• It is a 4x4 matrix as there are 4 possible inputs and 4 possible outputs.
𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 𝑆14
𝑆21 𝑆22 𝑆23 𝑆24
𝑆= 𝑆 𝑆32 𝑆33 𝑆34  (4.77)
31
𝑆41 𝑆42 𝑆43 𝑆44
• As it has H-plane Tee junction, 𝑆24 = 𝑆14  (4.78)
• As it has E-plane Tee junction, 𝑆23 = −𝑆13  (4.78)
• By the property of magic tee 𝑆43 = 𝑆34 = 0  (4.79)
• From the symmetry property 𝑆𝑖𝑗= 𝑆𝑗𝑖  (4.80)
𝑆12 = 𝑆21 , 𝑆13 = 𝑆31, 𝑆14 = 𝑆41  (4.81)
𝑆23 = 𝑆32, 𝑆24 = 𝑆42, 𝑆34 = 𝑆43  (4.82)
• If the ports 3 and 4 are perfectly matched to the junction, then
𝑆33 = 𝑆44 = 0  (4.83)
• Substituting all equations (4.78) to (4.82) in (4.77)
𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 𝑆14
𝑆12 𝑆22 −𝑆13 𝑆14
𝑆=  (4.84)
𝑆13 −𝑆13 0 0
𝑆14 𝑆14 0 0
From unitary property 𝑆 𝑆 * = 𝑈

𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 𝑆14 𝑆∗11 𝑆∗12 𝑆∗13 𝑆∗14 1 0 0 0

𝑆12 𝑆22 −𝑆13 𝑆14 𝑆∗12 𝑆22 −𝑆∗13 𝑆∗14 0 1 0 0
=  (4.85)
𝑆13 −𝑆13 0 0 𝑆∗13 −𝑆∗13 0 0 0 0 1 0
𝑆14 𝑆14 0 0 𝑆∗14 𝑆∗14 0 0 0 0 0 1
R1C1 : 𝑆11 𝑆 +11𝑆12 𝑆 + 𝑆1312𝑆∗+
∗ ∗ 𝑆14 𝑆∗ 13 14 =1
𝑆11 +2 𝑆12 + 2 𝑆13 +2 𝑆14 2 =1  (4.86)
R2C2 : 𝑆12 + 𝑆22 + 𝑆13 + 𝑆14 = 1
2 2 2 2  (4.87)
R3C3 : 𝑆13 2 + 𝑆13 2 = 1  (4.88)
R4C4 : 𝑆14 2 + 𝑆14 2 = 1  (4.89)
Comparing equations (4.86) and (4.87) 𝑆11= 𝑆22  (4.90)
From equations (4.88) and (4.89) 𝑆 13
= 𝑆 14 = 1
 (4.91)
2
Substitute equation (4.91) in (4.86)
𝑆11 2 + 𝑆12 2+ 1+ 1= 1
2 2
𝑆11 2 + 𝑆12 2 =0
𝑆11 = 𝑆12 = 0  (4.92)
From equation (4.90), 𝑆22=0  (4.93)
Equations (4.92) and (4.93) indicates that port 1 and port 2 are perfectly matched
Substituting equations (4.91), (4.92), (4.93) in (4.84)
1 1
0 0 2
2
𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 𝑆14 1 1
𝑆12 𝑆22 −𝑆13 𝑆14 0 0 −
2 2
𝑆= = 1  (4.94)
𝑆13 −𝑆13 0 0 − 1
0 0
𝑆14 2 2
𝑆14 0 0
1 1
0 0
2 2

When two ports are perfectly matched, other two ports are also perfectly
matched.

Applications of Magic Tee

Magic Tee is used to couple two transmitters as shown in Fig.4.16

Fig.4.16 Magic tee-coupled transmitters to antenna

APPLICATIONS OF MAGIC TEE

1. The magic tee is commonly used for mixing, duplexing and impedance
measurements. For example, two identical radar transmitters in equipment
stock. A magic tee may be used to couple the two transmitters to the
antenna in such a way that the transmitter do not load each other. Two
transmitters should be connected to ports 3 and 4 respectively as shown in
Fig.4.16. Transmitter 1, connected to port 3, causes a wave to emanate from
port 1 and another to emanate from port 2; these waves are equal in
magnitude but opposite in phase. Similarly, transmitter 2 connected to port 4,
gives rise to a wave at port 1 and another at port 2, both equal in magnitude
and in phase. At port 1 the two opposite waves cancel each other. At port 2
the two in-phase waves add together; so double output power at port 2 is
obtained for the antenna.

2. E-H Plane junction is used to measure the impedance − A null detector is

connected to E-Arm port while the Microwave source is connected to H-Arm
port. The collinear ports together with these ports make a bridge and the
impedance measurement is done by balancing the bridge.

3. E-H Plane Tee is used as a duplexer − A duplexer is a circuit which works as

both the transmitter and the receiver, using a single antenna for both
purposes. Port 1 and 2 are used as receiver and transmitter where they are
isolated and hence will not interfere. Antenna is connected to E-Arm port. A
matched load is connected to H-Arm port, which provides no reflections. Now,
there exists transmission or reception without any problem.

4. E-H Plane Tee is used as a mixer − E-Arm port is connected with antenna and
the H-Arm port is connected with local oscillator. Port 2 has a matched load
which has no reflections and port 1 has the mixer circuit, which gets half of
the signal power and half of the oscillator power to produce IF frequency.
4.4 Attenuator
• An attenuator are usually passive devices made from simple voltage divider
networks used to control the amount of microwave power transferred from one
point to another point.
• In order to control power levels in a microwave system by partially absorbing the
transmitted microwave signal, attenuators are employed.
• Types of attenuators : Fixed and Variable attenuator
• Resistive films (dielectric glass slab coated with aquadag) are used in the design
of both fixed and variable attenuators.
• Fixed type of attenuators are used where a fixed amount of power is to be
provided.
• Variable attenuator provides continuous or step wise variable attenuation
Co-axial line fixed attenuator
• A coaxial fixed attenuator shown in Fig. 4.22 uses the dielectric lossy material
inside the centre conductor of the coaxial line to absorb some of the centre
conductor microwave power propagating through it dielectric rod decides the
amount of attenuation introduced. The microwave power absorbed by the lossy
material is dissipated heat.

Figure 4.22 Co-axial line fixed attenuator

Movable vane variable attenuator
• In Waveguides, the dielectric slab coated with aquadag is placed at the centre of
the waveguide parallel to the maximum E-field for dominant TE10 mode. Induced
current on the lossy material due to incoming microwave signal, results in power
dissipation, leading to the attenuation of the signal.

• The dielectric slab is tapered at both ends upto a length of more than half
wavelength to reduce reflections as shown Fig.4.23. The dielectric slab may be
made movable along the breadth of the waveguide by supporting it with two
dielectric rods separated by an odd multiple quarter wavelength and perpendicular
to electric field.

• When the slab is at the centre, then the attenuation and when it is moved
towards one side wall, the attenuation goes on decreasing thereby controlling the
microwave power coming out of the other port.
Flap attenuator Figure 4.23 Movable vane variable attenuator

• Flap attenuator is a variable attenuator. A semi-circular flap made of lossy

dielectrics is made to descend into the longitudinal slot cut at the centre of the
top wall of rectangular waveguide.

Figure 4.24 Flap attenuator

• When the flap is completely outside the slot, then the attenuation is zero and when
it is completely inside, the attenuation is maximum. A maximum direction of 90 dB
attenuation is possible with this attenuator with a VSWR of 1.05. The dielectric slab
can be properly shaped according to convenience to get a linear variation of
attenuation within the depth of insertion.

Precision Type Variable Attenuator

• A precision type variable attenuator consists of Rectangular to Circular Transition

(RCT) and a piece of Circular Waveguide and Circular to Rectangular Transition
(CRT) as shown in Fig.4.25

• Resistive cards are placed inside the sections, which reduces the power flowing
through the waveguide.
• The centre circular section consists of resistive card Rb can be precisely rotated
by 360° with respect to the two fixed resistive cards.

Figure 4.23 Precision type variable attenuator

• The induced current on the resistive card R due to the incident signal is
dissipated as heat, producing attenuation of the transmitted signal.
• The resistive cards Ra and Rc are kept perpendicular to the electric field of TE10
mode so that it does not absorb any energy.
• But any component parallel to its plane will be readily absorbed. Hence, pure TE
mode is excited circular waveguide section.
• If the resistive card in the centre section is kept at an angle ϴrelative to the
electric field relative to the direction of TE11 mode.

Figure 4.24. Field Components of electric field in three

sections RCT, CW and CRT

• The centre resistive card produces two components E cosϴ and E sinϴ. The
component E cosϴ is parallel to the card gets absorbed while the component E
sinϴ is transmitted without attenuation. This component finally comes out as E
sin 2ϴ.
4.5 Resonator
• A microwave resonator is a metallic enclosure that confines electromagnetic
energy and stores it inside a cavity that determines its equivalent capacitance
and inductance and from the energy dissipated due to finite conductive walls we
can determine the equivalent resistance.
• The resonator has finite number of resonating modes and each mode
corresponds to a particular resonant frequency.
• When the frequency of input signal equals to the resonant frequency, maximum
amplitude of standing wave occurs and the peak energy stored in the electric and
magnetic field are calculated.
• They are used in many applications such as oscillators, filters, frequency meters,
tuned amplifiers.
Rectangular Waveguide Cavity Resonator
• Resonator can be constructed from closed section of waveguide by shorting both
ends thus forming a closed box or cavity which store the electromagnetic energy
and the power can be dissipated in the metallic walls as well as the dielectric
medium

Figure 4.25 Rectangular cavity resonator

• The geometry of rectangular cavity resonator spreads as

0≤x≤a; 0≤y≤b; 0≤z≤d
• Hence the expression for cut-off frequency will be

ω02 µ ε = (mπ/a)2 + ( nπ/b)2 + (lπ/d)2

1
ω0 =
µε [(mπ/a) + ( nπ/b) + (lπ/d)
2 2 2]1/2

or f0= 1 2πµ
[(mπ/a)
ε
2 + ( nπ/b)2 + (lπ/d)2]1/2

or f = 𝐂҆2҆ [(mπ/a)2 + ( nπ/b)2 + (lπ/d)2]1/2

This is the expression for resonant frequency of cavity resonator.

The mode having lowest resonant frequency is called DOMINANT MODE
Quality factor of Cavity Resonator
𝑚 𝑎 𝑥 𝑖 𝑚 𝑢 𝑚 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
Q= 𝑚 𝑎 𝑥 𝑖 𝑚 𝑢 𝑚 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
2πX
Factors affecting the quality factor

Quality factor depends upon 2 factors:

 Lossy conducting walls

 Lossy dielectric medium of a waveguide
1) LOSSY CONDUCTING WALL:
The Q-factor of a cavity with lossy conducting walls but lossless dielectric
medium
i.e. σc≠ ∞ and σ=0

Then Qc = (2ω0 We/Pc)

Where ω0– resonant frequency
We – stored electrical energy

Pc - power loss in conducting walls

2) LOSSY DIELECTRIC MEDIUM:

The Q-factor of a cavity with lossy dielectric medium but lossless conducting

walls

i.e. σc=∞ and σ≠0

Qd = 2ω0We/ Pd = (1/ tan 𝜹)

߫
Where tan 𝛿 = ωε

Pd=power loss in dielectric medium

When both the conducting walls and the dielectric medium are lossy in nature then,

Total power loss = Pc+Pd

1
= 1 +1
Qtotal Qc Q𝑑
1
or Qtotal = 1
+1
Qc Q𝑑
4.6 Circulator
• Microwave circulators and isolators are non reciprocal transmission devices that
use the property of Faraday rotation in the ferrite material. A non reciprocal phase
shifter consists of thin slab of ferrite placed in a rectangular waveguide at a point
where the dc magnetic field of the incident wave mode is circularly polarized.
When a piece of ferrite is affected by a dc magnetic field the ferrite exhibits
Faraday rotation. It does so because the ferrite is nonlinear material and its
permeability is an asymmetric tensor.
• A microwave circulator is a multiport waveguide junction in which the wave can
flow only from the nth port to the (n + I)th port in one direction Although there is
no restriction on the number of ports, the four-port microwave circulator is the
most common. One type of four-port microwave circulator is a combination of two
3-dB side hole directional couplers and a rectangular waveguide with two non
reciprocal phase shifters.

Figure 4.17 Microwave Circulator

Figure 4.18 Schematic Diagram of Four Port Circulator

• The operating principle of a typical microwave circulator can be analyzed with the
aid of Fig.4.18. Each of the two 3- dB couplers in the circulator introduces a phase
shift of 90°, and each of the two phase shifters produces a certain amount of
phase change in a certain direction as indicated.
• When a wave is incident to port 1,the wave is split into two components by
coupler I. The wave in the primary guide arrives at port 2 with a relative phase'
change of 180°.
• The second wave propagates through the two couplers and the secondary guide
and arrives at port 2 with a relative phase shift of 180°. Since the two waves
reaching port 2 are in phase, the power transmission is obtained from port 1 to
port 2.
• However, the wave propagates through the primary guide, phase shifter, and
coupler 2 and arrives at port 4 with a phase change of 270°. The wave travels
through coupler 1 and the secondary guide, and it arrives at port 4 with a phase
shift of 90°.
• Since the two waves reaching port 4 are out of phase by 180°, the power
transmission from port 1 to port 4 is zero.
• In general, the differential propagation constants in the two directions of
propagation in a waveguide containing ferrite phase shifters should be

where m and n are any integers, including zeros.

• A similar analysis shows that a wave incident to port 2 emerges at port 3 and so
on. As a result, the sequence of power flow is designated as 1  2  3  4  1.
• A four-port circulator is constructed by the use of two magic tees and a phase
shifter. The phase shifter produces a phase shift of 180°.

Figure 4.19 A Four Port Circulator using Magic Tee

• A perfectly matched, lossless, and nonreciprocal four-port circulator has S matrix
of the form
0 𝑆12 𝑆13 𝑆14
𝑆21 0 𝑆23 𝑆24
𝑆= 𝑆 𝑆32 𝑆34  (4.94)
31 0
𝑆41 𝑆42 𝑆43 0
• Using the properties of S parameters, the S-matrix of four port circulator is

0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
𝑆=  (4.95)
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
4.7 Isolator
• An isolator is a nonreciprocal transmission device that is used to isolate one
component from reflections of other components in the transmission line. An ideal
isolator completely absorbs the power for propagation in one direction and provides
lossless transmission in the opposite direction. Thus the isolator is usually called
uniline.

• Isolators are generally used to improve the frequency stability of microwave

generators, such as klystrons and magnetrons, in which the reflection from the load
affects the generating frequency. In such cases, the isolator placed between the
generator and load prevents the reflected power from the unmatched load from
returning to the generator. As a result, the isolator maintains the frequency stability
of the generator.

• Isolators can be constructed in many ways. They can be made by terminating ports
3 and 4 of a four-port circulator with matched loads. On the other hand, isolators
can be made by inserting a ferrite rod along the axis of a rectangular waveguide as
shown in Fig.4.20

Faraday Rotation Isolator

Operating Principle
• The input resistive card is in the y-z plane, and the output resistive card is
displaced 45° with respect to the input card. The dc magnetic field, which is
applied longitudinally to the ferrite rod, rotates the wave plane of polarization by
45°.

• The degrees of rotation depend on the length and diameter of the rod and on the
applied de magnetic field. An input TE10 dominant mode is incident to the left end
of the isolator.

Figure 4.20 Faraday-rotation isolator

• Since the TE10 mode wave is perpendicular to the input resistive card, the wave
passes through the ferrite rod without attenuation. The wave in the ferrite rod
section is rotated clockwise by 45° and is normal to the output resistive card. As a
result of rotation, the wave arrives at the output end without attenuation at all.
• On the contrary, a reflected wave from the output end is similarly rotated
clockwise 45° by the ferrite rod. However, since the reflected wave is parallel to
the input resistive card, the wave is thereby absorbed by the input card.
• The typical performance of these isolators is about 1-dB insertion loss in forward
transmission and about 20- to 30-dB isolation in reverse attenuation.
8. Gyrator
• A gyrator is a passive, linear, lossless, two-port electrical network element.
• The gyrator is non-reciprocal passive microwave device. Gyrators permit
network realizations of two-(or-more)-port devices which cannot be realized
with just the conventional four elements (Resistors, capacitors, inductor and
ideal transformer)
• An important property of a gyrator is that it inverts the current-voltage
characteristics of an electrical component or network. In the case of linear
elements, the impedances also inverted. In other words, a gyrator can make
a capacitive circuit behave inductively, a series LC circuit behave like a parallel
LC circuit, and so on. It is primarily used in active filter design and
miniaturization.
• It is a two port device that has a relative phase shift of 180° in the forward
direction and 0 (zero) phase shift in reverse direction.
• The Schematic symbol for gyrator is shown in the Fig.4.21.

Figure 4.21. Symbol of Gyrator

• When signal is transmitted from port 1 to port 2 it offers phase shift of 180°
and when signal if fed to port 2 it offers 0°

• The Scattering matrix for an ideal gyrator is

0 1
𝑆=
−1 0
• The gyrator can be implemented as a phase shifter with a 180° differential
phase shift; bias can be provided with a permanent magnet, making the
gyrator a passive device.
 9. PIN Diodes
The PIN diode is one of the popular device options for switches. The PIN diode
comprises three regions, namely the P-region (p-type semiconductor), I-region
(intrinsic semiconductor) and N-region (n-type semiconductor). The wide
intrinsic region in the PIN diode makes it suitable for fast switches, attenuators
and high voltage power applications. The two most common configurations of
RF switches are shown in the following figures. The SPST switch has one input
port and one output port, as shown in Figure 4.22. The SPST is a basic switch,
which is used to connect or break the connection between the two terminals. It
can be utilized to connect RF input to RF output by providing a positive bias
voltage to the diode.

1. PIN diodes in RF switch

(a) Block diagram (b) Schematic diagram

Figure 4.22 The SPST switch configuration

Figure 1 The SPST switch configuration The SPDT switch has one common port
and two output branches, as shown in Figure 4.23. The SPDT is ideal for use in
Rx-Tx (receive–transmit) antenna switches. The SPDT schematic shown in Figure
4.23 contains one series diode in each branch of the switch. By providing positive
bias voltage to the respective diode, the RF signal is routed from the common
input port to either one of the two output branches.

Figure 4.23 The SPDT series switch configuration

Adding a shunt PIN diode in each switching branch improves the isolation
provided by the switch. Figure 4.24 shows the schematic of the SPDT series and
shunt switch.

Figure 4.24 The SPDT series and shunt switch schematic

4.9.2 PIN diode limiters
PIN diodes can also be used to create limiters (a type of nonlinear device ),
usually as one or more shunt elements across a transmission line. Often the
diodes are spaced apart by the magic quarterwave to improve small signal
response. A limiter is (usually) a passive device that has low loss for small
signals, then increases its attenuation as power levels increase.
Some PIN diode limiters are passive, meaning that the PIN diode creates the
nonlinear response by itself. An "active limiter" adds a detector circuit that
applies DC current to the PIN diode to turn it on harder, at lower power. The
detector uses a Schottky diode. A switched limiter uses a DC control signal to
turn on the PIN diode.

4.10 Schottky Diodes

Schottky diodes are fabricated from a semiconductor die to which an epitaxial
layer is deposited. While a conventional point-contact diode uses a metal whisker
to contact the epitaxial layer forming the rectifying junction, a Schottky diode
has an additional oxide layer deposited over the epitaxial layer. An area is etched
out through the oxide layer to the epitaxial layer after which a metal contact is
deposited.

The benefit to devices using Schottky’s principles is they can be used in a broad
array of assemblies such as RF detectors and diode ring mixers at frequencies
well into the microwave and millimeter-wave region.
Other applications include voltage clamping, prevention of transistor saturation
caused by higher current density in the diode, use in photovoltaic systems to
prevent batteries from discharging through the solar panels at night, as well as in
rectifiers used in switched mode power supplies.
A Schottky diode has much higher current density than a traditional P-N junction,
so the forward voltage drop between its terminals when current flows through it is
much lower. It typically uses only 300 to 400 mV across its junction, in contrast to
a standard silicon diode that has a forward voltage drop of about 600 mV. A
Schottky diode also has very fast recovery time between its forward conducting
(ON) state and the reverse (OFF) state because it has an infinitesimal amount of
stored charge, which in part makes it very well suited for high-speed switching
applications as well as RF and microwave applications. In conventional diodes, this
time can be several microseconds to less than 100 ns, but as Schottky diodes

have no charge carry depletion region at the junction, switching time can be from
100 ps to tens of nanoseconds, that is, almost instantaneous.
4.10.1 Zero-bias Schottky diodes
There are many types of Schottky diodes, one of which is the zero-bias Schottky
diode, also known as a Zero-bias Schottky detector diode. This type of Schottky is
less susceptible to damage from overdrive, making it more rugged. Whereas a
typical Schottky diode has a "knee" on the I/V curve around 300 to 500 mV that
limits its low-level signal detection threshold to -20 dBm, a DC-biased, Zero-bias
Schottky Diode has a typical knee of 150 mV. This allows them to operate well RF
power levels of about 30 dBm.
Zero-bias Schottky diodes are well suited for use as small-signal RF detectors
(Figure 2), such as those used in RFID tags and other applications in which no DC
power is available in “listen” and other sleep modes.
It is also well-suited for coming generations of IoT devices that operate from coin
cell batteries in which conservation of power is critical. Other applications include
test equipment, transmitters, signal monitoring, radar, and missile guidance
systems. Although they’re not quite as sensitive as, say, a superheterodyne
receiver, Zero-bias Schottky Diodes are much less costly and often provide
favorable return on investment (ROI). Its only disadvantage is that its
performance depends on its saturation current that is directly affected by
temperature. But methods have been developed to compensate for this issue.
 Figure 4.25 Schottky diode detector

Although the Schottky diode has very few disadvantages, one of them is a
higher level of reverse current than a traditional diode. This will lead to more
leaked current when connected in reverse. Schottky diodes also have a lower
maximum reverse voltage than standard diodes, usually 50 V or less. Once
this value is exceeded, the Schottky diode will break down and start to
conduct a large amount of current in reverse.
To overcome these problems a guard ring of P+ semiconductor fabricated
using a diffusion process is used along with an oxide layer around the edge,
which has a positive effect on performance in both forward and reverse
directions. Specifically, integrating a guard ring into the device can
significantly improve its reverse-breakdown characteristics when compared to
the Schottky diode without one.

4.11 TRANSFERRED ELECTRON DEVICES

The application of two-terminal semiconductor devices at microwave
frequencies has been increased usage during the past decades. The CW,
average, and peak power outputs of these devices at higher microwave
frequencies are much larger than those obtainable with the best power
transistor. The common characteristic of all active Two-terminal solid-state
devices is their negative resistance. The real part of their impedance is
negative over a range of frequencies. In a positive resistance the current
through the resistance and the voltage across it are in phase. The voltage
drop across a positive resistance is positive and a power of (I²R) is dissipated
in the resistance. In a negative resistance, however, the current and voltage
are out of phase by 180°. The voltage drop across a negative resistance is
negative, and a power of (-I²R) is generated by the power supply associated
with the negative resistance.
In other words, positive resistances absorb power (passive devices), whereas negative
resistances generate power (active devices). In this chapter the transferred electron
devices (TEDs) are analyzed. The differences between microwave transistors and
transferred electron devices (TEDs) are fundamental. Transistors operate with either
junctions or gates, but TEDs are bulk devices having no junctions or gates. The majority
of transistors are fabricated from elemental semiconductors, such as silicon or
germanium, whereas TEDs are fabricated from compound semiconductors, such as
gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium phosphide (InP), or cadmium telluride (CdTe).
Transistors operate with "warm" electrons whose energy is not much greater than the
thermal energy (0.026 eV at room temperature) of electrons in the semiconductor,
whereas TEDs operate with "hot" electrons whose energy is very much greater than the
thermal energy. Because of these fundamental differences, the theory and technology
of transistors cannot be applied to TEDs.

4.11.1 GUNN DIODE

Gunn Effect

Gunn effect was first observed by GUNN in n_type GaAs bulk diode. According to GUNN,
above some critical voltage corresponding to an electric field of 2000-4000v/cm, the
current in every specimen became a fluctuating fuction of time. The frequency of
oscillation was determined mainly by the specimen and not by the external circuit.
Figure 4.26 shows the construction detail of GaAs gunn diode.

Figure 4.26 GaAs Gunn diode

4.11.2 RIDLEY-WATKINS-HILSUM (RWH} THEORY

Differential Negative Resistance

The fundamental concept of the Ridley-Watkins-Hilsum (RWH) theory is the differential

negative resistance developed in a bulk solid-state Ill-Y compound when either a voltage
(or electric field) or a current is applied to the terminals of the sample.
There are two modes of negative-resistance devices:
i) Voltage-controlled and current controlled modes as shown in Fig.

In the voltage-controlled mode the current density can be multivalued,

whereas in the current- controlled mode the voltage can be multivalued.

Figure 4.27 a) Voltage controlled mode, b) Current controlled mode

The major effect of the appearance of a differential negative-resistance region in
the currentdensity- field curve is to render the sample electrically unstable. As a
result, the initially homogeneous sample becomes electrically heterogeneous in
an attempt to reach stability.

In the voltage-controlled negative-resistance mode high-field domains are

formed, separating two low-field regions. The interfaces separating lowand
high-field domains lie along equipotentials;
thus they are in planes perpendicular to the current direction as shown in Fig.
4.27(a). In the current- controlled negative-resistance mode splitting the sample
results in high-current filaments running along the field direction as shown in Fig.
4.27(b).
Expressed mathematically, the negative resistance of the sample at a
particular region is

If an electric field Eo (or voltage Vo) is applied to the sample, for example, the
current density is generated. As the applied field (or voltage) is increased to
E2 (or V2), the current density is decreased to J2.

When the field (or voltage) is decreased to E1 (or V1), the current density
is increased to J1 . These phenomena of the voltage controlled negative
resistance are shown in Fig. 4.28(a).

Similarly, for the current controlled mode, the negative-resistance profile is as

shown in Fig. 4.28(b).

Figure 4.28 a) Voltage controlled mode, b) Current controlled mode

4.11.3 Two-Valley Model Theory
According to the energy band theory of then-type GaAs, a high-mobility
lower valley is separated by an energy of 0.36 eV from a low-mobility upper
valley
 Figure 4.29 Energy band diagram of two valley model theory

When the applied electric field is lower than the electric field of the lower valley
(£ < Ec), no electrons will transfer to the upper valley as show in Fig. 4.29(a).

When the applied electric field is higher than that of the lower valley and lower
than that of the upper valley (Ec < E < Eu), electrons will begin to transfer to
the upper valley as shown in Fig. 4.29(b).
And when the applied electric field is higher than that of the upper valley (Eu
< E), all electrons will transfer to the upper valley as shown in Fig.4.29(c).

If electron densities in the lower and upper valleys are nc and nu , the
conductivity of the n -type GaAs is

When a sufficiently high field E is applied to the specimen, electrons are

accelerated and their effective temperature rises above the lattice
temperature. Furthermore, the lattice temperature also increases. Thus
electron density n and mobility f-L are both functions of electric field E.
Differentiation of above eqn. with respect to E yields
If the total electron density is given by n = nt + nu and it is assumed that f.Le
and /Lu are proportional to EP, where p is a constant, then

Substitution of above Eqs. and results in

Then differentiation of Ohm's law J = aE with respect toE yields

The above Equation can be rewritten

Clearly, for negative resistance, the current density J must decrease with
increasing field E or the ratio of dJ!dE must be negative. Such would be the
case only if the right-hand term of above Eq. is less than zero. In other
words, the condition for negative resistance is
Substitution /= nu/ne results
4.11.4 Characteristic curve of Gunn Diode
The figure below shows the characteristic curve of a Gunn diode:

Figure 4.30 VI characteristics of Gunn diode

Here, we can clearly relate the above explanation with the curve shown figure 4.30.
Initially, with the increase in the applied voltage, the current through the device also
increases.
However, a point is reached when on increasing the voltage the current through the
device starts decreasing. The point of maximum current is known as the peak point.
The region on the curve that shows the decrease in current with an increase in
voltage is known as the negative resistance region of the curve.

The negative resistance characteristic is also exhibited by a tunnel diode but the two
show variation in their operating manner.
5. Advantages of Gunn Diode
The manufacturing cost of gunn diode is low.
Gunn diodes are highly reliable.
It exhibits comparatively low operating voltage than normal diodes.
Its installation in circuits is easy.
6. Disadvantages of Gunn Diode
These are less stable.
The efficiency of gunn diodes is very low.
Sometimes noise effects are more in case of gunn diodes.
7. Applications of Gunn Diodes
Gunn diodes find their applications in oscillators and amplifiers, in ultrasonic
detectors. These are also used in tachometers and in the radio communication
system.
4.12 AVALANCE TRANSIT TIME DEVICES
Avalanche transit-time diode oscillators rely on the effect of voltage
breakdown across a reverse- biased p-n junction to produce a supply of holes and
electrons. Ever since the development of modern semiconductor device theory
scientists have speculated on whether it is possible to make a two-terminal negative-
resistance device.
The tunnel diode was the first such device to be realized in practice. Its
operation depends on the properties of a forward-biased p-n junction in which both
the p and n regions are heavily doped. The other two devices are the transferred
electron devices and the avalanche transit-time devices. In this chapter the latter
type is discussed.
The transferred electron devices or the Gunn oscillators operate simply
by the application of a de voltage to a bulk semiconductor. There are no p-n
junctions in this device. Its frequency is a function of the load and of the natural
frequency of the circuit. The avalanche diode oscillator uses carrier impact ionization
and drift in the high-field region of a semiconductor junction to produce a negative
resistance at microwave frequencies.
The device was originally proposed in a theoretical paper by Read in
which he analyzed the negative-resistance properties of an idealized n+p- i-p+
diode. Two distinct modes of avalanche oscillator have been observed. One is the
IMPATT mode, which stands for impact ionization avalanche transit-time operation. In
this mode the typical dc-to-RF conversion efficiency is 5 to 10%, and frequencies are
as high as 100 GHz with silicon diodes.
The other mode is the TRAPATT mode, which represents trapped
plasma avalanche triggered transit operation. Its typical conversion efficiency is from
20 to 60%. Another type of active microwave device is the BARITT (barrier injected
transit-time) diode. It has long drift
regions similar to those of IMPATT diodes. The carriers traversing the drift
regions of BARITT diodes, however, are generated by minority carrier injection
from forward-biased junctions rather than being extracted from the plasma of
an avalanche region. Several different structures have been operated as BARITT
diodes, such as p-n-p, p-n-v-p, p-n-metal, and metal-nmetal. BARITT diodes
have low noise figures of 15 dB, but their bandwidth is relatively narrow with
low output power.

4.12.1 IMPATT DIODE

Physical Structures
A theoretical Read diode made of ann+ -p-i-p+ or p+ -n-i-n+ structure has
been analyzed. Its basic physical mechanism is the interaction of the impact
ionization avalanche and the transit time of charge carriers. Hence the Read-
type diodes are called IMPATT diodes. These diodes exhibit a differential
negative resistance by two effects:

1)The impact ionization avalanche effect, which causes the carrier current
lo(t) and the ac voltage to be out of phase by 90°

2) The transit-time effect, which further delays the external current l,(t) relative
to the ac voltage by 90°
The first IMPATT operation as reported by Johnston et al. in 1965, however, was
obtained from a simple p-n junction. The first real Read-type IMPATT diode was
reported by Lee et al., as described previously.
From the small-signal theory developed by Gilden it has been confirmed that a
negative resistance of the IMPATT diode can be obtained from a junction diode
with any doping profile.
Many IMPATT diodes consist of a high doping avalanching region followed by a
drift region where the field is low enough that the carriers can traverse through
it without avalanching.
The Read diode is the basic type in the IMPATT diode family. The others are the
one-sided abrupt p-n junction, the linearly graded p-n junction (or double-drift
region), and the p-i-n diode, all of which are shown in Fig. 4.31.
The principle of operation of these devices, however, is essentially similar to the
mechanism described for the Read diode.

4.12.2 Negative Resistance

Small-signal analysis of a Read diode results in the following expression for
the real part of the diode terminal impedance :

Figure 4.31 IMPATT diode

Moreover, (θ) is the transit angle, given by

and w, is the avalanche resonant frequency, defined by

The variation of the negative resistance with the transit angle when w > Wr is
plotted in Fig. 4.32. The peak value of the negative resistance occurs near ()
= 7T. For transit angles larger than 7T and approaching 37T /2, the negative
resistance of the diode decreases rapidly. For practical purposes, the Read-
type IMPATT diodes work well only in a frequency range around the 7T transit
angle. That is,

Figure 4.32 Negative resistance in IMPATT diode

4.12.3 Power Output and Efficiency
For a uniform avalanche, the maximum voltage that can be applied across the
diode is given by

where
L is the depletion length
Em is the maximum electric field.
This maximum applied voltage is limited by the breakdown voltage.
Furthermore, the maximum current that can be carried by the diode is also
limited by the avalanche breakdown process, for the current in the space-
charge region causes an increase in the electric field. The maximum current is
given by

Therefore the upper limit of the power input is given by

The capacitance across the space-charge region is defined as

Substitution of Eqs. and application of 2TTfT = 1 yield

The maximum power that can be given to the mobile carriers decreases as 1/
f. For silicon, this electronic limit is dominant at frequencies as high as 100
GHz. The efficiency of the IMPATT diodes is given by
4.13 MICROWAVE TUBES
We turn now to a quantitative and qualitative analysis of several conventional
vacuum tubes and microwave tubes in common use. The conventional vacuum
tubes, such as triodes, tetrodes, and pentodes, are still used as signal sources of
low output power at low microwave frequencies. The paramount 0 - type tube is
the two-cavity klystron, and it is followed by the reflex klystron. The helix
traveling-wave tube (TWT), the coupled-cavity TWT, the forward-wave amplifier
(FWA), and the backward-wave amplifier and oscillator (BWA and BWO) are also
0 -type tubes, but they have nonresonant periodic structures for electron
interactions. The Twystron is a hybrid amplifier that uses combinations of klystron
and TWT components. The switching tubes such as krytron, thyratron, and planar
triode are very useful in laser modulation. Although it is impossible to discuss all
such tubes in detail, the common operating principles of many will be described.

Figure 4.33 Classification of O type and M type tubes

4.13.1 Two cavity klystron
The two-cavity klystron is a widely used microwave amplifier operated by the
principles of velocity and current modulation. All electrons injected from the
cathode arrive at the first cavity with uniform velocity. Those electrons passing the
first cavity gap at zeros of the gap voltage (or signal voltage) pass through with
unchanged velocity; those passing through the positive half cycles of the gap
voltage undergo an increase in velocity; those passing through the negative
swings of the gap voltage undergo a decrease in velocity.
As a result of these actions, the electrons gradually bunch together as they
travel down the drift space. The variation in electron velocity in the drift space
is known as velocity modulation. The density of the electrons in the second
cavity gap varies cyclically with time.
The electron beam contains an ac component and is said to be current-
modulated. The maximum bunching should occur approximately midway
between the second cavity grids during its retarding phase;
thus the kinetic energy is transferred from the electrons to the field of the
second cavity.

The electrons then emerge from the second cavity with reduced velocity and
finally terminate at the collector.
The charateristics of a two-cavity klystron amplifier are as follows:
1. Efficiency: about 40%.
2. Power output: average power ( CW power) is up to 500
kW and pulsed power is up to 30 MW at 10 GHz.
3. Power gain: about 30 dB.

4.13.1.1 Reentrant Cavities

The coaxial cavity is similar to a coaxial line shorted at two ends and joined
at the center by a capacitor. The input impedance to each shorted coaxial
line is given by

where e is the length of the coaxial line.

Substitution of Eqns. results in
 Figure 4.34

The inductance of the cavity is given by

and the capacitance of the gap by

At resonance the inductive reactance of the two shorted coaxial lines in series is
equal in magnitude to the capacitive reactance of the gap. That is, wL = 1/(wCg).
Thus where v = 1/yr, is the phase velocity in any medium

4.13.1.2 Velocity-Modulation Process

When electrons are first accelerated by the high de voltage Vo before entering the
buncher grids, their velocity is uniform:

In Eq. (9-2-10) it is assumed that electrons leave the cathode with zero velocity.
When a microwave signal is applied to the input terminal, the gap voltage between
the buncher grids appears as
where V1 is the amplitude of the signal and V1 << Vo is assumed.
In order to find the modulated velocity in the buncher cavity in terms of either the
entering time to or the exiting time t1 and the gap transit angle 88 as shown in
Fig. 9-2-2 it is nssary to determine the average microwave voltage in the buncher
gap as indicated in Fig. 9-2-6. Since V1 << Vo , the average transit time through
the buncher gap distance d is
Figure 4.35 Signal voltage in the
buncher gap
It can be seen that increasing the gap transit angle 08 decreases the coupling
between the electron beam and the buncher cavity; that is, the velocity
modulation of the beam for a given microwave signal is decreased.
Immediately after velocity modulation, the exit velocity from the buncher gap
is given by

4.13.1.3 Bunching Process

Once the electrons leave the buncher cavity, they drift with a velocity given by
Eq. (9-2-19) or (9-2-20) along in the field-free space between the two
cavities. The effect of velocity modulation produces bunching of the electron
beam-or current modulation.

The electrons that pass the buncher at Vs = 0 travel through with unchanged
velocity vo and become the bunching center. Those electrons that pass the
buncher cavity during the positive half cycles of the microwave input voltage
Vs travel faster than the electrons that passed the gap when Vs = 0. Those
electrons that pass the buncher cavity during the negative half cycles of the
voltage Vs travel slower than the electrons that passed the gap when Vs = 0.
At a distance of !:J..L along the beam from the buncher
cavity, the beam electrons have drifted into dense clusters. Figure 9-2-8
shows the trajectories of minimum, zero, and maximum electron acceleration.

Figure 4.36 Bunching distance

The distance from the buncher grid to the location of dense electron bunching
for the electron at tb is
Figure 4.37 Applegate diagram

8
5
4.13.2 REFLEX KLYSTRON
If a fraction of the output power is fed back to the input cavity and if the
loop gain has a magnitude of unity with a phase shift of multiple 27T, the
klystron will oscillate. However, a two-cavity klystron oscillator is usually
not constructed because, when the oscillation frequency is varied, the
resonant frequency of each cavity and the feedback path phase shift must
be readjusted for a positive feedback.

The reflex klystron is a single-cavity klystron that overcomes the

disadvantages of the twocavity klystron oscillator. It is a low-power generator
of 10 to 500-mW output at a frequency range of I to 25 GHz. The efficiency
is about 20 to 30%. This type is widely used in the laboratory for microwave
measurements and in microwave rivers as local oscillators in commercial,
military, and airborne Doppler radars as well as missiles.

The theory of the two-cavity klystron can be applied to the nalysis of

the reflex klystron with slight modification. A schematic diagram of the
reflex klystron is shown in Fig.
The electron beam injected from the cathode is first velocity-modulated by
the cavity-gap voltage. Some electrons accelerated by the accelerating field
enter therepeller space with greater velocity than those with unchanged
velocity. Some electrons dlerated by the retarding field enter the repeller
region with less velocity.
All electrons turned around by the repeller voltage then pass through the
cavity gap in bunches that occur once per cycle. On their return journey the
bunched electrons pass through the gap during the retarding phase of the
alternating field and give up their kinetic energy to the electromagnetic
energy of the field in the cavity. Oscillator output energy is then taken from
the cavity. The electrons are finally collected by the walls of the cavity or
other grounded metal parts of the tube. Figure 9-4-2 shows an Applegate
diagram for the 1~ mode of a reflex klystron.

4.13.2.1 Velocity Modulation

The analysis of a reflex klystron is similar to that of a two-cavity klystron. For
simplicity, the effect of space-charge forces on the electron motion will again
be neglected. The electron entering the cavity gap from the cathode at z = 0
and time to is assumed to have uniform velocity

The same electron leaves the cavity gap at z = d at time ft with velocity

This expression is identical to Eq. (9-2-17), for the problems up to this point
are identical to those of a two-cavity klystron amplifier. The same electron is
forced back to the cavity z = d and time tz by the retarding electric field E,
which is given by

This retarding field E is assumed to be constant in the z direction. The force

equation for one electron in the repeller region is
where E = - VY is used in the z direction only, Yr is the magnitude of the
repeller voltage, and I Yt sin wt
I ~ (Yr + Yo) is assumed. Integration of Eq. (9-4-4) twice yields

Figure 4.38 Reflex Klystron

t0 time for electron entering cavity gap at z = 0
t 1 time for same electron leaving cavity gap at z = d time for same
electron returned by retarding field z = d and collected on walls of cavity

Figure 4.39 Bunching Process

Figure 4.40 Power output and frequency characteristics of a
reflex klystron
Transit Time
Transit time is defined as the time taken by the electrons to return to the cavity
gap after getting repelled by the repeller. For sustained oscillations to take
place, transit time is the most important factor.
Basically the optimum time for leaving the gun is centred around the reference
electron, which is considered at 180º phase difference from the sinusoidal
applied potential across the gap.

Bunching Process
The figure above shows the process of bunching on the return journey of all
the 3 categories of electrons i.e., ee, er and el.
Here the x-axis represents the time and y-axis shows the distance travelled by
the electrons inside the tube.

As we have already discussed that bunching takes place at the time of return
journey of electrons. Thus it is represented in the figure that though ee, er and
el, are approaching the repeller with different velocities, yet while returning all
of them are bunched at a respective time.

Specifications
1. The operating frequency range generally offered is 1 to 20 GHz.
2. It delivers output power in the range 10mW to 2.5 W.
3. The tuning range of klystron lies between 5 GHz at 2W to 30 GHz at 10
mW.
4. Theoretically, the efficiency is considered 22.78% while practically the
achieved efficiency is only 10 to 20%.

Applications
As reflex klystrons are oscillators thus find applications in local oscillators
receivers, radar receivers, radio receivers. Also utilized as signal sources in

microwave generators and pump oscillators of parametric amplifiers.

4.13.3 TRAVELING WAVE TUBE
Since Kompfner invented the helix traveling-wave tube (TWT) in 1944 , its
basic circuit has changed little. For broadband applications, the helix TWTs are
almost exclusively used, whereas for high-average- power purposes, such as
radar transmitters, the coupled-cavity TWTs are commonly used.

In previous sections klystrons and reflex klystrons were analyzed in some

detail. Before starting to describe the TWT, it seems appropriate to compare
the basic operating principles of both the TWT and the klystron. In the case
of the TWT, the microwave circuit is nonresonant and the wave propagates
with the same speed as the electrons in the beam. The initial effect on the
beam is a small amount of velocity modulation caused by the weak electric
fields associated with the traveling wave.

Just as in the klystron, this velocity modulation later translates to current

modulation, which then induces an RF current in the circuit, causing
amplification. However, there are some major differences between the TWT
and the klystron:

The interaction of electron beam and RF field in the TWT is continuous over
the entire length of the circuit, but the interaction in the klystron occurs only
at the gaps of a few resonant cavities.

The wave in the TWT is a propagating wave; the wave in the klystron is not.
In the coupled-cavity TWT there is a coupling effect between the cavities,
whereas each cavity in the klystron operates independently.

As the operating frequency is increased, both the inductance and capacitance

of the resonant circuit must be decreased in order to maintain resonance at
the operating frequency. Because the gain-bandwidth product is limited by the
resonant circuit, the ordinary resonator cannot generate a large output.
Several nonresonant periodic circuits or slow-wave structures (see Fig. 9-5-2)
are designed for producing large gain over a wide bandwidth.
 Figure 4.41 Slow wave Structures, a) helix, b) folded back,
c) zig zag, d) inter digitated, e) corrugated
Slow-wave structures are special circuits that are used in microwave tubes to
reduce the wave velocity in a certain direction so that the electron beam and
the signal wave can interact. The phase velocity of a wave in ordinary
waveguides is greater than the velocity of light in a vacuum.

In the operation of traveling-wave and magnetron-type devices, the electron

beam must keep in step with the microwave signal. Since the electron beam
can be accelerated only to velocities that are about a fraction of the velocity of
light, a slow-wave structure must be incorporated in the microwave devices so
that the phase velocity of the microwave signal can keep pace with that of the
electron beam for effective interactions. Several types of slow-wave structures
are shown in figure.

Figure 4.42 Travelling wave tube amplifier

 Figure 4.43 Helical slow wave structure, a) Helical coil, b) One
turn of helix

Figure 4.45

Figure 4.44 Interactions between electron beam and electric

field

Figure 4.45 ωβdiagram of spatial

hormonics for helical structure
4.13.3.1 Working of Travelling Wave Tube
Till now we have discussed the complete constructional structure of TWT. Let us now
understand how the signal gets amplified while travelling inside the tube.
The applied RF signal produces an electric field inside the tube. Due to the applied
positive half, the moving electron beam experiences accelerative force. However, the
negative half of the input applies a de-accelerative force on the moving electrons.
This is said to be velocity modulation because the electrons of the beam are
experiencing different velocity inside the tube.
However, the slowly travelling wave inside the tube exhibits continuous interaction with
the electron beam.
Due to the continuous interaction, the electrons moving with high velocity transfer
their energy to the wave inside the tube and thus slow down. So with the rise in the
amplitude of the wave, the velocity of electrons reduces and this causes bunching of
electrons inside the tube.
The growing amplitude of the wave resultantly causes more bunching of electrons
while reaching the end from the beginning. Thereby causing further amplification of
the RF wave inside the tube.
More specifically we can say that forward progression of the field along the axis of the
tube gives rise to amplification of the RF wave. Thus at the end of the tube an
amplified signal is achieved.
The positive potential provided at the other end causes collection of electron bunch at
the collector.
The magnetic field inside the tube restricts the spreading of the beam as the electrons
possess repulsive nature.
However, as the TWT is a bidirectional device. Therefore, the reflected signal causes
oscillations inside the tube. But as we have already discussed earlier that the presence
of attenuators reduces the generation of oscillations due to reflected backwave.
Sometimes despite using attenuators, internal impedance terminals are used that puts
less lossy effects on the forward signal.
Applications of TWT
Travelling wave tubes are highly used in continuous wave radar systems.
These amplifying tubes also find application in broadband receivers for RF
amplification.
TWT’s are also used to get high power output in satellite transponders.
So from the above discussion, we can conclude that no resonant structure is present in
the interaction space. Thus provides amplification up to a wide bandwidth operating
range.
However, the input and output coupling arrangements must be considered carefully as
they limit the operating range.
4.13.4 MAGNETRON OSCILLATORS
Hull invented the magnetron in 1921 [1], but it was only an interesting
laboratory device until about 1940. During World War II, an urgent need for
high-power microwave generators for radar transmitters led to the rapid
development of the magnetron to its present state.
All magnetrons consist of some form of anode and cathode operated in a de
magnetic field normal to of the crossed field between the cathode and anode,
the electrons emitted from the cathode are influenced by the crossed field to
move in curved paths. If the de magnetic field is strong enough, the
electrons will not arrive in the anode but return instead to the cathode.
Consequently, the anode current is cut off.

Magnetrons can be classified into three types:

1. Split-anode magnetron: This type of magnetron uses a static negative
resistance between two anode segments.
2.Cyclotron-frequency magnetrons: This type operates under the influence of
synchronism between an alternating component of electric field and a
periodic oscillation of electrons in a direction parallel to the field.

3. Traveling-wave magnetrons: This type depends on the interaction of

electrons with a traveling

electromagnetic field of linear velocity. They are customarily referred to

simply as magnetrons.

4.13.4.1 Cylindrical Magnetron

A schematic diagram of a cylindrical magnetron oscillator is shown in

Fig. 4.46. This type of magnetron is also called a conventional
magnetron.
In a cylindrical magnetron, several reentrant cavities are connected to the gaps.
The de voltage Vo is applied between the cathode and the anode. The

magnetic flux density Bo is in the positive z direction. When the de voltage and
the magnetic flux are adjusted properly, the electrons will follow cycloidal paths
in the cathodeanode space under the combined force of both electric and
magnetic fields as shown in Fig. 4.47.
Equations of electron motion. The equations of motion for electrons in a
cylindrical magnetron can be written with the aid of Eqs.(l-2-Sa) and (1-2-Sb) as

Figure 4.46 Schematic diagram of a cylindrical magnetron

Figure 4.47 Electron path in a cylindrical

magnetron
Cyclotron angular frequency. Since the magnetic field is normal to the
motion of electrons that travel in a cycloidal path, the outward centrifugal force
is equal to the pulling force. Hence
Since the slow-wave structure is closed on itself, or "reentrant," oscillations
are possible only if the total phase shift around the structure is an integral
multiple of 27T radians. Thus, if there are N reentrant cavities in the anode
structure, the phase shift between two adjacent cavities can be expressed as

where n is an integer indicating the nth mode of oscillation. In order for

oscillations to be produced in the structure, the anode de voltage must be
adjusted so that the average rotational velocity of the electrons corresponds
to the phase velocity of the field in the slow-wave structure. Magnetron
oscillators are

Figure 4.48 Lines of force in pi mode of

eight cavity magnetron
Construction of Magnetrons

Figure 4.49

• A cylindrical magnetron has a cylindrical cathode of a certain length and

radius present at the centre around which a cylindrical anode is present.
The cavities are present at the circumference of the anode at equal
spacing.

• Also, the area existing between anode and cathode of the tube is known
as interaction space/region.
• It is to be noted here that there exists a phase difference of 180⁰ between
adjacent cavities. Therefore, cavities will transfer their excitation from one
cavity to another with a phase shift of 180⁰.
• Thus we can say that if one plate is positive then automatically its adjacent
plate will be negative. And this is clearly shown in the figure given above.
• More specifically we can say that edges and cavities show180⁰ phase apart
relationship.
• As we have already discussed that here the electric and magnetic field are
perpendicular to each other. And the magnetic field is generated by using a
permanent magnet.

Working of Magnetron
The excitation to the cathode of the magnetron is provided by a dc supply
which causes the emergence of electrons from it.
Here in this section, we will discuss the working of magnetron under two
categories. First without applying the RF input to the anode and the second

one with the application of RF input.

1. When RF input is not present
Case I: When the magnetic field is 0 or absent
When the magnetic field is absent then the electron emerging from the cathode
radially moves towards the anode. This is shown in the figure 4.50:

This is so because the moving electron does not experience the effect of the
magnetic field and moves in a straight path.

Figure 4.50
Case II: When a small magnetic field is present
In case a small magnetic field exists inside the magnetron then the electron
emerging from the cathode will slightly deviate from its straight path. And this will
cause a curvy motion of the electron from cathode to anode as shown in the
figure 4.51: This motion of the electron is the result of the action of electric as
well as magnetic force over it.

Figure 4.51
Case III: In case when the magnetic field is further increased then electrons
emerging from the cathode gets highly deflected by the magnetic field. And
graze along the surface of the cathode, as shown in figure 4.52: This causes the
anode current to be 0. The value of the magnetic field that causes the anode
current to become 0 is known as the critical magnetic field.

Figure 4.52

If the magnetic field is increased beyond the critical magnetic field. Then the
electron will bounce back to the cathode itself without reaching the anode.

Figure 4.53

The reaching of the emitted electrons from the cathode back to it is known
as back heating. So to avoid this the electric supply provided to the cathode
must be cut-off after oscillations have been set up in the tube.
2. When the RF field is present
Case I: In case an active RF input is provided to the anode of the magnetron then
oscillations are set up in the interaction space of the magnetron. So, when an
electron is emitted from the cathode to anode then it transfers its energy in order to
oscillate. Such electrons are called favoured electrons. In this condition, the
electrons will have a low velocity and thus will take a considerably high amount of
time to reach from cathode to anode. This is given in the figure 4.54

Figure 4.54

Case II: Another condition arises in the presence of RF input. In this case, the
emitted electron from the cathode while travelling takes energy from the
oscillations thereby resultantly increasing its velocity.
So despite reaching the anode, the electrons will bounce back to the cathode
and these electrons are known as unfavoured electrons. The propagation of

unfavoured electrons is shown in figure 4.55.

Figure 4.55
Case III: When the RF input is further increased then the electron emitted while
travelling increases its velocity in order to catch up the electron emitted earlier
with comparatively lower velocity. So, all those electrons that do not take energy
from the oscillations for their movement are known as favoured electrons. And
these favoured electrons form electron bunch or electron cloud and reaches
anode from the cathode.
The formation of electron bunch inside the tube is known as phase focusing
effect.
Due to this, the orbit of the electron gets confined into spokes. These spokes
rotate according to some fractional value of electron emitted by the cathode until
it reaches anode while delivering their energy to oscillations.
However, the electrons released from the region of cathode between spokes, will
take the energy of the field and get back to the cathode very quickly. But this
energy is very small in comparison to the energy delivered to the oscillations. This
is shown in the figure 4.56.

Figure 4.56

The movement of these favoured electrons inside the tube enhances the field
existing between the gaps in the cavity. This leads to sustained oscillations
inside the magnetron thereby providing high power at the output.
Frequency Pushing and Pulling
The variation in the oscillating frequency of the magnetron give rise to the term
frequency pushing and pulling.
When the voltage applied at the anode of the magnetron is varied then this
causes the variation in the velocity of the electrons moving from cathode to
anode. This resultantly changes the frequency of oscillations.
Therefore, we can say when the resonant frequency of the magnetron shows
variation due to the change in the anode voltage then it is known as
frequency pushing.
The change in resonant frequency is sometimes a result of the change in the
load impedance of the magnetron. The load impedance varies when the change
is purely resistive or reactive. This frequency variation is known as frequency
pulling. A steady power supply can provide a reduction in this frequency
variation.
Maxwell's equations subject to the boundary conditions. The solution for the
fundamental cf > component of the electric field has the form

where £ 1 is a constant and f3o is given in Eq. Thus, the traveling field of the
fundamental mode travels around the structure with angular velocity

where~ can be found from Eq. When the cyclotron frequency of the electrons is
equal to the angular frequency of the field, the interactions between the field and
electron occurs and the energy is transferred. That is,

4.13.4.1 Advantages
 Magnetrons are a highly efficient device used for generation of the high power
microwave signal.
 The use of magnetrons in radar can produce radar system of better quality for
tracking purpose.
 It is usually small in size thus less bulky.

4.13.4.2 Disadvantages
 It is quite expensive.
 Despite producing a wide range of frequency, there exists a drawback in
controllability of the generated frequency.
 It offers average power of around 1 to 2 kilowatts.
 Magnetrons are quite noisy.

4.13.4.3 Applications of Magnetron

 A major application of magnetron is present in a pulsed radar system in order
to produce a high-power microwave signal.
 Magnetrons are also used in heating appliances likes microwave ovens so as
to produce fixed frequency oscillations.
 Tunable magnetrons find their applications in sweep oscillators.
 It is noteworthy here that this mode of operation of the magnetron is also
known as π mode. This is so because a proper phase shift of 180⁰ is
maintained between two adjacent plates. Also, it is to be noted that
oscillations are only built-up in π mode.
Part A Q & A
Q.No. Question with Answer K CO
level

1. Define – Scattering matrix K1 CO5

Scattering matrix is a square matrix which gives all the
combinations of the power relationships between the
various input and output ports of a microwave junction.

2. Specify the and frequency range and wavelength X K1 CO5

band.
The X- band frequency range : 8 – 12.5 GHz

The X-band wavelength : 3.7 – 2.4 cm

3. Why are s parameters used in microwaves? K2 CO5

The S- parameters are used in microwave because of the
following characteristics
 Increased stability at higher frequencies

 Mismatch loss is less

 Attenuation loss is less

4. State the properties of S parameter. K2 CO5

The properties of S parameter are

 It is always a square matrix of order ( n * n)

 It is a unitary matrix

 It is a symmetric matrix

 Under perfect matched conditions, the diagonal elements

of S parameter are zero.

5. Define – Q factor K2 CO5

It is the measure of ability of an element to store

energy and is equal to 2π times the average energy
stored to that of the energy dissipated per cycle.
Q.No. Question with Answer K CO
level
6. What are the basic types of directional couplers? K1 CO5

 Two hole directional coupler

 Four hole directional coupler
 Reverse coupling directional coupler

 Bethe hole directional coupler.

7. Define – Isolator K1 CO5

An isolator is a two port non-reciprocal device which
produces a minimum attenuation in the wave in one
direction and very high attenuation in the opposite
direction.

8. Name some uses of waveguide tees. K1 CO5

It is used to connect a branch or section of the waveguide

in series or parallel with the main waveguide transmission
line for providing means of splitting and also of combining
power in a waveguide system.
QQ.N .Noo
9. Why magic tee is referred. .as E-H tee? K2 CO5

Magic Tee is constructed by E-plane Tee and H plane Tee

perpendicular to each other.

Therefore magic tee is referred to as E-H tee.

10. What is meant by directivity of directional coupler? K1 CO5

The directivity of directional coupler is defined as the ratio
of forward power Pr to the back power Pb and expressed
in dB.

11. What are the basic parameters to measure the K2 CO5

performance of a directional coupler

The basic parameters to measure the performance of

directional coupler are
 Coupling coefficient
 Directivity
 Insertion loss
 Isolation.
Q.No Question with Answer K CO
level
12. What is H- plane Tee? K1 CO5

An H- plane Tee is a waveguide Tee in which the axis

of its side arm is parallel to the H- field of the main
arm.
13. Define a microwave junction K1 CO5

The point of interconnection of two or more

microwave devices is called microwave junction.

14. What is E-plane Tee? K1 CO5

An E- plane tee is a wave guide tee in which the axis of

its side arm is parallel to the H- field of the main arm.

15. Define- Non Reciprocal Devices K2 CO5

Non reciprocal devices are defined as devices having

different forward and reverse propagating

characteristics.

16. What is sum arm? K2 CO5

In a H- plane tee, if two input waves are fed into port1

and port2 of the collinear arm, the output wave at
port3 will be in phase and additive. Because of this, the
third phase is called as sum arm.

17. Write the applications of magic tee? K1 CO5

The applications of magic tee are

 For the measurement of impedance

 As a duplexer

 As a mixer

 As an isolator
Q.No. Question with Answer K level CO

18. List the applications of cavity resonator. K1 CO5

 Cavity resonators find applications as a wave

meter
 As an echo box for testing of a radar
transmitter

 As tuned circuits in UHF tubes

 In microwave oscillators like reflex klystron
and magnetrons

19. Define – Difference Arm K1 CO5

In E- plane Tee, the power out of port3 is

proportional to the difference between
instantaneous power entering from port1 and port

2. Therefore, this third port is called as difference

arm.

20. Write the applications of circulator. K1 CO5

A circulator can be used as a duplexer for a

radar antenna system. Two or three port circulators
can be used in tunnel diode or in parametric
amplifiers.

21. What is a circulator? K1 CO5

A circulator is a multiport junction in which

the wave can travel from one port to the next
immediate port in one direction only. They are
useful in parametric amplifiers, tunnel diode,
amplifiers and duplexer in radar.
Q.No. Question with Answer K level CO

22. State transferred electron effect. K2 CO5

When GaAs is biased above a threshold value of
the electric field, it exhibits a negative differential
mobility. The electrons in the lower energy band
will be transferred into the higher energy band.
This behavior is called transferred electron effect.

23. State Gunn Effect. K2 CO5

When the electric field is varied from zero to
threshold value, the carrier drift velocity is
increased from zero to maximum. When the
electric field is beyond the threshold value of
3000V/cm, the drift velocity is decreased and the
diode exhibits negative resistance.

24. What are the materials that exhibit Gunn K2 CO5

Effect?
The materials exhibiting Gunn Effect are, i.
Gallium arsenide
ii. Indium phosphide iii. Cadmium telluride iv.
Indium arsenide
25. What are the modes available in negative K2 CO5
resistance devices?
The modes available in negative resistance devices
are, i. Voltage controlled mode
ii. Current controlled mode

26. What are the major disadvantages of K2 CO5

IMPATT diodes?
The major disadvantages of IMPATT diodes are,
i. Avalanche process makes the IMPATT diode
noisy ii. Poor noise figure of 30dB
iii. Low efficiency due to induced electron current

27. State any four limitations of K2 CO5

conventional tubes at high frequencies.
The limitations of conventional tubes at high
frequencies are,
i. Lead inductance effects
ii. Interelectrode capacitance effects
iii. Transmit angle effects
iv. Gain bandwidth product limitation
Q.No. Question with Answer K level CO

28. What are the high frequency effects in K2 CO5

conventional tubes?
The high frequency effects in conventional tubes
are i) Circuit reactance
a)Inter electrode capacitance b) Lead inductance
ii) Transit time effect iii) Cathode emission
iv) Plate heat dissipation area
v) Power loss due to skin effect, radiation and
dielectric loss.
29. What are the assumptions for calculation of K2 CO5
RF power in Reflex Klystron? i) Cavity grids
and repeller are plane parallel and very large in
extent. ii) No RF field is excited in repeller space
iii) Electrons are not intercepted by the cavity
anode grid
iv) No debunching takes place in repeller space.
v)The cavity RF gap voltage amplitude V, is small
compared to the dc beam voltage VO
30. Give the drawbacks of klystron amplifiers. K2 CO5
i)As the oscillator frequency changes then
resonator frequency also changes and the
feedback path phase shift must be readjusted for a
positive feedback.
ii)The multicavity klystron amplifiers suffer from
the noise caused because bunching is never
complete and electrons arrive at random at catcher
cavity. Hence it is not used in receivers.
31. What is the effect of transit time? K2 CO5
There are two effects.
i)At low frequencies, the grid and anode signals
are no longer 180O out of phase, thus
causing design problems with feedback in
oscillators.
ii)The grid begins to take power from the driving
source and the power is absorbed even when the
grid is negatively biased.
32. What are the applications of reflex klystron ? K2 CO5
i) Signal source in MW generator ii) Local
oscillators in receivers
iii)It is used in FM oscillator in low power MW links.
iv)In parametric amplifier as pump source.
Q.No. Question with Answer K level CO

33. What is the purpose of slow wave structures K2 CO5

used in TWT amplifiers?
Slow wave structures are special circuits that are
used in microwave tubes to reduce wave velocity in
a certain direction so that the electron beam and
the signal wave can interact. In TWT, since the
beam can be accelerated only to velocities that are
about a fraction of the velocity of light, slow wave
structures are used.

34. How are spurious oscillations generated in K2 CO5

TWT amplifier? State the method to suppress
it.
i)In a TWT, adjacent turns of the helix are so
close to each other and hence
ii)oscillations are likely to occur. To prevent these
spurious signals some form of iii)attenuator is
placed near the input end of the tube which absorb
the oscillations.
35. State the applications of TWT. K2 CO5
i)Low power, low noise TWT’s used in radar and
microwave receivers
ii)Laboratory instruments iii)Drivers for more
powerful tubes
iv)Medium and high power CWTWT’S are used for
communication and radar.
36. What are M-type tubes? K2 CO5
M type tubes are crossed field devices where the
static magnetic field is perpendicular to the electric
field. Here the electrons travel in curved path.

37. What is hull cutoff condition? K2 CO5

In a magnetron, the electron will just graze the
anode and return towards the cathode depends on
Vo and Bo . The hull cut of magnetic equation is
Boc = (8Vo m / e) ½

b(1- a 2 / b2)
Part B Q.S

Q.No Question with Answer K CO

. level
1. Derive the S-Matrix of Directional Coupler. K2 CO5
2. Draw the E-Plane Tee and derive the scattering matrix K2 CO5
of E-Plane Tee.
3. With neat diagram explain H-plane tee and derive its S- K2 CO5
matrix.
4. Explain the property of magic tee with its S-Matrix K2 CO5
5. Discuss about the different power dividers. K2 CO5
6. What is attenuator? Explain the different type of K2 CO5
attenuators.
7. Explain in detail about cavity resonator K2 CO5
8. Discuss the structure and principle of operation of K2 CO5
a)Isolator, b)Circulator
9. With neat diagram, explain the working principle of K2 CO5
Gunn diode. Mention its applications. With the help of
two valley, explain how negative resistance can be
created in Gunn diode. Explain the modes of Gunn
diode oscillator
10. Draw the construction and explain the working of K2 CO5
IMPATT diode
11. Explain the operation of two cavity klystron amplifier K2 CO5
and compare it with travelling wave tube
12. A two cavity klystron has the following parameters. K3 CO5
V0=1000v, R0=40kΩ, I0=25mA, f=3 GHz, d=1mm,
L=4cm, Rth=30kΩ Calculate input gap voltage, voltage
gain and efficiency
13. A 250kW pulsed cylindrical magnetron has the following K3 CO5
parameters, Vo=25kV, Io=25A, B=0.35Wb/m², a=4cm
and b=8cm. Calculate efficiency of magnetron,
cyclotron frequency cutoff magnetic field.
14. How can you analyze a TWTA circuit that uses a helix K2 CO5
slow wave non resonant microwave guiding structure?
How does TWT differs from klystron.
15. Explain the oscillation mechanism and the electron K2 CO5
trajectory concept of magnetron oscillator.
16. Explain the mechanism of oscillation of a reflex klystron. K2 CO5
Derive the power output and efficiency of reflex
klystron