INSTITUTE OF ADULT EDUCATION

DIPLOMA IN ADULT AND CONTINUING EDUCATION

Introduction to Educational Research

Introduction to this Module

This module is prepared as learning guide and reference notes for the Institute of
Adult Education (IAE) Diploma students who learn through open and distance. It is
prepared in such a way that it will be complemented by face-to-face teaching and
learning sessions for clarifications and the use of other reference materials.

This study material is meant for First Year Diploma students. The purpose of the
module is to help the earner to develop ability to assume research responsibilities
and activities under supervision at their work places in the context of education.

Introduction
Dear learner, welcome to this module. In this module you will be oriented in
educational research. The module consists of four units. In Unit One, you will learn
the concepts related to research. In Unit Two, you will learn the meaning, qualities
and components of research proposal. In Unit Three, you will learn how to obtain
sample for your study. In addition, in Unit four you will learn how to analyze and
interpret data. Each unit has interesting activities. Make sure you spare enough time
for each unit covered. I hope you will enjoy it.
Welcome.
 UNIT 1

1. CONCEPTUALIZING RESEARCH

Learning outcomes

After completing this unit, you will be able to:

1. Explain the meaning of research
2. State the objectives of undertaking research
3. Analyze types of research

1.1 Meaning of research

The term research means to look for, investigate or explore.

Research is defined as the process of arriving at solutions to problems through the

planned systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data.

Also research is a “Systematized effort to gain new knowledge”. Some people

consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown.

Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or

suggested solutions collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making deductions
and reaching conclusions; to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.

The keywords in these definitions include process, systematic, collection, analysis,

and interpretation. Research can therefore be defined as systematic process of
collecting, examining and interpretation of data

Scientific Method

Research is a scientific work because it involves scientific methods. The scientific

method is a systematic step by step procedure following the logical processes of
reasoning. Scientific method is based on:

i. Reliance on empirical evidence – truth is established on the basis of

evidence. Conclusion is only accepted when it is based on evidence

ii. Commitment to Objectivity – forming judgement upon facts unbiased by

personal impression. The conclusion should not a\vary from person to person.
 iii. Ethical neutrality – science does not pass normative judgement on facts.
Science aims at making truth and adequate statement about its objects.

iv. Generalization – scientists are not concerned with isolating events rather
commonality of series of events.

v. Verifiability - the conclusions arrived at by scientist should be verifiable. He

must make known to others the methods and how he arrived to conclusions.
When others test the conclusion under the same condition, then it is accepted
as correct.

vi. Logical reasoning – the scientific method involves logical process of

reasoning. Reasoning process is used for drawing inference from the finding
of the study or from arriving from conclusion. The logical reasoning process
consists of induction and deduction.

 Induction - the inductive method consists of studying several individual

cases and drawing a generalization. Conclusions from induction are
tentative inferences and they are subject to further confirmation based on
more evidences.

 Deductive – Deduction is a reasoning process of applying general

principle to a specific individual case. It is regarded as reasoning from the
general to the particular.

Characteristics of Research

The above definitions reveal various characteristics of research, which includes:

i. Research is a systematic and critical investigation into a phenomenon

ii. Research investigation aims at describing, interpreting and explaining

phenomenon

iii. It adopts scientific methods

iv. It is objective and logical

v. It is based on empirical evidence

 vi. Research is directed towards finding answers to questions and solutions to
questions

vii. It is based on developing principles or theories that guide different decisions

1.2 Importance of research in adult education

i. Research extends knowledge of human being, social life and environment

ii. Research brings to light hidden information that might never be discovered
fully during the normal life.

iii. Research establishes generalization and general laws and contributes to

building different theories in various fields of knowledge

iv. Verifies and tests existing theories and facts

v. Helps to analyze interrelationships between variable and derive causal

explanation that enable us to understand well the world we live

vi. Aims at developing new tools, concepts and theories that enable us to study
the unknown phenomenon

vii. Research aids planning and thus contributes to national development.

1.3 Types of research

It is very important that for you as an educator has to have a broad understanding of
the various types of research. The main purposes of social research are to explore,
describe and explain. On this basis we may illustrate three types of research as
follows:
 Table 1 illustration of types of research

Research
Explanatory
Exploratory
Descriptive

Attempts to gain better Explains causes of a

Answer questions of
problem
Who, what, when, how Understanding of different
dimension of a problem

The other type are (a) Pure and Applied (b) Experimental and evaluation (c)
qualitative and Quantitative

i. Exploratory research: This research studies the subject about which either no
information or little information is available. Generally, this type of research is
qualitative which becomes useful in formulating hypothesis or testing hypotheses
or theories.

ii. Descriptive research tries to discover answers to the questions who, what,
when and sometimes how. Here the researcher attempts to describe or define a
subject, often by creating a profile of a group of problems, people, or events. The
major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it
exists at present

iii. Explanatory research: Explanatory research goes beyond description and

attempts to explain the reasons for the phenomenon that the descriptive research
only observed. The research would use theories or at least hypothesis to account
for the forces that caused a certain phenomenon to occur.

iv. Applied research, also known as decisional research, use existing knowledge
as an aid to the solution of some given problem or set of problems.
v. Fundamental research frequently called basic or pure research, seeks to
extend the boundaries of knowledge in a given area with no necessary immediate
application to existing problems.

vi. Predictive research: If we can provide a plausible explanation for an event after
it has occurred, it is desirable to be able to predict when and in what situations
the event will occur. This research is just as rooted in theory as explanation. This
research calls for a high order of inference making. In business research,
prediction is found in studies conducted to evaluate specific courses of action or
to forecast current and future values.

Concept

A concept is an idea that is expressed in words. A concept is a word or set of

words that expresses a general idea concerning the nature of something or the
relationship of things, often providing categories for the classification of
phenomena. Concept provides a means of ordering the vast of diversity of
empirical phenomena. Concepts are explained though definition.

Concepts can come from four sources

i. Theoretical perspective of a discipline on board;

ii. A specific research problem;

iii. Commonly used theoretical concepts that are given new definition; and

iv. Everyday concepts that are given precise meaning

Variables
A variable is defined as the factor or a characteristic of interest that a researcher
would like to handle, observe or manipulate in research. This could be sex, age,
intelligence or academic performance. It is, therefore, a component of a problem.

In research, there are different types of variables. In this module, we will discuss
three main types of variables namely: independent variable, dependent variable and
extraneous variable.

Independent and dependent variable

An independent variable is the presumed cause of the dependent variable. When we
say A causes B, it means A is an independent variable and B is dependent variable.
 The independent variable is that which accounts for variation in the dependent
variable. For example, the method of teaching affects student’s academic
performance. Here teaching method is an independent variable and academic
performance in a dependent variable.

Extraneous variable is a one comes between independent and dependent

variables. An extraneous variable is that whose effect is not needed in the study. A
dependent variable (also called Y variable in statistics) is one, which changes in
relation to another variable (variable X in statistics).

Ethics in educational research

In research, there are pattern of behavior expected from people involved in

research. These include the principal researcher, research assistants,
respondents and organization from which information is drawn.

The respondent’s ethics

Once the respondent agrees to participate in a research he/she is bound to

observe ethical issues, which include being honest and truthful providing
accurate answers. On the other side respondent has the right to privacy, safety,
know the purpose of the research, to decide questions to answer, withdraw at
any time and get results of the research

Researcher ethics

Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of research. In

addition, it educates and monitors scientists conducting research to ensure a high
ethical standard. The following is a general summary of some ethical principles:

i. Honesty:
Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status.
Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data.

ii. Objectivity:
Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation,
peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other
aspects of research.

iii. Integrity:
Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of
thought and action.
 iv. Carefulness:
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own
work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities.

v. Openness:
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
vi. Respect for Intellectual Property:
Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use
unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit where
credit is due. Never plagiarize.

vii. Confidentiality:
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for
publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
viii. Responsible Mentoring:
Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow
them to make their own decisions.

ix. Respect for Colleagues:

Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.

x. Social Responsibility:
Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through
research, public education, and advocacy.

xi. Non-Discrimination:
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race,
ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and
integrity.

xii. Competence:
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through
lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as
a whole.

xiii. Legality:
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.

xiv. Animal Care:

Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not
conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
xv. Human Subjects Protection:
When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and
maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy.

Unit Reflection
Congratulations for completing this unit. Do you think the unit satisfied your
expectations? What are the challenges did you met during the learning process?
How did you address those challenges? Sort all difficult areas and share them
with your colleague.

Unit Assignment

1. What is the difference between a research question and a research

hypothesis?

2. What are the benefits of knowing about the previous research in a particular
field of interest?

3. What is the focus of interest for us when conducting quantitative research?

4. Explain research variables

 UNIT 2

THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Learning outcomes

After completing this unit, you are expected to be able to:

1. Explain the meaning of research proposal

2. Explain qualities of research proposal
3. Describe components of research proposal
Meaning, qualities and components
2.1 Meaning of research proposal
A research proposal is a document written by a researcher that provides a
detailed description of the proposed program. It includes three chapters; the
first chapter covers an introduction of the study which consists of the
background to the study, statement of the problem, objectives, research
questions/hypotheses and scope of the study; chapter two is the review of the
related literature while the third chapter deals with research methodology.
Reference and appendices are included after the third chapter. It is important
to note that the research proposal should not be too long rather has pages
between ten and fifteen.

The research proposal can serve many useful functions.

 it helps you to think out the research project you are about to undertake and
predict any difficulties that might arise.
 For those who aren't quite sure what their focus will be, the research proposal
can be a space to explore options
 A research proposal helps you to remain on track
 Convince the reader that your project is interesting, original and important
 Show that you are familiar with the field, you understand the current state of
research on the topic, and your ideas have a strong academic basis
 Make a case for your methodology, showing that you have carefully thought
about the data, tools and procedures you will need to conduct the research
 It provides a guide or plan of general strategies to be undertaken
 2.2 Format of research proposal
a. Introduction of the study
b. Background to the study,
c. Statement of the problem,
d. Objectives,
e. Research questions/hypotheses
f. Scope of the study
g. Review of the related literature
h. Research methodology

i. Introduction
The first section of the proposal is referred to as Introduction. This unit is
named as an introduction as it is regarded as the opening of the study. It
attempts to establish a problem that exists and there is a need to conduct a
study. It also justifies the study since it shows different studies that have been
conducted in the same issue.

ii. Background of the study

In research the term background refers to the setting of the study. It is an
overview of the problem, which the researcher aspires to study. Background
information plays an important role because it helps to clarify the need for the
study, points out challenges in identifying issue to be studied. It also provide
description the views of the researcher on the subject matter to be studied
and convinces the reader that the researcher knows the study area.
iii. Statement of the Problem:
The statement of the problem indicates where the problem is. It is a motivator
for carrying out the study. It attempts to focus on the study by providing
direction to the study. It is a declarative statement. Statement of the problem
makes the study more specific by giving it a limit. When stating it, make sure it
is short, clear, concise and brief.
iv. Research objectives:

Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study. They inform a reader
what you want to attain through the study. It is extremely important to word them
clearly and specifically.
The main objective of the study is an overall statement of the thrust of your study. It
is also a statement of the main associations and relationships that you seek to
discover or establish.

The specific objectives are the specific aspects of the topic that you want to
investigate within the main framework of your study. The objectives should be
numerically listed. Wording should be clearly, completely and specifically
communicate to your readers your intention. Each objective should contain only one
aspect of the Study. Use action oriented words or verbs when writing objectives. The
objectives should start with words such as ‘to determine’, ‘to find out’ ‘to ascertain’,
‘to measure’, ‘to explore’ etc.

Importance of stating research objective

Formulating a research objectives help the research to

- Focus the study to the expected results

- Avoid collecting data are not relevant to the problem

- To organize the study in defined parts ie well formulated objectives assist the
researcher in data collection, analysis, interpretation and utilization

Qualities of effective objectives

i. They are focused and specific

ii. They are measurable

iii. They are operational

iv. They are realistic

v. They can be attained in time set

v. Research hypotheses

Hypothesis is a tentative prediction of the results. It is

a statement of expected results. In other words, hypotheses are statement of

assumption, which a researcher thinks, could be the cause to a particular problem.
They are predictive statements that show the relationship between two
factors/variables under study. Example multiple roles of women hinder them from
pursuing higher learning education
Criteria for hypotheses construction

- It should be empirically testable, whether is right or wrong

- It should be specific and precise

- The statement on the hypothesis should not be contradictory

- It should specify variables which the relationship are to be established

There are two ways of stating hypothesis namely null hypothesis and alternative
hypothesis

Null hypothesis is one stated in negation that is, indicates ‘no’ relationship between
variables. For example there is no difference between boarding and day schools in
performance

Alternative hypothesis on the other hand indicates there is relationship i.e. ‘there is
difference in academic performance in science subject between boarding and days
schools’

Research Questions

Research questions are refined statements of the specific component of the

problem. It refers to a statement that ascertains the phenomenon to be studied. The
research questions should be raised in an unambiguous manner and hence, would
help the researcher in becoming resourceful in identifying the components of the
problem. While developing research questions you need to ask yourself the following
questions:

a) Do I know the area of investigation?

b) What are the research questions pertinent to the area of investigation?

c) What are the areas that are not explored by the previous researchers?

d) Would my study lead to greater understanding on the area of study?

e) Are enough number of literatures available in this topic area?

f) Is my study a new one thus contributing to the society or has it been done before?
 Significance of the study

This section outlines the importance of the issue at hand.

Limitation of the study

This section indicates challenges anticipated by the researcher. This may include
challenges related to time, financial limitations, data inaccessibility and the like.
However, the researcher should show how the challenges will be overcome.

Literature Review
Most authors prefer a separate section, which allows a more thorough review
of the literature. Literature review serves several important functions:
i. Ensures that you are not "reinventing the wheel“
ii. Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for your
research
iii. Demonstrates your knowledge of the research problem
iv. Demonstrates your understanding of the theoretical and research
issues related to your research question
v. Shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature
information
vi. Indicates your ability to integrate and synthesize the existing
literature
vii. Provides new theoretical insights or develops a new model as the
conceptual framework for your research
viii. Convinces your reader that your proposed research will make a
significant and substantial contribution to the literature (i.e.,
resolving an important theoretical issue or filling a major gap in the
literature).

Unit Summary

In this unit you have an overview on the concept of research proposal. You learned
how to justify the existence of research problem, which in turn calls for research
study.
The unit took you through the parts of research proposal, which are Introduction of
the study, background to the study, statement of the problem, objectives, research
questions/hypotheses, scope of the study and review of the related literature
Unit assignment

 Explain the meaning of research proposal

 Explain qualities of research proposal
 Describe components of research proposal
 UNIT 3

SAMPLE, SAMPLING AND DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES

Learning outcomes

After completing this unit you are expected to be able to:

 Explain the concept sampling
 Identify data collection techniques
 Explain advantages and disadvantages of each data collection techniques

Meaning of sampling

Research does not exist without sampling. Every research study requires the
selection of some kind of sample. It is the lifeblood of research. Any research study
aims to obtain information about the characteristics or parameters of a population. A
population is the aggregate of all the elements that share some common set of
characteristics and that comprise the universe for the purpose of the research
problem. In other words, population is defined as the totality of all cases that conform
to some designated specifications. The specification helps the researcher to define
the elements that ought to be included and to be excluded. Sometimes, groups that
are of, interest to the researcher may be significantly smaller allowing the researcher
to collect data from all the elements of population.

Collection of data from the entire population is referred to as census study. A census
involves a complete enumeration of the elements of a population. Collecting data
from the aggregate of all the elements (population) in case of, the number of
elements being larger would sometimes render the researcher incur huge costs and
time.

An alternative way would be to collect information from a portion of the population,

by taking a sample of elements from the population and the on the basis of
information collected from the sample elements, the characteristics of the population
is inferred. Hence, Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g., people,
organizations) from a population of interest so that by studying the sample we may
fairly generalize our results back to the population from which they were chosen.

2.2 Aims of sampling:

Well selected sample reflects accurately the characteristics of the population. The
main aim of is to make an inference about unknown parameter from a measurable
statistics. A specified value like mean of the population is called parameter and that
corresponding value in the sample is called sample statistic.
A second aim is to test a statistical hypothesis relating to population. The data
collected from the sample is analyzed and on the bases of the result the hypothesis
may be accepted or rejected.

Census vs. sampling

In designing the process of a field study the research must decide whether he/she
should cover

all the units or a sample of units. When all units are studied, such a complete
coverage is called a census survey. When only a sample of the universe is studied,
the study is called a sample survey.

Factors to consider before deciding whether to use census or sampling

i. The size of the population: if the size of the population to be studied is small
eg 50 to 200 investigators may decide to study the entire population. If the
population to be studied is large, sampling is necessary. The size of
population is a relative matter. Whether the population is large is small
depends the nature of the study, its purpose, time and resources available.

ii. Funds budgeted for the study: sampling is opted when amount of money is
smaller compared to the anticipated cost of census survey.

iii. Facilities: when the availability of facilities is extensive, census survey may be
manageable otherwise sampling is suitable. (facilities are like computer, staff,
accessibility of population elements etc)

iv. Time: the time limit within which the study should be completed is another
factor to consider.

2.3 Characteristics of Good Sample

The following are qualities of a good sample

i. Representativeness: a sample must be representative of the population. It

should portray all characteristics of the population. Probability sampling
may yield a representative sample.

ii. Accuracy: is the degree to which bias is absent from the sample. An
accurate sample is a one which represents the population.
 iii. Precise: sample must yield precise estimate. The smaller the standard
error or estimate the higher the precision of the sample.

iv. Size: a good sample must be adequate in size in order to be reliable.

Advantages of sampling

i. Reduces the time and the cost of research studies

ii. Saves labour

iii. Better quality research work

iv. Sampling provides quicker than does the census

2.4 Sampling Techniques

Sampling techniques are classified into two broad categories namely probability and
non-probability sampling.

The difference between them is this: in a probability sample the chances of members
of the wider population being selected for the sample are known, whereas in a non
probability sample the chances of members of the wider population being selected
for the sample are unknown. In the former (probability sample) every member of the
wider population has an equal chance of being included in the sample; inclusion or
exclusion from the sample is a matter of chance and nothing else. In the latter (non
probability sample) some members of the wider population definitely will be excluded
and others definitely included (i.e. every member of the wider population does not
have an equal chance of being included in the sample).

2.5 Probability Sampling Techniques

Probability samples are characterized by the fact that, the sampling units are
selected by chance.

In such case, each member of the population has a known, non-zero probability of
being selected.

However, it may not be true that all sample would have the same probability of
selection, but it is possible to say the probability of selecting any particular sample of
a given size. It is possible that one can calculate the probability that any given
population element would

be included in the sample. This requires a precise definition of the target population
as well as the sampling frame. Probability sampling techniques are further classified
as:

 simple random sampling,

 systematic sampling, and

 Stratified sampling.

Simple Random Sampling

This is the most important and widely used probability sampling technique. Simple
random sampling allows each element in the population to have a known and equal
probability of selection. This means that every element is selected independently of
every other element. This method resembles lottery method where a in a system
names are placed in a box, the box is shuffled, and the names of the winners are
then drawn out in an unbiased manner.

The most important feature of simple random sampling is that it facilitates

representation of the population.

Systematic Sampling

This is also another widely used type of sampling technique. This is used because of
its ease and convenience. As in the case of simple random sampling, it is conducted
choosing a random starting point and then picking every element in succession from
the sampling frame. The sample interval, i, is determined by dividing the population
size N by the sample size n and rounding to the nearest integer.

Consider a situation where the researcher intends to choose 10 elements from a

population of 100. In order to choose these 10 elements, number the elements from
one to 100. Within population elements and a sample of size 10, the number is
10/100 = 1/10, meaning that one element in 10 will be selected. The sample interval
will, therefore, be 10. This means that after a random start from any point in the
random table, the researcher has to choose every 10 th element.
Systematic sampling is almost similar to simple random sampling in that each
population element has a known and equal probability of selection. However, the
difference lies in that simple random sampling allows only the permissible samples of
size n drawn have a known and equal probability of selection. The remaining
samples of size n have a zero probability of being selected.

Stratified sampling

Stratified sampling is a two-way process. It is distinguished from the simple random

sampling and systematic sampling, in that:

a) It requires division of the parent population into mutually exclusively and

exhaustive subsets;

b) A simple random sample of elements is chosen independently from each group or

subset.

Therefore, it characterizes that, every population element should be assigned to one

and only subgroup called stratum and no population elements should be omitted.
Next, elements are selected from each stratum by simple random sampling
technique. Strata are created by a divider called the stratification variable. This
variable divides the population into strata based on homogeneity, heterogeneity or
relatedness. Sometimes, more than one variable is used for stratification purpose.
This type of sampling is done in order to get homogenous elements within each
strata and, the elements between each strata should have a higher degree of
heterogeneity. The number of strata to be formed for the research is left to the
discretion of the researcher, though, researchers agree that the optimum number of
strata may be 6. The reasons for using stratified sampling are as follows:

i. It ensures representation of all important sub-populations in the sample;

ii. The cost per observation in the survey may be reduced;

iii. It combines the use of simple random sampling with potential gains in precision;

iv. Estimates of the population parameters may be wanted for each sub-population
and;

v. Increased accuracy at given cost.

 2.6 Non-probability Sampling techniques

Non-probability sampling does not involve random selection. It involves personal

judgement of the researcher rather than chance to select sample elements. Non
probability sampling does

not include elements selected probabilistically and hence, leaves an degree of

„sampling error‟ associated with the sample.

Sampling error is the degree to which a sample might differ from the population.

Non-probability samples also yield good estimates of the population characteristics.

Since, inclusion of the elements in the sample is not determined in a probabilistic
way, the estimates obtained are not statistically projectable to the population. The
most commonly used non-probability sampling methods are:

 convenience sampling,

 judgment sampling,

 quota sampling, and

 Snowball sampling.

Convenience Sampling

Convenience samples are sometimes called accidental samples because the

elements included in the sample enter by „accident‟. It is a sampling technique
where samples are obtained from convenient elements. This refers to happening of
the element at the right place at the right time, that is, where and when the
information for the study is being collected. The selection of the respondents is left to
the discretion of the interviewer. The popular examples of convenience sampling
include (a) respondents who gather in a church (b) students in a class room (c) mall
intercept interviews without qualifying the respondents for the study and (e) people
on the street.

Convenience sampling is the least expensive and least time consuming of all
sampling techniques. The disadvantage with convenience sampling is that the
researcher would have no way of knowing if the sample chosen is representative of
the target population.
Judgement Sampling

This is a form of convenience sampling otherwise called as purposive sampling

because the sample elements are chosen since it is expected that they can serve
the research purpose. The sample elements are chosen based on the judgement
that prevails in the researcher’s mind about the prospective individual. The
researcher may use his wisdom to conclude that a particular individual may be a
representative of the population in which one is interested.

The distinguishing feature of judgment sampling is that the population elements are
purposively selected. Again, the selection is not based on that they are
representative, but rather because they can offer the contributions sought. In
judgement sampling, the researcher may be well aware of the characteristics of the
prospective respondents, in order that, he includes the individual in the sample. It
may be possible that the researcher has ideas and insights about the respondent’s
requisite experience and knowledge to offer some perspective on the research
question.

Quota Sampling

Quota sampling is another non-probability sampling. It attempts to ensure that the

sample chosen by the researcher is a representative by selecting elements in such a
way that the proportion of the sample elements possessing a certain characteristic is
approximately the same as the proportion of the elements with the characteristic in
the population.

Quota sampling is viewed as two-staged restricted judgmental sampling technique.

The first stage consists of developing control categories, or quotas, of population
elements. Control characteristics involve age, sex, and race identified on the basis of
judgement. Then the distribution of these characteristics in the target population is
determined. For example, the researcher may use control categories in that, he/she
intends to study 40% of men and 60% of women in a population. Sex is the control
group and the percentages fixed are the quotas.

In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on convenience or

judgement. Once the quotas have been determined, there is considerable freedom
to select the elements to be included in the sample. For example, the researcher
may not choose more than 40% of men and 60% of women in the study. Even if the
researcher comes across qualified men after reaching the 40% mark, he/she would
still restrict entry of men into the sample and keep searching for women till the quota
is fulfilled.

Snowball Sampling

This is another popular non-probability technique widely used, especially in

academic research.

In this technique, an initial group of respondents is selected, usually at random. After

being interviewed, these respondents are asked to identify others who belong to the
target population of interest. Subsequent respondents are selected based on the
information provided by the selected group members. The group members may
provide information based on their understanding about the qualification of the other
prospective respondents. This method involves probability and non-probability
methods. The initial respondents are chosen by a random method and the
subsequent respondents are chosen by non-probability methods.

DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES

Dear learner, the next step in the research process after identifying the type of
research the researcher intends to do is the deciding on the selection of the data
collection techniques. The data collection technique is different for different types of
research design. There are predominantly two types of data: (i) the primary data and
(ii) the secondary data.

2.7 Secondary data

Secondary data are the data that are in actual existence in accessible records,
having been already collected and treated statistically by the persons maintaining the
records. In other words, secondary data are the data that have been already
collected, presented tabulated, treated with necessary statistical techniques and
conclusions have been drawn.

Secondary data are easily obtainable from reliable records, books, government
publications and journals. When once primary data have been originally collected,
molded by statisticians or statistical machinery, then it becomes secondary in the
hands of all other persons who may be desirous of handling it for their own purpose
or studies. Primary data can be described as those items that are original to the
problem under study.
 2.8 Sources of secondary data
The following are some of the sources of secondary data:

a. Government publications.

b. Publications brought out by international organization like the UNO, UNESCO,

etc.

c. Foreign government publications.

d. Official publications as well as reports of municipalities, district etc.

e. Reports and publications of commissions - like education commission,

educational institutions tariff commission, chambers of commerce, co-operative
societies, banks, stock exchanges, etc.

f. Well-know newspapers and journals like the Economic Times, The Financial
Express,

g. Publications brought out by research institutions, universities as well as those

published by research workers give considerable secondary data.

h. Through the Internet/website sources.

2.9 Data collection Methods

The term method of data collection simply refers to how the researcher obtains the
empirical data to be used to answer his or her research questions. Once data are
collected they are analyzed and interpreted and turned into information and results
or findings. All empirical research relies on one or more method of data collection.

There are several methods of data collection. This section will highlight to you the
following methods Questionnaires, Interviews, Focus groups and Observation.

a. Questionnaires

A questionnaire is a self-report data collection instrument that is filled out by

research participants. Questionnaires are usually paper-and-pencil instruments, but
they can also be placed on the web for participants to go to and “fill out
Principles of Questionnaire Construction

i. Make sure the questionnaire items match your research objectives.

ii. Understand your research participants.
iii. Use natural and familiar language.
iv. Write items that are clear, precise, and relatively short.
v. Do not use "leading" or "loaded" questions. Leading questions lead the
participant to where you want him or her to be. Loaded questions include
loaded words (i.e., words that create an emotional reaction or response by
your participants).
vi. Avoid double-barreled questions. A double-barreled question combines two
or more issues in a single question
vii. Avoid double negatives. For example "I disagree that teachers should not be
required to supervise their students during library time"
viii. Determine whether an open-ended or a closed ended question is needed.

• Open-ended questions provide qualitative data in the participants' own words.

Here is an open ended question: How can your principal improve the morale
at your school?

• Closed-ended questions provide quantitative data based on the researcher's

response categories. Here is an example of a closed-ended question:

ix. Develop a questionnaire that is easy for the participant to use. The participant
must not get confused or lost anywhere in the questionnaire.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Questionnaires

Strengths of questionnaires

• Inexpensive (especially mail questionnaires and group administered

questionnaires).

• Can provide information about participants’ internal meanings and ways of

thinking.

• Can administer to probability samples.

• Quick turnaround.

• Can be administered to groups.

 • Moderately high measurement validity (i.e., high reliability and validity) for well
constructed and validated questionnaires.

• Closed-ended items can provide exact information needed by researcher.

• Open-ended items can provide detailed information in respondents’ own words.

• Ease of data analysis for closed-ended items.

• Useful for exploration as well as confirmation.

Weaknesses of questionnaires

• Reactive effects may occur (e.g., interviewees may try to show only what is
socially desirable).

• People filling out questionnaires may not recall important information and may
lack self-awareness.

• Response rate may be low for mail and email questionnaires.

• Open-ended items may reflect differences in verbal ability, obscuring the issues
of interest.

• Data analysis can be time consuming for open-ended items.

b. Interviews

In an interview, the interviewer asks the interviewee questions (in-person or over the
telephone).

• Trust and rapport are important.

• Probing is available (unlike in paper-and-pencil questionnaires) and is used to

reach clarity or gain additional information

• Here are some examples of standard probes:

- Anything else?

- Any other reason?

- What do you mean?

Strengths and Weaknesses of Interviews

Strengths of interviews

• Good for measuring attitudes and most other content of interest.

• Allows probing and posing of follow-up questions by the interviewer.

• Can provide in-depth information.

• Can provide information about participants’ internal meanings and ways of

thinking.

• Relatively high response rates are often attainable.

• Useful for exploration as well as confirmation.

Weaknesses of interviews

• In-person interviews usually are expensive and time consuming.

• Reactive effects (e.g., interviewees may try to show only what is socially
desirable).

• Investigator effects may occur (e.g., untrained interviewers may distort data
because of personal biases and poor interviewing skills).

• Interviewees may not recall important information and may lack self-awareness.

• Perceived anonymity by respondents may be low.

• Data analysis can be time consuming for open-ended items.

c. Focus Groups

A focus group is a situation where a focus group moderator keeps a small and
homogeneous group (of 6-12 people) focused on the discussion of a research topic
or issue. Focus group sessions generally last between one and three hours and
they are recorded using audio and/or videotapes. Focus groups are useful for
exploring ideas and obtaining in-depth information about how people think about an
issue.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Focus Groups

Strengths of focus groups

• Useful for exploring ideas and concepts.

• Provides window into participants’ internal thinking.

• Can obtain in-depth information.

• Can examine how participants react to each other.

• Allows probing.

• Most content can be tapped.

Weaknesses of focus groups

• Sometimes expensive.

• May be difficult to find a focus group moderator with good facilitative and rapport
building skills.

• Reactive and investigator effects may occur if participants feel they are being
watched or studied.

• May be dominated by one or two participants.

• Difficult to generalize results if small, unrepresentative samples of participants

are used.

• May include large amount of extra or unnecessary information.

• Measurement validity may be low.

• Usually should not be the only data collection methods used in a study.

• Data analysis can be time consuming because of the open-ended nature of the
data.
d. Observation

In the method of data collection called observation, the researcher observes

participants in natural and/or structured environments. It is important to collect
observational data because what people say is not always what they do!

The observer may take on four different roles that make up a continuum:

• Complete participant (i.e., becoming a full member of the group and not
informing the participants that you are studying them).

• Participant-as-Observer (i.e., spending extensive time "inside" and informing

the participants that you are studying them).

• Observer-as-Participant (i.e., spending a limited amount of time "inside" and

informing them that you are studying them).

• Complete Observer (i.e., observing from the "outside" and not informing that
participants that you are studying them).

Strengths and Weaknesses of Observational Data

Strengths of observational data

• Allows one to directly see what people do without having to rely on what they
say they do.

• Provides firsthand experience, especially if the observer participates in

activities.

• Can provide relatively objective measurement of behavior (especially for

standardized observations).

• Observer may see things that escape the awareness of people in the setting.

• Excellent way to discover what is occurring in a setting.

• Helps in understanding importance of contextual factors.

• Can be used with participants with weak verbal skills.

• May provide information on things people would otherwise be unwilling to talk

about.
 • Observer may move beyond selective perceptions of people in the setting.

• Good for description.

• Provides moderate degree of realism (when done outside of the laboratory).

Weaknesses of observational data

• Reasons for observed behavior may be unclear.

• Reactive effects may occur when respondents know they are being observed
for example people being observed may behave in atypical ways.

• Investigator effects (e.g., personal biases and selective perception of observers)

• Cannot observe large or dispersed populations.

• Some settings and content of interest cannot be observed.

• Collection of unimportant material may be moderately high.

• Data analysis can be time consuming.

Unit summary

In this unit you had opportunity to learn the about population, sample, the factors
to consider before deciding whether to use population or sample in research.
Characteristics of Good Sample is also were covered Probability Sampling
Techniques are simple random sampling, systematic random sampling, and
Stratified sampling. These techniques ensures representation of all important
sub-populations in the sample on the other hand Non-probability Sampling
techniques includes convenience sampling, judgment sampling, quota sampling
and Snowball sampling

Unit assignment

1. What is a sample and a population?

2. What is the difference between probability and non probability sampling?

3. When should a researcher use stratified random sampling?

4. How is cluster sampling different from stratified sampling?

5. What are some strengths and weaknesses of various types of sampling?

6. Give an example of a study that used both stratified and systematic sampling.

7. What is the difference between a convenience and a purposive sample?

8. Discuss the data collection technique

 UNIT 4

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

After completing this unit, you are expected to be able to:

1. Explain the meaning of data interpretation

2. Describe basic technique of data interpretation

3. Outline the precautions in data interpretation

Meaning data analysis

A researcher's important function is the appropriate interpretation of different types of

statistical data with the help of his tools. The preliminary statistical work consists of
collection, classification, tabulation, presentation and analysis of data. The most
important part of the statistical work consists in the proper use of the statistical tools
in the interpretation of data.

The researcher needs to plan data analysis by considering what needs to be done
with the data when they have been collected and state precisely how the data will be
processed and analyzed. The researcher should also state categorically how the
results of the analysis will be verified, cross-checked, and validated.

The most commonly used tools are 'Mean, Median, Mode; Geometric Mean,
Measures of Dispersion such as Range; Mean Deviation, Standard Deviation and
also other measures such as Coefficient of Correlation, Index Numbers etc. It is
necessary to note that technical interpretation of data has to be combined with a high
degree of sound judgement, statistical experience, skill and accuracy. After all
figures do not lie, they are innocent. But figures obtained haphazardly, compiled
unscientifically and analyzed incompetently would lead to general distrust in statistics
by the citizens. It should be understood that "statistical methods are the most
dangerous tools in the hands of an expert".

Meaning of interpretation

Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after
an analytical and or experimental study. In fact, it is a search for broader meaning of
research findings. The task of interpretation has two major aspects viz., the effort to
establish continuity in research through linking the results of a given study with those
of another, and the establishment of some explaflat concepts. “I n one sense,
interpretation is concerned with relationships within the collected data, partially
overlapping analysis. Interpretation also extends beyond the data of the study to inch
the results of other research, theory and hypotheses.”

Why Interpretation?

Why Interpretation? It is through interpretation that the researcher can well under-
stand the abstract principle that works beneath his findings. Interpretation leads to
the establishment of explanatory concepts that can serve as a guide for future
research studies; it opens new avenues of intellectual adventure and stimulates the
quest for more knowledge. Researcher can better appreciate only through
interpretation why his findings are what they are and can make others to under-
stand the real significance of his research findings.

Technique of Interpretation

Technique of Interpretation often involves the following steps: ( i ) Researcher must

give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has found and he must
interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes and must try to
find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of his diversified
research findings . (ii) Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be
considered while interpreting the final results of research study, for it may prove to
be a key factor in understanding the problem under consideration. (iii) Consultation
will result in correct interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility of research
results. (iv) Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after
considering all relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization.

Precautions in Interpretation
Precautions in Interpretation Researcher must pay attention to the following points
for correct interpretation:
( i ) (a ) the data are appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences;
(b) the data reflect good homogeneity; and that (c) proper analysis has been done
through statistical methods.

(ii) The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in
the process of interpreting results. He should be well equipped with and must know
the correct use of statistical measures for drawing inferences concerning his study.
(iii) Interpretation is intertwined with analysis and cannot be distinctly separated.

(iv) He must never lose sight of the fact that his task is not only to make sensitive
observations of relevant occurrences, but also to identify and disengage the factors
that are initially hidden to the eye. This will enable him to do his job of interpretation
on proper lines. Broad generalization should be avoided as most research is not
amen- able to it because the coverage may be restricted to a particular time, a
particular area and particular conditions. Such restrictions, if any, must invariably be
specified and the results must be framed within their limits.

(v) The researcher must remember that “ideally in the course of a research study,
there should be constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical observation
and theoretical conceptions. It is exactly in this area of interaction between
theoretical orientation and empirical observation that opportunities for originality and
creativity lie.” He must pay special attention to this aspect while engaged in the task
of interpretation.

Unit Assignment

1. Explain the meaning of data interpretation

2. Describe basic technique of data interpretation

3. Outline the precautions in data interpretation

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