CHAPTER

Classification of Materials
Handling Equipment 4.0

4.1 BASIC EQUIPMENT TYPES

The nature of industries, manufacturing processes involved and types / designs of machines &
plants in operation are innumerable, consequently the variety of materials handling equipment and sys-
tems used in industry is also very large in number and diverse in concept and design. New equipment
are being designed and manufactured continuously. It is difficult even to mention about all types of
materials handling equipment being used, detailed discussions on their functions and design aspects is
just impossible within the limited span of the present book.
It is therefore, essential to classify such large number of materials handling equipment into a few ‘‘basic
types’’ for meaningful discussion of these equipment. There has been many attempts by stalwarts in the
field of materials handling to classify equipment in different ways. However, in the present book, clas-
sification based on the following basic types of equipment will be followed, which is in line with that
followed by many practitioners and authors:
(i) Industrial Vehicles/Trucks.
(ii) Conveyors.
(iii) Hoisting Equipment.
(iv) Bulk Handling Equipment/System.
(v) Robotic handling system.
(vi) Containers and Supports.
(vii) Auxiliary Equipment.
In above classification the ‘‘transportation equipment’’ group has been excluded. However, it is
to be noted that some of the road and railroad transportation equipment may often be used as common
materials handling equipment inside a large industry or construction site.
There are sub-classifications under each type and there are different individual equipment under each of
these sub classifications, with their individual utility and design features. However, since classification
into above types form a convenient basis for discussing materials handling equipment, these are briefly
described below, while the sub-classifications and examples of a few widely used individual equipment
are listed in section 4.2. It is to be noted that there are equipment which may not quite fit in the above
scheme of classification or may be classified under more than one category.

Industrial Vehicles/Trucks
These are manual or power driven vehicles suitable for movement of mixed or unitized load,
intermittently, where primary function is maneuvering or transporting. The vehicle/truck is physically
moved along with the load from one point to another via a flat or slightly inclined route. This classifica-
tion excludes highway vehicles, railroad cars, marine carriers and aircrafts.

29
30 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS HANDLING

Conveyors
These are gravity or powered equipment commonly used for moving bulk or unit load continu-
ously or intermittently, uni-directionally from one point to another over fixed path, where the primary
function is conveying of the material by the help of movement of some parts/components of the equip-
ment. The equipment as a whole does not move.

Hoisting Equipment
These equipment are generally utilized to lift and lower and move unit and varying loads inter-
mittently, between points within an area known as the reach of the equipment, where the primary func-
tion is transferring. A hoisting equipment may also be mounted on a powered vehicle when the move-
ment of the lifted load is not limited within a fixed area of operation.

Bulk Handling Equipment/System

In the large process industries and constructional projects, a wide range of heavy equipment are
used for handling and storage of large amount of bulk solids. These are called bulk handling equipment.

Robotic Handling System

Specially designed robots are increasingly being used in materials handling application, particu-
larly in loading and unloading of jobs to and form a machine or a machining cell.

Containers and Supports

This classification generally includes all types of secondary devices and aids which are utilized
for storing, unitizing and movement of materials. Different types of pressure, tight, loose, closed and
open-top containers; platforms and coil supports and different securements such as strapping, cinches
(chain, rope, cables with tighteners), bulkheads, dunnage etc. are examples of secondary devices and
aids.

Auxiliary Equipment
A large number of equipment and attachments which cannot be classified under above heads, but
are frequently used independently or in conjunction with some other materials handling equipment, are
classified in this type.

4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF HANDLING EQUIPMENT

The major sub classifications and some of the common individual equipment under these sub-
classifications are mentioned in the following lists:

I. Industrial Vehicles / Trucks

A. Non-Powered B. Powered
1. dolly 1. fork lift truck
2. wheelbarrow 2. front-end truck
3. 2-wheel hand truck 3. narrow aisle truck
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS HANDLING EQUIPMENT 31

4.4-wheel hand truck (a) pallet

(a) box (b) skid
(b) platform 4. platform truck
(c) special 5. platform lift truck
5. hand lift (jack) truck 6. reach truck
(a) pallet 7. side loader truck
(b) skid 8. straddle truck (out-rigger)
(c) special. 9. straddle carrier
6. lift table 10. walkie
7. semi-live skid 11. tractor
8. trailer 12. industrial car
(a) mine and quarry car.
(b) furnace and oven car.
(c) hot metal and ladle car.
13. truck (road)
14. locomotives

II. Conveyors

A. Belt Conveyor C. Haulage Conveyor

1. flat (A special class of chain conveyor in which
2. trough load is pushed or pulled and the weight is
3. closed carried by stationary troughs, surfaces or rail.)
4. metallic 1. drag chain
5. portable 2. flight
6. telescoping 3. tow
B. Chain Conveyor (a) over-head
1. apron or pan (b) flush-floor
2. slat (c) under-floor
3. cross-bar or arm D. Cable Conveyor
4. car type/pallet E. Bucket Conveyor
5. en-mass 1. gravity discharge
6. carrier chain and flat-top 2. pivoted bucket
7. trolley 3. bucket elevator (also included under III)
8. power and free F. Roller Conveyor
9. suspended tray or swing-tray 1. gravity
2. powered/driven
3. portable
32 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS HANDLING

G. Screw Conveyor I. Hydraulic Conveyor

H. Pneumatic Conveyor
1. pipe line
2. air-activated gravity (airslide)
3. tube

III. Hoists, Elevators and Cranes IV. Bulk and Miscellaneous Handling Equipment

A. Hoist A. Excavator
1. chain B. Belt wagon/mobile transfer conveyor
2. powered
C. Spreader
B. Winch D. Stacker, Reclaimer and Stacker reclaimer
C. Elevator
E. Ship loader and unloader
1. bucket
(a) centrifugal discharge F. Container handling crane
(b) positive discharge
(c) continuous discharge G. Dumper and Loader
2. skip hoist
3. freight H. Tippler truck, Wagon tippler etc.
4. lift
D. Crane
V. Robotic Handling Systems
1. jib
(a) fixed pillar
(b) travelling
(c) fixed-tower hammerhead
2. travelling (on rail runways)
(a) bridge
(b) gantry
3. wharf
4. pillar
5. tower
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS HANDLING EQUIPMENT 33

6. mobile
(a) crawler
(b) truck and wagon
(c) railroad/locomotive
(d) floating
7. derrick

VI. Containers and Supports VII. Auxiliary Equipment

A. Shop Containers A. Gates

1. bag B. Feeders
2. box and container
3. craton C. Chutes
4. crate
5. pallet box D. Positioners
6. skid box
7. tote box, pan and basket E. Ball table
8. tray
F. Weighing and Controlling Equipment
B. Bulk Containers
G. Pallet Loaders and Unloaders
1. barrel
2. drum H. Forklift Truck Attachment
3. tank
4. bin and silo, bunker, hopper. I. Crane Attachment
5. ladle
J. Packaging Equipment
C. Shipping Containers
1. bulk
2. freight
3. liquid
D. Supports
1. pallet
2. skid
3. tables and tray
4. rack
5. reel, spool, cone, core
6. securing devices (strappings, cinches, bulkheads etc.)
34 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS HANDLING

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Apple, J.A., ‘‘Material Handling System Design’’, John Wiley & Sons.
2. Immer, J.R., ‘‘Materials Handling’’, McGraw Hills.
3. Spivakovsky, A. and Dyachkov, V., ‘‘Conveyors and Related Equipment’’, Peace Publishers,
Moscow.
4. Rudenko, N., ‘‘Materials Handling Equipment’’, Peace Publishers, Moscow.
5. Alexandrov, M.P., ‘‘Materials Handling Equipment, Part-I and II’’, Mir Publishers, Moscow.
6. Bdz, H.A. and Hagemann, G.E. (ed.), “Materials Handling Handbook”, Ronald Press.
 CHAPTER

Industrial Vehicles/Trucks 5.0

Industrial vehicles/trucks is one of the most common group of materials handling equipment
used in industry as well as in day to day distribution of goods in warehouses, large stores, transport
depots etc. Basic definition of industrial trucks and their classifications have already been discussed in
chapter 4. In this chapter, operation and constructional features of some of the common types of indus-
trial trucks will be discussed. The adjective ‘‘industrial’’ used before this group of vehicles / trucks is to
distinguish these from other group of vehicles like bus, lorry, truck etc. used for transportation of man,
live stock or goods.
The entire range of industrial vehicles/trucks are generally sub-classified into two groups viz. non-
powered truck, (also called hand trucks) and powered trucks.
The powered trucks can be further subdivided into following three subgroups, for convenience of
discussion:
(a) Power Truck.
(b) Forklift Truck.
(c) Tractor.

5.1 HAND TRUCKS

Hand trucks, as the name implies, have no source of motive power, these are generally moved
manually or are attached to other powered moving equipment/units. Hand trucks are classified into three
sub groups (i) 2-Wheel hand truck, (ii) multiple-wheel hand truck and (iii) Hand lift truck.

5.1.1 Two-wheel Hand Trucks

These are generally used for moving unit or unitized loads like bags, barrels, boxes, cartons,
bales, cylinders etc. by pushing the truck manually.
Basically it consists of two long handles fixed by a number of cross bars which from the frame to carry
the load. Two wheels mounted on an axle is fixed on far end of the frame. Two short legs are generally
fixed to the two handles at the other end to allow the hand truck to stay in a horizontal position during
loading and unloading of the truck. Constructional feature of a common 2-wheel hand truck is shown in
Fig. 5.1.1.

35
36 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS HANDLING

3 1

4
1. Handle 2. Side rail 5 4 3
3. Leg 4. Leg brace 5. Top cross-
14
bar 6. 3rd crossbar 7. 2nd cross- 6
bar 8. 1st crossbar 9. Nose 12
10. Axle brace 11. Axle 12. Pressed 7 14
steel wheel 13. Retaining ring 13
14. Axle bracket 15. Nut, bolt 11 12
8
and lock washer

10
9

Fig. 5.1.1. Parts of common 2-wheel hand truck

Different varieties of 2-wheel trucks are in use based on the type of loads to be handled. Some of these,
which are variations of the basic design, are illustrated in Figure 5.1.2 below indicating the type of load
they are used for.

Single-cylinder Pry truck

truck

Fig. 5.1.2. Different types of 2-wheel hand trucks

Pry trucks having a crowbar nose, pry up a heavy load and roll it away. These are used for loads too
heavy for ordinary 2-wheel trucks. They are often used in pairs by two men.

5.1.2 Multiple-wheel Hand Trucks

These trucks generally consists of a platform or framework mounted on 3 or 4 or more number of
wheels. The truck is generally provided with a handle for pushing or pulling the platform. Certain trucks
are provided with no handle or detachable handle.
INDUSTRIAL VEHICLES/TRUCKS 37

Trucks under this subgroup can be classified in the following individual equipment:
Dollies: These units consists of a wooden or metallic low platform or frame of different shapes
(rectangular, triangular or circular) and sizes depending on the load to be carried. The frames are pro-
vided with different numbers of wheels, fixed and / or swivel caster type. No handle is provided. These
are moved by pushing the load itself. Fig. 5.1.3 shows some of the different design of dollies.

Fig. 5.1.3. Different designs of dollies

Platform Trucks: These are basically larger version of dollies in which metallic frames are
generally of rectangular shape and produced in many sizes in light, medium and heavy-duty construc-
tion. Handle at one or both ends are provided for pushing. There are two basic chassis construction from
the point of view of wheel arrangement: (a) tilt or balance type which have rigid wheels at the center of
the platform and set of one or two swivel casters located at two ends of the platform permitting
maneuverability. (b) non tilt type where the rigid wheels are at one end and the swivel casters, usually
smaller in size, located at the other end, so that all the wheels are active always (Fig. 5.1.4). The plat-
form may be provided with corner posts or various types of steel slat racks and frames to avoid slippage
/ spilling of the load (Fig. 5.1.5). Platform trucks may be built with extra reinforcement and provided
with suitable coupler so that they may be used for light-duty trailer service or towline conveyor system.

Fig. 5.1.4. Not tilt type platform truck

Fig. 5.1.5. Various types of rack bodies used on platform trucks

38 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS HANDLING

Semi-live skid platform: These are basically flat platforms with two load wheels on one end and
two legs at the other. The skid platform with load is activated by a lift jack, which is a long handle with
a pair of wheels and a hook. The hook engages with a coupling at the leg end of the platform and gives
a jacking or prying action to lift the legs from ground/floor. The unit thus becomes a 3 wheel platform
truck. Fig. 5.1.6 illustrates a semi-live skid platform.

Fig. 5.1.6. Semi-live skid platform

5.1.3 Hand Lift Trucks

These hand trucks are provided with a mechanism of lifting its platform, which can be rolled
under a pallet or skid, and raised to lift the pallet or skid with load to clear the ground and then move this
load from one place to another. Depending on the lifting mechanism, these are grouped into hydraulic or
mechanical type. Hand lift trucks are widely used in small to medium sized manufacturing industries
using pallets, skids and/or containers.
Hydraulic lifting mechanism: This consists of a hydraulic ram (single acting cylinder), an oil
storage vessel and a plunger pump. The handle of the truck is connected to the plunger of the pump
though suitable mechanism, such that when the handle is moved up and down, the pump forces a certain
quantity of oil into the ram which through suitable linkage mechanism raises the platform with load.
Capacity range of hydraulic hand lift trucks vary between ½ ton to 10 tons. The platform is lowered by
releasing a flow control valve to allow the pressurized oil to go back to tank, and the ram is retracted by
the load itself.
Mechanical lifting mechanism: This mechanism is operated by a system of levers. The plat-
form is raised by actuating a handle, which in turn, raises a pawl that falls into a slot or groove. Lower-
ing is accomplished by releasing the pawl. There are single stroke, low-lift mechanisms also. Capacity
of mechanical hand lift trucks is generally limited to 1 ton.
Both hydraulic and mechanical hand lift trucks are further classified, based on general constructional
features, into: (a) pallet, (b) platform and (c) special types.
(a) A hand pallet truck is used for handling pallets. It consists of two strongly built metallic
fingers, popularly called forks, connected at one end to give a U-shape. The lifting mechanism
is housed at this end. At the outer ends of each fork a wheel is provided, which acts in accord-
ance with the lifting system. The connected end is mounted on a pair of large sized wheels
which can be steered. Fig. 5.1.7 shows photographic view of hydraulic hand pallet trucks. The
Fig. 5.1.8 shows typical operation of the truck where the forks are introduced inside a pallet and
the forks are raised with the pallet. Fig. 5.1.9 shows line diagram with important dimensions of
such a truck. IS:5007-1988 lays down recommended dimensions of fingers (forks) of hand
pallet trucks in line with recommended pallet dimensions.
INDUSTRIAL VEHICLES/TRUCKS 39

( a) ( b)
Fig. 5.1.7. Hydraulic hand pallet truck : Fig. 5.1.8. Operation of a pallet truck
(a) low-lift (b) high-lift
1224

870
421.5

85
200

180

364 1150
170

540,570,670,705
5°
10

10
5°

Fig. 5.1.9. Typical dimensions of a pallet truck

(b) Platform lift truck is similar to a pallet truck excepting that instead of two forks it has a
platform, which can be raised. The platform may be solid or of open frame structure. These
trucks are generally used with skids. Load capacity and nominal sizes of standard trucks of this
kind vary within ranges : ½ ton to 3 tons, 450 mm to 680 mm width, 750 mm to 1800 mm length
and lift heights from 150 mm to higher values (see Fig. 5.1.10).
40 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS HANDLING

(a) (b)

Fig. 5.1.10. Scissor design platform lift trucks : mechanical type (a) or hydrautic type (b)
(c) Lifting feature has been utilized in designing various types of lifting trucks for handling various
specialized load in industries. All these are called special hand lift trucks as a group. A coil
(reel) handling hydraulic lift truck is an example.

5.2 POWER TRUCKS

When a vehicle / truck contains its own source of motive power, it is called a power truck. Power
trucks are divided into several categories of equipment. The wide varieties of powered industrial trucks
have been classified into the following six groups in BIS specification number IS 7217:1990 and IS
4660:1993:
(i) mode of action
(ii) power source
(iii) type of wheel
(iv) mode of control
(v) height of lift
(vi) mode of travel
Functions with sketches of different classes of fixed and lift powered trucks have been described
in specification no. IS 4660:1993, while various nomenclatures pertaining to powered industrial trucks
are available in the other specification IS 7217:1990.
Out of these, a few common categories have been discussed below:

5.2.1 Fixed Platform Truck (powered)

These are powered (battery, diesel or gas operated) industrial trucks having a fixed level, non-
elevating platform for carrying load. Materials to be moved have to be loaded and unloaded to and from
the platform by hand, hoist or carne. Capacities of these trucks can go upto 40 tons. Smaller capacity
models are called load carriers. Operator normally stands on the truck and runs it. Platform trucks are
particularly useful for occasional handling of heavy loads.
Variations of normal platform truck are (i) drop platform truck, (ii) drop center baggage truck in
which the central platform between two sets of wheels is very close to floor. Fig. 5.2.1 shows photo-
graphic views of different types powered platform trucks.
INDUSTRIAL VEHICLES/TRUCKS 41

Flat bed gasolline truck Drop platform truck Drop-centre baggage truck

Fig. 5.2.1. Different designs of platform truck.

5.2.2 Platform Lift Truck (powered)

These equipment are a particular type of powered platform truck, whose platform can be raised
and lowered to handle loads on skids. Range of lift of the platform may be ‘‘low-lift’’, upto 300 mm or
‘‘high-lift’’, over 300 mm.

5.2.3 Pallet Lift Truck (powered)

These are similar to platform lift truck in which the platform is replaced by forks to work also
with loads on pallets. These are basically forenummer of fork-lift trucks. Low-lift models (Fig. 5.2.2)
are used for movement of materials only while the high-lift models are used for stacking of pallet/skids
one over another or in storage racks. Different variations of high-lift truck have been built. Some of
these are:

Fig. 5.2.2. Pallet lift truck (battery)

(a) Reach truck: In this design the forks can reach out on a pantographic mechanism which permits
the forks to travel forward to engage load, lift it, and then retracts towards the mast before travel
starts. These are of great use for warehousing and loading/unloading vehicles.
(b) Side loader truck: In this design the operational direction of the forks is at right angles to the
movement of the truck. The major benefit of the design is that the truck need not turn into the
load. The truck can move along a narrow aisle of a warehouse, and the fork can load / unload
42 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS HANDLING

from the rack directly. These are particularly used for narrow aisle working and also for storing
long loads (pipes, structural steel, logs etc.). Fig.5.2.3 shows a side loader truck. It needs spe-
cially trained operator.

Fig. 5.2.3. Narrow aisle side loader

5.2.4 Walkie Truck

This term implies different types of powered trucks described above, when the operator walks
with the truck and operates it by means of controls available on the truck handle. Fig. 5.2.4 shows a
walkie pallet truck and a walkie stacker truck.

Walkie stacker Walkie pallet

Courtesy : Godrej & Boyce Mfg. Co. Ltd., Mumbai.

Fig. 5.2.4. Walkie trucks
INDUSTRIAL VEHICLES/TRUCKS 43

Walkie trucks are smaller, lighter and slower than rider-types, generally powered by battery.
These are designed to fill the gap between hand trucks and powered rider-trucks in which the operator
stands/sits on the truck.

5.2.5 Straddle Carrier

This is a self-loading powered truck for movement of long and heavy loads including shipping
containers. The truck consists of a inverted “U” shaped frame having wheels mounted on outside of the
frame. The truck can straddle a load / loads, picks it up with hydraulically operated load carrying shoes,
mounted inside the frame, and then move with the load and unload it very quickly at a desired location.
Capacities up to 40 tons is common (Fig. 5.2.5).

Fig. 5.2.5. Straddle carrier

5.3 FORK LIFT TRUCKS

Amongst the powered industrial vehicle/truck family, most versatile, useful and widely used
equipment is industrial lift trucks, popularly called forklift trucks (FLT in short). These are self loading,
counterbalanced, powered, wheeled vehicles, with the operator seating on the vehicle, designed to raise,
move and lower load on forks or other attachments fastened to a mast which is fixed in front of the
vehicle to allow lifting and stacking of loads. forklift trucks are used for lifting, lowering, stacking,
unstacking, loading and unloading and maneuvering of medium to large weight, uniform shaped unit
loads, intermittently. However, the limitations of these equipment are (i) usually requires pallet/skid/
container, (ii) requires skilled operator, (iii) equipment needs maintenance facility, (iv) capacity of these
equipment vary from 1ton upto about 60 tons, (v) slow travel speed (10-15 kmph) , (vi) suitable for short
hauls (hundreds of meters).
Other features of a forklift truck are:
(i) The source of power is petrol/diesel or LP gas engine or a battery driven motor.
(ii) The mast may be tilted forward or backward within a range, for better stability during
movement with load and also to facilitate loading and unloading. In a particular design the
mast may be moved outboard and inboard on tracks laid over the chassis of the truck.
44 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS HANDLING

(iii) The mast may be a single mast or may be telescoping in design which allows high lifting of
the load for trucks that must run through limited head room areas.
(iv) In certain designs, the forks are independently retractable outboard and inboard through
pantograph mechanism. Loads are picked up and placed while forks are outboard but are
moved inboard for greater stability during movement.
(v) The operation of the mast and movement of the forks (or any other attachment) are through
a hydraulic power pack.
(vi) The body of the truck is purposely built heavy which act as counter load while lifting loads
on forks/attachments.
(vii) Solid rubber tyres are provided for operation in different floor conditions. The rear two
wheels are steered for manipulation of the forks/attachment fixed in front of the truck.
Fig. 5.3.1 is a line diagram showing major parts of a forklift truck.

Steering Wheel Overhead guard

Mast
Counter weight

Fork arm carrier

Fork arms

Chassis
Drive axle Steer axle

Fig. 5.3.1. Parts of a forklift truck

Fig. 5.3.2 shows photographs of a few designs of Forklift Trucks and their use.

Diesel operated FLT Single mast FLT, forks raised 12 tons tilting mast diesel operated FLT
INDUSTRIAL VEHICLES/TRUCKS 45

Battery operated FLT with

single rear wheel Heavy duty FLT with two pairs of forks

FLT with telescoping mast handling container FLT loading a container truck

Fig. 5.3.2. Forklift trucks

5.3.1 Specifications of FLT

There are different operating parameters or specifications based on which suitability of a particu-
lar FLT is determined. The following is a list of major specifications from operational point of view:
(a) Rated capacity (1000 kg, 2000 kg etc.) at specified load center.
(b) Power sources (gas, diesel, battery etc.)
(c) Turning radius.
(d) Physical dimensions (length, width, height)
(e) Mast height
46 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS HANDLING

(f) Lift height.

(g) Mast specification (single or telescoping, tilting or non-tilting, retractable or not.)
(h) Travel speed.
(i) Lifting speed.
(j) Floor clearance.
(k) Free lift (movement of fork without mast movement).
(l) Retractable fork or not.
(m) Fork size (length, width, maximum gap between forks etc.)
(n) Attachments provided.
Other important technical specifications are : (i) motive power (h.p. rating), (ii) power transmis-
sion system (disc clutch, fluid coupling etc.), (iii) tyre specifications, (iv) battery and charger specifica-
tion etc.

5.3.2 Capacity rating of FLT

FLT’s are specified for a rated capacity at a specified load centre. Load centre is the distance
from the heel (vertical face) of the forks to the assumed c.g. of the load. However, if the actual c.g. of the
load goes beyond the specified load centre, the loading capacity of the truck has to be reduced accord-
ingly, so that the moment of the load about the front wheel does not exceed that of the counter-loaded
body of truck, and the rear wheels do not loose contact with ground.
For example (see Fig 5.3.3), let rated capacity of the FLT is 2000 kg and load centre is 450 mm. Let the
distance between front wheels to heel of the fork (distance A to B) is 350 mm. Then true capacity of the
FLT is =2000 × (load centre + distance A to B) = 2000 × (450 +350) = 16 × 105 kg.mm.
Now, if a load is to be carried whose c.g. ‘‘C’’ is at a distance of 550 mm from the heel of the forks
(distance B to C = 550), then the maximum safe weight ‘‘W’’ that can be carried is given by the
equation:
W × (550 + 350) = 16 × 105

16 × 105
or W= = 1777 kg
900

C B A

Fig. 5.3.3. Capacity rating of FLT

INDUSTRIAL VEHICLES/TRUCKS 47

The stability of a fork lift truck at the rated capacity is of paramount importance from the point of
view of safe operation. Indian standard number IS 4357:2004 titled ‘‘methods for stability testing of
fork lift trucks’’, specifies basic tests to verify the stability of counterbalanced fork lift trucks, of rated
capacity up to and including 50,000 kg.

5.3.3 Turning Radius and Aisle Width

A FLT can move freely through an aisle having its width atleast 300 mm more than the max
width of the load or the FLT, whichever is higher. However, if the FLT has to work across the length of
an aisle, like stacking or unstacking into racks in a warehouse, the minimum aisle width requirement can
be determined from the following factor, as illustrated in Fig. 5.3.4.

L C
C 2
2
TR

C W

X
A

Fig. 5.3.4. Minimum turning radius of FLT

Let A = width of the aisle.

B = distance from center line of truck to the point about which truck turns when wheels are
turned to extreme position (minimum turning radius condition). Centre of turning is
designed to lie on front wheel centre line
TR = minimum turning radius
L = Length of weight resting on fork
X = distance between center line of drive (front) wheel to face of fork
C = clearance ( may be 150mm).
Then minimum aisle width A is given by the formula, A = TR + X + L + C

5.3.4 FLT Attachments

Forks of a forklift truck are one of the most common attachments. A pair of forks is used for
working with skids, pallets, containers and box shaped loads resting on legs/ packers. However, a wide
variety of devices have been designed for attaching to lift trucks to make them useful for many different
tasks. Some of the common types of attachments are listed below with their names, short description of
their special use and with some of their sketches.

(i) Boom: This attachment is fixed with respect to the fork carrier.
At the end of the boom, a chain pulley block is provided for lift-
ing loads using the hook and slings.
48 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS HANDLING

(ii) Clamp: These are hydraulic devices for picking up loads like bales,
barrels, cartons etc. by gripping them with opposing adjustable
plates.

(iii) Drum grab: For drum-handling in vertical position.

(iv) Crane: A crane mechanism is attached to FLT.

(v) Die handler: Platform for carrying heavy load.
(vi) Drop-bottom container
(vii) Load inverter cum pusher

(viii) Load pusher (pallet un-loader)

(ix) Ram: Fitted to the lift carriage for lifting cylindrical load with
a hole (coil etc.)

(x) Roller platform

(xi) Shovel (scoop): A scoop fitted to the carriage for scooping

and carrying loose load.

Scissor type
fork
(xii) Special forks: (a) brick, (b) block, (c) extended,(d) scissor,
(e) retractable.
INDUSTRIAL VEHICLES/TRUCKS 49

(xiii) Vacuum: For handling light and fragile objects by a set of suc-
tion pods.
(xiv) Side-shifter: With this attachment, a load on truck can be moved
from 100 to 150 mm on each side. This helps enormously in
storing loads, without any damage to storage racks and mer-
chandise.

(xv) Rotator: This is used in conjunction with a clamp or fork

attachment to rotate load or for safer grip during movement
with load.

BIS specification number IS 7570:1975 covers glossary of terms relating to fork arms and
attachements, including their function, for forklift trucks.

5.3.5 Batteries for FLT

Engine driven trucks are comparatively cheaper than battery operated truck. Moreover, engine
driven trucks can be used almost without the need of electricity. Despite all these, the number of battery
trucks continues to increase, particularly for capacities upto 3 tons due to factors like overall lower
maintenance cost and lack of smoke, fume and noise. Battery operated trucks are particularly suitable
for warehousing and operations in confined areas. However, pre-requisite to using battery-operated
trucks is availability of electricity and battery charging facility.
Types of batteries: Batteries may be either of lead acid or nickel alkaline type of sufficient
ampere-hour capacity to insure at least one full day’s operation.
Advantages of lead-acid battery are: lower cost, greater energy (kw-hr) capacity in a given space, lower
internal resistance.
Benefits of nickel-alkaline battery are: longer life, better mechanical strength, noncorrosive electrolyte
(KOH) which does not freeze, shorter recharge period (7 Hrs) and noncritical control of the charging
current.
Battery voltage: The battery voltage has largely been standardized by industrial truck manufac-
turers. Table 5.3.1 below shows the types and capacities of battery operated trucks and average voltage
employed for their operation:
Table: 5.3.1 Average Battery Voltage of Various Industrial Trucks (1)

Truck Capacity (Tons)

0.5 3.5 Over 5.0 Over 8.0 Over

Type of truck to to to to 20.0
3.0 5.0 8.0 20.0

Hand trucks (powered) 12 V —

FLT 24/36 V 36 V —
Platform trucks 24/36 V 36 V 36/48 V 48 V 72 V
50 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS HANDLING

Battery rating: It is essential that sufficient battery capacity be provided to allow uninterrupted
operation of the truck during normal operation period. Capacity of a battery is rated in ampere-hour for
a six hours discharge period. This rating, divided by six, gives the current draw in amperes, which, if
continued six hours, will completely discharge the battery. The average voltage multiplied by the ampere-
hours rating gives the total energy capacity of the battery in watt-hour. The battery sizes for trucks of
various capacities have been standardized by the manufacturers.
Battery selection: Battery selection is based on energy rating for a proposed duty cycle of the
truck within a given period between two battery changes. Energy calculations for different operations
are based on certain charts and formulae adopted by the “Electrical Industrial Truck Association” in
1950 standardized through field study.
Energy calculation: Table 5.3.2 shows average watt-hours of energy required to accelerate and
drive a truck over level distances. For intermediate distances, the data may be interpolated. The energy
consumptions for other operations of FLT are given by following set of equations:
(i) Travel up the grade: Extra energy in watt-hours required in addition to that required for
level running = total tons (truck + load) × length of grade in feet × % grade × 0.013 ( where
grade = tan θ). Going down grade steeper than 2% requires no power, and distance down
grade may be subtracted from length of run.
(ii) Lifting energy in watt-hours = tons of load lifted × feet of lift × 2,
1
for empty lift = × load capacity in tons × feet of lift × 2.
3
(iii) Tilting energy (watt-hours) = tons of load × 1,
1
for empty tilt = load capacity in tons × 1
3
(1)
Table 5.3.2: Approximate Watt Hours Required by Fork Trucks to Travel on Level Concrete
Weight Length of Run (Feet)
(Truck plus
50 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
load in pounds)
1,000 1.8 2.5 4 5.5 7 8.5 10.5 12 13.5 15 16.5 18
2,000 3.5 6 8 11 14 17 21 24 27 30 33 36
4,000 7 10 16 22 28 34 42 48 54 60 66 72
6,000 10.5 15 24 33 42 51 63 72 81 90 99 108
8,000 14 20 32 44 56 68 84 96 108 120 132 144
10,000 17.5 25 40 55 70 85 105 120 135 150 165 180
12,000 21 30 48 66 84 102 126 144 162 180 198 216
14,000 24.5 35 56 77 98 119 147 168 189 210 231 252
16,000 28 40 64 88 112 136 168 192 216 240 264 288
18,000 31.5 45 72 99 126 153 189 216 243 270 297 324
20,000 35 50 80 110 140 170 210 240 270 300 330 360
INDUSTRIAL VEHICLES/TRUCKS 51

Example: A battery operated FLT weighs 4000 pounds including weight of battery and opera-
tor. It is carrying a weight of 2000 pounds. The truck lifts the load to 2 ft and carries the load to a
distance of 200 ft of which 170 is along level road and balance 30 ft on an upgrade of 6%. After
discharging the load it returns over same route. Calculate total watt-hours of energy spent by the truck.
Select suitable battery if the truck has to make 200 such trips daily.
The total energy can be calculated by summing up energy spent for the following elements of activity:
(i) Total run with load.
(ii) Extra power for 30 ft of inclined travel at 6% grade.
(iii) Return empty run deducting the downgrade run.
(iv) Lifting of load.
(v) Tilting of mast.

Calculations:
(i) Energy for total run with load: Total weight of the truck with load is 6000 pounds. From
chart we find the energy required for a 200 ft run = 24 watt-hours.
6000
(ii) Extra power for going up grade = × 30 × 6 × .013 = 7.02 w-hrs.
2000
(iii) Energy for empty run: To be calculated for (200 – 30)= 170 ft, (energy spent during down-
ward movement being zero) from chart it is interpolated as 10 + (16-10) × .7= 14.2 w-hrs
2000
(iv) Lifting energy = × 2(lift) × 2 = 4 w-hrs.
2000

2000
(v) Tilting energy with load = × 1 = 1 w-hrs.
2000

1 2000 1
Tilting energy without load = × × 1 = w-hrs.
3 2000 3
Assuming 2 tilts with load and 1 tilt without load, total energy of tilting
1 1
=2×1+ = 2 w-hrs.
3 3
Thus estimated total energy for the above duty cycle
= 24 + 7.02 + 14.2 + 4 + 2.33 = 51.55 watt-hrs.
For 200 trips, total energy requirement = 200 × 51.55= 10,310 watt-hrs. If we choose the voltage
of the battery to be 36 volts, then total ampere hour capacity of the battery between two charges should
be =10,310 ÷ 36 = 286.39.
Therefore, a 36 volts battery having ampere-hour rating of nearest figure above 286.39 should be the
minimum size battery to be considered for the duty cycle.
Battery charging: Charging of used up batteries is an essential facility for battery operated
FLTs. Industrial batteries used in forklift trucks are intended to be recharged approximately 300 times
52 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS HANDLING

per year or once in 24 hours on an average. More frequent recharges generally reduce the overall life of
the batteries.
The lead-acid batteries, for 8-hrs. charging period, requires a high rate (about 25amps per 100 amp-hr of
battery capacity) of charging at the beginning and a low finishing rate (20% of initial rate) at the end.
A nickel-alkaline battery with a 7-hrs. charging period, needs a charging voltage of 1.5 times its normal
voltage rating. Each size of nickel-alkaline cell has a specified current charging rate. At the beginning it
should be about 140% of this specified rate and gradually it should taper down so that the average
charging rate is approximately equal to the specified rate of the cell.
The battery charging unit, may be (i) motor-generator type or (ii) dry-plate rectifier type. However, each
of these is provided with above charging sequence control features. The battery chargers may be suit-
able for a single battery or multiple batteries charging simultaneously. It should automatically stop
charging when each battery gets fully charged.

5.4 TRACTORS
Tractor is a vehicle, having its own source of motive power, used as a prime mover to haul i.e. to
give motion to another or a group of other vehicles which do not have their own motive power, such as
trailers, semitrailers, transfer cars etc.
Tractors are used in a wide field of activities, starting from agriculture to earth-moving, municipal waste
handling, construction and industries. A tractor may be fitted with different attachments to do different
jobs like sweeping sidewalks, plough snow, excavate ground, scoop loading, bull dozing etc.

5.4.1 Industrial Tractor

The industrial tractors are generally grouped into (i) wheel type which are primarily used for
movement of one or more trailers for interplant or intraplant transportation, and (ii) crawler type which
are mostly used in outdoor and storage yard service at slow speeds and for short hauls.
The most important specification of a tractor is it’s draw-bar pull rating. According to this rating, they
are classified as small (100 kg normal to 500 kg), medium (250 kg normal to 750 kg), large (1.0 tons
normal to 5 tons maximum) and extra large (up to 35 tons). Other specifications are physical dimensions,
weight, horse-power, number of wheel drive, front or rear wheel-steer, walkie or rider type etc.
The small and medium tractors are often battery operated walkie type. However, an ‘‘electronically
guided type’’ of tractor requires no operator which follows a white line painted or a wire embedded in
the floor. These are used for point to point pick-up and delivery of trailers. These may be programmed
for automatic decoupling of trailers and give signals of arrival at two ends. Large and extra large tractors
are powered by an internal combustion engine fueled by diesel or gas and are essentially rider type. A
two-wheel tractor depends on working in conjunction with the attachments or load carrier for balance.
Steering of these tractors is done by pivoting about one of the two wheels, thereby resulting in very
small turning radius i.e., high maneuverability of these tractors.
A coupler is secured to the rear of the tractor body for quick coupling and uncoupling of the trailers/
transfer cars.
Tractors are preferred over FLT when large volume of materials of different types of loads which can be
carried on specifically designed trailers, need to be handled. In Fig. 5.4.1 view of a few tractors is
illustrated.
INDUSTRIAL VEHICLES/TRUCKS 53

Coupler

Battery operated tractor without cabin Typical farm tractor

Tractor fitted with attachments on

both ends Crawler tractor bulldozer

Fig. 5.4.1. Tractors

5.4.2 Trailer
Trailers are load bearing wheeled vehicles or cars without any motive power, designed to be
drawn by a tractor or truck. Trailers are classified as semitrailer and full trailers.
A semi trailer is a truck-trailer having one or more axles and constructed so that a part of its weight is
carried by the truck/tractor. A full trailer is constructed to carry almost all its weight on its own wheels.
Number of axles may be one or more. The tractor has to give only the pulling force for its motion.
More than one trailer may be pulled at a time by a tractor when it is called as a tractor-trailer train.
Trailers can be of different shapes and sizes. Figure 5.4.2 shows a few types of trailers:
54 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS HANDLING

Use of tractors with different trailers

Single axle box type trailer

Tractor with semitrailer

INDUSTRIAL VEHICLES/TRUCKS 55

Tractor pulling trailer train

Fig. 5.4.2. Trailers

Courtesy : Godrej & Boyce Mfg. Co. Ltd., Mumbai

Fig. 5.4.3. Heavy diesel forklift truck

56 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS HANDLING

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Bolz, H.A. and Hagemann, G.E. (ed.), ‘‘Materials Handling Handbook’’, Ronald Press.
2. Allegri, T.H., ‘‘Materials Handling: Principles and Practice’’, CBS Publishers & Distributors,
N. Delhi.
3. Apple, J.A., ‘‘Material Handling System Design’’, John Wiley & Sons.
4. IS 7217:1990, Classification and Nomenclature of Powered Industrial Trucks, BIS.
5. IS 4660:1993, Powered Industrial Trucks—Terminology, BIS.
6. IS 4357:2004, Methods for Stability Testing of Forklift Trucks, BIS.
7. IS 7570:1975, Glossary of Terms Relating to Fork Arms and Attachments of Forklift Truck,
BIS.