RESUMEN PDCE I

Discourse
In the first place, we need to understand the grammar and vocabulary used in
constructing the sentences which make up each text. However, we need more than
this. The sentences that make up a text need to be grammatical, but grammatical
sentences alone will not ensure that the text itself makes sense.

In addition to the structure and meaning of the individual sentences, we need to

know how the sentences relate to each other.

Text-forming devices.

It is clear that, in addition to sentence-level knowledge, the reader also needs to be

able to interpret the sentences in relation to one another. According to Hoey, It is the
existence within the sentences of certain text-form devices: “the majority of the
sentences in the discourse connect unambiguously with their neighbours in one of
two ways. Some are connected by means of anaphoric devices of several kinds, the
remainder by simple repetition.

From studies, it has been argued that the difference between coherent pieces of
discourse and disconnected sentences is to be found in the words and phrases that
connect each sentence with one or more of the sentences that come before it.

In addition to what we might call “linguistic knowledge” (that is, knowledge of how
sentences are formed internally, and combined with each other externally), there is
also “non-linguistic knowledge” (knowledge of the subject matter or content of the
text in question).
Later, we shall consider evidence which suggests that subject matter knowledge
plays an important part in enabling the reader (or listener) to interpret texts. We shall
also look at the views of a number of linguists who disagree with the idea that it is
the connecting words and phrases that create discourse.

It would seem that discourse can be defined as a stretch of language consisting of

several sentences which are perceived as being related in some way. In later
sections, we shall see that sentences can be related, not only in terms of the ideas
they share, but also in terms of the jobs they perform within the discourse - that is, in
terms of their functions.

Discourse versus text

For some writers, the terms seem to be used almost interchangeably for others,
discourse refers to language in context. All seem to agree that both text and
discourse need to be defined in terms of meaning, and that coherent texts/pieces of
discourse are those that form a meaningful whole.

ASSERTION: the terms “text” and “discourse” are interchangeable. While some
commentators appear to use the terms interchangeable, others draw a clear
distinction between them.
Some people argue that discourse is language in action, while a text is the written
record of that interaction.
Discourse brings together language, the individuals producing the language, and the
context within which the language is used.

In this book, I shall use the term text to refer to any written record of a
communicative event. The event itself may involve oral language or written
language. I shall reserve the term discourse to refer to the interpretation of the
communicative event in context.
I shall discuss aspects of both text analysis and discourse analysis.
ASSERTION:

Discourse analysis involves the study of language in use. The assertion here is that
the analysis of discourse involves the analysis of language in use. All linguists are
concerned with identifying regularities and patterns in language. In the case of the
discourse analyst, the ultimate aim of this analytical work is both to show and to
interpret the relationship between these regularities and the meanings and purposes
expressed through discourse.

ASSERTION:

A text or piece of discourse consists of more than one sentence and the sentences
combine to form a meaningful whole. The notion that a text should form a
“meaningful whole” is commonsensical, although it is not always easy to determine
where one text ends and another begins.

Context
It is obvious that context is an important concept in discourse analysis.
Context refers to the situation giving rise to the discourse, and within which the
discourse is embedded.
There are two different types of context:
● Linguistic context: the language that surrounds or accompanies the piece of
discourse under analysis.
● Non-linguistics or experiential context within which the discourse takes place.
Include: the type of communicative event (joke, story, lectre, greeting,
conversation);
The topic.
The purpose of the event
The setting (location, time of the day, season of the year and physical aspects
of the situation (size of room, arrangement of furniture)
The participants and the relationships between them
 The background knowledge and assumptions underlying the communicative
event.

Spoken versus written language

Spoken language emerged before written language, written texts are much more
than merely “talk written down”.

Halliday: writing emerged in societies as a result of cultural changes which created

new communicative needs. These needs could not be readily met by the spoken
language.

Written language does perform a similar range of broad functions to those performed
by spoken language. It is used to get things done, to provide information and to
entertain.
The contexts for using written language are very different from those in which
spoken language is used.
For example, in the case of information, written language is used to communicate
with others who are removed in time and space, or for those occasions on which a
permanent or semi-permanent record is required. While most people in other cities
or countries could be communicated with by telephone, certain types of messages
are more appropriate in written form (postcard greetings to family and friends).

Halliday: suggests that written language is used for:

● action (public signs, product labels, television and radio guides, bills, menus,
telephone directories, ballot papers, computer manuals)
● for information (newspapers, current affairs magazines, advertisements,
political pamphlets)
● for entertainment (comic strips, fiction books, poetry and drama, newspaper
features, film subtitles).

These different purposes will be reflected in the characteristics of the texts

themselves: letters have different characteristics from newspaper editorials, which
have different characteristics from poems, and so on.
When we consider the concept of genre, these differences can be observed within
the sentence at the level of grammar, and beyond the sentence at the level of text
structure.

The differences between spoken and written modes are not absolute and the
characteristics that we tend to associate with written language can sometimes occur
in spoken language and vice versa.
Lexical Density
Spoken and written language also differ in the ratio of content words to grammatical
or function words.

(Content or lexical words include nouns and verbs, while grammatical words include
such things as prepositions, pronouns and articles).

The number of lexical or context words per clause is referred to as lexical density.

Types of discourse

We can classify discourse types in terms of the communicative job they are doing.
One way in which the texts could be divided up is into dialogue and monologue.
Another division would be into those that are basically transactional in nature and
those that are basically interpersonal.

● transactional language: is that which occurs when the participants are

concerned with the exchange of goods and services.
● interpersonal language: occurs when the speakers are less concerned with
the exchange of goods and services, than with socializing.

Many interactions that are essentially transactional in nature will also exhibit social
functions, while essentially social interactions can contain transactional elements.

Linguistic elements in discourse

Cohesion

Coherent texts, sequences of sentences or utterances which seem to “hang

together”, contain what are called text-forming devices. These are words and
phrases which enable the writer or speaker to establish relationships across
sentence or utterance boundaries, and which help to tie the sentences in a text
together.
Halliday and Hasan identified five different types of cohesion:
● reference
● substitution
● ellipsis
● conjunction
● lexical cohesion

Referential cohesion

If a single sentence is taken out of context and presented in isolation, it is likely to

contain elements that are difficult, if not impossible, to interpret.

Anaphoric and cataphoric reference

There are two different ways in which reference items can function within a text.
They can function in an anaphoric way. Or they can function in a cataphoric way.

The words Martin Scorsese, he, him, his, he, his, he, his and he all refer to a single
individual whose identity is established in the opening sentence.The subsequent
items can only be interpreted with reference to the initial phrase of this first sentence.
This type of device is known as anaphoric reference. Anaphoric reference points the
reader or listener “backwards” to a previously mentioned entity, process or state of
affairs.

Cataphoric reference points the reader or listener forward - it draws us further into
the text in order to identify the elements to which the reference items refer. Authors
sometimes use cataphoric reference for dramatic effect.
Personal, demonstrative and comparative reference

Halliday and Hasan identify three sub-types of referential cohesion - personal,

demonstrative and comparative. These various devices enable the writer or speaker
to make multiple references to people and things within a text.

● Personal reference: Personal reference items are expressed through

pronouns and determiners. They serve to identify individuals and objects that
are named at some other point in the text.
● Demonstrative reference: Demonstrative reference is expressed through
determiners and adverbs. These items can represent a single word or phrase,
or much longer chunks of text - ranging across several paragraphs or even
several pages.
● Comparative reference: Comparative reference is expressed through
adjectives and adverbs and serves to compare items within a text in terms of
identity or similarity.

Substitution and ellipsis

Halliday and Hasan deal with substitution and ellipsis separately, although they do
point out that these two types of cohesion are essentially the same.
Ellipsis is described as a form of substitution in which the original item is replaced by
zero.

Substitution
There are three types of substitution -nominal, verbal and clausal.
● Nominal: replace a noun (one, ones, same, some).
● Verbal: replace a verb (do, does, did).
● Clausal: replace everything (subject, verb, all clause) (so, not, yes).
Part of the preceding text has been replaced by ones, do and so respectively.
Ellipsis
Ellipsis occurs when some essential structural element is omitted from a sentence or
clause and can only be recovered by referring to an element in the preceding text.
Consider the following discourse fragment and comprehension question.

Mary: I prefer the green.

Question: Select the correct alternative: Mary prefers the green: (A) hat, (B) dress, ©
shoes.
As it stands, the question is impossible to answer. However, if we know what was
said before, it becomes relatively straightforward.
● Nominal: I like the red sweater. I like the green (sweater).
● Verbal: He always wakes up earlier than I (wake up).
● Clausal: we are bound to win the prize some day. Yes, but when? (are we
bound to win the prize).

Conjunction
Conjunction differs from reference, substitution and ellipsis in that it is not a device
for reminding the reader of previously mentioned entities, actions and states of
affairs. In other words, it is not what linguists call an anaphoric relation.
It is a cohesive device because it signals relationships that can only be fully
understood through reference to other parts of the text. There are four different types
of conjunction:
● Adversative: the information in the second sentence of each text moderates or
qualifies the information in the first. Contrast (but, on the other hand, however,
conversely).
● Additive: the presentation of additional information (and, in addition, what is
more, besides).
● Temporal: Temporal relationships exist when the events in a text are related in
terms of the timing of their occurrence (first, then, later, finally, as soon as).
● Causal: In this type of conjunction, the relationship is one of cause and
consequence (because, thus, therefore, consequently).
The cohesive devices themselves do not create the relationships in the text; what
they do is to make the relationships explicit. In fact, most clauses in a text can relate
to some others without the relationship being explicitly signalled to the listener or
reader by a conjunction.

Lexical cohesion
Lexical cohesion occurs when two words in a text are semantically related in some
way - in other words, they are related in terms of their meaning. In Halliday and
Hasan, the two major categories of lexical cohesion are reiteration and collocation.

Reiteration
Reiteration includes repetition, synonym or near synonym, super-ordinate, and
general word. Reiteration thus fulfils a similar semantic function to cohesive
reference.
● Repetition: What we lack in a newspaper is what we should get. In a word, a
“popular” newspaper may be the winning ticket.
● Synonym: similar meaning. You could try reversing the car up the slope. The
incline isn't all that steep.
● Superordinate: hyponim. Pneumonia has arrived with the cold and wet
conditions. The illness is striking everyone from infants to the elderly. (animal:
dog, car, lion / flower: rose, daysi)
● Opposite: Antonyms. (day-night).
● Meronym: Part-hole (car, tail / tree, branch).
● General Word: Did you try the steamed buns? Yes, I didn’t like the things
much. (thing-stuff-place).
Words and phrases

Word classes
There are eight word classes in English, sometimes called “parts of speech”.
Words belonging to more than one word class.

Some words belong to more than one word class.

Phrases
There are five kinds of phrases.
A. Verb phrase: is, can find, is becoming, doesn’t have, comes, has been
growing.
A verb phrase has an ordinary verb. There can also be one or more
auxiliaries.

B. Noun phrase: the Internet, a computer, information, such global friendship.

A noun phrase has a noun. There is often a determiner and/or and adjective.
C. Adjective phrase: cool, most amazing.
An adjective phrase has an adjective, sometimes with an adverb of degree in
front of it.

D. Adverb phrase: never, really quickly.

An adverb phrase has an adverb, sometimes with an adverb of degree in front
of it.

E. Prepositional phrase: at any time, of the earth, for hats.

A prepositional phrase is a preposition + noun phrase.
The simple sentence

Basic clause structure

Sentences with just one clause. A clause which can stand alone as a sentence has a
subject and a verb. It may also have other elements: an object, a complement, or an
adverbial. Each element plays its part in the structure of a clause. We can put the
elements together to form different kinds of clauses.
More details about clause structure
A. Each of the clause structures in 4 begins with subject + verb. This is the
normal word order in a statement.
B. The subject of a sentence is a noun phrase (e.g. my friend).
The object is also a noun phrase (e.g. mobile phones).
A complement usually gives information about the subject of the sentence. It
can be an adjective phrase (e.g. nice) or a noun phrase (e.g. a nightclub).
An adverbial expresses an idea such as when, how, or why something
happens. It can be an adverb phrase (e.g. tomorrow), a prepositional phrase
(e.g. on the table) or a noun phrase (e.g. every four years).
C. Verbs which do not have an object (Structure 1 in 4) are called intransitive
verbs (e.g. wait, happen, sleep, go).
Verbs with an object (Structure 2 in 4) are called transitive verbs (e.g. sell, eat,
see, catch).
Verbs with a complement (Structure 3 in 4) are called linking verbs (e.g. be,
become, get, look, seem).
Some verbs can be used in more than one structure. Many can be either
intransitive or transitive. The door opened (intransitive) Someone opened the
door (transitive).
D. There are two different kinds of complement: subject complement and object
complement. These two examples have a subject complement.
● Everyone was very busy.
● Simon became their spokesman.
The subject complement relates to the subject of the clause (everyone,
Simon).

These two examples have an object complement.

● The project kept everyone very busy.
● The group made Simon their spokesman.
The object complement relates to the object of the clause (everyone,
Simon).
In both pairs of examples, very busy relates to everyone, and their
spokesman relates to Simon.
E. We can add extra adverbials to any of the clause structures.
My friend is waiting outside.
Unfortunately the dog has eaten my homework.
A few months later the old cinema suddenly became a nightclub.
According to the paper, the concert is tomorrow at the town hall.
To my surprise, Sarah actually sent me a fax right away.
F. We can link two or more words or phrases with and or or.
● The colour is nice and bright.
● My friend and his brother are here.
● The work went smoothly, quietly, and very efficiently.
● The concert is on Wednesday or Thursday.
G. We can use two noun phrases one after the other when they both refer to the
same thing. We say that phrases are “in apposition”.
● My friend Matthew is coming to stay.
● Everyone visits the White House, the home of the President.
Give, send, buy, etc
Give, send, buy, reserve and similar verbs come in two different sentence structures.
They can either have two objects, or they can have an object and a prepositional
phrase.
● You give the attendant your ticket.
● You give your ticket to the attendant.

A. Two objects
When the verb has two objects, the first is the indirect object, and the second
is the direct object.

Here the indirect object refers to the person receiving something, and the
direct object refers to the thing that is given.

B. Object + prepositional phrase

Instead of an indirect object, we can use a prepositional phrase with to or for.

The phrase with to or for comes after the direct object.

 C. To or for?
Some verbs go with to and some go with for. You give something to someone,
but you buy something for someone.
● You give your ticket to the attendant.
● Nigel bought a diamond ring for Celia.
These verbs can go with to:

➢ award ➢ pay
➢ bring ➢ post
➢ fax ➢ promise
➢ feed ➢ read
➢ give ➢ sell
➢ grant ➢ send
➢ hand ➢ show
➢ leave (in a will) ➢ take
➢ lend ➢ teach
➢ mail ➢ tell
➢ offer ➢ throw
➢ owe ➢ write
➢ pass

These verbs can go with for:

➢ bring ➢ keep
➢ buy ➢ leave
➢ cook ➢ make
➢ fetch ➢ order
➢ find ➢ pick
➢ fix ➢ reserve
➢ get ➢ save

A. For meaning “to help someone”, “on someone’s behalf” can go with very
many verbs.
 ● I posted a letter to Adam. (a letter from me to him)
● I posted a letter for Adam. (a letter from Adam to someone else).

B. Bring goes with either to or for. We usually use for when we talk about giving
things to people.
● We’ve brought some flowers for our hostess.
We use to when we talk about transporting things to places.
● Lorries regularly bring coal to the power station.
We also use to when bring has other more abstract meanings.
● The news brought a smile to her face.

Negative statements

Not with a verb

Compare the positive and negative forms.

In a negative statement, not or n’t comes after the auxiliary. We write the auxiliary
and n’t together as one word.
● Some people have not read the book.
● The monster wasn’t called Frankenstein.
If there is more than one auxiliary, not or n’t comes after the first auxiliary.
● That might or might not have given her the idea.
● We shouldn’t have stayed so long.
In simple tenses we use the auxiliary verb do.
● I don’t like horror films.
 ● Frankenstein did not study medicine.
Be on its own has not or n’t after it.
● East London is not on most tourist maps.
● These shows aren’t very comfortable.
We cannot use no to make a negative verb form.
● The message didn’t arrive (NOT The message no arrived).
The negative forms of can are cannot and can’t.

Other negative words

There are other words besides not which have a negative meaning.