Supraharmonics from Power Electronics Converters

Contribution to the ongoing work in CIGRE/CIRED/IEEE working group C4.24

Sarah K. Rönnberg, Aurora Gil-de Castro*, Math H.J. Bollen, Fellow, IEEE, Antonio Moreno-Munoz*, Senior
Member, IEEE, and Enrique Romero-Cadaval**, Senior Member, IEEE
Luleå University of Technology, Skellefteå, Sweden
*University of Cordoba, Cordoba, Spain
**University of Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain

Abstract— This paper summarizes the state of part of the II. ONGOING WORK IN OTHER WORKING GROUPS AND
discussions in CIGRE/CIRED/IEEE joined working group STANDARDIZATION BODIES
C4.24, especially where it concerns supraharmonics. There is an
increasing interest from the international smart grid standard- The subject of supraharmonics is also one of the subjects
setting community in knowledge about harmonics distortion in discussed in CIGRE C4/C6.29, “Power-quality aspects of solar
the frequency range 2 to 150 kHz, referred to as supraharmonics. power.”[3]. Potential interference issues in the frequency band
The paper presents measurements of waveform distortion from 9 to 150 kHz are discussed in CIGRE C4.31 in relation to
several illustrative installations and loads. The reduction of power-line communication. Within IEEE, supraharmonics have
emission in the lower-frequency ranges appears to result in an been discussed in IEEE P1250 (Power and Energy Society) and
increase in supraharmonic emission by equipment. Power are an important part of the scope of TC 7 of the IEEE EMC
electronics has emerged as a ubiquitous technology, which plays Society.
a critical role in almost any areas. Power electronics converter is
an important source of waveform distortion, but, as stated in this Several task forces and working groups within IEC TC77A
paper, power electronics can also be the key to mitigate cover this frequency range as well. Although the border
distortion, when the proper technology is employed. between TC 77A (low-frequency phenomena) and TC 77B
(high-frequency phenomena) is set at 9 kHz, this limit should
Keywords—Smart Grids; Power Quality; EMC; EMI; not be seen as having any other than historical importance. In
Harmonics; Supraharmonics; Power Electronics; Multilevel fact, the main developments towards new standardization in the
Converters, Random pulse width modulation band between 2 and 150 kHz are actually taking place in IEC
TC 77A, not in TC 77B.
I. INTRODUCTION.
Working group C4.24, “Power Quality and EMC Issues Within the European standardizing body Cenelec, the band
associated with future electricity networks”, is a joint working from 2 to 150 kHz is the subject of task force within the
group of CIGRE, CIRED and IEEE [1] with over 20 active working group that among others is responsible for the
members from countries all over the world. European voltage characteristics standard, EN 50160. The need
for standardization of supraharmonics is also mentioned in the
The mandate of the working group, as defined in its scope, application guide for EN 50160. Supraharmonics are also part
contains among others the following: “The emissions of IEC/TS 62749 “Assessment of power quality –
(harmonic and unbalance) by new types of devices connected Characteristics of electricity supplied by public networks”.
to the distribution network as production (DG) or consumption
(load), especially devices with active power-electronics Gathering information on observed interference due to
interface including equipment connected to low-voltage and emission of supraharmonics is done by CENELEC TC 210,
installations connected to higher voltage levels.” One of the with potential interference with power-line communication
subjects that are currently discussed within the working group being the main driving force.
is a mapping of the new developments in power electronics and Definition of power-quality indices to quantify the emission
how this is expected to impact power quality. Although the in this frequency range is part of the latest draft of the IEC
discussions within the group are still in a preliminary stage, an power-quality measurement standard, IEC 61000-4-30.
important conclusion is now already that the new developments
in power electronics will lead to an increase in emission levels The European standard on power-line communication (EN
in the frequency band between 2 and 150 kHz, also referred to 50065) and its IEC counterpart (IEC 61000-3-8) address the
as “supraharmonics” [2][4]. The paper will give an overview of frequency range from 9 to 148.5 kHz. Also standards CISPR
the current state of the discussion in the two above-mentioned 14 and CISPR 15 should be mentioned in this context. The
working groups where it concerns supraharmonics and their recently issued EN 56061-1 on power-line communication
relation to power electronic converters. The paper will apparatus for use in low voltage networks covers the frequency
especially address the emission of supraharmonics due to range 1.6065 through 30 MHz, but its scope covers frequencies
power electronics in LV installations. down to 9 kHz. Here again, the lower limit of 9 kHz has no
other than historical origins.

978-1-4799-6301-0/15/$31.00 ©2015 IEEE 539

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 III. STATE OF THE ART. OVERVIEW OF SUPRAHARMONICS D. Propagation
A. Supraharmonics The propagation properties are significantly different for
the two types of emission discussed in the previous section.
The term supraharmonics is recent, being first mentioned Both measurements and simulations show that the remnants
during the IEEE Power & Energy Society General Meeting in from the switching frequency mainly move between the
2013 [5]. Engineering and trouble-shooting related to emission individual devices in an installation and not into the grid
in the range 2 to 150 kHz is much older and might go back [[8][9]]. The simulations indicate that this is due to the
several decades. Research and publications covering the range capacitors of the EMC filters within the individual devices. The
goes back about 10 years, with the main systematic research simulations also indicate that the emission absorbed by a
merely starting. device coming from neighbouring devices, shows only a
B. Drivers limited increase with the number of devices. The possible role
of grid impedance and resonances is studied in [10] but without
There are multiple reasons for the earlier lack of interest in
clear conclusions.
supraharmonics: difficulties in measurement technology; lack
of standardized or commonly accepted measurement and For the zero-sequence distortion, the aggregation of the
analysis techniques; lack of documented interference issues; emission from different devices takes place in a completely
and even lack of understanding. The “power quality field” different way, according to measurements [8]. Measurements
would cover frequencies up to about 2 kHz above which for up to 48 fluorescent lamps with high-frequency electronic
emission were perceived as too low to be of interest and above ballast show that the amplitude of the zero-sequence
which most measurement equipment would no longer give any oscillations increases with the number of lamps to the power of
useful data, whereas the “electromagnetic compatibility field” 0.7. As yet, no simulation results are available to describe the
would cover frequencies from 150 kHz, where radio observed phenomena.
interference would start to play a role.
E. Primary and secondary emission
The recent interest in supraharmonics is triggered on one Another important conclusion from the measurements and
hand by the growth of emission in this frequency range, as we simulations is that there are two driving forces for the currents
will discuss below; and on the other hand by the increasing use at the interface between a device and the grid. The resulting
of power-line communication using roughly the same currents are referred to as “primary emission” and “secondary
frequency band. emission” in [9]. The primary emission is driven by power
C. Origin electronics or other sources inside the device. The secondary
emission is driven by elsewhere. The latter one plays a much
The most-widely cited origin of supraharmonics is as a
bigger role for supraharmonics than for (low-frequency)
remnant of the switching frequency of active power-electronic
harmonics.
converters. For high-power equipment, these switching
frequencies can be as low as 1 kHz, but for most equipment the
switching frequency is in the range 2 to 150 kHz. There is yet
no comprehensive overview of the emission by individual
1

devices but measurements of lighting technology and other 0.5

Current (A)

low-power equipment indicates that switching frequencies 0

between 40 and 50 kHz are rather common. This could be due
to lower frequencies interfering with infrared remote controls -0.5

and higher switching frequencies resulting in the third -1

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
harmonic ending up above 150 kHz, where very strict emission 0.3 Ti ( )

limits apply. 0.2

Current (A)

0.1

Another source of emission in the frequency range 2 to 0

150 kHz is the so-called “zero-crossing distortion” that is -0.1

associated with active power-factor correction circuits. The -0.2

active switching typically switches off for a short period 10 15 20 25

Time (ms)
30 35 40

around the voltage zero crossing and an oscillation occurs -3

x 10
when the switching is re-established [6].
6
Current (ARMS)

Power-line communication takes place in the frequency 4

range 9 to 148.5 kHz, which corresponds closely with the

frequency range for supraharmonics. Levels of emission 2

allowed and observed for power-line communication are 0

significantly higher that what has been observed due to end- 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Frequency (kHz)
140 160 180 200

user equipment [2]. An overview of the different ways of

interference between power-line communication and end-user Fig. 1. Supraharmonics with the electronic ballast of a fluorescent lamp:
equipment is given in [7]. current waveform (top); high-pass filtered waveform (middle) and spectrum
(bottom).

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 IV. MEASUREMENTS OF SUPRAHARMONIC EMISSION FROM
DIFFERENT POWER ELECTRONICS INSTALLATIONS
Measurements of supraharmonics emission have been
presented by several authors. Here we will just show some
illustrative examples. The emission from a fluorescent lamp
with high-frequency ballast is shown in Fig. 1. Both the zero-
crossing oscillations and the remnants from the switching
frequency are clearly visible.
The previous figure shows frequency domain and time
domain measurements, the latter with and without high-pass
filtering. These three methods of presentation are very common Fig. 3. . Overview of converter technology.
in this frequency range. Next to that, the use of the time-
frequency domain, or spectrogram, is common. An example is Since their first appearance in the mid-nineties, MCs have
shown in Fig. 2, showing how the emission changes at time been gaining considerable popularity across all industries,
scales less than one cycle. mostly in the medium and high power applications. There are a
recent variety of applications with MCs including induction
110 machine and motor drives, active rectifiers, power quality
100 filters, interfaces of renewable energy sources, flexible AC
90 transmission systems (FACTS), and HVDC. A comprehensive
80
historical review can be found in [12]. Nowadays, the most
common and established topologies are the neutral point
Frequency (kHz)

70
clamped (NPC) or diode clamped, the flying capacitor (FC) or
60 capacitor clamped, and the cascaded H-bridge (CHB). A brief
50 comparison among their characteristics is presented in the table
40 I. Their schemes and detailed operation can be found in [13].
30
TABLE I. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ML CONVERTER
20 TOPOLOGIES
10
Topology NPC FC CHB
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Power 2(m-1) 2(m-1) 2(m-1)
Time (ms) semiconductor
switches
Fig. 2. Spectrogram of the current taken by a TV. Clamping diodes (m-1)(m-2) 0 0
per phase
The spectrogram has shown to be a valuable tool in DC bus capacitors (m-1) (m-1) (m-1)/2
understanding the origins of supraharmonic emission. It has Balancing 0 (m-1)(m- 0
also been used to illustrate the impact of primary and capacitors per 2)/2
phase
secondary emission [11].
Voltage Average High Very small
unbalancing
V. SUPRAHARMONIC REDUCTION PROVIDED BY
Applications Motor drive, Motor drive, Motor drive, PV,
MULTILEVEL CONVERTERS. FACTS FACTS fuel cells, battery
The use of power electronics (PE) has been driven among system
others to improve the voltage and current-handling capability
and the switching speed of power semiconductor devices. In addition to these topologies, several modulation and
Nonetheless, even nowadays it is hard to connect a single control strategies have been developed or adopted for MC
power semiconductor switch directly to medium voltage grids. including the following: multilevel sinusoidal pulse width
The series connection of standard low-voltage switching modulation (SPWM), multilevel selective harmonic
devices enables to synthesize a medium voltage output, while elimination (SHE-PWM), and space-vector modulation (SVM).
the power semiconductors need to withstand only part of the As in two level converters, in MC is common practice to use
voltage. The addition of several low voltage cells per arm Third Harmonic injection PWM (THPWM). As seen in Fig. 4,
provides high scalability, leading to reduced cost and volume the modulation methods used in MC can be classified
of the entire solution. Moreover, it allows a more creative use according to switching frequencies as follows [14]: 1)
of these additional switches in novel modulation strategies, fundamental switching frequency, where each inverter has only
which enable to enhance the quality of output voltages and one commutation per cycle, for example, multilevel SHE-
input currents, originating the multilevel converter (MC) PWM or SVM, and 2) high switching frequency, where each
technology. inverter has several commutations per cycle, for example,
multilevel SPWM or SVM. For high-power applications, high
switching frequencies are considered those above 1 kHz.

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 in opposite phase of the negative carriers, known as phase
opposition disposition (POD); and alternate phase opposition
disposition (APOD), which is obtained by alternating the phase
between adjacent carriers. Among them, the PD is preferred
because it provides the best harmonic profile. However the
switching devices operate at different switching frequency with
various conduction times, thus only it is possible to affirm that
the “average” device switching frequency is fsw,dev = fsw,inv /(m-
1). LS-PWM leads to less distorted line voltages since all the
carriers are in phase compared to PS-PWM. However, this
method produces an uneven distribution of power among cells,
which produces a high harmonic content in the input current.
A comprehensive comparison of different topologies can be
found in [18] [19]. Comparing with two-level VSC topology
having the same power, MLC has lower voltage distortion. It is
possible to adopt an optimum low frequency harmonic
elimination technique, allowing switching frequencies below 2
Fig. 4. Overview of multi-level converter control schemes kHz; thus enabling lower common mode voltage, lower voltage
stress on power switches, lower dv/dt ratio. In that way the
Methods that work with low switching frequencies
Electromagnetic emission is reduced while increasing the
generally perform one or two commutations of the power
converter efficiency.
semiconductors during one cycle of the output voltages,
generating a staircase waveform. Representatives of this family An example of the current spectrum, obtained from a
are the SHE-PWM and the SVM; techniques that can be easily simulation, for a conventional two-level inverter and multi-
extended to all MCs. level converters is shown in Fig. 5. The two converters have
been exposed to exactly the same loading conditions (passive
Space-vector PWM methods generally have the following
resistive/inductive load) and terminal impedance. The selected
features: good utilization of dc-link voltage, low current ripple,
switching frequency is also equal for both converters. Looking
and relatively easy hardware implementation. These features
into detail at different frequencies, the emission of the two-
make it suitable for high-voltage high-power applications [15].
level converter reaches a maximum of 1.9% at 2.65 kHz; in the
The SHE-PWM is one of the low-switching frequency case of the five-level converter, the emission reaches a
strategies most used today, in which a few (generally from maximum of 0.8% at 2.45 kHz. Higher frequencies than 20
three to seven) switching angles per quarter fundamental cycle kHz reach values of 0.041% in the two-level and 0.0127% in
are predefined and precalculated via Fourier analysis to the five-level case. Therefore, overall, the emission of the
eliminate selected harmonics in the voltage and, thereby, in the multi-level converter in the supraharmonic range is
current[16] [17]. significantly less than for the two-level converter.
Multicarrier-based PWM uses several triangular carrier
signals, which can be modified in phase (Phase-shifted PS-
PWM) or vertical position (Level-shifted LS-PWM) in order to
reduce the output voltage harmonic content.
PS-PWM is the most commonly used technique,
specifically for FC and CHB, because it offers an evenly power
distribution among cells and it is very easy to implement. In a
MC with m voltage levels, (m-1) triangular carriers are
required. Thus, a phase shift of 360º/(m-1) is introduced
between the unipolar switching pattern of contiguous cells. An
advantageous feature is that the effective switching frequency
of the load voltage is (m-1) times the switching frequency of
each cell, as determined by its carrier signal. This property
allows a reduction in the switching frequency of each cell, thus
reducing the switching losses. Thereby, a better total harmonic
distortion (THD) is obtained. (e.g. m = 7, fm = 60 Hz, mf = 10,
fsw,dev = fcr = fm*mf = 600 Hz → fsw,inv = (m-1)* fsw,dev = 6* fsw,dev,
THDVAN = 18.8%, THDVAB = 15.6%)
LS-PWM is widely used in NPC converters, since each
carrier can be easily associated to two power switches of the Fig. 5. Spectrum of the current emitted by a two-level (top) and a five-level
converter. They can be arranged in vertical shifts, with all the (bottom) converter. Note the difference in vertical scale.
signals in phase with each other, called in phase disposition
(PD); with all the positive carriers in phase with each other and

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 VI. SUPRAHARMONIC REDUCTION USING SPREAD- Thus, RPWM allows the pulse width to vary but the average
SPECTRUM MODULATION TECHNIQUES pulse width is equal to the required duty cycle. On the other
hand, the sampling frequencies of RCFMFD and RCFMVD
Traditionally, harmonic distortion studies only deal with
change randomly. RCFMFD exhibits a randomized switching
low-frequency harmonics (< 2 kHz). The conventional PWM
period Tk and constant duty cycle, while RCFMVD results in
technique aimed at reducing emission below 2 kHz. The same
random duty while keeping the on-time period constant.
holds for alternative techniques like hysteresis control.
Nowadays, RCFMFD is the only random approach available
Unfortunately, this leads to emission at PWM switching
commercially, under the name of “Spread Spectrum
frequency and its multiples, in the RF (10 kHz–30 MHz) range.
Technique”. This is accomplished by the variable regulation of
This is an important cause of supraharmonic emission from PE
the frequency of the inner oscillator of the IC [22].
converters with active switching.
All the above techniques can be analogically implemented,
Spreading the spectrum of the emission means distributing
within the framework of the natural PWM sampling
the energy that was originally concentrated at the switching
techniques, where determination of pulse edges is based on
frequency and its harmonics over a wider band, thereby
crossing of the modulating and carrying signals. On the other
reducing peak energy. This is achieved by modulating the
hand, regular sampling method is the named solution for digital
signal slowly between two frequency boundaries (usually
implementation of the PWM function method [23]. Fig. 7
±10% of the fundamental switching frequency), typically in a
shows the results of the RPPM technique implemented
randomized manner. If the switching function is non-
digitally, although referred to as “random centre displacement”
deterministic then its frequency spectrum will be continuous
(RCD). Starting from a deterministic regular symmetrical
because of non-periodicity of the signal. As a result, the
PWM, it consist in displacing the pulse centre by a random
average spectral power density of the broadband emission can
amount ΔT from the alignment reference [24].
be drastically reduced. This technique is used to overcome
interference caused by the supraharmonics in the conventional Deterministic Symmetric regular-sampled PWM (ma=0.90,fs=3050,mf=61)

|X(f)| (% fundamental)
PWM-controlled PE converters. Additionally, the low- 0.4

frequency emission is minimal. 0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)
Random Symmetric regular-sampled PWM (ma=0.90,fs=3050,mf=61)
|X(f)|(% fundamental)

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)

Fig. 6. Switching signal in randomized modulation scheme

Fig. 7. Emission reduction obtained by random centre displacement PWM
Several random switching PWM schemes are as follow
[20] [21]: carrier frequency modulation fixed duty (RCFMFD), VII. CONCLUSIONS
random carrier frequency modulation variable duty As mentioned before, no large-scale mapping of the
(RCFMVD), random PWM (RPWM), and random-pulse- emission from individual devices has been done yet. Therefore
position modulation (RPPM). The main characteristics of the it is too early to know if the examples given in this paper are
different switching strategies are summarized in Table II, with typical or not. The available measurements are also almost
the aid of Fig. 6 where Tk is the duration of the kth cycle; αk is exclusively made for low-power equipment.
the duration of the on-state within this cycle and εk is the delay
In standardization, a distinction is made between low-
time of this on-pulse from the beginning of the switching cycle;
frequency and high-frequency phenomena with 9 kHz being
the duty cycle dk is equal to αk/Tk.
the border. There is however, apart from historical reasons, no
TABLE II. CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT RANDOM
reason for this distinction.
SWITCHING SCHEMES
Power electronics is an important source of waveform
Modulation Tk αk εk dk=αk/Tk distortion, but power electronics can also be used to mitigate
PWM fixed fixed zero fixed distortion. Distortion in the lower-frequency range (below 1 or
RPPM fixed fixed random fixed 2 kHz) can for example be mitigated using active switching.
RPWM fixed random zero random Emission of supraharmonics from the active switching can be
RCFMFD random random zero fixed mitigated by using clever switching patterns.
RCFMVD random fixed zero random
VIII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
RPPM is similar to the classical PWM scheme with Although the authors have tried to describe the state of the
constant switching frequency. However, the pulse position is discussions within the working group as accurate as possible,
randomized within each switching period, instead of starting at this paper is not a working group paper. The opinions
the beginning of each cycle. The delay time εk controls the expressed in this paper may deviate from the ones of the
randomness level in RPPM scheme. For RPWM, each pulse working group, from CIGRE, from CIRED and from IEEE.
starts without time delay (i.e., εk=0), but αk is randomized.

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 The contribution from other members of the working group [11] A. Gil-de-Castro, S.K. Rönnberg, M.H.J. Bollen, Harmonic interaction
to the discussions that resulted in this paper is gratefully between an electric vehicle and different domestic equipment, IEEE
EMC Europe Conference, September 2014.
acknowledged.
[12] Akagi, H., "Classification, Terminology, and Application of the Modular
This research is partially supported by FEDER- Multilevel Cascade Converter (MMCC)," Power Electronics, IEEE
INNTERCONECTA project Total Integrated GRid Intelligent Transactions on , vol.26, no.11, pp.3119,3130, Nov. 2011
System (TIGRIS) ITC-20131002, under contract no. 12013095 [13] Rodriguez, Jose, et al. "Multilevel converters: An enabling technology
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