Genetics

Student Booklet
 Genetics Introduction

(optional fun activity to get you thinking about genetics)

1. Why do you and your siblings look similar but not identical?

2. Why do some twins look identical when others do not?

3. How much of your DNA did you get from each parent?

4. How much DNA is similar to a grandparent?

5. What contains the cell organelles? The sperm, the egg or both?

6. What would happen to a mutation in the sperm or an egg?

7. Can someone have more or less than 46 chromosomes?

8. My parents both have brown eyes, why do I have blue eyes?

9. Can the environment affect your genes? How?

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 What are Genes & Chromosomes?

Chromosomes
● Found in every cell, although the number differs between organisms.
● Long piece of coiled DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) wrapped around proteins.
● Humans: 46 total chromosomes (23 pairs*).

Chromosome Terminology
● Relaxed/Uncoiled form = CHROMATIN
● Condensed form = CHROMOSOME
● Replicated chromosome consists of two
SCHROMATIDS

Genes
Genes are sections of DNA that code for proteins. The
differences in our genes accounts for why we are all
slightly different.

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 The Cell Cycle and Mitosis

The Cell Cycle

Every hour, about one billion cells die and one billion
cells are made in the body.

The cell cycle is a REPEATING cycle of events in the life

of a cell.

Consists of two main stages:

INTERPHASE - the cell grows and prepares for cell

division
Cell division - MITOSIS: for repair or growth

Interphase

A cell spends about 90% of its time in this phase. The cell takes in nutrients, grows and replicates
DNA.

Three phases of Interphase:

G1 First growth Cell grows and produces new proteins
phase and organelles

S Synthesis
phase DNA is REPLICATED.

G2 Second Cell produces the organelles and

growth structures needed for cell division
phase

MITOSIS (M Phase)

Prophase:
● Chromatin CONDENSES to become
chromosomes (2 sister chromatids).
● Nuclear ENVELOPE disintegrates.
● Mitotic spindle/ FIBRES form.
● CENTRIOLES move to opposite poles of the
cell.

Metaphase:
● Chromosomes move to the MIDDLE of the cell.
● Mitotic spindles attach to the CENTROMERES of the

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 chromosome.

Anaphase:
● Sister chromatids SEPARATE at the centromere.
● Pulled to OPPOSITE pole by the centriole.

Telophase:
● Mitotic spindle BREAKS DOWN.
● Two new NUCLEI are formed.
● Cell splits into two new DAUGHTER cells by pinching inward.
● Cytoplasm divides = CYTOKINESIS

End Result of MITOSIS:

- TWO GENETICALLY IDENTICAL DAUGHTER CELLS

Cell Growth, Repair and Death→ Implications

● Different cells undergo cell growth and division at different rates.

● Example: skin cells undergo cell division regularly whereas nerve cells never undergo
mitosis once they mature.
● Cell division is necessary to replace injured or damaged cells.
● Regulated cell death (APOPTOSIS) is a natural part of the cell cycle.
● Example: White Blood Cells - fight viral infections; removed by apoptosis once the virus
has been removed.

Cancer: A mutation in DNA that

results in uncontrolled cell division

Checkpoints & Cancer:

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 Mitosis Practice Questions

1. During which stage of a cell’s cycle do the replicated chromosomes thicken and become visible?
________________________________

2. During which stage of a cell’s cycle do the replicated chromosomes line up on the equator of the
cell? ___________________________

3. During which stage of a cell’s cycle do the chromosomes replicate? __________________________

4. The drawing below has been made from a photograph showing a cell undergoing mitosis. Based on
the drawing, in what stage of mitosis must the cell have been in?

_______________________________

5. The drawings A-E show stages of the cell cycle in a plant cell.

Which of the drawings A-E shows

_______ Interphase (DNA is replicated)
_______ Prophase (chromosomes—2 sister
chromatids—shorten)
_______ Metaphase (sister chromatids line up)
_______ Anaphase (sister chromatids
separate)_______ Telophase (new nucleus forms at
each end)

6. Give two processes which occur during interphase and which are necessary for nuclear division to
take place.
i. ___________________ of the cell
ii. ___________________ of the DNA

7. Using coloured pens or pencils, show how two chromosomes are passed from mother cell to two
daughter cells.

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 Meiosis- What is Happening?

*Meiosis involves 2 rounds of

division.

Meiosis & Genetic Diversity

Meiosis is important because it allows for increased genetic diversity in species undergoing sexual
reproduction. There are 2 key processes that allow for this to occur
1- Crossing Over- THE EXCHANGE OF
CHROMOSOME SEGMENTS BETWEEN
HOMOLOGOUS PAIRS DURING SYNAPSIS

TETRADS - A PAIR OF HOMOLOGOUS

CHROMOSOMES, EACH WITH TWO SISTER
CHROMATIDS

SYNAPSIS - THE PHYSICAL PAIRING UP UP

OF HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES. EACH
SISTER CHROMATID INTERTWINES WITH A
SISTER CHROMATID FROM THE
MATCHING HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOME

2- Independent Assortment- THE RANDOM

POSITIONING OF THE MATERNAL AND PATERNAL
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES DURING METAPHASE
1

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Meiosis I

Phase What is Happening in the cell?

Prophase I - CHROMOSOMES CONDENSE

- NUCLEAR MEMBRANE DISSOLVES, SPINDLE
FIBRE FORM, CENTRIOLES MIGRATE TO
OPPOSITE POLES
- SYNAPSIS FORM TETRAD, CROSSING OVER
OCCURS

Metaphase I - TETRADS LINE UP ALONG THE MIDDLE

(INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT)

Anaphase I - HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES MOVE TO

OPPOSITE POLES
- ONLY ONE CHROMOSOME FROM EACH PAIR
(EACH WITH 2 SISTER CHROMATIDS) WILL MOVE
TO EACH DAUGHTER CELL

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Telophase I - NUCLEAR MEMBRANE REFORMS
- THE TWO NUCLEI ARE NOT IDENTICAL

Cytokinesis - NUCLEAR MEMBRANE REFORMS

- THE TWO NUCLEI ARE NOT IDENTICAL
- NO DUPLICATION OF DNA BEFORE MEITOSIS

Meiosis II- What is happening?

Prophase II - NUCLEAR MEMBRANE DISSOLVES, SPINDLE

FIBRES FORM
-

Metaphase II - CHROMOSOMES LINE UP ALONG THE MIDDLE OF

THE CELL

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Anaphase II - SISTER CHROMATIDS SEPARATE AND MOVE TO
OPPOSITE POLES OF THE CELL

Telophase II - NUCLEAR MEMBRANE

REFORMS

Cytokinesis II - DIVISION OF THE CYTOPLASM

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Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis

COMPARISON MITOSIS MEIOSIS

number of parent cells

number of divisions

# of daughter cells produced

(in animals)

size of daughter cells relative to

parent cell

# of chromosomes in parent

# of chromosomes per daughter

cell at end of process

genetic comparison:
chromosomes in daughter cell
versus daughter cell

location of process in organism

(provide examples of specific
cells)

function of process

sexual or asexual reproduction?

advantages

disadvantages

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Meiosis: What stage/process is being shown in each diagram? How do you know?

EXTRA PRACTICE
1. What type of cell undergoes meiosis?
2. Define homologous chromosomes
3. For each of the following state if the cell is haploid or diploid.
Sperm cell = Liver cell = Egg cell = Stomach cell =
4. If the diploid number in a liver cell of an organism is 52, how many chromosomes are there in
the egg of this organism?
5. During meiosis, the chromosome number:
a) is doubled b) is reduced c) remains the same d) becomes diploid
6. Cells starting mitosis & meiosis begin with a (haploid or diploid) set of chromosomes.
7. How many times do cells divide during meiosis?
8. Draw a tetrad and show crossing over. During what process and in which phase do you first
see this in?
9. How many cells form at the end of meiosis and how many chromosomes do they each contain?
10. A sperm cell is a ( gamete or zygote), and is (haploid or diploid).
11. Which of the following best describe the term “crossing over”?
a.) An exchange of information between two homologous chromosomes
b.) A molecular interaction between two sister chromatids
c.) A molecular interaction between two non-sister chromatids
d.) A separation of two sister chromatids

12. Which letter in Figure 1 represents meiosis? Why?

13. Which letter in Figure 1 represents mitosis? Why?
14. Which letter in Figure 1 represents fertilization? Why?
15. What is the difference between a chromosome, sister
chromatids, and homologous chromosomes? You may draw
a picture as your answer.
16. How are DNA and chromosomes related?
17. What is the difference between a haploid, diploid, and
zygote?
18. Give 3 examples how meiosis differ from mitosis.
19. If the sperm cell of an organism contains 14
chromosomes, how many chromosomes are in a somatic
cell of this organism?

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 Errors in Meiosis: Mutations

There are 2 different processes that result in genetic variation: independent assortment and
crossing over. Although they are important to increase genetic variability they also provide an
opportunity for chromosomal abnormalities to occur. Most mutations are fatal and would not result
in zygote formation. However, sometimes the mutations will be viable and every cell in the zygote
produced (baby) now carries that mutation. Furthermore, that will be passed along to future
generations.

Errors in Chromosome Number: (analyze the result of meiosis 2 in each)

What’s Happening? (Why?) What Does this Look Like?

How can we test for Chromosomal Mutations: (independent research)

Karyotyping Chorionic Villi Sampling Amniocentesis

A Karyotype involves staining

and photographing
chromosomes during mitosis.
This can be done during
pregnancy to test for genetic
disorders. There are 2
techniques to sample:

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Genetic Disorders caused by Nondisjunction: (independent research)
Disorder Which Monosomy or Common Symptoms
Name Gene? Trisomy?

Down’s
Syndrome

Klinefelter’s

Turners
Syndrome

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Mendelian Genetics- Gregor Mendel and His Pea Plants

Who Was Gregor Mendel?

- 1857 MORAVIAN MONK AND NATURALIST

- “FATHER OF GENETICS”
- STRONG BACKGROUND IN BLANT BREEDING AND
MATHEMATICS
- USED PEA PLANTS DEMONSTRATED THE BASIS OF
HEREDITY
- NO KNOWLEDGE OF CHROMOSOMES OF MEIOSIS

What Did He Do?

Established PURE LINES

CROSSED pure breeding lines

Observed PATTERNS in off-spring

Identified DOMINANT & RECESSIVE traits

Identified mathematical RATIOS

Why Was He Successful?

1 REPEATED HIS CROSSES MANY TIMES

2 USED RULES OF PROBABILITY

3 CONTROLLED POLLINATION

4 COULD STUDY MANY GENERATIONS INA SHORT PERIOD OF TIME

PEA PLANTS HAD MANY

TRAITS THAT APPEARED IN ONE OF TWO FORMS THAT WRE EASILY
DISTINGUISHABLE (TALL VS DWARF)

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 What he Concluded: Mendel’s Laws

Law of Segregation

MEMBERS OF A PAIR OF ALLELES FOR A GIVEN

TRAIT ARE G
SEGREGATED (SEPERATED) WHEN GAMETE ARE
FORMED

- IF A PARENT PLANT HAS THE GENOTYPE Tt,

THEN IT WILL PRODUCE TWO TYPES OF
GAMETES, T AND t
- EACH GAMETE CONTAINS ONLY ONE OF THE
ALLELES FOR THE PLANT HEIGHT

Law of Independent Assortment

WHEN TWO OR MORE PAIRS OF CHARACTERISTICS

ARE CONSIDERED AT ONE TIME, EACH PAIR SHOWS
DOMINANCE AND SEGREGATION INDEPENDENTLY OF
THE OTHER

- IF A OARENT OKANT BAS THE GENITYOE TtRr,

THEN IT WILL LRODUCE FOUR DIFFERENT
HTHPE OF GAMETE COMBINATJONS IN EQUAL
NUMBERS
- ¼ TR, ¼ Tr, ¼ tR, ¼ tr

Some Key Terminology

GENOTYPE: The combination of alleles which determines the phenotype

(Tt, TT or tt)

PHENOTYPE: The physical expression of a trait (tall vs short)

When alleles will be expressed one may be preferentially expressed over the other…

DOMINANT : This trait will always be expressed when the dominant allele is present in either a
homozygous or heterozygous from. A plant that is TT or Tt will ALWAYS be tall. A capital letter is used to
represent a dominant allele.

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 RECESSIVE: This trait is only expressed when it is in the homozygous form. A lower case is used to
represent a recessive allele. Only tt will produce a short plant.

An organism has 2 copies of an allele (1 from each parent) those alleles can be the same or different.
HETEROZYGOUS: Refers to a genotype in which the alleles are different (Tt)

HOMOZYGOUS : Refers to a genotype in which the alleles are the same (TT / tt)

Let’s Practice: Describe the genotypes given below. The first two are already done.

A. DD homozygous, dominant B. Dd heterozygous

C. dd HOMOZYGOUS, RECESSIVE D. ss___HOMOZYGOUS, RECESSIVE

E. Yy___HETEROZYGOUS F. WW_HOMOZYGOUS, DOMINATE

2. In humans, brown eye colour (B), is dominant over blue eye color (b). What are the phenotypes of the
following genotypes? In other words, what color eyes will they have?

BB_BROWN

bb BLUE

Bb_BROWN

Genetic Crosses- Monohybrid Cross

A monohybrid cross allows us to predict the possible genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring based on
the genotypes of the parent
Steps to solving genetics problems:
1) Assign the letters that will represent the dominant and
recessive alleles (Remember- use the same letter and the
Capital will represent the dominant and the lowercase will
represent recessive)
2) Determine the genotypes of the parents
3) Determine the possible gametes
4) Use a punnett square to solve. Put gametes from one parent
across the top and the second parent across the side.

Ex 1: In peas yellow seeds are dominant to green seed. If you crossed a homozygous yellow plant with a
green plant what would the offspring look like?

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 Ex 2: A heterozygous male with brown eyes is crossed with a female with blue eyes. For eye colour blue is
recessive to brown.

a) What is the genotype of the female parent?

b) Determine the possible genotypes of the offspring.
c) What is the genotypic ratio of the offspring?
d) What is the phenotypic ratio of the offspring?
e) What percentage of the offspring will have blue eyes?

Back Cross/Test Cross

When an organism has the dominant phenotype, then its genotype can be either heterozygous or
homozygous dominant (you can’t tell by looking at it). In order to find out we must do a test cross. This
means we need to cross it with another organism that is homozygous recessive. This way we can
determine the unknown phenotype based on the offspring.

In Dalmatian dogs, the gene for black spots is dominant to the gene for liver colored spots. If a breeder has
a black spotted dog, how can she find out whether it is homozygous (BB) or heterozygous (Bb) spotted dog?
*B = black spots and b=liver spots

If the breeder finds a black spotted dog whose ancestry is not known, she cannot tell by looking at the dog if
it is BB or Bb. She should find a liver spotted dog, whose genotype must be “bb” and mate it with the black
spotted dog in question.

1) Make a Punnett Square for the cross of a homozygous dominant dalmatian with the homozygous recessive
dalmatian:

2) Using a Punnett square, determine the possible offspring of a heterozygous dalmatian and a homozygous
recessive dalmatian:

Example 2: You found a wild, black mouse. Explain how you would determine the genotype of this mouse.
*hint in mice, white fur is recessive. Draw Punnett squares for your possible crosses.

1) You have 24 offspring, 23 with black fur and 1 with white fur. What was the genotype of the
mouse?

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 2) If you only had 3 black offspring, can you tell what the genotype was of the suspect mouse?
Explain why or why not?

Genetics Practice Problems- Monohybrid Crosses

1. In garden peas, seed coat colour can be either coloured or white. White seed coat is recessive to coloured seed
coat. Suppose the P generation includes one parent with the white seed coat trait and one with coloured seed coat trait.
What results would you expect in the F 1 and F 2 generations ? Indicate the phenotypes of the offspring in the cross.

2. Assume that straight hair (c) is recessive to curly hair (C). Two curly-haired parents have a straight-haired child.
a. What are the genotypes of the parents?
b. What is the genotype of the child?
c. Give two genotypes for curly-haired people.
d. Using letter symbols, show two different crosses for curly hair x straight hair. Indicate the phenotypes of the
offspring for both crosses.

3. Suppose that a cross had been performed with a garden pea, between a parent with round seeds (RR) and a parent
with wrinkled seeds (rr). Outline the genotypes and phenotypes in the Fl and F2 generations resulting from this cross.

4. Use a Punnett Square to find the phenotypes and genotypes resulting from each of the following monohybrid
crosses of pea plants:
a. homozygous tall with heterozygous tall
b. heterozygous tall with homozygous dwarf

5. Suppose white fur is a recessive trait in guinea pigs. What will be the result of crossing a pure brown-haired guinea
pig and a pure white-haired guinea pig?

6. Tongue-rolling is a dominant trait in humans. Will the children of two people who cannot roll their tongues be
"tongue-rollers"? Why or why not?

Dihybrid Crosses

You can use a dihydrid cross to follow the

inheritance of_______________ at the same
time. There are set ratios that exist when we
cross organisms that are homozygous for 2 traits.
Look at the figure to the left to see how this can
be accomplished.

You can do the genetic problems in the exact

same format you just have to consider more
options for gametes.

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Steps to solving genetics problems:
1) Assign the letters that will represent the dominant and recessive alleles
(Remember- use the same letter and the Capital will represent the dominant
and the lowercase will represent recessive)
2) Determine the genotypes of the parents
3) Determine the possible gametes
4) Use a punnett square to solve. Put gametes from one parent across the top
and the second parent across the side.

Example 1: In peas, the gene for tall plants (T) is dominant over its short allele (t). The gene for
smooth seeds (A) is dominant over its recessive allele for wrinkled (a). Show the Punnett squares
for the following crosses. Indicate the phenotype ratios for each cross.
(a) TtAa x TtAa (b) Ttaa x ttAA

(c) Ttaa x Ttaa (d) ttAa x Ttaa

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 Genetics Practice Problems- Dihybrid Crosses

1. In guinea pigs, rough coat ( R ) is dominant over smooth coat ( r ) and black coat (B) is dominant
over white coat (b). A homozygous rough, homozygous black pig is crossed with a smooth white one. Show
the F1 and F2 generations Indicate the phenotype ratio for the F2 generation.

2. In humans, tongue rolling ( R ) and bent little finger ( B ) are dominant over non-rolling ( r ) and straight
little finger ( b ).

A heterozygous tongue roller who is also heterozygous for bent little finger marries a non- roller with straight
little fingers. What are the chances of them having a child who cannot roll their tongue and has a straight
little finger. Use the Punnett square.

3. Some people can taste P.T.C because they have the dominant gene (T). Hitch-hiker’s thumb is caused
by the recessive gene (h).

A person homozygous for tasting who has a hitch-hiker’s thumb marries a person who is heterozygous for
tasting and thumb. What are the chances of them having a child who can’t taste P.T.C. and has a
hitch-hiker’s thumb?

4. In humans, broad lips (B) are dominant over thin lips (b) and curly hair (H) is dominant over straight hair
(h). A man who is heterozygous for both broad lips and curly hair marries a woman with the same genotype.
What are the possible genotypes (Punnett square) and phenotypes (ratio) of the marriage?

CHALLENGER
5. In poultry, feathered legs (F) is dominant over clean legs (f) and pea comb (P) is dominant over
single comb (p). Two cocks, A and B are bred to two hens, C and D. All four birds are feathered legged and
pea combed. Cock A with both hens produces offspring that are all feathered legged and pea combed.
Cock B with hen C produces both feathered legged and clean legged but all pea combed, but with hen d he
produces all feathered legged but part pea combed and part single combed offspring. What are the
genotypes of these four birds?

A few Extra Problems:

6. Find the F2 phenotypes and genotypes of a DIHYBRID cross of a dwarf, yellow-podded pea plant (ttgg)
with a tall, green- podded pea plant (TTGG). Use a Punnett Square.

7. Assume that curly hair (C) is dominant to straight hair (c). Albinism is a condition in which cells which
normally product pigment, do not do s 0. A person with this condition is called an albino. The allele for skin
albinism (n) is recessive to the normal allele (N). A woman with curly hair and albinism and a man with
straight hair and normal skin pigment have a child that has straight hair and is an albino. What are the
genotypes of the parents?

8. In rabbits, spotted coat colour is dominant to solid colour, and black (B) is dominant to brown (b). A
brown spotted rabbit is mated to a solid black one and ~ the offspring are black spotted. What are the

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genotypes of the parents? What would be the appearance of the F2 if two of these Fl black spotted rabbits
were mated?

Other Inheritance Patterns

There are alternative inheritance patterns to simple dominance. We will look at a few of them.

1- Sex Linked Inheritance

Not all patterns of inheritance are so simple. For example, the expression of some traits is related
to gender (being male or female). The genes for these traits are located on the sex chromosomes.

Human beings have 46 chromosomes, which are grouped into 23 pairs. Pairs 1 to 22 are alike in
both men and women. But there are two forms of the 23rd pair, the sex chromosomes: the "X"
chromosome and the "Y" chromosome. Females have two copies of the X chromosome--an XX
genotype; males have one X and one Y--an XY genotype. The X and Y chromosomes are pictured
below. As you can see, the X chromosome is much larger than the Y.

Certain genes are found only on the X

chromosome. These are referred to as
"sex-linked genes." Therefore. Women will have
two alleles for these genes because they have
two (XX) chromosomes. On the other hand,
men have only one allele for each of these
genes because they have only one X
chromosome (XY).

Female = XX Male = XY

For sex-linked traits, we need to list the

genotype in a different fashion. We must identify
the individual as being male or female according
to their sex chromosomes. Females are XX and
Males are XY. Sex-linked traits are found on the X chromosome, therefore the letters are placed
as super-scripts (above) the X chromosome. Ie: XRXr or XrY

One example of a sex-linked trait is the allele for red-green colorblindness. The colorblindness trait
is recessive, which means that a female must get two recessive copies of the allele in order to
have colorblindness. A male, however, needs to get only one recessive copy in order to have the
condition.
B b
A dominant copy of the allele is represented by X , and a recessive copy is represented by X .
Therefore:
b
The genotype of a male with colorblindness is X Y.

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 B
The genotype of a male with normal vision is X Y.
b b
The genotype of a female with colorblindness is X X .
B b
The genotype of a female who has normal vision but is a carrier of the disease gene is X X .
B B
The genotype of a female who has normal vision and is not a carrier is X X .

Example 1. Draw a Punnett square depicting the cross of a female carrier and a male with
normal vision.
a) What is the probability of having a colorblind child? (25%)
b) What is the probability of having a female colorblind child? (0%)
c) What is the probability of having a male colorblind child? (50%)

Example 2. Let’s follow a family with a history of colourblindess.

Generation 1: Let us consider a couple Hiren and Paula. Paula is colourblind and Hiren has
normal vision. Draw a Punnett square to determine the possible genotypes of Hiren and Paula’s
offspring. Hiren and Paula have a daughter named Amina. Would Amina be colourblind?

(Possible genotypes: XBXb and XbY ---> Amina would not be colourblind)

Generation 2: Amina and her partner Ben have a child. Ben is colourblind. What will be the
possible genotypes of their offspring? What would the possible phenotypes of their offspring be?

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(Possible genotypes: XBXb, XbXb, XBY,XbY) (female carrier, female colourblind, male normal, male
colourblind)
Generation 3: Amina and Ben have a son named Tiger and he is colorblind. Tiger has a daughter
with a woman named Cheryl who is not colourblind. Their daughter Sunny is colourblind. What
does this tell you about the genotype of Cheryl?

(Cheryl is a carrier)

Example 3. Can a color blind female have a son that has normal vision?
*use B = normal vision and b = color blind

(no she cannot she can only provide an X chromosome with the gene for colourblindness)

Example 4. In fruit flies, the gene for eye colour is carried on the X chromosome which is a sex
chromosome (sex-linked). The allele for red eyes (R) is dominant over the allele for white eyes(r).
If a white-eyed female fruit fly is mated with a red-eyed make, predict the possible offspring.

a) First determine what is dominant:

Dominant allele:

Recessive allele:

b) Determine the genotype of each fly:

Female:

Male:

c) Draw a Punnett square and list the phenotypes of the male flies and the female flies.

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(XRXr, XrY)

Example 5. Baldness is a sex-linked trait. What parental genotypes could produce a bald
woman? *use H = normal hair and h = baldness

(XbXb or XBxb mated with XbY)

Example 6. Hemophilia is a sexed linked trait. A person with hemophilia is lacking certain
proteins that are necessary for normal blood clotting. Hemophilia is caused by a recessive allele
so use “N” for normal and “n” for hemophilia. Since hemophilia is a sex-linked, remember a
woman will have two alleles (NN or Nn or nn) but a man will only have one allele (N or n). A
woman who is heterozygous (a carrier) for hemophilia marries a normal man:

a. What are the genotypes of the parents? (XNXn and XNY)

b. Make a Punnett square for the above cross.
c. What is the probability that a male offspring will have hemophilia? (50%)
d. What is the probability of having a hemophiliac female offspring? (0%)

2- Incomplete Dominance

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Example: When a red flowered four-o-clock plant is crossed with a white flowered four-o-clock plant, all the
offspring have pink flowers. The F1 pink flowered plants are crossed to obtain an F2 generation.
a. By means of Punnett squares, show the above crosses. State the phenotypes and genotypes of each
generation. Include the phenotype ratio for the F2 generation.
b. What offspring could result from a cross between a pink and a red flowered plant?
c. Is it possible to get pink-flowered plants which are pure breeding for pink flowers? Explain.

(A. F1-100% Pink, CRCW, F2-25% Red CRCR, 50% PinkCRCW, 25% White CWCW) B.) Red or pink
C.) No, breeding pink plants will always produce some red and some white

3- Codominance

Example: (multiple inheritance pattern) In cats, black coat (B) and ginger coat (G) are codominant. Both
genes occur on the X chromosome. When B and G are present together, a tortoiseshell coat results. A
black female cat is crossed with a ginger male.

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 a. What types of offspring might be produced in the F1 and F2 generations? Describe their sex and
coat colour.
b. Is it possible to get a male with a tortoiseshell coat? Explain.
c. Is it possible to get a ginger female cat? Explain.

A. F1- XBXG, XBY (a tortoiseshell shell female and a black male) F2- XBXG, XBXB, XBY, XGY (tortoiseshell
shell female, black female, black male and a ginger male)
B. No, tortoiseshell shell requires 2 X chromosomes
C. Yes - 1 possibility would be a tortoiseshell shell female with a ginger male

4- Multiple Alleles

The ABO Blood Type System:

In the ABO system there is both

true dominance and
codominance.

Type A and B both show true

dominance over type O blood
and codominance with each
other.

Possible
Genotypes

Example: Three newborn babies had their identification bracelets accidentally mixed up. The
blood types of the babies and parents were as follows:

Baby X Type A Mr. Brown Type AB

Baby Y Type O Mr. Black Type O
Baby Z Type AB Mr. White Type A
Mrs. Brown Type O
Mrs. Black Type O
Mrs. White Type B

Show which baby belongs to which parents and indicate how you determined this.

Genetics Practice Problems- Other Inheritance Patterns

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1. Colour blindness is a recessive, X-linked trait. A female with normal vision whose father was colorblind
marries a normal visioned man. What are the chances of them having:
a. a colorblind daughter
b. a colorblind son
c. If a male is colour blind, from which parent did he inherit this trait? Explain.

2. A man and a woman, both of normal vision have:

1) a colorblind son who has a daughter of normal vision,
2) a daughter of normal vision who has one colour blind and one normal son,
3) another daughter of normal vision who has five sons, all normal visioned.
What are the probable genotypes of grandparents, children and grandchildren?

3. The absence of legs in cattle ("amputated") has been attributed to a recessive lethal gene. A normal
bull is mated with a normal cow and they produce an amputated calf (usually dead at birth). The same
parents are mated again.

a. What is the chance of the next calf being amputated?

b. What is the chance of them having two amputated calves?

4. When chickens with splashed white feathers are crossed with black feathered birds, their offspring are
all slate blue (Blue Andalusian). When Blue Andalusians are crossed among themselves, they
produce white, blue and black offspring in the ratio of 1:2:1 respectively.
a. How are these feather types inherited?
b. Using appropriate symbols, indicate the genotypes for each phenotype.

5. In the Mexican Hairless breed of dogs, the hairless condition is produced by the heterozygous
genotype. Normal dogs are homozygous recessive. Puppies homozygous for the dominant gene are
usually born dead with abnormalities of the mouth and absence of external ears. What would be the
expected phenotypes and genotypes of a cross between two hairless dogs? Show all work.

6. A dominant allele L governs short hair in guinea pigs and its recessive allele l governs long hair.
Incomplete dominance at an independently assorting locus specify hair colour, such that YY = yellow,
YW = cream and WW = white. Predict the phenotypic ratio from matings between heterozygous short,
cream pigs?

7. In humans tongue rolling is dominant to non tongue rollers. As well colour blindness is x-linked with
normal vision being dominant to colourblindness.
A non tongue rolling woman with normal vision whose father is colourblind, marries a tongue rolling man
(mom was a non roller) with normal vision. What are the ratios of possible phenotypes for their children?

8. In wild snapdragons, flower colour exhibits incomplete dominance with two alleles, red and white and the
height of the plant exhibits true dominance with tall being dominant to dwarf.
If you cross a dwarfed pink plant with a tall red plant, what would be the expected gentoype ratios of the
offspring?

9. In rabbits, mono-colored fur (F) is dominant over spotted fur (f), and straight ears (S) is dominant over
floppy (s).

A. Your son is entering the 4-H county fair for rabbits. He has a male white rabbit without spots and crosses
it with a female white rabbit without spots. Some of the baby rabbits have spots. What are the genotypes of
the male and female rabbits, and the baby rabbits with spots?
Female Rabbit:
Male Rabbit:
Baby Rabbits with spots:

B. Complete a Punnett square for the cross above. What is the proportion of the offspring which are:
Homozygous dominant? Homozygous recessive?
Heterozygous? Genotype ratio?

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Phenotype ratio?

10. Your son is interested in obtaining a spotted floppy-eared rabbit for entry into the fair. You have a male
FfSs and a female ffss, and female rabbits often produce about eight babies per litter. Figure out the ratio of
poffspring for each phenotype you can expect from crossing these rabbits, so you can decide if it is likely
that your son can enter the fair with a spotted floppy-eared rabbit.

A. Ratio of the offspring with:

Monocolored fur and straight ears:
Monocolored fur and floppy ears:
Spotted fur and straight ears:
Spotted fur and floppy ears:

B. A male rabbit is mated to a whole flock of spotted floppy-eared rabbits. The number of individuals and
their phenotypes produced were: 30 monocolored straight-eared rabbits; 27 monocolored floppy-eared
rabbits; 29 spotted straight-eared rabbits; and 31 spotted floppy-eared rabbits. Using what you know about
the genotype of the mothers, decide what the genotype of the father is.

11. The ruffed chicken has an under-chin wattle. A smooth wattle (S) is dominant over a wrinkled wattle (s).
A red wattle (HR) is incompletely dominant with a white wattle (HW) so that an individual with HRHW will have
a pink wattle.

A. A chicken with a wrinkled red wattle is mated to a homozygous chicken with a smooth white wattle. What
is the genotype and phenotype of the chicks?
Genotype of the parents:
Genotype of the chicks:
Phenotype of the chicks:

12. In turkeys, bronze body color (B) is dominant over red (b). Normal feathers (N) are dominant over hairy
feathers (n). A bronze male turkey is mated to a bronze female, and some of the poults (baby turkeys)
produced by this cross are red. What are the genotypes of the male and female parents and the red poults?

13. Some of the poults from the cross described in #1 above are bronze. What proportion of the poults would
you expect to have the BB genotype? What proportion would have the Bb genotype? What proportion would
have the bb genotype?

14. If you were to cross a Bbnn turkey with a bbNn turkey, what proportion of the offspring will have red,
normal feathers? What proportion will have bronze hairy feathers? red, hairy feathers? bronze, normal
feathers?

15. A breeder of hamsters crosses a golden hamster with a black hamster. All the baby hamsters are
golden. Which trait is dominant and which is recessive? What are the genotypes of the parents? What are
the genotypes of the babies?

16. The breeder takes one of the babies, raises it to maturity, and then mates it to a black hamster. Use a
Punnett square to predict the results of this crossbreeding. Predict the genotype(s) and phenotype(s) of the
offspring, and the expected ratios.

17. In hamsters, long fur is recessive and short fur is dominant. Suppose the breeder takes a hamster that is
heterozygous for both golden fur and short fur, and mates it to a hamster with long black fur. Use a Punnett
square to predict the results of this crossbreeding. Predict the genotype(s) and phenotype(s) of the offspring,
and the expected ratios.

18. Humans have four possible blood types (A, B, AB, and O) and these blood types are controlled by three
alleles (IA, IB, i). The IA and IB alleles are codominant (they share expression, thus we have an AB blood
type), but they are both dominant over the i allele.

A. List the possible genotypes from the phenotypes:

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Blood Type A:
Blood Type B:
Blood Type AB:
Blood Type O:

B. A court case has been filed by a mother with type O blood who has a son with type O blood. There are
two fathers being accused; one has AB blood and the other A blood. Which one of the men could be the
father of the child?

C. In another court case there are three possible fathers. The mother has type B blood, and the child has
type O blood. One suspect father has type AB blood, another has type A blood (both his parents were AB),
and the third father has type A blood (one parent had AB and one parent had A blood). Construct a pedigree
and decide who the father is:

Pedigrees

In genetics, traits can be traced over several

generations similar to a family tree. This
family tree is called a Pedigree chart.
Pedigree charts are useful in gathering
background genetic information that can be
used for medical reasons.

Pedigree charts use specific symbols to

represent the trait that is being tracked on the
chart.

Females are always represented by circles

and males are represented by squares.
Affected are filled in and normal are clear
and half filled means a carrier.

Example 1: The Royal Famjam

Example 2: Horse race enthusiasts also rely heavily on pedigree charts to predict a horse’s
success.
1) Become familiar with the chart below. Each row represents a generation.

a) Explain the family relationship that #12 has with #2.

b) What is the genotype of individual #3 and #4?

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c) Can either individual #8 or #9 be homozygous?

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 Genetics Practice Problems- Pedigrees

2) Label the genotype for each of the individuals below its symbol on the pedigree chart (note: eye
color is not a sex-linked trait).

3) Examine the following pedigree chart of colourblindness. In humans colourblindness is caused

by a recessive sex-linked trait. Remember colourblindness is a sex linked trait that is caused by
a recessive allele, therefore you must denote the individuals sex chromosomes (XNXn and XnY for
example) as well as the colourblindness allele (the N or n). On the diagram, label the genotypes of
the individuals 1-16.

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 4.) Examine the following hemophilia pedigree chart below. Remember hemophilia is a sex-linked
trait that is caused by a recessive allele. On the diagram, label the genotypes of the individuals
1-14.

5) A blue-eyed man (1) whose parents were brown eyed (2&3), marries a brown eyed woman (4),
whose father was brown eyed (5) and whose mother (6) was blue eyed. They have one female
child who is blue eyed (7). Blue eyes are recessive.
a) Make a pedigree chart based on the above information
b) Label the genotypes of the individuals in the chart.

1) Regarding sex-linked traits, can a man be a carrier? Explain your answer.

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