GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

REPORT
·
1
OF THE

~, :;::kward Classes Commission

Vol. I

' INDIA BY THE MAN,\GW GOVERN!I!!:NT OF INDIA PRESS SIMLA

1955
 ERRATA
Page. xxii, Para. 94, Line 8, close bracket aft~r "ani~als".
Page 6, Para. 20, Line 5, read " , " for ·• . ".
Page 17, Para. 21, Line 1, read "Hierarchy" for "Heirarchy".
Page 21, Line 25 of the page, read "Munnayannam" for
"Mannyannam".
P~ge 22, Para. 38, Line 5, insert "last" after "co-uld".
Page 22, Para. 40, Line 6, read "sees" for "finds".
Page 23, Para. 43, Line 4, read "India" ifor "ndia".
Page 26, Footnote, read "Jawaharlal" for "Jawahar Lal".
Page 28, Para. 8, Line 1, read "extremely" for "Extermely".
Page 29, Para. 10, Line 1, read "problems" for "problem".
P;ge 33, Para. 31, Line 1, read "problem" for "p~oblems".
~ge 36, Para. 48( 1), insert "or f<;ll~ :o!Wrt" after
;·communities".
Page 40, Para. 7, Line 7, insert "to" after "Measure".
Page 41, Para. 9, Line 7, read "but with" for "but the''.
Page 45, Lines 5·6 of the page, read "concern" for "concerned"
Page 45, Para. 21, Line 15, read "There" for "These".
Page 53, Para. 10, Lines 3-4, read "forgotten" for "forgotton".
Page 60, Line 3, omit '"' after "non·agriculturists".
Page 63, Para. 29, 3rd Line from bottom, read "larger" for "large"
Page 79, Para. 76, Line 9, read "poach" for "peach".
Page 95, Para. 132, Line 1, read "condition" for "conditions"
Page 99, Para. 157, Line 2, read "toll" for "tool".
Page 102, Para. 171, Line 24, read "became" for "become".
Page 108. Para. -189, Line 1, read "progress" for "progeess".
Page 150, Para. 13, Line 14, read "Statesmen" for "Statement".
Page 154, Para. 3, Line 5, read "Lists" for "Lists'".
Page 159, Column 1, Item 6, line 1, 1·ead "should" for "shoud".
Page 161, Column 1, Item 5, line last but one, read "the list" for
"he list".
Page 165, Column 4, read "14" for "11".
Page 178, Column 1, insert sub-paragraph numbers "2, 3, and 4"
against the relevant sub-paras. before sub-paragraph 5.
Page 194, Column 4, read "156-162" for "156-160".
Page 201, Column 4, read "240-243" for "240".
Page 213, Column 4, read "3898" for "3098".
Page 217, Column 6, read "3,414" for "3,344".
Page 233, read "10" for "01" at the top.
After Page No. 258 the page numbers of the two charts may be
taken to be 259 and 260 respectively.
Page No. 261, Serial No. 8, read "Bheemappa" for "Bhesmappa".
 'VOLUME
ContontiJ.;

l-'orwardlllgletler of tho Ohairmo ...

OIIU'I.'n 1-Gonoral
Cn.t.rrn D--t:lenauland Ca- ·
Ca"Al'TD m-Caalo and Sooi•~
..
•
}4,

Csuna IV-Problema of Speoial Groups- 27

(!) Kualimo 27
(3) Ohrietli.D8 ... 27
(3) .bg(o.IDdlaDI !9
(4) EIJ....,.Ia08 In T!aviDCort·Ooohill !9
(6) Sikho •• 211
(6) Gurkhas so·.
(7) Bhangio (Swwepen and St:av...,.,n) 30
(8) Women •. 81
(9) Umortanalo Women 33
(10) Dollnqucnl Childron 84
(II) Donoli&cd Communitioa 34
On.um• V-:&~k,..nln.- at
(1) Causoa ofBaokwnnlnoao .. .. 39
(2) Criteria of Baolnrardn.., 40
(3) Cla.asllloation of Communities

OnAPTBR VI--OouditioDB of BaokwnrdnDBB and :Moo.1m111 for thoir !\cmonl

"
61
A Polilioal 113
B Eoonomio & Indualrinl 66
C Communicatio"" ••
D Pobliolloalth and Rural Water Suppl,y
E Run! B'oualng ..
.••
100
Jr Soolal Baok,..rdn.,.. nne! :Moaaures for Ita Bemonl 100
G Ednoalional 100
K Sorricoo 1211

CB.Uftll VD-Mini•ll7 for tho Ad\'1\Doomont of Baekwatd Claoooa 141

Cnrru VDI-Granlo 148
CIIAI"'IB I.X-Roviolon of J.dlo of Sohodulod Caotea and Sobcdulod Tribeo IN
Bllllllll•l7 of Rooommoadotiono 1118
Aoknowlodgomont
Appoodlooo · .. 210
tta
M/HIGMoflU
 Government of India
Backward Classes Commission
New Delhi 2, the 30th March 1955
Revered President,
It is with a mixed sense of joy, anxiety and relief, that I submit
to you the Report llf the Backward Classes Commission. You were
pleased to appoint the Commission on the 29th January 1953, but
formally inaugurated it on the 18th March 1953. It took us full two
long years to finish our labours and prepare the Report. We did
our best to present a unanimous Report, and I· am glad to say that
the major portion of our recommendations has been almost unani-·
mous. From the very complexity of our task, it was inevi-
table that there should be differences of opinion even on
fundamental matters. It should be a matter of agreeable surprise
that the members of the Commission were united on so many matters
and even where we have felt constrained to hold different views,
our anxiety for the welfare of the backward classes and betterment
of their condition is not in any way the less. The very minutes of
dissent prove this beyond any doubt.
2. I was expected, as Chairman, to prepare the report of the
Commission. I had my notes ready, written out fairly in detail, but
I felt that it would be much better and more satisfactory if I
allowed my colleagues to write the report after reading my notes
and utilising them to the extent they liked. This task of writing
the Report, I left to Shri Mariappa, who has had valuable experience
in the administration of the Mysore State. Although he could not
devote much time in the beginning to the work of the Commission
on account of his preoccupations with the Mysore Congress work,
he gave sufficient time, and worked hard in preparing the Report.
This rendered my work very easy. I had simply to go over what
he wrote, and suggest a few modifications here and there. My other
colleagues also had their share, and the Report, as it finally emerged,
must be accepted as the joint production of us all; but, I must express
my heartfelt thanks to Shri Mariappa, for the unstinted labour
which he devoted on the production of the Report. Dr. Anup Singh
helped us to put the report in shape.
Shri Shah, with his knowledge of the Public Service Commission,
of public ·accounts and Anthropology was of great help to us in
many ways. It was at his insistence that we could work out our
chapter on Grants in detail. The details were chiefly supplied by
Shri Patel. ·
3. We prepared a detailed State-wise Report, and I had expected
'
that it will be the second part of our general Report, but we found
that it would take too long a time before it was discussed in detail
and finalised. Our recommendations, which are the main part of
the Report, do not depe11d upon the State-wise section. We therefore,
towards the end, decided to delete this portiol'l. B.ut, some thought
 ii
and labour has been bestowed upon this State-wise Reports sectlori
-and I would recommend that, although it is not a part of our o~cial
report it may be forwarded to the various States and they m1ght
make 'what use they like of the contents. ·
It was our intention to prepare a deta!led _glossary ~f the v~rious
communities recommended by us, for bemg mcluded m the list of
the Other Backward Classes. We received some information from
the States and collected some through our Research Section. This
information also may be useful, but we found it difficult to go over
these and arrive at a uniformity of conclusions. We decided, there-
fore, to drop this glossary also from our Report, although it would
have been a valuable commentary on the lists we have supplied.
The Government of India may, with the help of the State Govern-
ments and the Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes, check, enlarge and complete the glossary that we prepared,
and issue it as an official publication. It will help administrators in
many ways.
It is evident that Government wanted to know the views and
aspirations of the representatives of the backward classes. The very
selection of the Members on the Commission "indicated this anxiety,
and the Report will show that it clearly voices the feelings, fears
and aspirations of the present-day leaders of the various backward
communities in the various States of India. Backwardness; even in
formulating the feelings, fears and aspirations, must be an inevitable
characteristic in this matter, and it should not surprise anyone if
both these fears and aspirations belong more to the past.
4. The age-old resignation of the mass~s to their lot is gone.
They no longer believe that it is Fate that has kept them backward.
They are not yet alive to their own share in the backwardness, viz.,
apathy, lethargy and negligence. They are too backward to be
Introspective and to find out what is wrong with themselves. It
is but natural a~d t~ some extent justifiable that they should find
fault With the situation around them, and their eyes should be
rev~rted on the f_act of their being exploited by the upper classes.
Their representatives and leaders have read the literature that we
evolved in finding faults with the evils of the British rule They
have come to know how one race dominates another, and hoV:. those
who ha:ve to suffer have, perforce, to unite against the forces of
v~ted mterests. ~hey have heard of the inevitability of class con·
fhct. No wonder if they are prone to draw hasty conclusions.
5. Social reformers from ancient times have always been intros- ·
pe_chve. Most of them, comin~ from the upper castes have been most
cr1ttca! of the faults and fo1bles of their own class and criticised
them m unstmted measure, for all the social neglect and injustice
towards the backward classes. All this has combined to help the
representatives ~f the back:ward classes in preparing a case, and it
sh?uld not surpr1se anyone if the case is overdrawn, stereo-typed and
fa1ls to .recogmze the amount of righteousness in the n t"
pressed m the struggle for social justice carried on by th~on ~xi­
leaders through the ages. • soc1a
th 6. Y'f have to recognize the painful fact that all the efforts of
e SOCia reformers belonging to the upper classes have been more
 iii
than counter-balanced by the blind-selfishness and traditional self-
justification of the upper classes. There is an amount of uneasiness
amongst the backward classes. This has been carefully fanned and
organized by interested persons who stand to gain both materiall;y
and in leadership by organizing discontent.
7. However unpalatable this may be, !Uld however turbid the
motives of some of the representatives of the backward classes, no
one can say that they are not justified in complaining that there is
an unsympathetic uniformity in the attitude of the majority of the
upper classes, from which the backward classes have to suffer.
8. I would plead, therefore, that the case of the backward classes
need not be analysed too critically, and it is no use marshalling
evidence to prove that the accusations levelled at the upper classes
by the backward classes are not substantially correct, and that it
is only interested representatives that distort the situation. Even
conceding that the whole picture is one-sided and over-drawn, one
has to recognize that there is an uneasiness in the minds of the
masses, and this uneasiness is gathering momentum.
9. It is unfortunate that the Swaraj Government which is
struggling hard to establish social justice has been left to atone for
the blind and conservative attitude and the traditional policy of the
upper classes, with the r,esult that even though Government is
prompted with the best of motives, little credit is given to it, and
all the evils of the social system are levelled at it. It would be well
if representatives of the backward classes remembered that what-
ever good they find in the Constitution and the liberal policy of
the Government is the result of the awakened conscience of the
upper classes themselves. Whatever the Government is doing by way
of atonement is readily accepted and acclaimed by the nation as a
whole. And let it not be forgotten that the upper classes have con-
tributed their share in formulating the policies of the Government.
Removal of untouchability, establishment of equality and social
justice, special consideration for the backward classes-all these
elements found their place in the Constitution without a single di$-
sentient voice from the upper classes.
10. Some people who are unwilling to recognize any good point
in their own nation try to explain this righteousness as a reaction to
world opinion. We know how far world opinion counts where self
interest and pride of race are dominant! We know how far world
opinion is able to influence the policies of countries like America,
South Africa and Portugal! It is not fair to be blind to the awakened
conscience of the nation itself in which the upper classes are also
honourably included-when recognizing the good points in the Con-
stitution, of which we have every reason to be proud.
11. We have now to see if there are any defects in the fr~mework
of the Constitution itself, or the policy of the Government, by which
the enlightened conscience fails sufficiently to organize itself and
forces of selfishness, self-aggrandisement and mutual suspicion arE'
oftentimes •ltowed to be organized and pitted against each other lead-
in!! unwittingly to a class -conflict. I am led to believe that such
defects are present both in the Constitution and in the policy of the
 .lV
Government. It is not easy to locate them, but it seems to be ~ patent
fact that forces of opportunism, selfishness, a~d se~f-aggrand1sement,
mutual suspicion and conflict, on both Sides mvar1ably com~ to the
fore-front and get organized, whereas the forces of brotherliness, of
social justice and gratitude are not allowed or do not. get a chance
to function with a united will. Unless we feel .gratitude for the
patience of the long-suffering masses and for the1r respect for l~w
and order· unless we have gratitude to the best amongst the nation
for their ~truggle for the establishment of righteousness; unless we
have gratitude for all that the mahatmas and social reformers have
been doing, an~ unl~ss w~ fee.l .grateful to Providence for t:tte
mysterious way m wh1ch It IS trrumng the natiOn for a h1gher semce
of humanity, we may not be able .to appreciate the forces ?f good
that have been working in our nation, and, through our nat1on, for
the betterment of the lot of humanity.
12. We have found it inevitable to attribute most of the evils of
our social condition to caste. We are not blind to the good intentions
and wisdom of our ancestors who built the caste structure. It was,
perhaps, the only way through which they could teach the nation to
forget and rise above racial, clannish, tribal and similar biological
groupings of society and to accept a workable arrangement of social
existence based on cultural hierarchy and occupational self-govern-
ment.
13. But whatever the beauty and success of these primitive social
experiments of the past, we a:t:e sufficiently advanced today towards
a feeling of nationhood and national solidarity. We were confronted
with the existence of a multiplicity of religions in our land in an age
of democracy; we struggled through the situation and have managed
to come out successful, however severel"y mauled and weakened we
may have been in the process. We hope now to build a familyhood of
races, a familyhood of religions and a familyhood of cultures. We are
now beyond the necessity of working on the basis of hierarchy. We
have been able to build a feeling of oneness in the whole nation. We
'have learnt to adjust religious, racial and cultural differences. We
have decided to overcome the inequalities based on differences of
wealth and intellectual equipment, and that by a democratic process
of giving equal opportunities to all to attain .the highest alike in
educational, cultural ang economic fields. · •
14. National solidarity demands that in a demo.cratic set up
Government recognize only two ends-the individual at one end and
the nation as a whole at the other-and that nothing should be en·
couraged to organize itself in between these two ends to the detri-
ment of the freedom of th~ in.dividual and solidarity of the nation.
All communal and de~ommabonal organizations and groupings ot
lesser an.d narr~wer umts ~ave to b~ watched carefully so that they
do not Jeopard1s~ the national solidarity and do not weaken the
eff~r~s o~ the n~lion to serve all the various elements in the body
poht1c w1th equity.

. 1~. The se~u!ar democracy of India gives full freedom to all the
.establ1s~ed rehgtons o~ the world to exist and propagate themselves
lp. the ldnd because th1s our secul;tr democrac;y has equal respect for
 V'

all of them, of course to the extent that they do not undermine uni-
vel"l!al brotherhood and respect for the personality of every citizen
irrespective of his or her economical, educational or cultural tradi-
tions or standpoint. Mutual respect, mutual help and mutual trust are
the touchstone on which all communal and denominational activities
will be tested, and anything that undermines these fundamental
principles of democracy will be exposed and brought to book. ·
16. It is a hopeful sign of the times and a guarantee for the future
well-being of every interest in the nation that Government js fast
progressing towards the ideals of a socialistic pattern, and the people
themselves are accepting and developing the ideals of Sarvodaya in
all the sectors of our national existence. Thus both the nation and the
nation~ Government have accepted the ideal of familyhood of all
the nattons, all races, of all civilizations and cultures. It is in this
<'ontext that the condition of the backward classes in India has to be
understo?d and appreciated, and the remedies suggested are to be
sy_ste.rno.tlca~ly apphed. The remedies will not yield the desired result·
wtthm a stipulated period unless there is a nation-wide awakening
through systPmAtic propaganda and moral revival, and practical steps
are tak~n both ~y th~. Government and the people. The old taboos,
along Wlth the hterarchic"l ""!!re~;ct <hJh in the matter of food and drink
and marriages, have to be overcome. The Bhoodan movement is teach-
ing the whole nation to accept the family hood or all the people living
in this land. It is not merely an equitable redistribution of land
between the landed and the landless, but it is a recognition by the
nation that we all form one human family an<i we are responsible'
for each other's well-being.
l'i. A similar nation-wide social revolution, not O!Onfined to the
upper classes, neither only to the Hindus alone, has to be inaugurated.
18. All our social reform movements and the moral fervotq- behind
them are so far generally confined to the Hindus. We have always
allowed the Muslim and the Christian communities to have their <>wn
way. This may be a good example in toleration; it may perhaps reflect
the hope that the reform amongst the Hindus may !ilive rise to a
healthy emulation in the minds of other de~ommat.wns also. But
political self-interest has so far come m the1r way, and
orthodoxy amongst the Christians and the Muslims and other de':lorni-
nations is as hopeless and hard as the ortho~oxy ~mongst th~ Hmdus
-only the former is stronger and never d1scred1 ted. Somet1mes the
critici~m is heard that the Government is partial to the Hindus in
the sense that it throws its whole weight on the side of social reform
amongst Hindus and helps that comx_nun!tY to overcome _its weakne~s,
but when it comes to any social !eg1slatwn for overcommg the soc1a\
defects and antiquated moral standards of non-Hindus, the Govern-
ment has thought it fit to follow a policy of non·i~tervention and non-
interference. This is bound to weaken the .nation as a whole, af!-d
thereby weaken the forces of m~ral and spmtual ref?rm sta~ted m
the Muslim and Christian countries of the W?rld .. It IS sometimes a
wiser course to allow social reform in the mmonty commurut1es to
grow spontaneously from v.:it~in instead ?f using t~e w~1ght of the
enlightened sense of the ma]onty commun1ty for qutckenmg the pace
of reform amongst them. It is safe to wait for sometime at least.
 Vl
•

The Backward Amongst the Non-Hindus

· 19. Being convinced that the upper castes among the Hindus have
to atone for the neglect of which they were guilty towards the "lower''
classes, I was prepared to recommend to Government that all special
help should be given only to the backward classes and even the poor
and the deserving among the upper classes may be safely kept out
from the benefit of this special help. My eyes were however opened
to the dangers of suggesting remedies on caste basis when I discovered
that it is going to have a most unhealthy effect on the Mushm and
Christian sections of the nation. It is a patent fact that the bulk of
the Muslims and Christians in India are converts from the Hindu
fold. This conversion was encouraged by the fact that Islam and
Christianity were fundamentally opposed to caste. The "lower castes"
in the Hindu fold left their traditional religion and joined the religion
of the ruling race because they felt assured that in that way they
would be free from the tyranny of caste and caste prejudices. ·
20. For the purpose of the Backward Classes Commissio.n, .we
could not accept the view that all Indian Christians or all Mushms
were backward without accepting the logical conclusion that all
Hindus also were in tht same sense equally baclnvar~. The Govern-
ment of India recognized certain c;~stes among the Hmdus as back-
ward and o!Ier~d special ~cnolarslilps, concessions and privileges to
these communities. T.his led the Muslims and Christians also to assert
that although their religion was fundamentally different, and that
theoretically it is opposed to caste, in practice their society was more
or less caste-ridden. Tlle special concessions and privileges accorded
to Hindu castes acted as a bait and a bribe inciting Muslim and
Christian society to revert to caste and caste prejudices and the
healthy social reforms effected by Islam and Christianity, were being
thus rendered null and void. Muslims came forward to prove that
except for che four upper castes, namely, Sheikh, Syed, Moghul and
Pathan, All the other Muslim castes were inferior and backward. The
Indian. C:hristians also "':ere prepared to fall in the trap. They told
thE> Mm!Stry of Educatwn and the Backward Classes Commission
·that caste is rampant among them. We discovered to our pain and
sorrow that untouchability did obtain in the extreme South amongst
Indian Christians, and Indian Christians were prepared in many
places to assert that they were. still ~uided by caste not only in the
matter of untouchabihty but m socml hierarchy of high and low
Their social and religious leaders in their anxiety to· secure somt:
G:lvemmental help for their own people supported the contention
that caste was rampant among Indian Christians also.
21. This was a rude shock and it drove me to the conclusion thrit
the remedies we suggested were worse than the evil we were out
to combat.
22. This painful realization came to me almost towards the end
of our labour.s. I could not stem the current of opinion within the
Comm~ss10n 1tsel~ ~nd ultimately decided, though reluctantly, to
s1de Wit~ the maJority With whom I had co-operated throughout in
for:mulatm~ remed1es on caste basis. It is only when the Report was
being finalised that I started thinking anew and found that back·
wardness could be tackled on a basis or a number of bases other than
that of caste. I only succeeded in raising the suspicion of the majodty
 vii
of my colleagues, that I was trying to torpedo the recommendations
of the Commission. This was another reason why I signed the report
without even a minute of dissent. We must be able to help both
Indian Christians and Muslims without their being driven to accept
the fissiparous principle of caste. This will also enable us to remove
the bitterness which the extremely poor and helpless amongst the
upper class Hindus feel that they are being victimised for no fault
of th~ir own. Once we eschew the principle of caste, it will be possible
to help the extn•mely poor and deserving from all communities. Care
of course must be taken to give prefP-rence to those who come from
the traditionally neglected social classes.
Extreme Poverty also Leads to Social Backwardness
. 23. A secular State that does not concern itseli with religious
differences and has no preference for one religion over another, can-
not go mto the details of the religious prejudices of one section against
~mother. It is onl:r when ~ community or a group is proved to be work-
mg under a spec1al handicap and is not allowed freely to function as
citizens, that the State may intervene and make special provision for
the advancement of such under-privileged and handicapped communi-
ties. It is not enough to prove that one community is regarded as
inferior by another. The Christians may look down upon the Jews
and the Jews may retaliate with the same feelings. The Brahman may
l'egarcl fhe Bania as inferior and the Bania in his turn may regard
the Brahman as a mere social dependent But such opinions and pre-
judices do not come in the way of the full growth of
these communities. This opinion about the inferiority of certain
communities, has not necessarily retarded the progress of those com-
munit.i'es, eith~r educationally or economically. If such communities
have neglected education it is because they had no use for it. Now
that they have discovered their mistake. it is for them to make the
necesr.ary efforts for making up the leeway.
24. They will naturally receive whatever help is available to all
citizens, but. they can claim no special help because they neglected
·education in l'he past. And yet, if these communities are to be regarded
as backward and given additional help on a caste basis, the only
course open to the State would be to impose a communal tax on the
. well-to-do members. Whatever money is collected through such a
tax may be spent on giving special scholarships and help to the
poorer members of those communities.
25. Till recently, good many Communities were organizing caste
conferences and collecting funds for granting scholarships to boys
and girls of their own community. That was a good Jesson in self-
help and a good number of communities have th\15 come forward in
material well being. But now all burden is sought to be thrown on
the common exchequer and those who haV'e thoughtlessly neglected
education in the past are now seeking preferential treatment in
Government services. This is anything but fair. It is one thing to help
those who have been long neglected and who have no conception of
the needs of modern times and who had not the wherewithals with
which to educate themselves. Such communities deserve all help, but
the richer and well-to-do communities may not neglect their own
· poor people and throw the ~urden on the common exc~equer, and
yet ask for special preferential treatment for even the nch amongst
them, so far as Government services are concerned.
 viii
A general formula of helping all persons, to whatever caste or
commumty they may belong, provided they belong to the special
backward class of the extremely poor, covers such cases ot extremely
poor, who have been cruelly neglected by their own community.
Families whose income is less than Rs. 800 I· a year do need special
help irrespective of the community to which they belong. Such poor
and deserving may even belong either ~ the upper communities or
the educationally backward but otherwise prosperous people of the
dominant communities among the backward clas>ee. The extremely
poor cannot be denied special help simply because th~y happen ·to
belong to a particular community. • .
26. Care of course, must be taken to see that these do not c~rry
away all State help, and leave the extremely b~c.kward cmnmumtles
unattended to. The list of backward communities supplied by us
ought to be a guide in all preferences. Unfortunately, we have not
been able to supply a regular hierarchy of all the communities resid-
ing in India. That perhaps, would have been the best guide for pre-
ference in all governmental concessions and privileges.
Reservation In Services
27. I am definitely against reservation in Government Service~
for any community for the simple reason that the services are not
meant for the servants but they are meant for the service of society
as a whole. Administration must have the services of the best men
available in the land and these may be found in all communities.
Reservation of posts for certain backward communities would be
as strange as reservation of· patients for particular doctors. The
patients are not meant to supply adequate or proportionate clientele
to all the doctors, whatever their qualifications.
28. The best policy that could be recommended is that given the
same or almost the same qualifications, candidates or aspirants from
the backward classes should be given a decided preference.
29. Coming to details of governmental services the principle of
"no reservation" but "generous preference" sqould be strictly followed
in class I (and perhaps in class II also) of services because services
belonging to these classes demand higher standards of integrity, effi-
ciency and initiative. It is not suggested that these qualities are the
monopoly of any one community or that these qualities are at a
discount in the case of other communities. Inferiority complex culti·
vated by the backward communities leads them to believe that they
are, and will always remain, deficient in certain qualities, and there-
fore, they need the backing of reservation. Experience in the past
proves that reservations, come in the way of healthy emulation and
those who learnt to depend upon reservation are oftentimes not alert
enough to improve their quality. They rest on their privlleges and
all zest for self-improvement is dulled.
30. But we have to recognize that the tradition of the past so
many years, when the British rulers wanted to placate many elements,
has created a demand for reservation in Government jobs. The
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes already enjoy some reserva•
tion. It is natural, therefore, that the Other Backward Classes should
11ls9 desire tQ have some reservation in their favoUT,
 31. In this matter one clear principle must be accepted and ob-
served. Reservations if contemplated must not exceed 49 per cent.
whatever the total population of all the "Reserved" communities.
32. I believe that in class I and class II Services, the backward
classes will stand to gain, both morally and materially,. if they do
not demand a reservation percentage in the vacancies and simply
rely on the fair-mindedness of the administration to use their prefer-
ence in favour of the backward classes. They could then demand
greatest facilities for training and education in order to fit themselves
for the highest jobs, as speedily as possible.
33. As regards Class III and Class IV services, it has to be re-
cognised that the policy of preference may not work with equal force.
It will take some time before· the policy of preference percolates
through the thick layer of indifference and vested interests. I would,
therefore, accept 49 per cent for the reservation of seats, all told, for
all the backward classes. Candidates from the backward classes can
of course compete in the sector of 51 per cent and take any number
of seats by sheer worth over and above the reservation. In class III
services, I would have an additional principle of favouring women
candidates over men, Most of the clerical posts must, hereafter, go
to women, men being expected to work in the fields or trade and
industry.
34. In the case of class IV services, there is an almost cent per cent
monopoly of the Bhangi Class for scavenging work. There is, already
an ample percentage of backward people in class IV. Here I would
recommend that the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and the
starred communities from amongst the Other Backward Classes
should have a definite preference over others.
35. In class IV services over and above necessary personal quali·
!\cation, the recommendation of certain reliable persons is important
because much depends upon the loyalty and integrity of this service.
The usual practice is to demand that there must be at least two per-
sons who stand guarantee for the honesty, loyalty and regularity of
this useful and humble servant. This leads to each man bringing
another from his own community because, thus alone can he stand
guarantee for the good behaviour of the new man, This principle is
healthy enough, but there are wholesale communities amongst the
backward classes who have never had a chance of occupying even
the post of chaprasis, jamedars and daftries. Such unrepresented
communities need special preference.
. 36. The policy recommended does not preclude the backward
classes from entering in the sector of service open to general competi-
tion. It must be the policy of Government to encourage more and
more people from the backward communities to occupy places of res-
ponsibility and initiative. The greater the confidence shown to the
backward classes, the greater is the security of the State. Therefore,
although some of us are unwilling to reserve more percentage of seats
for the backward classes, we whole-heartedly recommend to the
Government that they should do everything in their power to see
that men of ability and integrity from amongst the backward classes
ue given a definite preference, other things beins equal; and they
 X:

are made to feel that the country is theirs and the whole nation has
complete confidence in their patriotism and equal love for all sections
of the nation.
37. In class III services much depends upon actual experience
rather than on initial qualifications. Therefore, we would recommend
that candidates or applicants from the backward classes should be
given proper coaching before enlistment and those who are on the
borderland of average qualifications should· be given further coaching
even after selection, and thus, every effort should be made to train
candidates from the backward classes to be efficient members of
Government services.
38. One paramount consideration that must be accepted is that
just as efficiency al?'d integrity are essenti~l in Govern_m.ent servi~es,
it is equally essential that the largest portion of the CIVIl population
should be trained to run the administration with integrity and effi·
ciency. No democracy can be safe, if adequate qualification for
Government services is confined to a few communities only. Demo-
cracy, to be broad-based must train the maximum number of citizens
for the efficient discharge of public duties, especially in the case of
a welfare state, where the public sector is going to be increased by
leaps and bounds, and the number of Government services is being
increased from day to day. It is essential that the Government should
have the maximum number of persons trained for running the ad·
ministration from amongst all the communities.
39. We might even go to the length of recommending that the
universities and institutions of secondary education should have
specialised courses for training young men and young women for
Governmental administrative jobs. If mathematics, geography and
similar subjects are essential, it is equally essential that principles of
·administration and the technique of running various departments of
Government must also be compulsory subject in secondary and higher
educational institutions.
40. Under a democracy, a Government will be judged by the
number of servants it is able to retain from all the communities
composing the nation.
41. The Parliament could demand from the Government an annual
report showing how many candidates it trained in all in the art of
administration.
Reservation in Institutes of Higher Education
· 42. As for assistance in the matter of education for the backward
classes, I am .convinced that introduction of Basic Education in all
the States w11l help the backward communities to cultivate self·
confide~ce. They wi!I also have a. better chance of succeeding in open
compet1\lon, and havmg the special advantage of mixing with people
and servmg them •. they Will prove themselves better administrators
and leaders of soc1ety. .

43: Seats in the higher t~chnical institutes of science, engineering,

med1cme, etc., w11l be limited for some years to come and there
should be a 'generous reservation in favour of the backward classes-
 44. Here again, the best interests of the nation demand that the
tnost intelligent and the most promising should be trained to supply
the needs of the nation. You cannot deny the nation its right of being
served by the best. In these days of keen competition, both in trade
llnd war, no nation can afford to have indifferent persons trained to
higher service. Here again, the fears. of the backward classes that they
Will not be able to come up to the level of the upper classes
are entirely unfounded. Students from the backward classes
who have come up to matriculation standard can easily hold their
own against the upper classes. Experience of the past is no guide for
the achievements of the future. The backward classes are already
feeling that they are the equals of the upper castes, and given a
proper chance, they can easily hold their own.
45. But I am definitely of the opinion that in the field of .edu-
cation, the backward classes must be made to feel that here at least
they will have everything in their favour, and that the nation is
determined to give them the best chance of. educating themselves
and coming to the top. I have, therefore, whole-heartedly supported
the recommendation that up to seventy per cent of the seats ought
to be reserved for the best amongst the backward classes. The remain-
ing thirty per cent seats, and any seats not absorbed by candidates
from "Reserved" communities should go to the "Unreserved"
communities. This rule should apply for the next ten years. It may
be confined to all the existing institutes of higher technical education.
The tension and the need for rationing will be eased as more institutes
are opened. The nation is determined to develop in science and tech-
nology; so more and more institlltes will be opened in the near future
and almost every one that has shown a capacity of succeeding in
higher technical education, will get a seat. No reservation will then
be necessary.
46. I would recommend that some institutes may be reserved
specially for the benefit of the backward classes and the backward
students could be admitted ,to these to the limit of ninety per cent,
ten per cent being reserved for the upper communities, so that ~he
students of the backward communities will have a chance of mixmg
freely and brushing their intellect against the intellect of students
having more self-confidence. If this suggestion is followed, the.n
institutes not reserved for the backward classes could throw thetr
doors open to all students irrespective of· communal considerations.
47. We have to hear the other side which also is important enough.
Free India is struggling to come up to the level of the advanced
nations of the world, not militarily but in education and material
development, which will give best scope for the spiritual culture of
India. The nation wants a highly trained personnel alike in scientific,
technical and social fields. The nation is anxious to train all the
backward classes to come up to the level of the advanced classes,
but the nation may not be satisfied with the supply of highly trained
personnel which is derived from the backward classes only. The
hunger and thirst for men of the highest education and training is
insatiable, and the nation may not deny itself the services of persons
who could be trained from amongst the upper classes also. And, just
as we are insistent that we shall have the services of the best pilots,
best doctors and best engineers, to whatever class they may belong,
the nation is equally anxious that it should train every person who
 xu
has the potential capacity of responding to the training. We cannot,
therefore, prevent young men and young w~men from the .advanced
classes, from being trained to serve the nation and humamty.
48. Social justice demands that the backward classes are not
denied the chance of being similarly trained, but they cannot start
with demanding a monopoly of seventy per cent for the chances of
being trained for higher services.
49. If I have lent my full supp01;t to. the. demand for s~venty per
cent of reservations in higher techmcal mstitutes of leammg for the
backward classes it is not because I want to tum the upper ela.s~es
into a new under-privileged class, but because I want opport!-'mties
for higher training to be multiplied with break-neck speed. It IS only
when the traditionally more promising sections of society are kept
out of higher learning that those in authority and power will shed
their traditional lethargy.
50. In the same spirit I once suggested that the Bhang!s of a town
living in filthy bastis should all be shifted en bloc to stay in college
hostehl; it is not that I did not want college education and amenities
of residence for the students. I knew that only if all the college
hostels were requisitioned for the accommodation of the most useful
servants of society, viz., the Bhangis, that society would bestir itself
and make herculean efforts for having adequate housing accommoda·
tion for the students. No mere agitation could drive the city fathers
to build better quarters for the Bhangis.
51. In the same way, it is only when most of the available seats
in institutions of higher learning are occupied by eligible candidates
from the backward classes that Government and social leaders. will
come forward to start more and more institutions of technical .edu·
cation for training students denied admission into the higher institutes
simply because they happen to belong to the upper and more promis-
ing coromunities.
The American Polley
52. Having thus given my viewpoint regarding reservations both
in Government service and in institutes of Higher Technical Educa-
tion, I am tempted to give below the American policy of Fair Prac-
tice in Employment. America is a land of many races and nationali-
ties. The Anglo-Saxons, the French, the Germans, the Latin races,
the ~ews, ~he Negroes, and the. aboriginal Red-Indians, with a micro·
scop1c sprmklmg of a few Asians. all thrown together, constitute a
collossal problem which they are trying to solve in America. This is .
how they regulate employment under the merit system.
53. "The long-established policy of the Federal Government
under the merit system of Federal employment has been to mak~
appointments to Federal positions with sole reg~rd to merit and fit-
ness."
54. "This policy was reinforced in 1948, when President Truman
issued Executive Order 9980 setting forth for the Federal Service
the basic policy of fair employment without discrimination because
of race, colour, religion or national origin. The fair employment policy
does not mean that any fixed proportion of persons of different races,
' I • I
 ...
Xll1

religions or national origins must be given Federal employment. It

distinctly and definitely does not mean that any persons of inferior
merit or fitness shall be pushed ahead of other employees or appli-
cants or shielded from the consequences of their failures or short-
comings whether members of a majority group, or members of
minority group which in the past have suffered from unfair dis-
crimination. No applicant or employee having merit and fitness shall
be refused or deprived of employment or earned promotion by reason
of his or her race, colour, religion, or national origin. On the same
principle, no one lacking merit or fitness shall receive preferment for
the same reasons. The fair employment policy is a double-edged tool
and as such must be used with special care and good judgement."
55. Some such policy will have to be followed by our country also
when the unhappy but necessary period of reservations is over. We
hope that by then, the various castes will have been amalgamated
and there will also be free intermarriages between various denomi-
national groups. Not a mere co-existence of communities but National
Solidarity is what we are aiming at.
Remedial Measures on Non-Caste Bases
• 56. According to the terms of reference to the Commission, we
were asked to consider whether any sections of the people of the
territory of India, in addition to the Scheduled Castes and the
Scheduled Tribes, should be tr~ated as socially and educationally
backward classes. The words specifically used are 'classes and sections'
of the people, and not 'castes'; and yet, as explained in the body of
the report the word 'sections and classes' can in the present context
mean nothing but castes, and no other interpretation is feasible.
57. It must be admitted, however, that, taking the wording of the
terms of reference, we are not precluded from interpreting the words
'sections and classes of the people' in their widest significance even
excluding the idea of caste. We feel we were justified in accepting the
traditional interpretation. We were warned by well-wishers of the
country that investigations into caste may encourage people to be
caste-conscious, and thus increase the atmosphere of communalism.
Following the analogy of the proverb, viz. 'using the thorn to remove
a thorn,' we held that the evils of caste could be removed by measures
which could be considered in terms of caste alone.
58. The result of our in'quiry is that caste-~onsciousness, caste
loyalties and caste aspirations, have increased throughout the country
and some of us were responsible for encouraging people to think that
the backward classes could be organised into a party to wield politi-
cal power through universal adult franchise. (That position has been
crystallised into my article "Emergence of a New Leadership". It
expresses the hope and ambition of the backward classes, and it is
also a warning to others regarding the atmosphere in the country
and the attitude which they must cultivate in order to meet the
emergency).
59. But, we cannot be oblivious to the dangers to the solidarity
of the country. Communalism and Casteism are bound to destroy
the unity of the nation and narrow down tne aspirations of our people.
 '
xiv
60. Two years of experience have convinced us of the dangers of
the spread of casteism and the warning of the well-wishers of the
country have also led us, almost towards the end of our investigation,
to the conclusion that it would have been better if we could determine
the criteria of backwardness on principles other than caste.
61. We feel that the investigation into the backwardness in the
nation and of the people ought not to have been confined to finding
out such sections of the people or such classes, castes, communities or
tribes as are backward. We have come to the conclusion that this
group investigation is repugnant to the spirit of democracy,
62. In a democracy, it is always the individual (not even the
family) which is the unit. Democracy thrives best when, qn the one
hand we recognise and respect the personality of the individual and
on the other we consider the well-being of the totality comprising
the nation.
63. Groups or sections, less than the totality of the nation, should
not be e.ncouraged to develop group loyalty as otherwise, the spirit
of democracy is undermined. · ·
64. Moreover, the nation has decided to establish a classless and
casteless society, which also demands that backwardness should .be
studied from the point of view of the individual and, at the most,
that of a family. Any other unit will lead to caste or class aggrandise-
ment.
65. Let us therefore, try to find criteria of backwardness that
could eschew ideas of caste or class.
66. The following may be accepted as criteria of backwardness.
It is a rough list and needs careful scrutiny, and yet these considera·
tions are g1ven below by way of guidance.
It would be more convenient to write the criteria in two columns
showing the anti-thesis between the Backward and the Non·
Backward. ·
Backward Non-Backward
1. Women. 1. Men.
2. Residents of rural area. 2. Residents of urban area.
3. Those who are driven to the 3. Those whose work consists
necessity of working with their of supervision of manual
own hands. · · workers.
4. Those labouring under the sun 4. Those working under shade
and in open air. after the pattern of the whit~·
collared fraternity.
5. Landless labourers. 5. Landed peasantry.
6. Unskilled labour. 6. Skilled labour and higt
craftsmanship.
7. Not having sufficient, or any 7. Commanding sufficien'
capital. capital.
8. Working as mere clerks. 8. Following some learne(
profession.
9. Menial service under private
persons. 9. Government service of th1
upper grades.
 XV

Backward Non-Backward
10. Having poor and uneducated 10. Having educated parents
parents, lacking ambition and or guardians with an atmosphere
having no vision. of self-confidence and culture.
11. Lacking in resources. 11. Having adequate income
and resources.
1'2. Belonging to, or condemned 12. Enjoying amenities of
to live in, ·inaccessible and back- modern civilization.
ward areas. ·
13. llliterate. 13. Having a fair amount of
education.
14. Not having capacity to under- 14. Being well-equipped and
stand modern times and the facili- alert to profit by modern condi-
ties for self-improvement available tions and opportunities.
in society. ·
15. Belief in magic, superstition 15. Belief in science and the
and fate. understanding of the law of
cause and effect.
Remedies for Removing Backwardness
1. Women-They should be given special help in education so
that they may come up to the level of men, and they should be given
all opportunities in public service by giving them equality of status.
They should be given security of tenure in service during periods
of pregnancy and child birth.
2. Rural areas-Rural areas must be made attractive by better
means of communication, better and healthy amenities etc. Edu-
cational institutions in sufficient numbers should be planted in
rural areas, including a few rural universities.
3. Working with hands-All education should involve the use
of hands and the cultivation of the use of fingers for scientific preci-
sion and artistic grace.
All work of a supervisory nature should be combined with soine
amount of manual labour in company of the regular manual
workers.
Nobody should be allowed to be a boss unless he is prepared
to do some manual work also.
4. Working under the sun and in open air-All amenities and
comforts for those working in shade and those working under the
sun should be equalised as much as possible, so that preference for
'shaded' life may automatically cease.
Difference in the emoluments or wages of the two should also
be reduced to a minimum.
5. Land-Landless labourers should be given every facility of
possessing some land, either individually or collectively. and no-
body should be allowed to possess land unless he is prepared . to
hold the plough in his hand and work on the land for the maJor
part of the year.
L/HI5MofHA
 xvi
6. Unskil'ted labour-Special tra_ining ~hould be given to the
unskilled labourers to improve thell' efficiency, and. they sho~d
be encouraged to raise the standard of efficiency, preciSIOn, dextenty,
grace and quickness. The unskilled labourers of today, shoul~ aLw
be allowed some leisure in which they could develop some kind of
craftsmanship as a hobby.
All labour should be educated labour. The labouring men should
be able to read and write, enjoy and un~erstand the newspapers of
the day. He must be encouraged to cultiVate self-respect and ever·
increasing efficiency for himself and his children.
He should be· given educational allowance for himself for some
time, and afterwards, for his children.
7. Capital-Hereafter, there should be a ceiling on individual
capital, all additional capital being socialised for the good of all.
8. Clerkship and the !earned professions-Even mere adminis-
tration should be regarded as a learned profession, along with that
of the doctor, pleader, engineer and the educationist.
Clerks should be encouraged to help in evolvmg club-life, where
they could improve their prospects by picking up new things by
which they could add to their capacity and social utility.
9. Menials, other grades and classes of seroice-Employment of
menials must be discouraged. Everyone, whether high or low, should
be expected to look after his own room, his office, his dress and the
carrying of things from one place to another, etc.
The use of menial service should be confined to the needs of only
the sick, the babies and the extremely old.
Heavy work, of course, will have to be tackled by collective
effort.
~here should also be c?Ilective service instead of personal
memal .se!'Vlce. For mstance, mstead of keeping a servant to do my
marketmg, I should ask the shop-keeper to maintain servants who
would go to all the customers of the shop delivering things pur·
chased by them.
Hours of work of the menial servants the nurses watchmen
waiters, etc., should be limited, and wher~ employme~t is steady;
there should be arrangement for regular promotion and pension
after a period of service.
. 10. Parentage-There should be an army of social servants or
so~1al work~rs who would act in the place of parents for many
cb1ldren. Th1s career should attract best men and best women. The
Stlte should be .m the place of parents for looking after the youths
of the land, g1vmg them proper training and cultivating their
amb1t10n to be useful members of society.
11 .. Resources-The need for resources will be reduced to a mini·
mtun, 1f workshops and s1m1lar fields of work are socialised.
Till then the State should provide or lend or cheapen facilities.
 12. Inaccessible Areas-The State should have a survey of all
such areas, and hasten to have aU-weather good pucca roads and·
approach roads as early as possible, and where population is sparse,
the people should be asked to give their quota of the expenses
through manual labour i.e. Shramdan, care being taken always never
to build a pucca road unless it had with it the installation of the
telephone also. This is essential for the safety of the traffic and for
military needs also.
For mountainous areas there should be more of bridges of suffi-
cient width for buses to ply.
13. Literacy-People should not wait for the Government to
start primary and basic schools. Social workers should enthusiasti-
cally start literacy campaign work. High school and college students
should be encouraged, as part of their curriculum, to go to nearby
villages, and spend a 'month or two of their vacation towards the
spread of literacy. Special books should be published by the State,
showing easy ways for the spread of literacy and general know-
ledge.
14. Superstitious Beliefs, etc.-It is difficult to assess the back-
wardness due to superstitious beliefs, but this kind of backwardness
is spread over the whole world. This can be overcome by regular
and systematic teaching of science and inductive logic. A sustained
campaign against blind belief in magic, fate and superstitions,
should be carried on. Much of caste prejudices and race prejudices
could be removed, and racial amity fostered by a systematic attack
on superstitious beliefs and blind prejudices, religious or otherwise.
15. Understanding of Modern Times and its Amenities-This is
the crux of most of the backwardness amongst the masses. Systema-
tic classes must be held throughout the country, and all the educa-
tional methods and psychological aids should be utilised to enthuse,
both social servants and the masses, for the spread of correct ideas
about health, use of money, systems of administration, laws of
psychology, sociology, ethics and spirituality.
Group prejudices and race prejudices should be analysed.
Religious beliefs should be subjected to a close but sympathetic
criticism of reasO'l.l and logic. Latest instances of social prejudices
should be analysed in detail and their hollowness exposed and then,
people shc•Jld be encouraged consciously to befriend those who are
distant geographically, psychologically and culturally, thus lead-
ing to universal brotherhood and familyhood of all races.
iDiftieultles of the Next Census
67. We have recommended that the next census should give all
the necessary information about castes and sub-castes. It would
certainly be a valuahle material for the sociologists and the nnthro-
pologists. Social reformers will profit by it. Demography the world
over will be thankful if all this information is supplied. But a
lurking suspicion is asserting itself In my mind: Can we do it?
68. A Government can demand co-operation from its citizens
and require the people to give certain information and sta~~tics
to the best of their knowledge, but can census officers force a Citizen
to give information which he is not prepared to volunteer? There
 ...
XVIll

is a growing body of citizens in India who refuse to accel?t caste,

and who may refuse to tell or acknowledge the caste to whtch they
happened to belong in the past.
69. Another question is: Can census authorities prevent a man
from giving his caste according to his own concept? Th~ Sonar
(goldsmith) in Maharashtra, for instal_lce; may declare hts caste
simply as Brahman. The same Sonar m Assam may declare hts
caste as Harijan. A Brahman, recently, durmg our tour, declared
that till yesterday he was a Brahman,. but now he, elects ~o be a
Harijan. 'If Mahatma Gandhi could do tt why not I? , was hts argu-
ment. There are many priests amongst the Harijans who have
started calling themselves Brahmans. Who can prevent them from
doing so? The great saint poet of Maharashtra, Sant Tukaram was a
Bania by caste, but he always called himself a Sudra. Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel belonged to one of the dominant communities. of
Gujrat, viz. Patidars. There was a case in court, and the qu.estton
was whether the · Patidars should be regarded as Kshatnas or
Vaishyas. By occupation they are farmers. Leaders of the community
came to Sardar Patel and requested him to give his evidence before
the court. He said he had no objection; only he would tell the court
that the Patidars are Shudras. Even a Brahman may elect to be a
Shudra or a Harilan.
70. The next question is: Can a secular Government force a
citizen to belong or not to belong to a particular caste? A Brahman,
if he becomes a Muslim or a Christian, can say that he is no longer a
Brahman. Christianity and Islam will not thank him if he persisted
in giving his caste as Brahman even after conversion, and the State
will have no option but to record his caste as he gives it. Now, is it
necessary for a Hindu Brahman to renounce his Hinduism if he is
keen on dropping his caste? And can the census clerks and enumera·
tors put down the caste of a man acr,ording to their conception in
spite of the protest of the person concerned? Is it not the duty of the
enumerator honestly to note down whatever information is volun-
teered by the citizen without trying b consider whether the informa·
tion volunteered is traditionally acceptable or not? At the last census.
when a census man asked me about my religion, I told him that I
belonged to all religions and I accepted all religions as mine. I do not
know what he wrote actually in the census returns, but I think t
have a right to prosecute him, if he puts down anything which I
have not volunteered. . ·
.. 71. There are innumerable instances where poor and ignorant
Citizens do not kno.w what answer to give to certain questions, and
the enumerator wrttes down whatever suits his own predilection or
fancy. I know of cases where some people gave Hindustani as their
language, and the enumerator put it down as Hindi.

72. When caste becomes politically important and parties for

el~ctions are formed ~n the predilections of caste, census operations
wtll become as complicated as elections and the facts given may be
challen.ged as not .bemg above suspicion. I remember how, during
a prevtous census m Assam, there was a complaint made by many
l?eople that the figures of Muslims were greatly Inflated; and that
ts why the census returns although ready and printed, were. not
 pubiisheg on the ground that the information may be misused by
the enemy, it being war time.
. 73..c~ste cannot stick to a man as his age, colour or sex. Caste,
like rehg1on, could be changed, as often as one likes and there is no
theocratic power in India left today which could regu'late or challenge
the professions of an individual. I do not think a secular State can
insist on noting down the caste of a person. He may not own it and
society may not recognize what the individual claimed.
74. Recently, some people belonging to the Scheduled Caste gave
their caste name as Harijans. That was of course accepted, but then
the State Government turned round and said that since the name
Harijan is not to be found in the list of Scheduled Castes issued by
the President of India, those who called themselves Harijans could
not get the scholarships and concessions that were reserved for
Scheduled Castes!
· 75. Then there is further trouble during the last fifty years and
more. People have started giving new, high-sounding, and what they
regard as much more respectable names, to their own caste. The
Chamar, for instance, may call himself Ravidas, that being the name
of a saint who was born in that community. The barbers prefer to call
themselves Sena. We can have no quarrel if such a change of name
of a caste created no confusion. But, take the instance of the great
sage Valmiki. People say that he was originally a Brahman, but
he became a fisherman, and joined the ranks of the highway-men
and started murdering and looting wayfarers. Now, any Brahman
can easily take Valmiki as his surname. The fishermen can call
themselves Valmiki, and so can the ex-crimmal tribes people. Today,
some of the scavenging castes also call themselves Valmiki. Now,
what are the census authorities to do? And, what is the department
of education also to do?
76. English spelling and typographical mistakes also have created
a number of castes, which also has led to strange confusion. Dasa is
a community amongst the Shudra: Dasa means a servant or a slave.
Pious people use the suffix Dasa when they accept some name of
the diety as their own. Even men of the upper castes thus call them-
selves Dasa. Purushottamdas, Purandaradas, Prabhudas, are instan-
ces in point. And, as irony would have it, some of the Jains were
divided into two groups of ten families and twenty families, popu-
larly known as Dasa and Visa meaning ten and twenty respectively.
Now, Dasa meaning ten, was also spelt DASA. So, the Dasa amon~t
the Jains, a flourishing mercantile community, were confused w1th
the Shudra community, Dasa. Such difficulties could of course, be
obviated by using the Nagri spelling of words, but it is not easy for
the next census to· secure detailed and accurate figures and informa-
tion about castes.
77. The problem of caste and religion is bound to be further
complicated by the ever growing number of inter-marriages between
persons of different castes and different religions.
78. What shall lie the recognized caste of persons so marrying.
and that. of their progeny? The old simple rule was that the w1fe
necessarily took the caste and religion of the husband and the
children also did the same. But men marrying wives from lower
castes were oftentimes outcasted and were relegated to the status
of a lower caste.
79. The Roman Catholics say that if a~y of their girls married a
non-Christian, they would not object prov1ded that childr~n of such
union were brought up as Catholics. Sometime~ ~he marrymg ~ouple
do not wish to disturb each other's caste or rehgwn and the children
are left to choose their religion for themselves. And we shall soon
have a body of citizens who will declare that they belong to no caste
and no religion. ·
80. It will be equally difficult to ascertain the different ~ames:­
old and new-of the same caste and sub-caste. Propagandists will
be active in persuading people to choose particular names and for·
mulae.
81. It is already being proposed that people going in for mix~
marriages should claim to belong to the lowest class and there IS
no authority in the land, universally recogruzed, that can regulate
the caste of people hereafter.
82. Thus the confusion and anarchy of opinion about all COffii'?U·
nal matters is going to make the work of the next census well n1gh
impossible.
Dominant Communities
83. The history of the past hundred years shows that in the
beginning one or two upper communities claimed that they represent-
ed the whole nation and they stood for the best interests of the people.
This claim was justified in the case of a fair number of individuals
belonging to those communities, but the communities as such were
never free from self-seeking and self-aggrandisement. The claims of
these leading communities were soon challenged by the people for
various reasons. The leaders threw the blame on the foreign rulers
and missionaries, complaining that these foreigners were driving
a wedge between the natural leaders and the masses.
84. The claim for leadership of the people was next taken up by
half a dozen other communities who were educated and modernised
enough to take to education, and who attained a fair amount of
social prestige. They now claimed to be the natural leaders of society
and claimed also to represent the m11sses. A large number of these
people also were justified in their claim, which they have proved by
great sacrifices during the Swaraj struggle for independence. They
gave up social preitige and many advantages without any regret.
And yet, these upper communities could not help being accused
of being selfish and cruelly indifferent to the happiness and progress
of the backward classes. 1
85. Social reformers and social revolutionaries who ·are out to
break the hierarchy of caste and the privileges enjoyed so far by
the upper classes from amongst Hindus, Muslims and Christians,
have com~. from all communit~es i?cluding of course, the upper
castes. Spmtual leaders have ansen m our country from all classes,
from the highest to the lowest. Social leaders have appeared from
almost every dominant community to atone for the sins of omission
and commission of their own kith and kin. But, unfortunately these
have not combined their forces and they did not dream so far of
revolutionising the whole social structure. ' '
· 86. Dominant communities the world over have been influenced
by the ideals and practices of mediaeval times. The work of the
social .revolutionaries has been, so far, of an individualistic type.
OrganiZed forces have so far, failed to be guided by spiritual and
humanistic ideals.
87. Even today the upper communities are being sought to be
segregated from the masses by a few dominant individuals from
amongst the backward communities, and they are trying to drive a
wedge between, not only the upper classes and the lower classes,
but they are trying to segregate the best amongst the social revolu-
tionaries on the ground that a good many of them happen to belong
to the advanced classes.
88. These dominant people resent any further analysis of the
backward classes into the Dominant and the Victims. Self-interest
drives them to raise a hue and cry that a wedge is being driven
between the various sections of the backward classes. There is a
movement to ignore caste distinctions, separately from amongst the
advanced classes and the backward classes. They want society to be
divided into two simple antagonistic groups of 'Advanced' and
'Backward'.
(89. It is common knowledge that if the Harijans in villages are
harassed today it is not so much the Brahman or the Bania of the
village who harasses them. These communities are too passive and
shrewd to take the law into their own hands, and do the dirty job
of belabouring the Harijans. It is the dominant amongst the socially
and educationally backward that want to maintain their social
superiority of a feudal type, and it is these who are keen on main-
taining the hierarchy of high and low. It is they who beat up men
from the lower communities if they carry the marriage procession
on horse-backs or in vehicles. It is they who harass women of the
backward classes if they wear ornaments and clean dress.)
90. We have in our Report, given a list of backward classes and
put a star against each of those communities which are extremely
backward. Those communities generally live in rural areas, and they
are mostly the victims of the domination of the privileged and domi-
nant communities among the backward classes. It should be an irony
and a mockery of justice to allow such dominant communities to claim
to be the natural leaders of these starred communities who are the
victims of their domination. By no stretch of imagination could these
dominant communities justify their claim to have certain seats and
advantages reserved for them on the strength of population figures
of the victim communities; and the victim communities will not
thank Government if educated members of these dominant communi-
ties are given responsible posts in Government with the hope that
they will protect the best interest of the starred communities.
Manipulation of population figures without giving due consideration
to these social and moral factors will end in miscarriage of social
juHtice. '
 iii. it is not imposslble to find out who amo.ngst the upper cas~es
and dominant communities have given up the1r me.diaeval pres~tge
and are prepared to atone for the sins of the prevtous generations
and are prepared, in a spirit of brotherlin~ss, to help the backward
people to rise. These could be trusted to befnend and serve the starred
communities as well as others.
92. But it is not easy to guarantee that representatives of the
dominant communities will not tyrannise over the Scheduled Castes,
the Scheduled Tribes and the starred communities. Tyra~ts and
bullies cannot be made into protectors of the people by bemg put
at the head of the backward classes.
93. The spirit of domination is a vice and a curs~. It is a disease
that is spread over the whole world. There are dommant races who
victimise others. The European nations have shown that they could
do when they got the chance of spreading over the whole ~orld.
Priests of old have dominated an ignorant and superstitious
humanity. In India today, there are dominant communities even
amongst the untouchables. In Maharashtra we heard the complalllt
that the Mahars amongst the untouchables dominated all the rest
In northern India a similar complaint was levelled against the
Chamars. In the extreme south the Ezhavas and Nadars are said to
dominate other Scheduled Castes.
94. It can safely be said that those who possess large tracts of
land, those who have money enough to lend, those who have brains
to create quarrels and factions amongst the people, and those wh.o
have the tradition of wielding governmental power, are all donu·
nant people in rural areas. Northern India has given us the formula
of AJGAR, a word formed by taking the initial letters of the four
communities-Ahir, Jat, Gujjar and Rajput (Ajgar means the Boa·
constrictor, that quietly swallows and leisurely digests many animals.
Such Ajgar communities are to be found in both the upper and the
lower castes. In Sind, the Amils dominated all the rest, whether
Hindus or Muslims. In Gujerat, it was the Nagar, the Patidar and
the Anavil who are said to have dominated all the rest; and some-
times, the Patanwadias or Padhiars have retaliated in desperation.
In Maharashtra, besides the Brahman it is the Maratha who claimed
to be the ruling community in the villages, and the Prabhu, that
dominated all other communities. In Karnataka the Lingayat and
the Vokkaliga, in Andhra the Kamma and the Reddy, in Tamilnad
the Mudaliar and the Naidu, in Kerala, the Nair and the Ezhava, in
Bengal the Kayastha and the Baidya, in Assam, the Ahom, in Bibar
the Rajput and the Bhumihar, in Orissa, the Khandayat and Karnarn.
etc., etc., are declared to be dominant-the list is neither exhaustive
nor authoritative. Some of these communities might have been ac·
cused by mistake or by prejudice, but the fact remains that there
are certain communities that are dominant. The phenomenon obtains
throughout the world and it is the special mission of the present
ag~ to give courage to victim communities to resist all tyranny. In
England the mercantile community successfully resisted the domi·
nation of the feudal' Barons during the Industrial revolution and
recently, labour is successfully resisting the domination of both.
9S. It is, therefore, essential that no dominating community should
be allowed to claim to be the protector of the weaker sections. It is
only the good men from every community, men who are imbued
with a sense of social justice, who can forget caste prejudice, are
prepared to surrender their privileges and who can combine to
usher in a new era of social justice and universal familyhood, that
c~tn be the natural leaders and protectors of the helpless, mute and
suffering masses.
96. We have to recognize that there are certain communities
who are financially well off, and yet, are educationally backward,
and a good many of them have been dominating society, especially
of the rural areas. In the religious or orthodox hierarchy, they may
not belong to the upper castes, but by their wealth and prestige,
they are dominant. Sometimes they possess vast acres of land; some-
times they have amassed sufficient capital to work as money-lenders.
These landlords and money-lenders dominate the whole village scene.
Upper castes like the Bralunans and the Banias have to bend before
the will of these dominant communities. Even Government servants
have to respect their wishes. Government servants are often-times
coaxed, cajoled, bribed, and so made to connive at the traditi?nal
domination and bullying of these against the low and subserv1ent
classes.
97. I consented to include in the backward classes list such
dominant communities who although not socially backward, could be
regarded so because of their having neglected education. I had hoped
that I could classify them into a separate sub-head and help them
to fight successf~lly the privileges of the upper communities.
98. I wanted so to classify the backward classes that the domi-
nant communities amongst the officially backward could successfully
put up a fight against the upper castes, and yet, become impotent
to tyrannise over the weaker sections amongst the backward.
99. I did not succeed in this effort because I could not carry
conviction to my colleagues that these dominant communities must
be segregated if the victims of domination have to be saved.
Pollttr,al Leadership
100. In my own province of Maharashtra, new ·political and
social life began with able leaders like Justice Ranade, Telang, Prof.
Bhandarkar, the Hon'ble Gokhale, and Lokamanya Tilak. They
started an all-round movement of political, social, religious and
industrial reform and regeneration. They naturally and justifiably
claimed to represent the whole nation. They got full co-operation
from noble persons like Dadabhoy Nowrojee, Sir Pherozeshah Mehta,
Badruddin Tyabji, Barrister Baptista and others.
101. But a movement soon started, called the non-Brahman
movement, headed by some leaders of the Maratha community,
like the- Raja of Kolhapur. This movement was to some extent, anti-
CongrP.ss and pro-British. They also got full support ·from good
many Muslims, Christians and others. The leaders of . the non-
Brahman movement asserted that the so-called leaders of the
Congress were chiefly Brahmans and therefore, communal. Whereas
tney themselves represented the whole nation.
102. This movement travelled south and there also, the non·
Brahman movement included the Muslims and the Christians. They
 :xxiv

claimed to represent the whole nation. But, unfortunately, they

fought shy of the nationalist movement led by the Congress.
103. With the advent of Mahatma Gandhi and Sardar Vallabh·
bhai Patel, in the political field, the situation ~hanged. The non·
Brahman following discovered where their real mterest lay. They
saw that Mahatma Gandhi and Vallabhbhai Patel were non-
Brahmans, and yet, they could lead the Congress and work for the
betterment of the masses. And all classes worked under them. The
Brahmans were the first to join their forces.
104. Orthodox leaders of the old non-Brahman movement basked
in the sunshine of governmental favours, and a few families of
some of the leading communities, advanced considerably. There
was a general awakening in the masses to rise educationally and also
socially. There were caste conferences everywhere in the country.
The general trend of these conferences was to collect funds fo;
instituting scholarships for children of their own communities. They
ransacked ancient history, real or fanciful, to upgrade themselves
and traced their descent from some Brahman or Kshatriya rishi or
king of old. They also asked the Census Department to help them
in collecting caste-wise figures to ascertain the strength of their
population.
105. With the growth of political life and spread of education,
many communities from amongst the non-Brahmans became advanced
enough (although in Mysore, today, the Government recognises only
the Brahmans as the advanced community and all others are offi·
cially backward, although the prominent amongst these backward
communities have monopolised all political power. It is they who
manage the universities also. They dominate the learned professions
and trade. The Brahmans, although they have not been driveri to
the wall, have consented to occupy the second place). In northern
India, as also in southern India, now, the position is that about half
a dozen or a dozen communities are bracketed with the Brahmans.
They are the leaders of today. They are now declared of course
justifiably, to be the advanced communities. '
106. Their leadership of the whole nation is now being sought to
be challenged.
107. It is now the turn of the dominant (and sometimes bullying)
communities and individuals amongst the backward classes to claim
to .be. the leaders of the bulk of the nation. As yet they are not
~la~mmg to be the leaders of the whole nation. With communistic
Ideals they coul_d certainly do so, but today, they exclude the ad·
vanced commumtles from amongst them and they regard themselves
to he the leaders ~f. all t~e backward communities. They resent th~
backward commun1t1es bemg classified into-
(i) slightly backward;
(ii) more backward; and
(iii) those who are leading a sub-human existence (We have
put a star before such communities in our list).
They say, that this would create a divisio_n in their ranks. They
want all the backward classes to be orgamzed in a solid phalanx
agamst the advanced communities and even the most nationalistic
 XXV

and least communal from among the advanced communities are not
allow"d the right to speak for, or represent the backward communi-
ties. They are allowed to serve the backward classes no doubt, but
they must do so under the guidance and leadership of these domi-
nant amongst the backward.
108. If public life is thus allowed to be developed into a struggle
between rival factions, national solidarity and strength will be
weakened. The dominant amongst the backward hope to capture
power and rule over the whole country. There is nothing wrong in
this ambition provided they do not pit the backward classes against
the advanced communities and create a conflict. Let them accept the
unity and homogeneity of the nation and train themselves to lead
the whole nation. Such leadership is already theirs if they can serve
the whole nation including the backward classes loyally and not
imitate the selfish among the upper classes in aggrandising them-
selves on the strength of the numbers of the blind following of the
extremely backward, they can always count upon the co-operation
of the best amongst the advanced classes. If they do not follow such
wise policy, all administration, public life, industries and commerce,
etc., may be jeopardised, and then the extremely backward will dis-
cover that they have been duped. This will give rise to a revolt
from the bottom which will ultimately end in chaos.
109. I have painted this dismal picture, not as a prophet but
simply as a warning to all concerned. The advanced communities
e'Specially, should recognise the signs of the times and shed .their
sense of superiority and aloofness, and monopolistic tendency. They
should befriend one 11-nd all without any distinction. They should
encourage inter-caste marriages at all levels. If no social conflict is
contemplated and the Sarvodaya ideal of working for the upliftment
of all, beginning with the lowest of the low, is the source of inspira-
tion, then it is immaterial to whose hands the leadership is trans-
ferred. It is much better, if new communities are allowed to try
their hand at leadership. Only those who like Nehru, are above
communal considerations and even nationalistic considerations,
should be allowed, to formulate the policy of the nation. It is no use
challenging the leadership of the best in the land by searching out
the community to which they belong, and then accusing them that
they are monopolising leadership for the upper classes. All monopoly
must be broken even if it is fully justified and opportunities for
service must be assured to all sections of the population.
Ministry of A. B. C.
110. One important unanimous recommendation of ours is re-
garding the formation of a separate Ministry for the amelioration
of the condition of all the backward classes. .
111. The problem of backwardness. is. not merely one of serving
a few minorities here and there, but 1t IS a problem of the recon·
struction of society itself. It is a change over from the mediaeval
feudal basis to a modern democratic society based on equal respect
for the personality of every individual. Far-re~chi~g c~anges in
human relations are necessary. If our recommendation Ill this regard,
is accepted, the Government will have to find for this ministry a
 .. I
XXVl

statesman of the first rank, havi!lg widest s_yrnpathy, tact, courllg~

and vision. Some one of the cahbre of Shn J?hebar ~lone c_an do
justice to this task of effecting a soc1al revolution, enVIsaged m our
report.
112. The Panchkroshi schools for the initiation o~ a nove! t~pe of
Rural Basic Education will tax the genius of a true educat1omst.
113. The Samata Ashrams, recommended in the Report, will, it
is hoped, herald the beginning of Sarvodaya Society.
114. The revival of village industries and handicrafts, on a
nation-wide co-operative basis, will instil new life into the masses.
115. The artisan when rehabilitated, will reflect the culture of a
non-violent, rural civilisation.
116. The whole movement for the liquidation of all backwardness
will have to be lifted from the level of mere job-hunting and the
impotent resentment at being frustrated in this pursuit.
An Explanation
117. I have always held that universal adult franchise is the
best panacea against many social and political ills from which the
masses suffer. The adult franchise assures even the meanest of the
citizens that he has a stake in the country and that he is being
governed with his own consent. I am proud that the Constituent
Assembly accepted Mahatmaji's suggestion and incorporated univer·
sal adult franchise as a cardinal principle of our Constitution. By
this franchise all power is already transferred to the masses. If they
are not· today able to wield this power, it is because they lack edu·
cation and wise political guidance. I have always said that giving
an additional weapon in weak hands is no remedy. I am definitely
against giving special political representation or powers to anybody,
over and above the universal adult franchise. .
118. Some representatives of the backward classes ~omplained
that the representatives do not really represent their case because
the masses do not know how to choose their representatives. I told
them that their plea amounted to a suggestion that the masses do
not deserve to have the vote, and therefore, it should be taken away
from them.
119. This has been interpreted by certain interested persons to
mean that I ~ against the backward classes being given any politi·
cal power. It 1s no use answermg each and every misrepresentation.
A thing which has no substance in truth can safely be allowed to
die. a natural death. I know it is not going to harm me even tempo·
ranly because I am seeking no political power or leadership. I a ·
also accused of saying that the masses might sell their country t
India's enemies. The masses, as a whole, have nev~r been known t
sell their country, and if they did, nothing on earth can prevent the
from doing so. It is generally the unscrupulous opportunists wh
claim to represent the people that are likely to sell their country
and this ignoble characteristic is not the monopoly of either th
upper classes or the lower classes. People have been found here an
there, since ancient times, to be traitors to their country The on!
remedy lies in building a strong democracy, and cultivating a big
 ..
::U:VIl

standard of political morals. Oftentimes, people sell their country'

through lack of political wisdom and shrewd ability to detect the
~iles _of the country's e~emies, The remedy against this danger also
1s pohtrcal matunty whrch comes only through wielding of political
power by the masses.
120. In the final analysis, I Rtand for a social order in which
neither religion nor political power are organized to control the
destinies of humanity. Just as we stand for a secular democracy I
stand for a non~political social order based on mutual love, tru'st,
respect and servrce. But, this has nothing to do with the universal
adult franchise which I accept whole-heartedly.
~21. Some people might say that our Report reads more like a
mamfesto on behalf of the backward classes than a document giving
the views of all sections of people and arriving at a considered and
balanced decision by the Commission. I admit that the Report could
~aye been written in a different way, but we thought it better to put
1t m the way we drd, because we wanted to support our conclusions
by mentioning the feelings and grievances of the backward classes.
It is they who are neglected and not the upper classes. There is
another reason. The upper classes, either out of apathy or out of
generosity for the backward classes, did not care to come out with
their ·yiews before the Commission. They perhaps thought that this
was another enquiry on behalf of another minority, and they had
no objection if some provision was made for these people also. In
fact, many people even in responsible positions believed and still
believe, that the Commission was out to enquire into the condition
oLthe :H.<~rjj<!_nL[!n.Q_the_Girijans.. Many people, high!YPTacea l.n
Government and in public life, repeated this misconception to our
great astonishment and regret. It was to warn such people that I
was driven to broadcast an article about 'the Emergence of a New
Leadership'. Even this article was noticed, mainly by the representa-
tives of the backward classes. This article was followed by a radio
talk in which I pleaded for an atmosphere of brotherly co-operation
and not one of antagonism and social conflict.
122. Towards the end of ·our enquiry, we have come to the con-
clusion that. caste, communal or denominational considerations need
not be introduced in the educational policy. A progressive. modern
welfare State, cannot afford to tolerate educational backwardness
anywhere in the State. In most of the modern States, more than 60
per cent of the scholars receive full educational aid. In India, it
should be possible for the State to give educational aid to all the
poor and deserving students in the country, irrespective of caste, sex
or denomination. Whenever it is necessary to show preference it must
be for women and for students of rural areas. The present preference
for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes should be continued for
some time but the time has come when all the poor and deserving
should and could, be helped, so that no communal consideration need
be int~oduced in the field of education.
· 123. It will be recognized that the Report gives expression both
to the fears and aspirations that have no bearinf( for the future. It
is but natural that backward people should think of their woes of
the past. Very few people have the gift of realising the gathering
JPrces of tomorrow and those that suffered in the past cannot easily
begin to believe any glowing picture of the future. It. is not .bY
criticising them for their narrowness of outlook, but by mtroducmg
them as honoured members of the nation, to the bene~ts of the
glorious future we are building, that they w1ll shed .the!r fears. of
the past and only then that the narrow and pigmy asp1rattons wh1ch :
they had hugged to their bosom will give place to new and brtghter '
hope.
124. Lastly, it is my pleasant duty to thank all thos~ who con· '
tributed to the success of our labours.
125. To begin with, I must thank the various co-op.ted memben; .
who even at the shortest notice, consented to tour w1th the Com·
mis;ion in their respective States and helped us with their local
knowledge.
126. I must also thank the various public leaders and representa·
tives of the various institutions serving the backward classes. Some
of them were extremely frank and made us ponder over the many
and conflicting sides of the problem.
127. The officers who were deputed by the State Gi:>vernments.
to accompany the Commission were uniformly helpful and obligmg
and lightened our task considerably.
128. We were able to discuss freely and frankly with the Minis-
ters of the various States. We are grateful for the courtesy shown to
us by them.
129. I must here express my personal and heartfelt gratitude tc
all my colleagues for their wonderful co-operation and consideration.
They were kind enough to put up with my many short-comings and
irregularities.
130. The whole work of the office was shouldered by the Member·
Secretary, Shri Arunangshu De, thus sparing my time for the mail
task.
131. The official secretaries from Shri Raman to Shri Naga1
helped us with their intimate knowledge of governmental machiner.
and its procedure.
132. Everything depended on the willing able and enthusiastic co
operation of the section officers. I must thank the Government fo
selecting Shri Gupta. and Shri Sareen for our work. They displaye•
tact aJ?d understandmg at eyery step, and with their own hat 1

work, Inculcated the same sp1rit in the staff.

~33. The Researc~ Sectio!l was started as my special hobbl
but 1t soon developed mto an Important section. The Research Off
cers worked as. hard as the rest of the staff, collecting and collatin
valuable mater1al.
134. ~h_ri S. K. Murthy worked as my Private-Secretary. ll
worked d1hgently throughout the two years of the Commission
work. He could be trusted with any confidential work.
135. I must not forget the silent and devoted service of the offic
staff down to the peons who oftentimes had to work hard beyon
office hours. My heart goes out to them in their domestic joys and
anxieties.
136. I must express my special obligation to Shri Datar (the
Deputy Minister for Home Affairs) and Shri Laxmidas Shrikant
(Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes) for taking
a keen personal interest in our work.
137. And most of all I am grateful to you, Rashtrapatiji, for
giving us this valuable opportunity of studying the condition of a
neglected and yet most lovable section of our nation and of serving
them through this enquiry.

Yours Sincerely
KAKA KALELKAR
Chairman
Backward Classes Commission
'Post Script 1
The Handloom Weaver and the Ambar Yam
We have unanimously come to the conclusion that for th~ eco-
nomic, educational and cultural rehabilitation of one of the biggest
backward classes in India, it is essential that the village textile
industry should be revived. We have unanimously recommended
that first preference should be given to the Khadi industry and
nothing should be done that may come in the way of the full and
speedy development of Khadi. But the present limitations of our
resources have set a limit to the production of Khadi in India. The
remaining non-Khadi sector of textiles should, therefore, be reserved
for the handloom, to the exclusion of mill or foreign cloth. We have
recommended, in effect, that mill cloth should be prohibited from
competing either with Khadi or handloom cloth. The mills may he
helped to export their products to neighbouring countries.
2. In this connection, we have recommended that wherever
Khadi is not able to occupy a field, Government should arrange for
the adequate supply of mill yam. both coloured and uncoloured at
reasonable rates to the handloom weavers. We also recommended
that State Governments may start spinning mills to ensure such
regular supply of yarn. .
3. But a new and efficient instrument of production of yam has
recently been developed. It is known as Ambar Charkha. The strength,
evenness and durability of yam from this Charkha is in no way Ul·
ferior to the mill yam. Ambar yam is definitely and decidedlY
superior in strength and evenness to hand-spun yarn. The Ambar
Charkha is practically a domestic mill, for the production of go_od
yam. ·
4. I am certain that my colleagues would not have objected to
the following proposal if it was placed before them at the time of
finalizing our Report. I knew about the Ambar Charkha but was
not confident that it could be recommended as a practical proposition
for the full supply of yarn that is necessary to make all the han~·
loo'?s work, but my recent visit to the Sarvodaya Sammelan at
Pun, and my detailed discussions with people that know, has
emboldened me to make the following proposals:-
Government should manage to produce Ambar Charkhas in
large numbers and supply them to the villages. Government can
also arrange to work the Ambar Charkhas with electric power and
thereby supply quality-yam to the handloom.
It has been found that even those weavers who find it difficult
to weave hand-spun yarn, have no difl:Iculty in utilizing the Ambaf
Yarn.
T~e productiol! of Ambar yarn is tantamount to decentralisin~
the spmnmg mtll mdustry with little capital and the emploympnl
of more people than the mill industry can a'ssure. I, therefore, re-
commend that next to the protection, given to Khadi, the State
Gov~rnment would do. well to employ all handlooms for the pr&
ducbon "both of the utility cloth and artistic cloth, with the help of
the Ambar yarn.
 XXXI

Christians and Non-Christian Tribals

5. During our tours of various States, we heard bitter complaints
from non-Christian tribals that owing to the peculiar policy of the
Government they did not get all the advantages which they ought
to get and which the Christian tribals generally get in abundance.
6. They said that "during British rule, the Christian Missionaries
had a p~ivil~ged position. Indian social servants wer!) prevented
from gomg mto the excluded areas where the tribals lived. The
Missionaries had the full monopoly there. Consequently the Christian
tribals got better education in English; naturally they got into
Government service and generally their position was greatly im-
proved. We knew that under British rule, it could not be otherwise.
"But even after the advent of 'Swaraj', conditions have not
changed. Most of the concessions given by the Swaraj Government
towards the betterment of the tribals go to the Christian tribals. The
Christian Missioas have now better facilities of proselytization and
the number of. Missionaries in the midst of the tribals has increased.
"Even in the matter of political representation, it is the Chris-
tian tribals that generally manage to get our votes and they claim
to represent the whole of the tribal population with the result that
there is a political pressure put on non-Christian tribals to accept
Christianity. We are surprised that even under Swaraj we are not
safe in our devotion to our own religion." ·
7. This complaint of the noll-Christian tribals has quite a differ-
ent complexion from usual complaint of ordinary Hindus against
the proselytization work of the Christian Missionaries. Hindus are
politically conscious enough to understand a ·policy of being extra
fair to and placating the Christians in order to overcome the narrow
prejudices of Hindus against non-Hindus; but the tribals cannot be
expected to relish such differential treatment and what they regard
as partially against them and in favour of Christian tribals.
8. We have, therefore, to consider the following points:-
(i) Christians and Muslims are not satisfied with being treated
indifferently as Indian citizens. They want special consi-
deration and recognition for themselves. The Hindus are
not allowed to say "treat all Indian citizens as one, and
don't divide us into Hindus and non-Hindus." But when it
comes to the position of tribals, division of the tribals into
Christian tribals and non-Christian tribals is not favoured.
Any such attempt is wounding the solidarity of the
Christian tribals with the non-Christian tribals. The result
is that Christian tribals being better educated and better
organized. have an opportunity of claiming to be the
leaders of all the tribals. In a population of nearly 2 crores
of tribals. the Christian tribals are only 4 lakhs .and yet
they are cillowed to be the leaders of the 2 crores.
No body is against the help given to the Christian tribals.
Let them be given better posts in Government service be-
cause of their advancement; Jet them be treated with
whatever special consideration the Government finds it
necessary. But why should they be .allowed to be the
leaders of all the non-Christian tribals and why should
the non-Christian tribals be left to be the victims of the
policy of domination of the Christian tribals.
L/Hl5MofHA
 (ii) The English language continues to be the medium of
administration even after the advent of Swaraj, with the
result that those who know English form an upper caste
and have a better chance of getting Government services
especially in the upper grades. So far as Hindus and
.Muslims are. concerned. this situation may wound their
national pride but it does not wound their prospects; but
with the tribals, so long as English is a medium of adminis-
tration, only Christian tribals will prosper under Swaraj
Government and non-Christians will riot be able to raise
their head for many generations to come. Even in J amshed·
pur the Christian tribals are in the ascendant. They get
all the upper employments in the Tata Factories because
they are English educated.
(iii) As the Anthropologists love to declare, the tribals are
animists. Hinduism has never disowned animistic groups.
Hinduism is broad enough to accept the whole gamut of
religious progress from extreme fetishism and animism to
the highest flights of Vedanta, and Indian culture from
the earliest times has always accepted the tribals as part
and parcel of the Hindu fold. It is cruel, therefore, to re•
gard the tribals as non-Hindus. But perhaps the propo-
ganda of British officers and Christian Missionaries has
succeeded and some of the tribals are calling themselves
non-Hindus. It is surprising that even the Swaraj Govern·
ment is equally fond of dividing the tribals into animists
and Hindulsed tribals. Only Christian tribals are not
separated from non-Christians.
9. The Christian Missionaries pressed upon the Government to
recognize ordinary Christians as a distinct community from the
Hindus and they say this distinction must be observed because the
Christians are in a minority. Then why not classify the tribals into
Christian tribals and non-Christian tribals?
10. The Muslims and the Christians are minorities. Any special
consideration shown to them is not going to endanger the solidarity
of the Indian nation. It will be strengthened. Let Christian tribals
be given every facility for their betterment, but let not the no:l·
Christian tribals be put under the domination of the Christian
tribals. ,
11. The very purpose of the Backward Classes Commission is to
help the under-dog to save himself from the domination of the upper-
dog. But here in the case of the tribals, we are allowing the non·
Christian tribals to be dominated by the Christian tribals.
12. We are not anxious to curtail honest proselytizing activities
of the Christ~a~s al~hough the Christian_s say that it is their religious
duty and pohbcal nght to go about askmg all non-Christians to drop
their. own relig!o~ and .ac~ept .Christianity. But it is one thing to
permtt the c.hnstlan MlSSI~na~leS to preach their religion without
any let .o~ hmdran.ce, but It IS another thing to give help to the
proselyhzm~ ~genct~s through the tax payers' money to dominate
the non-Chnstlan tnbals. '
Kaka Kalelkar
Chairman
 xxxiii
I
Sindhi Refugees
Post Script 2
I am sorry, in the stres's of various discussions, I entirely forgot
to add a Chapter on Sindhi Refugees in my forwarding note. I do it
now and hope that the following will kindly be incorporated in it.
I know Government is alive to the difficulties of Sindhis and is
doing its best to relieve their sufferings but there are some of their
difficulties which could be removed only by pursuing a policy which
the Backward Classes Commission could recommend with propriety.
The Sindhi Hindus are an energetic and resourceful community.
:The way they have met the calamity has evoked admiration from all,
'but their woes are many. I would suggE"st, therefore, that all the Sind hi
iXefugees should be regarded temporarily i.e. for the next 7 years, as a
,backward community and they shruld be given all the facilities,
~specially in the matter of scholarships for education, and priority
in Government Service. One thin;,: that specially came under our
notice is that although some of them may not need any financial
assistance, their children need the same special facilities for admis-
-sion into institutes of higher and technical learning as are accorded
to the members of backward communities. Sindhis had to leave their
hearths and homes and they were forced to spread out and settle down
in distant parts of the country. They had to suffer from the difficulty
.of language and oftentimes there was none who could sponsor their
cause. Given proper facilities for admission into institutes of higher
learning, Sindhis would make the best use of this concession and
within a few years cease to be a dependent community.
, Sindhi girls need special assistance and protection. I need not go
i into the details of this, but I hope Government will understand the
need of the situation and declare the Sindhi refugees especially their
women as a temporarily backward community for the next seven
years.

Kaka Kalelkar
Chairman
 Main Report
CHAPTER I
GENERAL
Origin
I 1. In view of the varied conditions of development among the
~ifferent communities of India, from the primitive tp the most
.advanced, the framers of the Indian Constitution deemed it necessary
ito make adequate provisions for the protection and UJ>lift of the back-
ward classes and to afford equal opportunities for advancement in
-t>rder to bring them up to a common level. The Constitution envisages
the establishment, at an early date, of a classless and casteless society,
ifree from all kinds of exploitation. The Preamble to the Constitution
r
makes this abundantly clear, and the relevant provisions are included
Articles 15(4), 16(4), 38, 39(c), 41, 43, 45, 46, 330 and 344.
'l 2. The claims of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes
for political representation and for special aid for the speedy ameliora-
1ion of their conditions, were recognized and adequate safeguards
were incorporated in the Constitution. Besides these two groups, there
VJere other communities, castes or social groups which were also back-
~ard socially and educationally. No definite provision could be made
for these social groups on account of paucity of information regarding
their backwardness. It was thought necessary, therefore, to collect
data regarding the conditions of these communities. Article 340
tertains specifically to the Other Backward Classes and contains the
following provisions:-
"(1) The President may, by order, appoint a Commission consist-
ing of such persons as he thinks fit to investigate the condi-
tions of socially and educationally backward classes within
the territory of India and the difficulties under which they
labour and to make recommendations as to the steps that
should be taken by the Union or any State to remove such
difficulties and to improve their condition and as to the
grants that should be made for th!! purpose by the Union
or anv State and the conditions subject to which such grants
should be made, and the order appointing such Commission
shall define the procedure to be followed by the
Commission.
(2) The Commission so appointed shall investigate the matters
referred to them and present to the President a report
setting out the facts as found by them and making such
recommendations as they think proper.
(3) The President shall cause a copy of the report so presented
together with a memorandum explaining the action taken
thereon to be laid before each House of Parliament."
3. It will be observed that the foregoing provisions ar~ distinct
irom those in respect of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tn)>es who
.also constitute a section of the backward classes and whose mterests
41re watched over by a Special Officer appointed by the President
~nder the provisions of Article 338 of the Constitution.
 2

4. The President, in pursuance of Article 340, appointed the Bad

ward Classes Commission consisting of the followmg persons:- ·
1. Shri Kakasaheb Kalelkar, M.P., Chairman.
2. Shri Narayan Sadoba Kajrolkar, M.P.
3. Shri Bheekha Bhai, M.P.
4. Shri Shivdayal Singh Chaurasia.
5. Shri Rajeshwar Patel, M.P.
6. Shri Abdul Qaiyum Ansari, M.L.A. (J?ihar).
7. Shri T. Mariappa, M.L.A. (Mysore).
8. Lala J agannath.
9. Shri Atma Singh Namdhari, M.P.
10. Shri N. R. M. Swamy, M.P.
11. Shri Arunangshu De, (Member-Secretary).
(Vide Ministry of Home Affairs Notification No. 70/53-Publi
dated the 29th January 1953).
5. Unfortunately, one of the members, Shri Atma Singh Namdh~
M.P., died on 7th January 1954. Dr. Anup Singh, M.P., was nominal!
in his place on 27th February 1954. Another member, Lala Jagannat
resigned from the membership to take up another appointment, al
Shri P. G. Shah was appointed in his place with effect from 21
August 1954.
Terms of Reference
6. The terms of reference of the Commission as announced in d
Notification were : ··
The Backward Classes Commission shall-
(a) determine the criteria to be adopted in considering whetb
any sections of the pP.ople in the territory of India (in adl
tion to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes specifil
by notifications issued under Articles 341 and 342 of d
Constitution) should be treated as socially and educational
backward classes; and, in accordance with such criten
prepare a list of such classes setting out also their approl
mate numbers and their territorial distribution· '
(b) i1_1vesti1!ate the conditions of all such socially ~nd edul
tlonally backward classes and the difficulties under whi
they labour:
and make recommendations--
(i) as to the steps that should be taken by the Unl
?r anv State to remove such difficulties or
unprove their condition· and
(ii) as to the grants that sh~uld be made for the pi
pos~ by the U:nion or any State and the conditi~
subJect to whtch such grants should be made·
(c) investigate such other matters as the President may' he!
after refer to them; and ·
(d) present to the President a Report setting out the facts
tfho~nkd by them and making such recommendations as tb
m proper.
 3

The Commission may-

(a) obtain such information as they may consider necessary or
relevant for their purpose in such form and such manner
as they may think appropriate, from the Central Govern-
ment. the State Governments and such other authorities,
organizations or individuals as may, in the opinion of the
Commission be of assistance to them;
(b) hold their sittings or the sittings of such sub-committees
as they may appoint from amongst their own members
at such times and such places as may be determined by,
or under the authority of the Chairman; and
(c) visit or depute a sub-committee of theirs to visit such parts
of the territory of India as they consider necessary or
convenient.
During the Commission's visits to any State and during any
sittings held by the Commission or any of their sub-committees in any
State, the Commission may co-opt two persons, who belong to that
State and who are members of backward classes, to be additional
members of the Commission or the sub-committee, as the case may
be, during such visits or such sittings, provided that at least one of
such co-opted members shall be a woman.
The Commission shall endeavour to present their report to the
President not later than the 31st January 1954.
7. As the enquiry could start only after the 18th March 1953, the
report could not be completed within the time stipulated. The term
of the Commission was, therefore, extended up to 31st March 1955.
Inauguration
8. On the 18th March 1953, the President inaugurated the Com-
mission. Speaking on the occasion both the President and the Prime
Minister expressed the hope that the labours of the Commission would
pave the way for a classless society in the country. The Prime Minister
disliked the term "backward classes" and remarked that it was basi-
cally wrong to label any section of the people as backward even if
they were so, particularly when 90 per cent. of the people in the
country were poor and backward. The Chairman of the Commission
said that a social revolution was needed to enable the backward
people to come up arid to liquidate caste and class differences. To
decide as to who were the backward people, the Scheduled Castes
(i.e. Harijans), the Scheduled Tribes (i.e. Girijans) and the Other
Backward Classes (Itarejans) would have to be considered together.
although the lists had already been prepared in respect of Harijans
and Girijans. The then Home Minister, Dr. Kailash Nath Katju, out·
lining the task before the Commission in his speech on the occasion,
explained that the Commission was required not only to determine
who were the backward people deserving assistance, apart from
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, but also to recommend speci-
fic measures for their uplift. Referring to the personnel of the Com-
mission, Dr. Katju mentioned that as Government wanted a business-
like body, they had to restrict the number of members. Many people
whom they would have liked to include could not be so included. It
should not, however, lie imagined that unless particular communities
or groups of persons were represented on the Commission, their cause
would go by default.

Plan of Work
9. The Commission held its first sitting in New Delhi on the 18th
March, 1953, and several sittings subsequently, at which the plan of
work was chalked out. According to the time-limit, the Commission
had only about 9 months within which it was required to visit 27
States, give interviews, hold discussions and conclude its labours. It
was not possible to plan for a detailed research into the history of the
several communities coming under the Other Backward Classes.
Efforts were, therefore, made to collect as much information as
possible from the various sources and to conclude the work within
the time prescribed. A comprehensive questionnaire was drawn up
for obtaining the necessary information from the State Governments
and the general public. A date was also fixed for the receipt of replies
and representations. This was later relaxed in response to pressing
demands from the State Governments and the general public.
10. The questionnaire was translated into as many of our regional
languages as possible so that it might reach the masses. Appeals were
issued to the Press more than once to keep the problem of the back-
ward classes before the public and to create keen nation-wide interest
in and realization of the importance of the enquiry, Tours were planned
and programmes were drawn up in consultation with the States con-
cerned. Wide publicity was given to the tour programme of the Com-
mission for each State. Representatives of the backward classes were
also kept informed of the programme of the Commission to enable
them to meet the Commission to present their cases.
11. During the course of their visit to the States the Commission
often divided itself into groups or sub-committees and visited various
centres for the purpose of receiving representations or examining
witnesses that appeared before them. They also visited educational
and social service institutions, Harijan colonies and backward class
locahtles.
12. Some of the States arranged modest exhibitions of arts and
<:rafts and for parties of folk dances and music peculiar to backward
classes and Scheduled Tribes.
13. '!he Commission also held discussions with the Ministers.
Secretanes, and Heads of Departments of Governments on the
problems of the backward classes.
. 14. The statement in Appendix I gives details of the tour includ-
mg the places VISit~d, mileage covered, memoranda received 'and the
number of persons mterv1ewed.
15. In view of the short time at our disposal it was not 'bl
to plan fo: detailed mvestigation into the background f th poss! e
commumtles, however, interes~ing and useful that stud~ mi~hlah~~!
been. The work had to be adJusted according to the t' ·1 bl
and accordmgly a programme of work was a! d Ime avai a e.
Officers were appointed to assist the staff to :~ru~~%~ ~~e ~~fci!~~~
 5

colle.cted and. the memoranda and the replies received, and to prepare
a bnef descnphon of castes and communities under investigation.
16. The evidence collected from the State Governments and from
the representatives of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes was
separately scrutinised for the purpose of revising the lists of Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
Scope of the Terms of Reference·
17. According to the terms of reference the innumerable Other
Backward Classes and not the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
were the chief concern of the Commission. This position had to be
explained to the general public in clear terms time and again. In spite
of such clarifications, however, there has been a persistent misunder-
standing about the scope of the terms of reference of the Commission.
While it is true that Scheduled Castes (Harijans) and the Scheduled
Tribes (Girijans) are backward there are other backward classes who
have been sadly neglected for centuries past. It was also explained
that the Government of India had already a fair conception of the
problems of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes for whose wel-
fare they had already appointed a special officer. And yet, organi-
zations of Harijans and their leaders came forward with their views,
grievances and suggestions for the betterment of their lot. This showed
that there is an awakening among the Harijans and that they are
vocal enough to assert their claims for the redress of grievances.
Even State Governments were profuse in supplying information
about the Harijans. This is not to be wondered at. The problem of
the Harijans has been prominently before the country for the past
many years. On the other hand, there were only a few representations
<Jn behalf of the Scheduled Tribes.
18. We gave. however. a patient hearing to the representatives of
both the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes. The reason why
the Commission heard these classes was that in the first instance it
was good policy to let these backward classes feel that the Commis-
sion was not indifferent to their problems. The Commission was
equally anxious to avail itself of every opportunity of knowing their
conditions and understanding their minds. It helped the Commission
to collect material for the revision of the list of Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes, a task subsequently entrusted to it by the
President. Another reason was that the status of the various com-
munities was indeterminate and the classifications already made some-
times required revision. It also helped the Commission to understand
the scope and implications of the ameliorative measures already under-
taken.
19. The Commission noticed in the course of its enquiry that in
almost every State there were cases of omissions in the existing lists.
Ti1ere were complaints about certain communities having been
wrongly classed as Harijans. Enquiries were made about the latter
and although the untouchability of some of these communities was
merely nominal, there was no doubt about their backwardness and
it was, therefore, felt proper to retain all such names in the list.
Questionnah·e
20. The problem of backwardness is a world problem and has to
be studied in the light of the world situation. There are backward
nations, backward races, backward areas, nay, even backward and
 6

underdeveloped continents. While certain races and countr.ies may be

said to be politically backward. others may be backward m the field
of science. Certain groups and races are regarded as ba~kward by
other groups who out of arrogance and self-esteem consider them·
selves supen~r. Th~ standards of social justice vary from State to State
and from country to country. Solutions which may not s~el? necessary
or justifiable when considered on a small scale find the1r JUStification
when considered on the canvas of the whole world.
21. Commissions for the study of backwardness of social groups are
no~ likely to be appointed frequently. It was, theref~re, ~ecessarr to
study the problems thoroughly in all aspect~ ~nd covermg a fairly
wide field; but realising the urgency of subn.uttmg a solutwn for the
betterment of backward people, the CommissiOn endeavoured to fimsh
its labours within a limited period, confining itself strictly to its terms
of reference. It took special pains in drawing up an exhaustive ques-
tionnaire of nearly 200 questions under 24 sub-heads (vide Append1.x
II). A questionnaire of such a nature, apart from the answers 1!
evokes, provides an element of education to the people and focusses
their attention on the magnitude of the backwardness under which a
large part of the population is labouring. It also suggests to social
workers new avenues of research and service.
22. Though the questionnaire set the people thinking, as was
evident to the Commission during their tours in various parts of lh&
country, the replies received from the State Governments were not
uniformly satisfactory. A few States seem to be alive to the momen·
tous changes that are likely to result not only from our enquiry but
also from the awakening that this enquiry has aroused in the hearts
of the backward classes. Others, unfortunately, have treated tile
questionnaire as if it were a routine communication. These States had
often to be reminded that the Commission needed adequate answers:
and even the reminders had very little effect.
23. The replies and the memoranda received from the variou<
individuals and organizations of the backward classes also showed
Jack of study, and revealed their inability to furnish full information.
Fro:n the :eplies, it was. evident that there was very little originai or
radical thmkmg on their part. There was a dull mechanical unifor·
mity in the demands put forward and every community pleaded it
was extremely backward and that it needed all possible help in varioUS
spheres. Nobody seemed to have tackled the genesis of backwardneSS
of such a large section of the population and very few seemed to
have thought out proper remedies to remove backwardness effectivel~-
24. And yet it is clear that the ferment has reached the masse>
~hey hav~, for. the first time in thousands of years, shed their tradf
tlo"!al resignation to fate _and started hoping that their condition c~P
be :mproved, that they will be able to take their rightful place in thl
~oc1al structure of tof!iorrow and that they will have their due shatl
m all schemes of njltlonal advancement.
25. The immediate effect of this ferment was marked in ihe forll
?f uneasiness and impatience, and some measure of bitterness also
m the mmds o~ the J?eople. These symptoms cannot be ignored be
cau~e they are mdicatlve of the birth of a new energy which must bl
 7

cimalised into creative effort and constructive activity. There remains

no longer any belief in the sanctity of the caste-hierarchy having
been established by the will of God.
Initial Handicap
26. The Commission experienced a great handicap almost at the
out,et. Expecting that all the statistics would be available with the
State Governments, the Commission started its work in the compara-
tively advanced State of Mysore. A tour of two States as far away as
Himachal Pradesh in the north-west and Assam in the north-east also
brought us face to face with the same difficulties. For, we discovered
that the relevant statistics so ne(.'essary for our enquiry were not
available with the State Governments. The plea advanced was that
no c-1ste-wise statistics had been collected during the Census of 1951,
except to some extent in the case of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes and some other special groups. Both administrators and Census
officers pleaded their inability to supply the relevant material. Figures
furn:shed by the various communities were chiefly a matter of guess
work and their numbers were often exaggerated. The (.'aste-wi~<·
statistics in the previous Census Reports were not compiled on a
uniform basis throughout India and were, therefore, not of much use.
27. How far and to what extent the omission to enumerate caste-
wise statistics during the Census of 1951 was a handicap, can be
judged by the terms of reference of the Commission, which required
us to investigate the condition of all such socially and educationally
backward classes and the difficulties under which they labour and
to prepare a list of such classes, setting out their approximate
num!:>ers and their territorial distribution.
28. We realise that the chief reason which must have weigh-:!d
with the Government of India for drastically changing the Census
computation was that caste-wise figures helped to perpetuate caste-
distinction. The whole question regarding the enumeration of castes
in the Census has been examined elsewhere in this Report. But we
would like to record here that the Census of 1961 should collect and
tabulate all the essential figures caste-wise. We are also of the opinion.
that if it is possible this should be carried out in 1957 instead of in
1961, in view of the importance of the problems affecting backward
classes. U it is not possible to advance the date for Census enumera-
tion. then a random sample survey for a proper assessment of the
conditions of the individual communities should be carried out as soon
as possible.
::!9. The necessity for caste-wise statistics will disappear only
when all the backward communities are able to come up to the
general level of other communities and to participate in the oppor-
tunities provided by the State on terms of equality. This, of course. is
a solution for the future.
30: The difficulties regarding the statistics were brought to the
notice of the Ministry of Home Affairs, who kindly arranged a con-
ference of the representatives of the Census Department. the Multi-
purpose National Sample Survey, the Ministry of Commerce and
Indll$try, the Ministry of Finance. the Reserve Bank, the Planning
Commission and the Ministry of Education. The meeting was held for
two days under the chairmanship of the Deputy Minister fer Hor;,e
Affairs but the discussions did not bring us any nearer the solution.
31. In ~he absence of reliable facts and figures, the only course
<Open to us was to rely on the statistics available from the various
Governments and the previous Census Reports, and to go by lhe
general impressions of Government officers, leaders of public opinion
and social workers. The Census Department have furnished us with
approximate population figures for most of the communities, but we
assume no responsibility for the reliability or finality of these figures.
We feel, however, that the conclusions that we have drawn from the
mass of material collected by us are fairly satisfactory.
 . CHAPTER II
CENSUS AND CASTE
. . 1. In the first chapter, we have mentioned the handicaps under
Which we had to work and the difficulties we had in obtaining reliable
data about the sections of the people which should be treated as
socially and educationally backward, and in preparing lists setting
out their approximate numbers and their territorial distribution. We
had also to investigate conditions of all such backward classes. For
this purpose we required information about the percenta"e of
literacy and the average level of education and employment ~mong
them. We revert to this subject here to indicate what steps .hould be
taken in future to remove the important lacunae in the sociological
and demographic data of this country.
:!. The arrangements for the 1951 Census, ''which was the first
census held under orders of the Republic of free India", formed a
great advance in many ways, but two factors contributed to the
serious lacunae which made our task extremely difficult. First was
the aholitiCn of caste for the purposes of full enumeration and taoula-
tion and the second was the subordination of all ethnological m:lterial
by the zeal to over-emphasise the economic data. These factors Jed
to a loss of continuity in the information usually contained in the
Indian Census Report, which had developed into a decennial document
of grsat importance to the ethnologists, sociologists and demographists
throughout the world.• "The 1951 Census was not to concern itself
with question regarding races, castes and tribes, except in so far as
the necessary statistical material relating to special groups was to
be publish~d, and certain other material relating to backward classes
collected and made over to the Backward Classes Commission. On
the other hand it was enjoined that the maximum possible attention
should be paid to economic data."t
3. Under the old arrangements. the Census Superintendent was
selected fer his interest in the ethnological and cultural life of the
people and during his tenure of appointment for about three years,
besides arranging for the mechanics of the Census operations, used
to take interest in the sociological changes to enable him to collect
information describing the general demographic conditions within
his region. But at the present Census. the officers were chosen not
for "any specialised knowledge or aptitude for making statistical
computation or for carrying out economic and social research,"t but
for tbeir "intimate knowledge of the administrative machinery".
4. (a) The problem of caste in Census was summed up by Sardar
Vallahh Bhai Patel in his address to the Census Conference in
February 1950. •:Formerly .there used to . be elaborate caste .tables
which were required m India partly to satisfy the theory that 1t was
a caste-ridden country, and partly to meet the' needs of administrative
measures dependent upon caste division. In the forthcoming Censu~>
• Census of India, 1951 VoL I.
t Page 10. ibid.
0
 }')

this will no longer be a prominent feature." This was the most impo~­
tant of the various changes introduced at the 1951 Census. The prcVI·
sion of a Census Act, the creation of a permanent office of. the
Registrar General, provision for the maintenance of a ~atHmal
RP-gister of Citizens, the system of permanent hous:,numbermg &.n~
the retention of the preliminary enumeratiOn of the special groups,
have all been new features of great importance. But the subordination
of ethnological material and the omission of caste in enumeratic..n and
tabulation has been a matter of great loss to all students of sociology
and social welfare.
(b) 1'he census questionnaire was .r~du~~d to 14 C!uestions and the
old question of prev1ous census regardmg Race:, Tnbe ~r Cn~te and
Religion" was replaced \;ly another regardmg (a) Nationality, (b)
Religion and (c) Special Groups." This change was welcomed at that
time as a visible sign of the firm determination to stamp out caste. But
the caste is an ancient institution found in some shape or another
throughout the world. Its unique form in India, though doomed to
slow death, has unfortunately survived notwithstanding the heroic
attempts of Buddhism, Jainism and scores of modern religious and
social reformers. "Casteism survives even in political elections in
spite of its official death." Before the disease of caste is destroyed, all
facts about it have to be noted and classified in a scientific manner as
in a clinical record.
(c) Th~ ·provision of "special groups" to enumerate the Schedul~d
Tribes, Scheduled Castes, Anglo-Indians and Backward Classes
was a v,ise one and in consonance with the pronouncement of Sardar
Patel quoted above. It was also in consonance with the provision of
Article 340 about "the socially and educationally backward classes."
If these provisions had been faithfully and fully implemented, it
would have been possible to get all the data regarding these speci.al
groups on the lines available in the Census previous to 1931, where
tabulation for individual castes and tribes was made. The 1951
Census provided that the enumerator had to ask a question as to
whether the person belonged to any special group specified by the
State Government and if the reply was clear, the person's name was
Tecordcd under the speCially selected name of the caste or tribe or
dass. But the details were not followed up in tabulation of ail d3ta·
o~y the total of the numbers in each of the groups of Scheduled
Tnbes. Scheduled Castes and Other Backward Classes was recorded.
The Census compilations specially compiled for and submitted to the
Backward Classes Commission by the Census Department consist of
total numb7rs .of p~rsons under each of these groups for each State
arranged d1stnct·w1se! but no figures showing the distribution cf
Eac~ of th~ col!lmumtles mentioned under the special group arc
available. We w1sh we had before us the compiled figures for each
<:ommunity even with regard to the limited number of communities in
the Other Backward Classes group with the usual information on
"Principal means of livelihood", "Secondary means of livelihood"
"Literacy and Education", "Unemployment". etc. '
(d)' Figures· supplied to us by the Census Department gave the
aggregate number of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and of a
limited number of communities in Other Backward Classes group.
This could not help us to decide about the approximate population of
 11

each community. Moreover, there was no authoritative list of Other

Backward Classes. The Ministry of Education had one list. The Census
,assumed another, and it was entrusted to us to supply an authoritative
list, in the absence of which the figures for the Other Backw<lrd
Classes given either under Census or by the Ministry of Education,
could not, by the very nature of the case, be authoritative or accurate.
(e) Further as a result of the conference mentioned in the next
paragraph (a) we have been supplied State-wise compilations of the
"estimated population by castes in 1951". Figures of each caste were
not separately extracted in case of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled
Tribes, and Other Backward Classes which were enumerated as
"special groups". "No caste-wise figures are available for 1941 Census,
except for a few selected castes and these for a few selected districts
only". The ligures for 1951 have been estimated on the basis of the
figures of the previous censuses by applying the growth percentage of
the population as a whole. Some minor adjustments have been made
in the estimated figures of Scheduled Castes in order to make the total
tally with the 1951 Census total. We cannot consider this method of
compilation either satisfactory or reliable, but we had to utilize what·
ever materials were made av..dlable to us. ·
5. At the Conference helti. by the Home Ministry, we had pressed
for information regarding (i) the approximate figures for the various
castes and communities and their territorial distribution, (ii) the per-
centage of literacy among both men and women of the various com·
munities for rural and urban areas, (iii) the average per capita income
of th~ representative backward and non-backward communities in
rural and urban areas, (iv) the domestic handicrafts and village indus-
tries which would contribute to the betterment of the backward
classes, (v) the recent changes in village economy and the village
financing which have rendered village communities especially of the
artisan type financially backward. Attempts made subsequent to the
conference have not been helpful. The Commission has been able to
get some information only regarding (i) and (iv) which is not of very
satisfactory type, while the other items remain uncompiled. Hopes
were raised by the offer of the National Sample Survey Organisation,
but they reported that they could not obtain the information about
the various communities which formed the subject of the terms of
Teference of the Commission, without undertaking an entirely new
investigation which could not be completed within the time available
for us. The All-India Agricultural Enquiry Organisation has, however,
summarised for us 100 typical schedules of some backward class
families employed in agricultural work in the States of Madras and
Bihar and this information is printed as Appendix III. The literacy
figures are not available for 1951 for any of the backward communi·
ties and the Commission is driven to the queer position of having to
refer in 1954-55 to the figures of literacy recorded against a C1mmu-
nity in 1931, a date nearly quarter of a ~entury back. These facts a~e
mentioned to ind1cate the extent to wh1ch we were hand1capped m
the task referred to us by the President, and, what is more important,
to suggest that the 1961 Census has to be remodelled and re-organised
so as to secure the required information on the following lines:-
(1) Now that there is a Census Act and permanent otlice of
Registrar General and Census Commissioner, the Census
 12

operations should be conducted as a well-equipped co~ti­

nuous organization competent to supply the mformatlon
on various topics of sociological importance. The records
should be carefully preserved and arranged systematically,
and the difficulties in recompilation that hampered our work
should not recur.
(2) The Census Offices in the States and in Centre must have
permanent ethnologists, or sociologists in addition to the
economists attached to them for collection, co-ordination and
interpretation of necessary data regarding social changes.
This staff of social scientists should not be given adminis-
trative work.
{3) As long as social welfare and social relief has to be adminis-
tered through classes or groups, full information about these
groups should be obtained and tabulated. We suggest a
revised form of Census slip.
(4) We suggest that the bulk of t)le temporary staff required for
the census should be recruited from social workers and
village level workers of the Planning and Development
Departments. A few of the them may have to be retained
in each district for making available the statistical informa-
iio!l required in connection with social relief to the back-
. ward classes. Some who are properly trained would provide
th~ nuclear staff required for the numerous sample and
social surveys that are being organized throughout the
countey-by--Governments, universities and research organi-
zations.
(5) Information should be recorded wherever available regard-
ing estimated annual income and annual expenditure of the
earning member of a family. There are great difficulties in
getting reliable data on this point but with a large number
of village level workers and social workers an attempt
might be made to collect the information.
(6) Th~ slip should contain information on the following
pomts:- .
(i) Full name and relationship to the head of the house-
hold.
(ii) Tribe or Caste and Nationality.
(iii) Religion.
(iv) Civil condition i.e. whether married, unmarried,
widowed or divorced.
(v) Age.
(vi) Sex.
(vii) Birth-place.
(viii) Mother-tongue.
(ix) Languages with which the person is fairly conversant.
(x) Dependency and employment.
 13
(xi) Traditional occupation,
(xii) Principal means of livelihood.
(xili) Secondary means of livelihood.
(xiv) (a) Literacy and
(b) Education.
(xv) Unemployment.
(xvi) Social disability, if any.
(xvii) Annual income and expenditure (estimated).
(xviii) Disease, if any, hereditary or otherwise.
 cHAPrE!i'l. m
CASTE AND SOCIETY ·
i. The first two of our tenns of refer~nc~ require "the determ~ll·
tion of the criteria to be adopted in cons1denng whether any sect10ns
of the people in India (in addition to the Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes) should be treated as socially and educatio~ally
backward and the investigation of the conditions of all such soc1ally
and educationally backward classes and the difficulties under which
they labour." The implications of these terms of reference must be
studied in the context of the peculiar social conditions prevailing in
India. The institution of caste being the basis on which society has been
organised for the past several generations, it is necessary to study its
evolution through the ages.
2. Many writers including some early European scholars have
propounded various theories explaining the growth of caste. Census
Commissioners, in particular, have written voluminously on the origin,
evolution and ramification of the caste system.
3. We do not propose to trace the evolution of the Hindu social
order stage by stage with full historical background, nor is it neces-
sary for our purpose to enter into a detailed discussion of the varied
aspects of caste. We are not concerned with the ethnographical study
of various tribes and races which form the sub-stratum of the present
sociological order. It is not necessary for us to go into any details of
the anthropometric classification or the ethnographical studies in the
labyrinth of castes. We are mainly concerned with the pernicious
effects of caste resulting in disruption and disunity and consequent
backwardness of many communities in India.
4. The aim of the study of social conditions in India should be not
merely to understand all the ramifications of the caste system but to
evolve conditions under which the evils of that system may gradually
disappear and to make available to all the people opportunities for
. happiness, growth and peaceful life.
5 The Caste System in India is a unique· social phenomenon and
Is an institution of highly complex origin. No institution has been
found anywhere comparable to the complex and rigid caste system of
India. It is true that social and racial differences in some form or
other do prevail in other parts of the world, but it is the peculiarity
of India that it recognised the social differences inherent in 'human
nature and gave them an institutional and mystic form with a religioUS
and spiritual background.
6. The word 'Caste' comes from the Portuguese word 'Casta', It Is
difficult to define caste on account of its varied and comple~
character. Each caste is a social unit in itself. The customs by which it
lives are generally different in some respects from those of othel
castes and are sometimes in marked contrast to those of any othet
caste. Persons of one caste do not marry those of another and thE
extent to which persons of one caste eat or drink with others is alsc
u
 15
1imited. Evert a change of religion often does not destroy caste. For
instance converts to Islam and Christianity sometimes carry caste
practices with them, though their religions do not recognise any such
distinction.
Early History
7. The historians are led to believe that the Dravidians were the
or1ginal inhabitants of India. They had a long background of civilisa·
tion behind them. There were also the primitive tribes, nomads, and
forest dwellers. The coming of the Aryans into India raised new prob-
lems, racial and political. Conflict inevitably took place between these
races and out of it gradually arose the caste system, which in the
course of centuries has affected Indian life profoundly. In the early
times there was a long drawn-out struggle of the Aryans amongst
themselves, and with the Dravidians, Nagas, Dasyus and other races,
who were living in India at that time. Subsequently, the Scythians,
the Huns, the Greeks, the Persians, the Pathans, the Mughals and
finally the Europeans came to India. Except the Europeans, all these
groups became domiciled iri India. The composition of the present
Indian people is thus the result of the coming together of these ele-
ments and exihibits a mixture of numerous races, indigenous as well
as immigrant through a process of ethnic combination.
8. The isolated geographical position of India, its climate, forests,
vast deserts and river systems have also exercised a great influence
on the life and character of the Indian people and their social organi-
sation.
9. The political history of India throughout the ages has also had
its share in the moulding of Indian people and the evolution of the
social system. A long series of political upheavals naturally had their
effects on the economic, social and cultural life of the people. ·
10. India has also felt the impact of various neighbouring cul-
tures. Further, the numerous linguistic groups have till recently to ·a
very great extent retained their own individuality.
11. In this vast country the Indian social syst~m. ha~ p~oved capa·
ble of absorbing many extraneous elements. an~ 1t 1s s1gmficant th~t
no intruders have yet succeeded in chang~ng 1t substantially. It IS
equally significant that the caste system produced comparative
stability and gave this multiple society its present form.
Origin of Caste System • .
12. It is not possible to trace the origin of the caste system w1th
any definiteness. It may have been a pre-Aryan institution-a ~evelop­
ment of prehistoric clan life. When the A~ya~s c~me to Ind1a, ~hey
may have found caste a very convement. J.nstJtutJon !or. the adJust-
ment of race relations. They may have utilised the prmc1ple of ~aste
and thereafter divided the Aryan community i~to t~ee functJon.al
groups called 'Varnas'. In the Rig Veda-the earliest. hterature avail·
able--the first three 'Varnas', viz. Brahmana, Kshatr1ya, and Va1shya
are very frequently mentioned. It is only in Purush Sukth~ that. a
reference has been made to the four-fold division of soc1ety VIZ.
Brahmana Rajanya Vaishya and Shudra-who are safd tto fhfue
sprung fr~m the m~uth, the arms,, the thighs and ~he . ee 0d the
Creator. The particular limbs associated w1th each diVISIOn an e
 16

order in which they are mentioned probably indicated the!r status in

society at that time. But this portion of Purusha Suktha IS stated to
be a later addition.
13. It is just possible that the Aryans divided themselves into thre~
'Varnas' during the period associated with the name of Shri
Ramachandra and that Shri Krishna Chandra might hav~ been. t~e
first person to develop the three varnas into 'Chatur Varna. If. thiS ~~
true the statement in the 'Gita', 'Chatur Varnayam Maya Snshtam
(Th~ four-fold order of society wa~ cre.ated by me) may ~ave .a per·
sonal beariug It may be that Shr1 Kr1shna of the Upamshad1c age,
the disciple of Ghor Angiras, incorporated the Shudra and enlarged
the 'Trivarnic' society into 'Chatur Varna'.
14. The functional division gave rise to various varnas which
crystallised themselves into four main groups. Those who were out-
side this four-fold organisation were called 'Panchamas' and were
allowed to live on the fringe of society as untouchables. There were
still others who preferred to remain independent. They retired into
inaccessible areas and did not accept the Aryan pattern of life. They
were called "Vanavasis or Vanaukas".
15. Another theory is that in ancient times, the Brahmans and the
Kshtriyas in the North co-operated with each other, treating the vast
masses of Vaishyas and Shudras as inferior. The Brahmans and
Kshtriyas who were then agriculturists, could not, however, form a
self-sufficient social unit. The Vaishyas gradually picked up wealth
and a fair amount of culture and joined the higher ranks. Thus the
Trivarnic civilization formed the upper strata of society, leaving the
Shudra as mere masses. Those Shudras who would not give up
practices repugnant to Aryan ideals were- condemned as untouchables
and were forced to live on the fringe of society. They were beyond
the pale of four-fold orthodoxy. Others who were unwilling to fall
in line with the Trivarnic ideals, retired to the hills and Jed a pre-
carious but independent life. They are the present Scheduled Tribes
or Girijans.
16. The general class of Shudras consisted of domestic and menial
servants. Besides them, other occupational classes like blacksmiths,
leather workers, barbers, physicians, goldsmiths, merchants and
chariot builders also find a mention in the ancient scriptures. Four
· other castes viz. Ayogava, Chandala, Nishada and Pulkasa are men•
tioned in the Vedic literature. • · ·
. 17. The four-fold division of society was not particularly well
kmt. When cultural forces were strong the functional ideas of
'Varna' prevailed, and when cultural forces weakened the clannish or
tribal idea of caste dominated. The cohesion of caste gradually became
!llore powerful than the cohesion. of Varna, and yet, the passion to
1m prove the moral sta~dard of . hfe remained powerful throughout
history. The best known mstance IS that of Vishwamitra of the Puranic
Age who was not content to be called a Rishi among the Kshatriyas
He aspired for the title of Brahmarshi. '
. 18..The division of. ~o~iety in those days was not merely func•
tiona!; 1t was also a diVISion by standards of cultural and spiritual
excellence. The four 'Varnas' together had a common accepted
 17
standard. for individuals based on efforts of man to reach Godhood, by
o:;erconung all the :-veaknesses of the flesh and the anti-social emo-
tiO~s. All round punty thus became the common aim of all the 'Var-
nas. The B~ahmans asp1r~d to mai~tain purity of birth, purity of body
through daily .baths, pur1~y of mmd through seU-abnegation, purity·
of food and dr!nk and purity of livelihood. Purity of food and purity
of me~ns of livelihood were the common standard for all. 'Persons
bel?ngmg to lowe~ groups could claii:)l and enter the higher strata of
soc1e~y by puri!~mg themselves and their ideals of life. The social
prestige and prlVlleges of the higher castes were sufficient attraction
!or the. people in the lower groups to attempt to rise. Orthodoxy,
mshnctlvely non-pr.ogressiv.e and security-loving, always opposed any
attempt:; at upgradmg. Soctety had, therefore, to establish an agency
for . d.eCidmg the status and grade of social and cultural groups.
Rehg10n was ~he ultimate ~ource of power and the religious head,
therefore, dec1ded the social status of the various groups.. The
Brahman, who belonged to the priestly caste, thus became the spiri-
tual head of society. The King was its executive head.
19. In the beginning, the caste system was an arrangement for the
peaceful co-existence of various clans, tribes, or social units. It was
c.onceived under an urge for social solidarity and mutual responsibi·
hty. Caste was an association of families for living together and for
forming a complete social unit. These families could marry amongst
themselv~s according to certain rules; and the securing of food being
the main occupation of every group, inter-dining was also confined
within the caste. Caste, in the beginning, had no specific restrictions
as regards occupation. That element was introduced later as a result
of the influence of the idea of 'Varna'. ·
20. The four varnas together formed one society, each Varna
representing a particular social function, that was felt to be essential
for human existence. On the oilier hand, the caste was a separate,
independent and self-sufficient community. Caste meant blood-
relationship, whereas 'Varna' was indicative of a particular vocation
and also of a particular standard of living. Many castes and blood-
groups could come together under one 'Varna', and become a large
cultural unit. The four-fold functions of 'Varna' were later sub-
divided into various occupations which, in co~~se of time, ~ecame
crystallised into castes. The priest and the learned, the warrior and
the administrator, the farmer, the trader and the money-lender, the
weaver, artisan and the menial servant-each one formed a separate
caste. Und~ r the scheme of sub-division, priests, teachers, preachers
and astrolo 0'~rs were brought under the 'Varna' of B~ahmans. The
soldier the ruler and the administrator became Kshatr1yas. As mere
administrators and accountants could not maintain the high standard
of Kshatriyahood the Kayasthas were sometimes relegated to the
category of Shud~as. The landholder, the cattle-keeper, the trader and
the money-lender were the Vaishyas. The memals were .the Shudras.
Later on the Vaishyas could not keep up the cerem~mal standards
assigned to them and, therefore, they also were put m the class of
Shudras. · ·
21. The caste system had a heirarchy based on. th.e standard .of
purity of culture. The Brahman who observed the prmctple~ of puntv
and learnt the Sacred Text by heart was regarded as the htghest. He
 18

was responsible for .the cultw:al education and spiri.tual traditions of

society as a whole. The power and prestige of the pnest!Y castes grew
as the importance of sacrifices and rituals develope.d m later Ag~s .
. The pre-eminence of the Brahman had secured him many soc1al
privileges. · . .
· · 22. The Kshatriya was responsib~e fo~ the protection of soc1ety
against internal disorder or external mvas1on. He had also to uphold
the 'Varnashrama Dharma'. The Vaishya, in his turn, was the trader
and he had to bear in mind that all wealth was really a trust for the
service of all.
· ( 23. The Shudra Class was expected to serve the three upper class~s
with contentment and humility. Many disabilities were placed on th1s
class. The present backwardness among the various castes ~n~ com]·
munities of the Shudra class partly arises out of these restnct10ns.
24. The position of the fifth class viz. the untouchables, was indeed
galling. They suffered from many humiliations and were condemned
to a life of degradation~
25. The excessive ritualism practised by the Brahmans and the
extreme importance attached to the outer forms of observances had
their reactions in cours~ of time. Both J ainism and Buddhism were
Reform Movements started by Kshatriyas preaching against rituals
and sacrifices and emphasising the performance of duty and the
observance of right conduct. Buddhism spread over the whole of
Northern India and a part of Southern India. The old ritualism of
sacrifices was discarded and popular forms of worship were intro-
duced. Hinduism. gradually absorbed all that was good in Buddhism.
Buddhism, in course of time, lost its pristine vigour and developed
degrading practices. Shankaracharya opposed the metaphysical
doctrines of Buddhism and re-established Hinduism in the hearts of
the people. His doctrine of Advaita was so akin to Buddhistic meta·
physics, that he was accused of being a Buddhist in disguise. Hindu·
ism finally accepted Buddha as an Avtar of Vishnu and recognised
the present age as being under his sway.
26. The post-Vedic period saw the gradual stratification of the
~s~system. The rules and regulations governing the social life and
md>Vldual conduct of the four orders were elaborated to embrace all
aspects of hfe. In the ma!ter of . taxation, as also of punishment,
according ~ law ~here was mequal1ty on the basis of caste. The ideas
o~ ceremomal pur>ty, taboos on food and drink and the theory of polu·
t1on by the .touch or even the near approach of certain cc.3tes-all find
express10n m the Law texts of thlS period. Marriage within one's own
caste was an Ideal, yet certain marriages outside the caste were recog-
msed as )awful. The first three 'varnas' could marry from castes lower
than their own, but t~e Pratiloma marriages were looked' down upon.
Howe.ver, there were 1nstan~es of Irregular marriages. The great Epics
contam many examples of mter-caste marriages. The various grada·
~>ons of cas~ came. to be regarded as a natural result of ideas re ard·
b-g ceremomal punty and pollution. The doctrines of Karma an3 Re·
T~th ;.ere empC~yefd as sanctions for the observance of social laws.
.e mg or 1e was supposed to maintain Dharma which the
pr>est la1d down. The Laws of Manu enjoy a great prestige in India
even today and are regarded as authoritative on the matter of caste.
 19
Manu deals with t~e. duti~s of the four orders and their Dharma. The
~asses obeyed the m]uncbons of Dharma to avoid the terrors of future
hfe. The theory o~ Karma was evolve~ to keep people on the path
of duty. P~ayasc~ttta or _pen~nce was. mtended to expiate impurity
and to ~m d a~amst re~nbut10n resultmg from disapproved conduct.
Manu gtves a hst of Jat111, many of whom have changed in name and
some of them have ceased to exist. He distinguishes the following
categories:- ·
1. Four original Varnas.
2. Castes which were supposed to be produced by mixture with
pure and mixed castes.
3. Castes which have lost their status on account of neglect of
sacred rites.
4. Castes due to the exclusion of persons from the community.
5. Slaves and their descendants.
6. People excluded from the community of four Varnas as well
as their descendants. '
He has given a long list of mixed castes. They are thirty in
number and resolve themselves into three types:-
(9 Caste produced from two _different pure castes.
(u) Those produced by the mixture of pure castes on one side
and mixed on the other.
(iii) Those produced from parents of mixed origin on both sides.
27. The writers of the Dharma Shastras codified the existing social
practices so as to maintain order in society and that accounts for the
detailed regulation of conduct of the several castes. But it is plain
from the statements of Manu that new castes were continually being
~reated both by' pratiloma and anuloma marriages .or by mixed or
Irregular unions or by ex-communication of persons from their castes
for breach or non-observance of caste rules. There was not the sam~
rigidity then which we find in later years. If this process had continued
in the succeeding ages the caste system might have destroyed itself.
firstly, by the endless multiplication of castes and secondly, by fre-
quent inter-marriages amongst them.
The history of the succeeding centuries shows how the so~ial
structure grew inelastic and the people ceased to have an expans1ve
outlook. · •
28. The advent of the Afghans and the Moghuls h~d a ~onsider­
able effect on the Hindu social system. They made Ind1a the!I' home-
land and in spite of political conflicts contracted marriage alliances
WI,th the Hindus. The immediate reaction, however, of the Afghan and
Moghul conquest was the exodus of some people to the South. Those
who remained behind became more exclusive and tried to protect
themselves from foreign influences by early marriages and hardenin~
of the caste system. However, cultura~ synthesi~ h~d its wa-:r and
changes in architecture; food and clothing were mev1tab!e. Th1s has
given us the composite culture which exists in India today.
29. During the centuries preceding the advent o.f the Bri!ish, .new
ferment set in and new ideas were taking shape m people .s mmds.
Out of this ferment arose new types of reformers, who deliber!ltely
 20

preached against the importance of caste. The religious upheaval in

Maharashtra was heralded by a number of Brahman an.d ~hudra
Saints of outstanding ability, who worked for the emancipation of
the lower castes. They are Dnyaneshwar and Eknath; .N~mdev a';!d
Tukaram. The Hindu Saint Ramanand and h1.s Muslim diSCiple Kab.ir,
Ramal in Bengal and Guru Nanak in the PunJab worked for the uplift
of the masses.
30. The advent of Islam and Christiimity into India also brought
about some change in the outlook of Hindu society. A large number
of people belonging to lower castes, and in j)articul'!l' from amon~ the
untouchables became converted to these religwns to escape the r1gour
and humiliation of the Hindu caste system. It is sad to note, however,
that even these converts could not easily shake off their old caste dis-
abilities. Caste clung to them and even now there are clearly discerni-
ble caste influences among Muslims and Christians.
Some Features of Caste
31. Caste may be defined as an association of families who can
marry amongst themselves; caste rules forbid members to marry .out-
side their caste. Caste may divide itself into sub-groups who sometunes
inter-marry and sometimes do not. Hindu society is thus a body poli·
tic made up of a large array of castes with a recognised hierarchy.
Each caste boasts of a peculiar tradition of culture and tries to pre-
serve it tenaciously. Inter-marriages, therefore, even where permitted,
are looked down upon.
The upper castes are sub-divided into Gotras, but unlike caste, the
law of Gotras demands that people may not marry in the same Gotra.
During census operations, at one period, they actually counted nearly
3,000 castes. Brahmans alone could boast of as many as 800 castes and
sub-castes. · .
The taboo against inter-marriage is extended to inter-dining.
Caste, therefore, is unsocial so far as wider intercourse is concerned.
It creates caste-patriotism and prevents national solidarity. Hinduism,
which was originally based on the principle of unity in diversity.
encouraged only diversity, and unity remained in name only.
32. Caste in India is based on a variety of factors some of them
ofte!l mutually.anta~on!stic. Wh~e in some cases caste'may be a clan,
a tnbe_ or a.racial umt, mothers 1t m~y have been formed on the basis
of regionaliSm. Another factor that mfluenced caste was occupation
But the most impor~ant element was that of culture. While th~
Br~an, the Kshatriya and the Vaishya were expected to Jive up to
a particular standard of culture, the Shudra had no such binding rules
of conduct.
33. It is sign~ficant that whatever may be the defects of caste It had
nothmg ~o do With wealth or power. The status of a person depended
not on hiE wealth but. on the traditional importance of his caste. There
was thus social. eq~ahty among all the members of a caste in spite of
extreme dispanty m the status of individuals.
.34. The ~ominant character of the Indian social system, whether
~nctent, medtaev~l or modern, was the great significance attached to
1dea~ of ~eremomal punty and pollution i:'urity expressed itself in
 21

various ways. First and foremost was the purity of race or birth. This
kept the pople from mixing their blood with those of inferior status
o~ cui ture. 'Bija Shuddi' or the purity of seed was prized as the
highest possessiOn of a race. People took special pains to remember
their pedigree and even robber chiefs took pride in tracing their origin
to. great riahis or Kings of old. This sense of purity discountenanced
Widow re-marriage and gradually engendered a sense of social
superiority. Inter-marriage and inter-dining became taboo as Indians
of the higher castes were not willing to receive food from the hands
of inferior people or to mix blood with them. Even acceptance of
water at the hands of the lower castes was not countenanced. This
practice, however, was not observed rigidly in the North. Necessary
purification ceremonies were prescribed for the reclamation of those
who fell from these standards. The extension of the principle of taboo
on food and drink even embraced the eating of onions and garlic. The
extension of the same principle rendered certain communities
untouchables. This untouchability was often carried to such an
extreme degree in the South that certain lower castes were not only
not allowed to touch the higher castes but were prohibited from
approaching them within certain distances. There was also the
superiority and inferiority of certain customs. Those who did not
marry maternal cousins were regarded as superior. The idea of purity
entered the various professions also. Even the food grown on land
WIth the help of bullocks was regarded as inferior. The food which the
sages took was called 'Mannyannam' and it was grown with the use
of pick-axe only. The profession of the farmer came to be regarded
as inferior as it wa~ associated with the killing of insects and microbes
m the land he tilled. So also the professions of the fowler, the hunter
and the butcher were considered low.
35. These diversities led to differences in the moral and cultural
standards of various groups, and a gulf began to grow between the
various castes. A variety of customs and practices at the time of
birth, marriage and death came to be formed. These customs and
practices had varying degrees of rigidity in several parts of the
country. While in the North pucca food and water could be accepted
from certain Shudra castes, orthodoxy was more rigid in the South.
36. Caste practices took on a more rigid garb resulting in ihe
segregation of some castes in the villages. Thus it is seen that certain
areas in villages are definitely marked out for them. These practices
became so widespread and rigid that certain social disabilities were
imp'lsel! on the lower castes. They were not allow~d to ~ide a ho~se or
to take out a marriage procession in the str~ets m wh1ch ~he h1gher
castes had their dwellings. Even in the cho1ce of occupations there
was a great deal of restriction. People have become so accustomed ~o
these practices that some castes do no.t gen~rally allow . thelf
members to take to any calling or occupatiOn wh1ch w~s considered
degrading or. impure. The upper castes treated occ!lpabonal manual
labour with contempt and the castes thus e.ngaged m '!lanual labo'!l'
for a living were treated as inferior. There 1~ !I perc.epbble ~hange .m
the caste practices in urban areas; caste r1g1d1ty 1s seen m all 1ts
aspects in the villages.
. 37. The religious caste complex has become so d~ep-rooted th.at
1t is not easy for any caste-group to get away from 1ts strong grip.
Even the most intellect\lal including those who declared themselves
· t ft entirely free and consciously
to be the enemies of caste, 1~e no 0 en which ·ves 'a fresh lease of
or unconsciously they ac~ tlt b milief~rce of i~erited habit and the
!if;:~~ th.e cas\e .D~t':.individJal he feels a deep loyalty to the cast~
~~:~:ri~y~lty. ~at
is. so deep
off even when he IS mtellectu Y convmc
ge:;rTh~ ft~l~!>e~~k~~!
he is.
· th · d f the
social differences of caste have become so firm 1.n e mm o
Hindu that he regards them as natural. The tVfO Important ele~en,ts
in the Hindu caste system are endogamy and hierarchy. The desll'e .o
keep themselves pure is reSJ?O~ible f?r th.e ~igid observ~ncd ~f end~
gamy. The feeling of supenonty or infenonty has res te m cas
hierarchy.
38 The old Aryan experiment on the four-fold division of society
into 'Varna' was basically not conducive to a full development of
human personality. The education of each 'Varna', developed a trun;
cated personality. A totalitarian structure of the Varna Vyavastha
could only so long as it was artificially supported by a strong
Central Government. The structure naturally collapsed when the ou~
side props gave way.
39, The extent of prejudices in the fabri~ ~f caste society whi.ch
we have to overcome is by no means a negligible factor. The social
distance between a man of one caste and of another caste is not ea~y
to obliterate. A tremendous effort is necessary to effect any change m
a society so complex and so organised.
40. The attitude of social leaders ever since mediaeval times has
been one of callousness. Even law-givers like Manu gave support to an
unsocial attitude towards fellow human-beings. He laid down that the
Shudra should not be allowed to study the scriptures, nor should he
have a spotlessly clean dress nor ride a conveyance in the presence of
men of the upper classes. He must bow low if he finds a man of upper
caste passing by.

41. There was a systematic suppression behind the rules and codes
of social conduct. The leaders of society thought that the upper classes
could be safe only b'y maintaining the ignorance and poverty of the
masses. The latter were told that the social arrangement was ordained
by God. The theory of 'Karma and Re-birth' was misused to sustain
such an · arrangement. The masses were told that they would be
punished in the other world for any violation of the social laws and
that they would be rewarded by way of better status in the next life
if they remained humble, docile and serviceable. Such were the ideas
?f _justice and retri~uti~n that were laid. down to support the social
InJUstJ?e of the mmo~ty towards the Ignorant majority, Constant
preachmg for .generations p~oduc~d a mentality which perpetuated
Itself thro~gh Ignorance. and mertla. Even the King in the olden days
could not Ignore the socta!Ia:ws thus prescribed: his duty was merely
to uphold t~!! reco~mzed soc1a! order. These ideas have sunk deep
mt? the soct~l fa~nc that even. today people in villages feel that
50 the
~oc1al. order mher1ted .from the1: ~orefathers is the best arrangement:
that tt had the san~tlon of rehg1on and morality and, therefore of
God. The poor and tgnorant people think that it is a social virtue to
 23

submit to ~11 restrictions, P,rivations, and humiliations enjoined by

the old soc.Ial ord~r. A ~oo~ many of the upper classes honestly feel
tha.t there .1s nothmg obJeCtiOnable in keeping the untouchables dowri
o~ m_treatmg t~e Other Backward Classes with contempt. The perva-
SIVe mfluence IS such that even the reforms introduced by Govern-
ment ~e accep.te~ by the orthodox in a spirit of helplessness and with
a feehn~ that 1t 1~ the. effect of .'Kaliyuga' or 'Iron-age'. The result is
that whtle. there 1s abJect obedience and conformity to reform, it is
effected Without any corresponding change in the social outlook of
the people.
42. St~angely enough, attempts made by social and religious
refol!'lers ~~ the past, have sometimes ended not in obliterating caste
but m creatmg a new one of their followers. Reforms are thus segre-
~ated ~nd not a!low~d to spre.ad. We find this phenomenon goi.Iig on
m Ind1a from time Immemorial. The whole idea was conceived be-
cause. of insufficient recognition and resp~ct for the human personality.
Th~ 1dca has become so peep-rooted m the psychology· of Hindu
soc1ety that one finds greater rigidity of caste practices among the
lower castes. It is against such a background that steps to remove the
backwardness of a vast number of people must be considered.
Effects of British Rule on Hindu Social System
43. In the process of evolution the Hindu social system lost much
of its flexibility. It lost also much of its former vitality. It became
more rigid and less dynamic. By the time the Britishers had consoli-
dated their position in ndia, the Hindu social system had accumu·
lated many undesirable features. Foreign invasions also rendered it
more conservative. The Britishers made the elastic Hindu Law in-
e!astic and non-progressive through their law courts.
44. The old village economy which had given so much strength to
social order gradually became disrufted under British Rule. The
system had withstood the onslaught o foreign invasions, the ravages
of internal wars and dynastic conflicts. Though villages might change
hands according to the fortunes of a battle, the internal economy of
· the village never suffered. The prosperity of the cultivator, the weaver,
the carpenter, the barber, the washerman and others depended on
their pursuing their daily avocations unhampered by the fortunes of
political conflicts. This was so till almost the beginning of the nine-
teenth century. British administrators have spoken eloquently of the
Indian Village Republics of those times.
45. British policy in India was designed mainly for the mainte-
nance of Law and Order, for the collection of taxes, and for keeping
an unrestricted market for British goods. Their centralised administra·
tion completely disrupted the old economy of the country. The land
policy created a new class of landlords and drove millions into the
ranks of tenants and agricultural labourers. Unrestricted competition
of imported goods caused the collapse of the local cottage and rural
industries and the artisan and occupational classes were rendered
idle and s'welled the ranks of agricultural labourers. Failure to deve-
lop agriculture gradually resulted in further impoverishment of rural
population. With poverty, both ignorance and illiteracy flourished.
 I
46. The educational policy, mainly designed ~o: the .training of a
few people for the subordinate ranks of the admiDJstratJon, crEate ~
new middle-class consisting mainly of the upper castes. 1h
ng Is
education created a gulf between the clas!?es an~ th~ masses. The
owth of towns and the establishment of mdustnes m urban a~eas
fobbed rural life of what talent and leadership it had. The establish-
ment of civil and criminal courts robbed the caste system and the
· caste panchayats of what authority they had once had over the
members of particular castes. The prestige of ca~te leade:s gradually
diminished. The policy of 'divide and rule', the Introduction of sepa-
rate electorates and special recognition accorded to non-Brama~
classes in the S~uth all contributed to the disruption of whatev~r soh·
darity India once possessed. The rulers deliberately fostered d1strusl
among the people. It was at this juncture that Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
Dayanada Saraswati, Swami Vjvekananda, Justic~ R~nade, Lala
Lajpat Rai and others rose to arouse sqciety against 1ts changed
circumstances.
47. With the growing consciousness that India was being
impoverished and the interests of Indians were being ignored, 1he
leaders of the country thought of political organizations to im~rove
the conditions of the people. It was then that the Indian National
Congress had its birth, and it has worked ever since for the advance-
ment of the people. The Congress programme, however, became truly
dynamic only when Gandhiji took over its leadership. It was he who
saw the need for social solidarity in striving for political freedom. He
focussed the attention of the public on the degrading effects of
untouchability, the inequity of social segregation and the injustice
of social inequalities. He realised that the poverty of the Indian people
was due to the disruption of the old village economy and the decay
of rural industries and village handicrafts. He worked ceaselessly for
the removal of untouchability, for Hindu-Muslim unity, and for the
revival of Khadi an'd other village industries. Realizing the defects of
the present system of education, he evolved a scheme of basic educa-
tion ~ore suited ~ conditions in India. He also worked for the pro-
pagation of Hmd1 to eventually replace English. Thus he created a
unifying influence and offered platforms on which all could unite
irrespective of caste, creed, colour or faith. His Poona Pact saved
millions of ui!-tou~hables fro~ breaking away from the Hindu Jold.
He d1d all th1s Without creatmg any social conflicts. The process of
social re~orms which he ~nitiated began to have the salutary effect
of cleansmg th~ Hmdu social order of some of its undesirable features.
Some of the high caste people, not only mixed freely with the lower
castes, but worked for their uplift.
48; The most marked feature. of the British administration is the
cro~dmg of all upp~r. castes mto Government and other allied
serv1ccs. The commumtl~s that were traditionally engaged in trade
and commerce .~ere dr1ven to careers as commission agents and
servants for Br1t1sh trade. These communities also became wealthy
and do~inant. Those left behind were the small peasant, the artisan,
~he agncultu~al. labourer and the uotcrJchable. They remained poor,
1gnorant and 1lhterate, and hence lacked the ability to march forward
T~t:;Y stuck with tenacity to their old !d.eas of caste with its denation~
ahsmg features.
 25
. · 49. With the growth of more modern conditions some of the rigi-
dity of caste gradually began to wear out. The introduction of rail-
w~ys, the establishmen~ of. hotels and eating houses have further con-
~nbut\ld to the relaxation. of caste prejudices. Society, no doubt, is
imperceptibly changmg With t1me. Yet while caste itself is fast dis-
integrating. the blind belief in caste and loyalty to one's own caste is
maintained today by sheer instinct and selfishness. The functions of
the four 'Varnas' have long been forgotten. The ideals of the various
caste3 are no longer being maintained. Even as a biological principle,
caste has ceased to be useful.
50. One of the evil effects of the caste system has been that general
education was denied to a large section of the people. Knowledge of
the hereditary occupation or craft was all the education which a child
got through it~ parents. The upper castes have one common character-
istic viz., they dislike physical labour and try to evade it as much as
possible. The system of education introduced by the British suited
these classes excellently and has helped them to secure a dominant
share in administrative and industrial spheres.
51. Jawaharlalji has powerfully summarised the whole situation
thus:--
"In our own period have arisen numerous movements to
break the tyranny of caste among the middle classes and they
have made a difference, but not a vital one, so far as the masses
are concerned. Their method was usually one of direct attack.
Then Gandhi came and tackled the problem after the immemo-
rial Indian fashion, in an indirect way. He has been direct
enough, aggressive enough, persistent enough,. but without
challenging the original basic functional theory underlying the
four main castes. He has already shaken the foundations of caste
and the masses have been powerfully affected. But an even
great~r power than Gandhi is at work; the conditions of modern
life-and it seems that at last this hoary and tenacious relic of
past times must die."
"The conception and practice of caste embodied the aristo-
cratic ideal and was obviously opposed to democratic concep.
tions. It had its strong sense of noblesse oblige, provided people
kept their hereditary stations and did not challenge the estab-.
lished order. India's success and achievements were on the
whole confined to the upper classes, those lower down in the
scale had very few chances and their opportunities were strictly
limited. These upper classes were not small ~imi~ed groups but
large in numbers and there was also a diffusiOn of power,
authority and influence. Hence t~ey carried on successf~.ly for
a very long period. But the ultimate weakness and fa1lmg of
the caste system and the Indian social structure were such that
they degraded a mass of human beings and. gave them no oppor·
tunities to get out of that condition educationally, culturally, or
economically. That degradation brought deterioration, all along
the line including in its scope even the. upper classes. It led. t,o
the petrification which became a dommant ~eatu~e· of India s
economy and life. The contrasts between th1s soc1al structure
 and those existing elsewhere in the past were not great, but
with the changes that have taken place all over the world during
the past few generations they have become far more pro-
nounced. In the context of society today, the caste system and
much that goes with it are wholly incompatible, reactionary,
restrictive and barriers to progress. There can be no equality
in status and opportunity within its framework, nor can there
be political democracy and much less economic democracy.
Between these two conceptions conflict is inherent and only
one of them can survive"."
• Discovery of India by Shri Jawahar La! Nehru Chapter VI, Page 234
(3rd Edition), '
 CiW>TER IV
l'ROBLEMS OF SPECIAL GROUPS
Muslims
. Ther~ were representatives on behalf of some Muslims organiza-
tions askmg that all Muslims should be treated as backward and be
give!'- educational aid and adequate representation in Government
service,. It would not be fair or just to list all Muslims as socially and
educatiOnally .backward. Officially Muslims do not recognize any caste.
It !!lust ?e sa1d to the credit of Islam that it did not compromise its
position m the matter of untouchables. All Muslims, drawn from any
stoc~ or community, were regarded as equal both in the mosque and
~t dmner parties. They did not recognize social distinctions as is done
m the case of caste groups in Hindu society. Gradually, however,
!slamie society in India succumbed to the influence of caste and lost
1ts pristine purity. The racial distinction of Mughal and Pathan,
Sheikh and Syed has been maintained though without any sense of
social inferiority. There are certain professions, however, that are
regarded as inferior even by the Muslims. The sense of high and low
has gradually permeated Muslim society and today there are a
number of communities amongst them that are suffering from social
inferioritv and consequent educational backwardness. We have recog-
nized this deterioration that has overcome Muslim society today and
added the names of such backward communities found among them
in the list oi Other Backward Classes.
2. Vaxious State Governments have mentioned these communities
under separate heads of Hindus and Muslims. It may perhaps be
necessary in certain parts of the country to maintain this distinction.
The Commission has not thought it necessary to make any such dis-
tinction on the basis of religion in determining the backwardness ot
any community.
Chrlsttans
3. The appointment of the Backward Classes Commission created
some uneasiness in the minds of the leaders of Indian Christians.
This is, perhaps, due to a feeling of apprehension that they might be
denied the privileges, concessions or facilities given to the Other
Backward Classes. Representatives of t~~ Christian community met
the Commission and pleaded for recogn1t10n of backwardness among
them and for Government help on the same footing as Other Back·
ward Classes. They argued that converts to Christinity, particularly
from amongst the Scheduled Castes, still carry their old stigma in the
Christian fold· and are subject to social disabilities.
4. The Governments of Madras and Andhra recognize only the
first generation of converts for the purpose of educational conces-
sions, The Government of India in the Ministry of Education on the
other hand have recognized converts from the Scheduled Castes into
Christianity as Other Backward Classes.
27
 28

5. Christianity has consistently refused to recognize caste. Tabo~s

on inter-marriage, inter-dining and widow. marrtages ar~ systemati-
cally opposed in Christian Society. There .IS no segregation of com-
munities as such amongst them. And yet m practice we found that
segregation of converts from Scheduled ~astes was n~t successfully
overcome in certain parts of South Indm. We were .inform~d that
this segregation has spread even beyond the secular Side of hfe a.nd
sometim~s Harijan converts were not allowed to pray together Wl~h
the upper class Christians. We were also told that m some places m
the South these classes are forced to have a separate cemetery for
their dead. We could not refuse to recognize tlris ~~hristian ~tate ~f
affairs and have recommended that such commui!-Jties, especiall:( m
the South, should be recognized as backward and gtVen all concessiOns
and facilities available to the Other Backward Classes.
6 We may add that if Scheduled Castes converted to Christianity
in other parts of the country also suffer from any recognizable segre-
gation and social disabilities, their case should also be considered
and they should be put in the list of Other Backward Classes.
7. It is sad that Islam and Christianity in India must admit that
they have failed in their mission of socially uplifting the backward
classes, and that there are sections in their midst that still labour
under certain social handicaps. But it would be doing a disservice both
to Isla.."U and Christianity if we encourage backward individuals
following these two faiths to exaggerate their social hardships and
claim that they form a distinct social community. This would amount
to subsidising certain sections to develop fissiparous tendencies and
thus increase the very social disease which we are determined to fight.
8. Who will deny that there is a large number of extermely poor
and handicapped families even amongst the handful of advanced com-
munities amongst the Hindus that we have excluded from the special
governmental help which it is proposed to extend to backward com·
munities? These are also citizens of India, and they also need State
help. It would not be right to visit the sins of the fathers on the
children; and yet it is not the purpose of this Commission to plead
for assistance and help to all deserving individuals and families. The
State will have to devise ways and means of extending help to all
such individuals who are suffering from backwardness. All backward·
ness, wherever found, is a menace to the State, especially to the
democratic State and backwardness even amongst the advanced
classes will have to be liquidated. No State would be safe if any
backwardness were allowed to go unheeded. The moral repercussions
of such neglect would be extremely dangerous.
9. The State should devise ways and means of helping the back·
w~rd among~t the advanced communities ~f Christians and Muslims,
w1thnut forcmg them to prove that caste IS recognized and casteism
is on the increase in their own fold. State help based on communal
consid~ra~ions is never. without its dangers. We have accepted it as a
necessity m counteractmg an age-old evil. We recommend with all the
emphasis that we can command, that help on communal basis should
no~ be a permanent fea~ure, Let help be given in ample measure for
a limited. tn~e, after wh1ch these crutches must be withdrawn. Other•
wise, to liqwdate backwardness, we shall have encouraged dependence
 and parasitism-most dangerous fissiparous tendencies-in our anxiety
to fight social injustice.
Anglo-Indians
1.0. The problem ~f Anglo-Indians do not come strictly within the
pur.view of our enquiry. Yet certain representations were made on
their behalf by Associations with which we are obliged to deal.
11. The total population of Anglo-Indians is stated to be about
1,11,637. They are largely concentrated in the big cities of West
B~ngal, Madras, Mysore, Travancore-Cochin, Bombay, Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, .Hyderabad and Madhya Pradesh. Their population in other
States I.s negligib!e. The Constitution of India has guaranteed certain
co~ces~wns t~ this community for a fixed period, but in our opinion
thi~ commumty cannot be classed as backward either educationally' or
socially for the purpose either of additional or separate help.
12. The difficulties under which they labour are more psychologi·
cal ~han real. They find it difficult on account of their language and
ha.bits b be easily assimilated into general Indian society. We believe
this is to be a passing phase. Fortunately, a good majority of them
arc feeling at one with India and with the passage of time and with
goodwill. on both sides their problems will probably disappear.
Eurasians ln Travancore-Cochln
1~. There is a small community in the extreme south (Travancore-
Cochm) which is really Eurasian in character, being the progeny of
alliances between Portuguese or Dutch fathers and Indian mothers.
But because the old term 'Eurasian' was looked upon with disfavour,
this community has been mistakenly classed with Anglo-Indians. We
find this community in the list of Other Backward Classes of
TravancorE>-Cochin State maintained by the Education Ministry,
Government of India.
14. The Eurasians have practically accepted Malayalam as their
language. They could not secure special privileges during the British
rule as the Anglo-Indians did. They are, therefore, extremely back·
ward today. Some of them have taken to English education and have
improved their Jot. But a large majority of them is still poor and
Hlit~rate. Socially they were not privi!eged !ike !he Anglo-Indians.
Their great handicap is Jack of education. Fmancially they are not
well off. We have recommended, therefore, that these Eurasians of
Travancore-Cochin should be put in the list of Other Backward
Classes.
Sikhs
15. The following note appeared in our questionnaire:-
"for pui·poses of this questionnaire the word 'Hindu' includes
Sikhs, J ains, etc."
No Sikh representative objected to thi~ view and in fact some
expressed their satisfaction with the wordmg of the note.
16. It is our view that the Sikhs constitute an inte~al part of. the
broader Hindu religion. Racially, culturally and trad!tl?,nally, Sikhs
are an integral part of the Hindu fold like Arya Sam~Jists, Brahmo
Samajists, the Indian Buddhists and Jains. Although m theory the
L/ll!OMofHA
 30
Sikhs do not subscribe to caste system, in actual practice. they cling
to many of the Hindu traditions and practices includmg that of
untouchability. There are cases where Sikhs are found to marry with
non-Sikhs of th~ same caste. We recommend, therefore, that those com·
munities or groups who are treated as untouchables among the Sikhs,
should be included in the list of Scheduled Castes.
17. If we were to treat the Sikhs as distinct and separate from
the Hindus we would have recommended the exclusiOn of the four
castes viz. Mazhabi, Ramdasi, Kabirpanthi and Sikligar, included in
the President's Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Order, 1950. That
would have been a logical position because strictly speaking, untouch·
ability being peculiar feature of Hinduism only, no community
belonging to any other separate religion could legitimately claim the
concessiuns reserved for the untouchables of the Hindu community.
The inclusion of these four Sikh castes, represented at the time a
political compromise due to exigencies created by alien rule. In a
Free India makeshift solutions should no longer be there.
18. As regards the list (\f Other Backward Classes, we do not make
any distinction on grounds of religions. Any distinct community that
is found to be socially and educationally backward has been listed
under the category of Other Backward Classes, irrespective of the
religion professed by individuals belonging to those communities.
Gurkhas
. 19. The Gurkhas originally belonged to the independent State of
Nepal. Socially and culturally they are an integral part of the Hindu
community and, therefo~e, they do not find it difficult to settle in any
part of India. The Gurkhas being a cross section of the great Hindu
community are divided into many castes and sub-castes. Just as we
cannot call Hindus as a whole a backward community, so also Gurkhas
as such cannot be called a backward community. But some communi·
ties among them are found to be really backward.
20. Therefore we recommend that in parts of Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar and West B~~gal where there are large numbers of Gurkhas,
only such commuruttes (of GurkjJ.as) as are listed as backward should
receive the same help as Other Backward Classes, In the rest of India
the Gurkhas are known to ignore their castes and become one homo-
genous community. The condition of some of them is not satisfactory.
They. should, therefore, be treated as one community in such areas
and listed. along With Other Backward Classes if they are found to
be socially and educationally backward. '
Bhangls (Sweepers and Scavengers)
. 21. Th~ alert community of Harijans has compelled us to look into
the1r condition although technically the problem is not within our
terms. of reference. We visjt~d Harijan quarters and studied their
Situation. :r~e term "~ub-human" can alone appropriately describe
their condition. Bhangis cl~anse our latrines and help maintain sorne
me.asure of health and samtat10n. Without Bhangis, the .whole popu·
lallon would have to face !he .ravages of epidemics. And yet these
very BhangiS are forced to hve m the filthiest of surroundings and in
some places they are even asked to carry night-soil on thei~ heads.
The receptacles for night-soil should not leak. Any society thai
 31

expec~ one section of humanity to perform such humiliating and

degradmg .service. shou~d be ashamed of itself. Municipalities are the
greatest smners . m thts respect. The p:ea that they do not have
e~ough funds to Improve the quarters of the Bhangis is hollow. If the
City fathers had the same feelings for these unfortunates as they seem
to have for their clerks and chaprasis, they would have managed to
find resources to house. the Bhangis in decent quarters. Mahatmaji
had to threaten a fast m order to secure permission for one of his
Brahman colleagues of the Ashram to clean the latrines of a British
Jail. Let all city fathers who love to call Mahatma Gandhi "father
of the Nation", do something concrete in his manner to remove this
~lot ~rom our civilizatio~ .. The Bhangis should not be condemned to
live m segregated locahties. They should be distributed and given
quarters among other groups.
Women
22. The position of women in India is peculiar. We have always
felt that they have lived under great social handicaps and must,
therefore, as a class be regarded as backward. But since they do not
form a separate community it has not been possible for us to list them
. ~ong the backward classes. Though their position in upper and
mxddle-class society is a little better, they are as a class economically
dependent on the male members of the family. The condition of
women among backward classes is worse still. In view of the. impor-
tant role women could play in the regeperation of society, we are
reluctant to leave their problems unnoticed.
23. In ancient India women held very high places in society.
Indian history is replete with instances of women reaching great
heights not only in the field of literature and public administration,
but alsu in the field of battle. Many women warriors are still remem-
bered with pride and gratitude by the Indian people. Their role in the
struggle for freedom under Gandhiji's leadership was heroic. Gandhiji
wrote and worked for their emancipation from social tyranny. Free
India has recognized the equal political status of women, and some
women are now occupying positions of power and authority in the
Ministries, Legislatures, Diplomatic service and in other fields of
activity. Nevertheless, the majority of women is still backward.
24. Our public life is dominated by the advanced communities.
The result is that· whenever we talk of the advancement of women,
it is the women of these classes that are foremost in our mind. The
women-folk of the teeming millions of the labour class and of t~e
artisans and occupational classes are rarely thought of. There Is,
today, a great need of uplift measures for these women.
25. With the spread of education. and the. consequent ~h~nge in
social outloolt, the position of women 1n the middle-cla.s~es IS Improv-
ing, and politically she is the equal of man. But the postt10.n of women
in the backward classes is anomalous. In one sense she IS the equal
of man, because she works with him, looks after the famu;v, does t~e
marketing and manages the household. But so far as traditional socxal
status is concerned, she is not treated any better than a chattel. In
some parts of the country, she is actually bought and sol~. In some
communities the practice of levirat~ (compulsory ~arnage of a
widow with her husband's brother) IS still found. With polygamy
prevaient amongst the backward classes, her position t~ere is pre.
carious. The practice of polyandry in one or two_ places m Northern
India has rendered her social status there almost mtolerable.
26. Women have been able to manage many instit?tions an? in
political controversies they have always taken a sober VIew of thm~s.
They should be encouraged to ~ake an ~ual if not greater share With
men in the management of natwnal affaU"S. Educated women are best
suited for teaching children in the early stages as they understand
children better and can mould their characters with love and
sympathy. The' problem of the womel! in the ~a~kward classes is
intensified by the fact that they are Ignorant, illiterate and often
superstitious.
27. Girls among the backward classes should be given better
facilities for education. They should be encouraged to live in special
hostels for girls of all communities in order to give them a sense of
equality and self-reliance. All the social reforms that we have
suggested for the backward classes can be best initiated through
women. Basic education should be given to all girls including those
of the backward classes and they should be encouraged to take the
benefit of panchakoshi village schools and to live in Samata Ashrams.
They should be encouraged to earn a living both by skilled and
unskilled labour. They should be taught to plan the family budget.
They should be told something of the modem world and the new
social pattern which is being evolved. They should understand the
implications of the various political ideologies that are competing in
the country. Inter-marriage between the advanced classes and the
backward classes should be encouraged.
28. The Samata Ashrams for boys and girls must be permeated
with an atmosphere of idealism and reverence for all that is
good in our culture if we are ever to usher in a real social reform or
a revolution to end the centuries-old social backwardness of these
communities.
29. Women should be included in all the Village Councils Educa·
tiona! Councils, Local Bodies and Legislatures of the coUht~y. They
must be enabled and encouraged to fill higher posts in the political
fields.
30. We recommend the following measures for the advancement
of wom~n:-

1. !ree education in all stages to all girls whose parents' income

IS less than Rs. 3,000 per annum.

2. Scholarships for girls belonging to the backward classes.

3. Residential hostels for girl students, with priority for girls
of the backward classes. .
4. Samata Ashrams for girls to be run by trained staffs of
women and men.
5. Creation of special facilities for girls to stud M d" · H
Sciences and other subjects specially suitea fo~ ~~~~n orne
6. More facilities for training women in the F' A ts ·d .
Soc1al Service. me r an m
 33
Unfortunate Wt~men
31. The problems of these unfortunate women has been with us
for man:y centuries. The. mediaev.el world accepted the institution of
~roshtutwn as an unavoidable evil and tried to give it social recogni-
ti,O~· Temples th~oughout the world also gave an institutional recog-
nitiOn and a dubious sanctity to this evil.
32. The institution of prostitution is doubly cursed. It is a result
of the helJ;>lessne~s and desperation of women. It is also the mother
of every kind of me9wty. It hardens a diseased psychology and often
results .from the failure of the institution of marriage. Social and
economi.c c~uses, however, have contributed most to the flourishing
of prostitution.
.33. The saddest part is that tho~e who are hardened into the pro-
~ession arc often unwilling to change. It is not that they are happy
m the state in which they have to live; but too often they can find
no a~ternatlve employment .for which they are suited and, therefore,
contmue their degradmg existence. These unfortunate women do
11:ot find any ele~ent in society to which they may turn for sympathe-
tic help. What IS generally presented to them as an alternative to
prostitution is hard labour, and that under severe social ostracism.
Experience over many generations, in different lands has proved that
the policy of recognizing prostitution as a necessary evil and trying
to regulate it in various ways, is a failure.
34. Many social organizations in various States are trying with
Government or local ·aid to rescue these unfortunate women and to
apply correctional methods for their rehabilitation in society. But
the efforts so far made are not commensurate with the problem. Many
State Governments have passed a "Suppression of Immpral Traffic
Act" t.;, eradicate this evil. The administration of this Act is often
found to be more punitive than reformative. It is found that the
punished offenders drift back to their old profession in the absence
of any properly organized Rescue Homes where they could find
refuge.
35. Women social workers alone from well-to-do society cen
tackle this problem and can find a vast field for service in rescuing
these unfortunate women and training them for a useful life. There
is great scope for starting Rescue Homes and Government should he
able to help such efforts with finance and legislation. Rescue Homes
must not be merely asylums for such women. Even these Rescue
Homes would be a source of danger unless they are managed by com-
mittees oi socially responsible workers and controlled by governmen·
tal sup~rvision. The ideal arrangement would be for q:overnmeJ?-tS
themselves to run Rescue Homes with the close co-operation of soctal
leaders, especially women. In addition to providing food and ~helter.
such institutions should teach the women different occupatmn~ to
enable them to earn a living and become useful members of soctety.
They must be taught to change their outloo.k an? to lead normal
marnf)d lives. Men must be prepared to help m th1s rescue work by
coming forward to marry unfortunate girls who -:vere. wrongly led
into this profession. They will have to take the nsk~ mvolved and
be prepared even to have their homes ~roken. The mstance of t~e
great French sociologist, Auguste Compte, shl;luld be an example m
this regard.
 36 It is said that in new China the problem of prostitution ha;;
been ;uccessfully tackled within two years. A .larg~ nUll)her of. ~ros~I·
tutes who were helping to disfigure the social lif~ of ~1g C!tl~s. ID
China were all taken to Re~cue Homes and ~ven mtens•ve trammg
in suitablf! occupations and m general education to. w~an them away
from the degrading life to w~ich they had become Vlctlms.
Delinquent Children .
37. The problem of delinquent children is extrem~ly C?mplicated
and the problem is entirely different in cities as distmguished from
rural areas.
38 Family life, however, miserable it may be in the rural areas,
is not' broken and, therefore, the problem of delinquency in rura~
areas is not very keen. Villages somehow manage to own and absor
orphans, and whatever the treatment given to them! they are gen~
rally not disowned. To this extent the rural populatiOn may be sa1d
to have a social solidarity.
39. It is othel'Wise with towns and cities. The upper sections of
society, the well-to-do and the organized, somehow manage to care
for the orphans and the destitute of their own caste or comm~mity. But
lower in the scale such children are often left to their own fate.
Naturally, they go astray and sometimes become the victims of greed,
cupidity, and passion. Sometimes they are taken into the so-called
protecti,)n of unscrupulous people, and given food and shelter. But
they are made to beg, to earn money by other dubious means and are
exploited like cattle. Such children generally learn all kinds of vices
and are trainee;! to deceit and crime. Having at an early age lost all
faith, having practically never known love, they soon grow 'cynical
and resist all attempts at reclamation. Unfortunately such attempts
are ais<> very rare. Modern society has established juvenile courts.
There are laws regarding the delinquent, but those who probe deep
into the situation have come to the conclusion that the provisions for
their rehabilitation are totally inadequate.
40. It i~ not more or even ~etter legislation, or better provisio~
~or the mai.ntenance and education of such children that matters; It
IS the quality of the refornung agency that is all important. There
must be th~ human touch. Persons with missionary zeal and thorough
Imderstandmg of the psychology of uprooted youth, must take up this
work, and the State must help such people without too much red·
tape and labyrinthine routine.
Denotified Communities
41. As ll!-any as 127 groups aggregating 22.68 lakhs in 1949 and
24.~4 .lakhs m 1951, have been described in official records as Ex·
Cnmmal Tr1bes. They are persons who were regarded as criminals
by oc~upabon,. and who were said to train members of their family
~ a ll!,e of crime .. ~hey are quite different from the "gundas" and
gangs .of large Cities, who are seldom hereditary criminals These
tradit~onal rural gr~l!PS with their caste panchayats, definite training
fo~ cmne and prov1s1on for protection against injury or death main·
t ~1.n a rem~rkable co.de of discipline, mutual loyalty and rigid' forma·
1 1t1es and Tituals wh1ch lead to group solidarity.
 4?: These groups could be divided into two sections (i) nomadic
and (u) .settled.. The nomadic groups include the gypsy-like tribes such
as Sans1s, Kan)ars, etc. and have an innate preference for a life of
~dventure. Th~ settled and semi-settled groups have descended from
1rregula.r fig~tmg men or persons uprooted from their original homes .
due to mvas10ns and other poht1cal upheavals. Some deteriorated as
a result of extr~me poverty and were then shunned by society.
Although the mam cause of their ·criminality is economic there are
other psychological factors behind crime and love of adventure which
are no less important. .
43. Before settlement in colonies, they used to eke out a livelihood
by hunting, selling jungle products, exhibiting bear and monkey
dances, snake-charming, selling medicinal herbs and other goods and
supplemented these earnings by begging. In some communities the
women-folk used to sing and dance and were of easy virtue, and they
wer~ ofti!:1 used in securing the information required for committing
a crune. The technique employed and the types of offences committed
by the various tribes varied from place to place or tribe to tribe. Train-
ing in thief-craft was given to their children before they actually
started on their career. The tribal organization encouraged loyalty
and co-operation among the different members. Anecdotes of daring
deeds performed by notorious robbers and dacoits were recounted
for the inspiration of the youth of the tribe. Certain occurrences and
signs were paraded as denoting approval by gods and goddesses of
their conduct. A member who committed a crime under hazardous
circumstances was lionised. Boys had to prove their skill in the com-
mission of crime before they could expect to acquire their life com-
panions. Their status in society was low and they were treated as
untouchables on account. of their objectionable mode of life and
notoriety. For example, the Sansis were considered to be inferior
even to sweepers. As a result of education and settlement on land
and iii colonies they have become wholly or partially reformed. They
have begun to copy the manners and customs of the people among
whom th~y have settled. They now appreciate such things as furni-
ture, sewing machines, cycles, gramophones, fine carpets, clothes and
articles of luxury.
44. The men have begun working as industrial or agricultural
labourers and, in some cases, as teachers and clerks. Some of their
women-folk have taken to house-hold work. They no longer spend
their illicit gains in one night on meat, wine and gambling and starve
for a number of days thereafter. They are now more provident and
careful. They have relegated their own dialects to a decadent past and
now converse in the language of the people among whom they live.
Where colonies have worked successfully, a large number of these
groups have become accepted members of ~ociety.
45. During early British rule the Criminal Tribes wer~ dealt .with
under Regulation 26 of 1793; subsequently by a separate Thaggt and
Dacoity" Department, and finally by the enactment of the Indian Penal
Code of 1860. But crime was still on the increase and so the Criminal
Tribes Act was passed in 189~, whic~ was later co~olidated. into the
Central Act of 1924. The Crimmal Tnbes Act Enqu1ry Committee was
appointed in 1949 and as a result of its recommendation, the Criminal
Tribes A~t. 1924, ~as repealed throughout lndia with effect from 31st
 36

August 1952, by the Criminal Tribes Laws (Repeal) Act, 1952 .. A!ter
the repeal of the Act, all these tribes ceased to be treat~d as Cnmmal
and they had no longer to register themselves or subm1t to roll calls,
but those members of the tribes who committed offences could be
dealt with under the "Acts relating to restriction of habitual offenders"
passed by almost all the States having a Criminal Tribes population.
They are now allowed to move freely and settle anywhere, being no
longer required to report to the police every. lll:idnight. ~nly th~se
persons who commit three or more offences w1thm a specified p~nod
are notified as habitual offenders, their movements are restricted
and they have to report their presence at fixed intervals.
46. We visited several colonies of these communities in the various
States and were able to realize the difficulty in rehabilitating them.
We noted signs of improvement and a keen anxiety on the part of
these communities to advance. Statistics also support this impression.
In 1925 the total population of these notified groups was estimated at
about 40 lakhs out of which 1,08,000 only were registered. In 1950,
they were 22.68 lakhs with a registered population of only 77,159.
These figures apply to those groups only who have been at some
stage or other officially declared to have criminal tendencies. The
total number of communities supposed to have this habitual tendency
to crime in any province or region is estimated to be much larger.
47. Many members of these groups desire to lead an honest life
provided they ~an earn enough for the comparatively expensive way
of living to which they are accustomed. Where social workers or
Government departments have succeeded in securing sufficient
continuous and remunerative employment, crime has decreased, if
not, completely ceased. Generally speaking, such groups are intelli-
gent, hardy and persistent and the diversion of their talents into
~eac.eful ~nd productive occupation will repay in increased produc-
~lon and m greater economic progress many times the expenditure
mcurred on them. ·
48. We recommend that the following measures be adopted for
the members of these communities:-
(1) They should not be called Tribes. Nor should the names
'Criminal' or 'Ex-criminal' be attached to them. They could
be Slmply called denotified communities.
(2) In the lists of the Ex-criminal Tribes (denotified communi·
~1es) prep~red by us we have supported the polic; of divid-
mg them mto Scheduled Tribes, Scheduled Castes or Other
Backward ~lasses for getting them the benefits available to
the categor~es ~oncerned. Purely nomadic groups (without
a fixed habitation) should be given facilities in the matter
o.f land and ho\lsing, or for settling down to steady produc-
twe busmess.
(3) These .groups may be distributed in small groups in towns
and VIllages where they would come in contact with other
people, ·and ~et an opportunity for turning a new leaf. This
would .help m. the1r eventual assimilation in society.
(4) M~ral mstl'1:lctlon should be imparted to them combined
With education, spor.ts and other nation building activities.
A certificate of havmg undergone such a course of moral
 37
instruction would be helpful to these persons in getting
settled occupation or in securing jobs.
(5) Mod~rn metho.ds of criminology and penology and the
s~rv1ces of tramed psychologists and psychiatrists in addi·
~1on to th~se of s~cial welfare workers should be employed
m refor:t~ung hab1.t~al offenders and weaning them away
from cnme. IndiVIdual case-study methods should be
employed to an increasing extent.
(6) Basic educat!on at primary, vocational and technical levels
should be g1ven to them; also training for cottage indus·
tries, handicrafts, agriculture, etc.
(7) The punishment awarded for new crime should be not
entirely punitive but should possess an element of curative-
refor.~ative nature. In li~u of punishment ther!l might be
provlSion for compensation to be paid to the aggrieved
party.
(8) Group criminality should be treated differently from the
acquired criminality of individuals, and children of these
groups should be removed from their parents on attaining
the age of seven and should be put in suitable hostels. The
hereditary caste panchayat system of these groups should
be abolished. It might be repladed by a multi-purpose
co-operative society with a secretary loaned by Govern-
ment.
(9) The State of" Bombay, which was among the first to abolish
the Criminal Tribes Act, has made radical reforms for ordi-
nary prisoners. In the Swatantrapur Colony in Satara Dis-
trict "the prisoners are provided with free accommodation
and are allowed to live with their families. Work is pro-
vided both for them and their family members on the agri-
cultural farms there. They receive wages for the work they
perform. The prisoners thus enjoy practically all the free-
dom and can settle in the colony, if they desire after their
release." Such facilities might be extended to ex-criminal
groups where they deserve them.
Backward Al'eas
49. During our tours of different States, we endeavoured to .v!sit
ba~kward areas and study the conditions of backward people l,Ivmg
therein. We visited Rampur Bushar in Himachal P_rade~h, ~lsi and
Tehri Garhwal in Uttar Pradesh, hilly areas of Ud.a1pur m RaJasthan,
Bastar in Madhya Pradesh, Alirajpur in Jobat m Madhya Bharat,
!'\markantak of Vindhya Pradesh, and several other backward tracts
InhabitatP.d by socially and educationally bac~ward people. By and
l~rge, people in these areas have Jagged far behmd socially and educa-
tionally than their own brethern in the same State. These areas have
been rendered backward either by the British rule or by the apathy of
the Princes in whose States such areas fell. Some of the a~eas were
declared as backward tracts under the India Act of 1919 and Pa.rhally
exclui<!d' and 'Excluded areas' under the Government of Intba Act
1935. The purpose behind such classification was to bnng such areas
under the special care of Governors of the provinces for the mam·
tenance of Law and Order.
 38
50. The conception of a welfare State in democratic set up neces-
sitates an over-all development of the country. A relentless war must
be waged on every front, against backwardness. Some Part C States
as Himachal Pradesh and Vindhya Pradesh requested the Commis-
sion to 1·ecommend that some tracts within their boundaries should
be declared as backward areas. Others like Rajasthan and Bombay
made specific representation to the Commission to recommend that
more areas be declared as Scheduled Areas.
51. The Commission is not competent to entertain such represen-
tation. It is our firm view, however, that every effort should be made
to remove backwardness in these areas, by allocating more community
projects, national extension service blocks, social welfare extension
projects and other developmental schemes. We also suggest that pro-
posals made by some of the States for the declaration of Scheduled
Areas should be examined and an early action should be taken in the
matter. We also recommend that some ad·hoc grants should be made
for the development of communications in those areas.
 ·cHAPTER V
BACKWARDNESS
Causes of Backwardness
It has been noted already that the problem of backwardness has
1 arisen on account of the defective Hindu social order. Even Islam
and Christianity could not escape the all pervasive influence of
caste. They too found it necessary for social prestige to observe
untouchability and thus they condemned a sectiov amongst their
converts to remain backward and neglected.
2. Many representatives who met us, and especially those of
younger generations, attributed the present plight of a large number
of the backward classes to economic backwardness and suggested with
a facile logic that the only way to remove social evils was to improve

~
e economic conditions of the depressed and backward people.
he economic backwardness of a large majority of the people is
rtamly alarming, and in itself constitutes a colossal problem. But
we must recognize that in India economic backwardness is often the
result and not the cause of social evils. Our society was not built
~ssentially on an economic structure but on the mediaeval
I?eas of 'Varna', caste and a social hierarchy. Most people
liv1~g in the villages and a substantial numbe~ living iJ1. urban or
se~1-urban areas are still domina ted by a mediaeval soc1al concept
Which influences very considerably their daily life.)
. 3. Ideas of ceremonial purity, restrictions on inte~aste mar-
riages, taboos on food and drink, social segregation, feelings of caste
loyalty and superiority have all contributed to the ~ackwa;clness of
a large number of communities in Indian society. Superstttlon, un·
Whol~some customs and practices and unclean habits came to be
associated with some communities of these backward classes. Some
small nomadic communities, having no fixed habitation. or. se~urity
of employment, are given to witchcraft, and eke Ol!t theu. hvehhood
by hunting and bird catching. These have remamed still largely
Primit.ive. In some cases special amenities and privileges were d~nied
to soc1al groups that dared to go against standards set by dommant
people and these communities gradually became backward. In
~ertam other cases differences in social level often made. understand-
mg mutual intercourse difficult. This weighed heav1est on the
weaker communities of the lower social scale. The ~ackw.ardness ~f
5?me other communities is due to the zeal of certam. soc1al or reh·
gtous reformers who wished to impose their own socml pattern. on
Peo.ple and regarded those who did not accept that pattern as bemg
socially inferior.
. 4. Physical and economic causes have played an increasing part
In contributing to the backwardness of a large number of these com·
lllunities. Lack of communications, living in inaccess!ble .areas and
U~healthy localities have kept many from progressive tnfluences.
Dtsruption of the old village economy and the consequent decay of
cottage and rural industries contributed to large·sc~le .unempl~f"
ment and under-employment in rural areas. ExplOitation of e
30
 40
wealth of this country during the British rul~ caused ~urther i
poverishment of the Nation. W1thout econonuc prosperity a Jar
number of rural communities l:ound themselves helpless and beca1
poorer day by day. Poverty and helplessness further deepened t
backwardness of these communities. Some of them even lost wl
little traditional education they had been getting through th1
occupations and professions.
5. Growth of towns and industries and the advantages of e
ployment in G:>vernment service drew most of the available talE
and leadership from the villages to the urban areas. Commun1t
left behind in the rural areas deprived of proper leadership, drift
more and more to backwardness.
6. Denial of educational opportunities to a large mass of peop!
occupying the lower social scale was another feature of the ·sail
system. The failure to establish an adequate number of educatioll
institutions in the rural areas, and lack of monetary means in tl
poorer sections of the backward classes further aggravated the
plight. Consequent non-representation of these classes on an ad
quate scale in the G:>vernment services which carried prestige at
authority widened the gulf between the advanced and the backwa1
communities.
7. Thus. ~he ~olossal extent ?f backwardness of a large num~'
of communities m the country IS the result of the defective soc1
organization supported by an equally defective social ideal whi1
had been accepted for generations. Thus poverty ignorance lack
educations_! facilities and lac~ of. encouragement to enter 'G:>ver
ment sel'VIce and other lucrabve JObs have contributed in no sm!
measure the backwardness of these communities,
Criteria. of Backwardness
8. The terms of reference of this Commission are that "it shall
(a) determine the c~iteria to be adopted in consideri1
wh~ther any sections of the people in the territory
lnd1a should be treated as socially and educational
backward ~lasses; and, in accordance with such criter
prepare a hst of such c!asses ~ettinf out also their approJ
mate number and their temtoria distribution·
Cb) investigate the conditions of all such socially ~nd educ
tlhonally backward classes and the difficulties under whi 1
t ey labour."
~hek pridary task of this Commission is to determine the criteria
ac war ness to find out who are socially and educationally bac
:Jfr!:h"~~~s~~e l~~p~e ~f .IIdla, and to investigate the conditions
from the conditions of a ena
wardness of a lar
t?J such ~etermination must be soug
p~esen ay soc1ety. The causes of the bac
A variet of caus ge sec~IOn of ~he population are not very simpl
have oplrated bo~h~;~~l, en~u~>nmental, economic and political
create the present col ossa{ p~~bl 10 08f sbb~e form for centuries
(Caste and Society) h t em • ac wardness. In chapter 1
order and have noted~ha~vfu race~ the evolution of the Hindu soci
1
by a defective social systeine ~ro em. ofbbackwardness was creat 1

· conom1c ackwardness is the rest

 41
tnc:i not the cause of many social evils of the present day. Qui society
~as built not on economic structure but on the mediaeval concepts
1f 'Varna', caste and social hierarchy. The whole history of India
s the history of the domination of certain religious sects, creeds and
lenominations. During Muslim and British rule, the religion of the
'Ulers dominated even politics. It is for the first time the Swaraj
:;overnment has chosen to be secular in character. It will take some-
ime before the denominational psychology of the Government
;ervants disappears. ·
9. We have considered the opinion that the terms of reference
ndicated above do not refer to caste but to sections or classes of
leople who are socially and educationally backward. It was appre-
lended that if the basic caste system is taken into account, more
ilarm than good will be done to the nation. It has been suggested that
lhe Commission might recommend concessions for groups of people,
~ot associated with a caste or a sub-caste, but the common hereditary
lCcupations or common professions. Concessions may be granted to
·Chamars' not because they belong to a caste or a sub-caste, but
oecause they have been following a particular trade or calling. If it is
round that a certain community had been following a particular
trade for a specified minimum number of years, it might be given
special facilities for training in that line. There should be a fiat
refusal to recognize a group based on caste considerations.
"Another important view that has been placed before us was that
the implications of Article 340 are that there are other sections of
the pe~p1e, who, though not so backward as th~ Scheduled Ca~tes
illld Tnbes, yet have inferior social status. It IS for. such sections
~at some special measures will be needed." According to s~ch a
VIew sections of people who are "engaged in what may convemently
b.e called semi-dirty or semi-isolated occupations" are to be con-
Sidered as backward' and to be recommended for relief.
10. Before examininjl these views we should like to make it clear
that we are not less anxious to eradicate the evils of ~e caste s~tem
~or are ~e desirous of perpetuating a system. wh1ch IS ?perating to
the detriment of common nationhood. We tned to avo1~ .caste bJ.!t
~e found it difficult to ignore caste in the present prevailing condi·
t1ons. We wish it were easy to dissociate caste from social back-
wardness at the present juncture. In modern time anybody can take
lo a~y profession. The Brahman, taking to tailoring, does not become
1 ta1lor by caste, nor is his social status lowered as ~ Bra.hman. A
Brahman may be a seller of boots and shoes, and yet h1s ~oc1al status
18 not lowered thereby. Social backwardness, therefore, IS not today
due ~ the particular profession of a person, but w:e can.not escape
caste m considering the social backwardness in In~1a. It IS not. ~asy
to group sections of people under certain occup~tlons. The ori!1mal
four-fold division 'Varna' inftuenced the formahon of occ~patiOnal
castes and sub-castes. There are certain distinct commun~ttes who
~re not. confined to any one occupation, and it would be difficult ~o
ategorlse them under any known occupations. There are cert~m

! astes and sub-castes that are based on regionalism. Every caste high
r low accepted the doctrine of noblesse oblige. Eac~ caste had to
eep up its peculiar tradition. This gave cultural d1~mty .to each
aste, resulting in a well-recognized or partially recogmzed hierarchy
 42

of castes. Certain castes tried to upgrade themselves in the caste-

hierarchy, but they succeeded only when they could show a corres·
ponding cultural or political position otherwise the upper castes
refused to recognize the new garb put and such castes remained in
the same old position.
11. It is not wrong to assum~ that social back.war~es$ hill
largely contributed to the educational backwardness of a largE
number of social groups. Some who were not socially and economical
ly low did not take to education, for instance the Muslims, in th1
beginning of the British rule, were too P.roud to take to E~glisl
education. There was at least one section among the Slkhs-
Namdharis-which on patriotic grounds rejected British education
12. The Muslim rulers had to accept caste as a social distinction
The Christians too found caste very powerful. In the extreme Soutli
they still recognize social and •religious distinction between caste
Christians and untouchable Christians. Some Christian missionaries
in Maharashtra and other places discovered that inter-caste marri·
ages amongst Christians oftentimes led to unhappy results. The
Christians of Goa still consult caste and 'gotra' in the minutes!
details when arranging marriages amongst themselves.
13. All this goes to prove that social backwardness is mainly
based on racial, tribal, caste and denominational differences.
14. We think the Commission is justified in interpreting the
terms of reference as mainly relating to social hierarchy based on
caste. Caste generally depends upon birth; it may also depend upon
habitat, and it may create further cleavage due to conversions and
denominational differences.
15. We repeat that the interpretation put upon the terms o
reference by the Commission is not only correct but inevitable and
no other interpretation is possible.
16. Considering the comprehen~ive nat~re o~ our enquiry wt
proceeded to form.ulate. an. exhaustive questionnaire. To start wi
tt s~gg.ested certam critena of backwardness not so much to cir
cumscnbe the freedom of those who should send their replies bu
to show t~em t~e many ways in which the sources of backwardnes
CO!Jld . be myes~Igated. o.nly through such investigation can deter
mmatlve criteria be amved at. The portion of the questionnair<
regarding these tentative criteria is reproduced below for readJ
reference:- .
"1. ~ould you. recognize. the following as the criteria for back
wardne~s. I~ the hst exhaustive or would you suggest any ai:lditio~
or modificatlons:-
(a) Th~ir place of habitation being too poor or barren, and
bemg far re~oved from centres of civilization· and in'
acce~SibJe OWmg to Jack of good all-weather roads good
mar ets .or educational institutions 'nearby. '
{b) ~~edrsh1p of land, houses and other property bein
em~ to them or being quite beyond their means
acqUire,
{c) Thtir profession, trade or occupation being such that the.
ge very poor return for the amount of energy spent, or
 43
on .account of the social structure, being prejudicial to
the1r gettmg adequate return for their labour.
(d) Their finding it difficult to establish contacts with advanced
communities owing to prejudices either in their own minds
or in the minds of those who are more favourably situated.
(e) Their being subjected to some social stigma or inferiority
by which they find it difficult to get access to places of
cultural or artistic training or of religious and secular
education.
(f) By the mere fact of their being segregated from more
~ortunate sections of society on account of taboos against
mter:m~rriage, inter-dining and similar opportunities of
assoc1at1on.
(g) Owing to age-old social customs preventing members of
such communities from enjoying certain amenities or
status in society.
(h) The percentage of literacy and general education among
them being too poor even as compared to the general low
level of literacy in the country.
(i) There being very few persons in their community with
education adequate for leadership or, even if available,
their not being recognized or encouraged. ·
(j) The bulk of the community being unable or too slow to
pick up trai{ling for business or industries or public
services.
(k) Backwardness could also be determined by a very poor
conception of sanitation, by a primitive way of worship, or
an indifferent regard for Jaw and order, or unwillingness
to resort to a settled life, or by very poor and extremely
primitive methods followed in agriculture, or by inability
to understand the function of money and monetary transac·
tions or by certain suicidal vices and social customs.
. 2. What additional criteria, if any, would you adopt for ascertain-
mg what classes or communities are backward among the Christiam.
Muslims and other non-Hindu denominations in your State?
. Note-Care must be taken to distinguish between these characteristics
.bemg found in a community in general as against a few unfortunate
!ndividuals or families being found to conform to these criteria. It is not
Intended to dub or recognize mere individt!al~. whatever their nwn~er,
as backward. It is only when a known and d1stmgu1shable class or .sectwn
1s found to conform to these criteria that they could be recogruzed as
backward."
. 17. ~ careful perusal of the above .particula~s .will indicate how
d1fficult 1t is to go by any one standard m determu;1mg th.e backw~rd·
ness of. a community, caste o_r. social group. Th1s ~~ specially so m a
country where diverse cond1!ions of sOCial practices, customs aod
rnanners, climate, soil,· rainfall, vast distances, a~d v~riety of .langu·
ages and dialects and different systems of famlly hfe-patnarchal
and matriarchal...:add to the complexity of the problem. We expected
that the State Governments would be able to furnish US enou~h
material to determine the criteria easily. Unfortunately, the matenal
furnished by the States was not adequate or satisfactory and often
appeared to have been most casually collected. Some Governments
contented themselves by merely saying that the suggestio1_1s men-
tioned by us in our questionnaire are sufficient!Y exhaustive: We
were obliged therefore to rely greatly on information fro11_1. pubhs~ed
works, in particular from the Census Reports, and o~ .information
furnished by the representatives of several commumties and the
leaders of public opinion.
18. In the case of Scheduled Castes it was easy to fix a single
criterion. Untouchability being peculiar to the Hindu social system,
it was easy enough to recognize it. In the case of the O~he~ Back-
ward Classes no single formula could be dev1sed as a cr1ter10n for
determining whether any section or sections of the people should be
regarded as socially and educationally backward. Some persons who
appeared before us suggested that all persons belonging to the Shudra
Class should be classed as backward socially and educationally.
Others suggested that all poor people should be d~emed ~ackward
while still others suggested that the percentage of literacy m a com-
munity and its representation in Government services should be the
guiding factors in determining its backwardness. Our task was
rendered further difficult by a recent movement among certain com-
munities which aimed at upgrading themselves from lower to higher
social scale. In many cases these communities had assumed names of
the upper castes to gain social superiority. The cause of this move-
ment was undoubtedly the social humiliation endured for centuries
by such communities. Unfortunately, the new high caste names were
not recognized by the traditionally superior castes. The representa-
tives of communities who sought upgrading did not, however, hesi-
tate to give us their original caste names lest they should lose the
State help. The array of innumerable sub-castes into which the main
communities had been split up in the course of centuries presented
another difficulty particularly because in some cases each sub-caste
was an endogamous group.
19. We have endeavoured to avoid both extremes and have tried
to fol.Jow the. middle path of consi.dering a community backward if
a maJor section of that communtty were backward according to
certain standards. The suggestion to consider the entire Shudra class
as social!~ and edu~ationally backwar~ cannot be accepted for tpat
class. as 1t 1s c.onshtuted today, contams a few communities wh1ch,
ho~ever smallm number, have made some advance in recent decades.
It ts true that a large majority of the Shudra class are backward
both socially ~nd educationally. The test of literacy advanced by
some persons IS not always a sure guide though it may indicate
b.ackwardness in a community. There are' other factors to be con·
s1der.ed .in conjunction with literacy to determine whether a com·
munt~y IS backward or not. For instance, some of the artisan classes
are literate to !he extent of knowing the three R's, but there is no
general educational advancement among them. The majority of
them have not. even completed the elementary education stage.
Gen~ral educatiOn~! backy.rardness cannot be the sole test either.
For mstance, a .maJor section of the traditional trading communities
are not educationally advanced in the modern sense of the term
 45

though they occupy .Prominent places in trade, industry and com-

IDerce. In the past literacy was not absolutely essential for educa-
tion and culture. Some of the Brahman scholars of olden times
though learr~ed in the Vedas and Vedangas were unable to sign ~
document. Literacy m those days was recognized as the special con-
cerned mainly of. the 'Kayasthas', although Brahmal)s generally
SJl.eakmg were llter~te. We found many illiterate Brahmans in
Himachal Pradesh, m the hilly areas of Uttar Pradesh and in
~ankura district of West Bengal, but occupying socially a top place
m the caste hierarchy.
20. Another formula suggested to us was that all those who do
manual work of on~ kind or another for a livelihood generally occu-
pied a lower scale m society and should, therefore, be placed among
t~e backward classes. Some others suggested that artisans of excep-
tional skill should not be regarded as backward but of the interme-
~ate class. These criteria cannot be accepted as o£ universal applica-
tion smce some of the manual labouring classes may be either back-
ward or advanced depending upon various factors. That some skilled
artisan classes were extremely backward. was evident to us when
we came into direct contact with them during our tour of the States.
For instance, sandalwood and ivory carvers, workers in metals and
weavers of beautiful carpets were extremely backward both socially
and educationally.
21. In our opinion, the criteria of backwardness can on!~ be. as-
certamed by probing deeper into the genesiS of those distmctions
between advanced and backward, classes peculiar to the. Hmdu SoCial
system. Those enjoying a higher social status w1th mftuence and
power over. other social groups and enjoying wealth or means to
educate themselves; those occupying positions of power an.d autho:
nty m Government service or in trade, commerce and mdustry,
and tho;;e who employ a large section of people under them,
should all be classed as advanced. On the other hand, land owners of
uneconomic holdings agricultural and landless labourers, cattle and
~heep breeders, petty traders, weavers, artisans and others enga~ed
m unremunerative occupations, barbers, washermen, communities
engaged in domestic and menial service and those who eke out a
precarious living by hunting, and fortune-telling, should be brought
under the category of backward classes. These are other considera-
tions, such as living in rural and inaccessible areas, cut off from the
main centres 'of civilization and suffering from lack of m?dern faci-
lities, etc. that should go into the determination of the cntena.
22. Consideration of the question of .b~ckwardness among
Christians and Muslims, was not free from difficulty. Though thesj
two religions do not recognize caste, unfortu~atel~ ier\hn soc:h
groups among them were found to be very bac war · n e ou •
Scheduled Caste converts into Christianity :nere fo.und to b1t~ef~;
rally backward and there was no free soctal mtercourspe· w
r t f '· ·
es o the ChriStian community.
· Am ong Muslims
..
the m)aras or
· r butchers
'CaB rders, the Momins or the weaving commumtlet ~bssaiM~plahs and
histis or water-carriers, Fakirs or beggars, a es,
many others were found to be backward. • t d
23. The problem of backwa.rdness among wom:~e ~~~:~11y
another difficulty. Women, considered as a group,
LJHl3l!ofHA
 46

backward more especially so among the backward classes. Yet, it is

not corre~t to treat them as a separate community. ·
24. Who, then are the backward people? Evidently those who
do not command adequate a!ld sufficient representation in Govern·
ment service, for, this carries with it power, prestige and
influence; those who do not command a large amount of
natural resources, such as, lands, mines, forests, money, or in·
. dustrial undertakings ; those who live in insanitary surroundin~s and
in ill-ventilated houses; those who are nomadic; those who hve by
begging ·and other unwholesome means; those who are agricultural
labourers or those who practise unremunerative occupations without
any means to enter better paying professions; and those who on
account of poverty, ignorance and other social disabilities are unable
to educate themselves or produce sufficient leadership, are all back-
ward. The communities, classes or social groups who occupy an in·
ferior social position in relation to the upper castes and who also
answer the above description or at least major sections of such com•
munities or classes as answer the above description, naturally come
under the category of Other Backward Classes.
25. After a consideration of social conditions in Indian society
and the causes for the backwardness of a large section of the people
we adopt the following criteria for general guidance:-
(1) Low social position in the traditional caste hierarchy of
Hindu society,
(2) Lac~ of ~eneral . educational advancement among the
ma]or section of a caste or community.
(3) Inadequate or no representation in Government service.
(4) Inade.quate representation in the field of trade, commerce
and mdustry .
. 26. The ~<>llowing des?~ption will be. found helpful for classifi·
cation of. vanous commun1ties as educationally and socially back·
ward:-
(1) Those who suffer from the stigma of untouchability or
near untouchability.
Note-(These are already classified as Scheduled. Castes).
(2) Those tribes. who are not yet sufficiently assimilated in the
general soCial order.
Note-(These are already classified as Scheduled Tribes).
(3) Those w~o, owin~ to long neglect, have been driven as a
commumty to cnme.
Not~~~~~~m~~rfTk'!obwn asDCrim_inal Tribes and now are known
a n es or enohfied Groups).
Th'1 ·
Castes, ~h~~~u~el~n~i~ :o~~~~d ilto i~ose belonging .to Sche.duled
considered as belonging t 0 Oth uBe nbes-the remamder w1ll be
er ackward Classes,
(4) Those nomads who do not enjoy any social respect and
~~~~~ h~ve ~o. appreciati.on of a fixed habitation and are
°. mtm1cry, beggmg, jugglery, dancing, etc.
(5) Cobmmumtles
1a ourers. consisting largely of agricultural or landle~s
'
 47

(6) Commu~ities consisting largely of tenants without occu-

pancy r1ghts and those with insecure land tenure.
(7) Communit!es consisting of a large percentage of small land
owners w1th uneconomic holdings.
(8) Comm~ities engaged in cattle breeding, sheep breeding
or fishmg on a small scale.
(9) Artisan and occupational classes without security of em-
ployment and whose traditional occupations have ceased
to be remunerative.
(10) Communities, the majority of whose people, do not have
sufficient education and, therefore, have not secured
adequate representation in Government service.
~11) Social groups from among the MuslimsJ Christians and
Sikhs who are still backward socially ana educationally. ·
(12) Communities occupying low position in social hierarchy.
Classification ot Communities
27. The most difficult part of our work was the classification of
communities into the category of Other Backward Classes. We have
taken into consideration the social position which a community
occupies in the caste hierarchy, the J'ercentage of literacy and its
general educational advancement· an its representation in Govern-
ment service or in the industriai sphere. The economic b~~kward­
ness had also to be kept in view in order to find out the ability of a
community to take advantage of the available opportunities as also
lh~ .recent trends in its advancement as a result of various measures .
llll!Iated by State Governments during the last one or two decades.
The material collected from various sources was analysed and
tabulated under the following heads:-
(1) Various names under which a community or communities
are known throughout India; . .
(2) The traditional occupation or profession of a community
or communities of allied groups; .
(3) The percentage of literacy or .the general educatiOnal
advancement made by a commumty;
(4) The estimated population of a community~ ~f available;
(5) The distribution of the various commumbes throughout
the State or their concentration in certain areas.
. 28. The lists of Other Backward Classes published by the Educai
hon Ministry, Government of India, for the purpose of educat!O~a
aid and the lists furnished by the State Govern~ents a.lof!g WI~~
the1r replies to our questionnaire, were helpful 1.n classlf~lfg t •
c?mmunities. In fact these two lists formed the bas1s of E>~r m orma
hon. Whenever we found difficulties with regard to particular com-
muni ties we often sought the opinion of the State Government co'!--
cern
. ed on ' t he quest1on
· of mclus1on
· · or exc1us1·an of such. . commum·
0 f th
hes from the list of Other Backward Classes. The opml~ns . . ~
representatives of various communities, leaders of pub !Cd opmlf
and social worl<ers dedicatPd to the service of the backwar peop e,
Were also taken into consideration.
 29. At one stage of our enquiry we thought that the task of
preparing the lists of Other Backward Classes would b~ easy if
certain well-known advanced communities coul~ be classified first
and the rest put in the Other Backward Classes list. Though such ao
enquiry was not a part of our work, we considered it would help
us to understand the position of Other Backwa~d Classes. Accord,
ingly we sought this information from the var1ous State Govern·
ments in our questionnaire. Some of the· States stated that all classes
except the Schedule! Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward
Classes may be put in the category of advanc~~ classes, ~ut some ~~
others have sent us lists of advanced commun1hes accordmg to therr
own standard.
30. Some of the representatives who appeared before us sug·
gested that all the three twice-born (Dwija) classes should be.hsted
as advanced and the remaining communities be brought under the
category of Other Backward Classes. That the task was ·not so
simple as this can be realised from the fact that some of the com·
munities outside the Dwija group also have made considerable
advance in recent years. Our work was further complicated by the
procedure followed by the Census authorities during the
1951 Census in categorising certain communities as non·
backward and others as backward for the purpose of Census
computation. Their policy, perhaps, was to include among
the non-backward group such of the communities as had
contributed to the increase in the total literacy of a State during the
decade immediately preceding the Census enumeration, But there
was no authoritative Jist of Other Backward Classes. The Census had
assumed one list; the Ministry of Education had prepared another;
and it was left to the present Commission to recommend an autho·
ritative list. The procedure adopted by the Census authorities was
contr?verted by the Government of Mysore in their replies to ?ur
questlonnaue, and th~y advanced sufficient reasons for not accepting
the Census classtficat10n. We had to scrutinize the conditions of all
communities most closely and carefully. On doing so we found that
many of_ the communities classified as non-backward by the Census
authontles. w.ere really backward both socially and educationallY·
The Comm1ss!on had to_ rely not only on the traditional status of the
commumtles m the soc1al scale, but also on their general educational
advancement and the representation they had secured in Govern·
ment and other services. Their standing in the field of industry,
trade or commerce had also to be taken into consideration.
31. Some persons. suggested to us that substantial ownership of
land conferred suffic1ent soc1al status on land-owning communities
~nd that they should be generally treated as advanced. This reason·
m~ d?es not apply to communities that own uneconomic holdings or
ho d msecure tenures. Not a few of them are also socially and educa·
t10nally backward. Moreover, the State Government did not propose
to exclude all the land-owning communities from the list of Other
Backward Classes.
~2. We have made every effort to bring as many communi ties
as posstbl~ wh? answer the criteria and in whose case the evidence
was suffic1e!lt, mto th~ list of Other Backward Classes We are how·
ever, conscious that m the conditions prevailing in the cou~try it
 49
•
has not been possible for us to get in touch with some commu11ities
who are not well known, nor was it possible for some of the most
backward communities to get in touch with us. There are, therefore,
bound to be omissions. It is our desire that any such omissions
should not come in the way of any community being included later,
and we suggest that in these cases backwardness be presumed. We
came across some communities about whom we were not able to
collect sufficient or any information except the name. Even such
communities have been given the benefit of doubt and put in our list.
33. We also came across names of several communities in the
Census records (the number of such communities running into nearly
three thousand in Madhya Pradesh) concerning whom. we were in·
formed by the State authorities that many were merely sub-castes
or sub-divisions of main communi ties. There were no experts to help
us, nor were the State Governments in a position to group all the
sub-castes into definitely recognizable main communities. We have,
therefore, listed all such communities and have left their case to be
examined by some other agency for future investigation. We may
add that there was no representation on their behalf nor were the
representatives of other communities who appeared before us able to
throw any light on the conditions of these communities.
. 34. We have explained elsewhere the position as regards the
mtcrpretation of the terms of reference .
. 35. We had to interpret social backwardness in terms .of the
soc1al background and historical evolution of the problem durmg the
past hundred years and more.
36. Before arriving at our own criteria of social backwardness,
we preferred to go round the country and request .representativ~s
of public opinion to supply us with their own concepbon and wter1a
of s0cial backwardness.
37, We had before us a list of backward classes (other than the
lists of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes) prepared by the
Mi~istry of Education at the Centre. Their list was prepared w1th the
assistance of the various State Governments. We thus saw ~hat the
State Governments and the Central Government were behmd that
hst. These lists have worked satisfactorilv so far as they go. ~very·
Where, representatives of the varioUS communities pleaded With US
that those lists should be accepted and enlarged; but that on no
account should they be curtailed.
38. Scheduled Castes could be identified by t~e criterion of
untouchability In case of other castes although soc1ally backw~rd,
no such tangibie criteria like that of untouchability coul~ be apphbd.
We .had, therefore, to accept the general notion of s~c1al hlerarc Y
of h1gh and low and to put together all those, co~mum.bes th~~ ":::!e
regarded as socially inferior, whatever connotatiOn th1s phra Y
have to different people in different parts of the country.
. 39. We, as practical persons, therefore, worked on th~ basisth!
hsts accepted and acted upon by the Ministry of Education at .
Centre and the lists furnished by the States in re~ly totur qu~:~~;
nal~e. We had to accept in a general way the cla1ms 0 comm
Which answered the criteria fixed by us.
 50
•
40. We were not able to get correct population figures of all the
communities listed by us in the Other Backward Classes group. The
estimated population figures for some of the communities could be
arrived at by finding the ratio of increase in the population decade
by decade, and even here the Census authorities were not sure of the
figures. ·
41. We thus prepared lists of Other Backward Classes and also
revised the lists of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The
exact total population of all the backward classes including
Scheduled Castes a~d Scheduled Tribes. is not available. ·
42. Names of castes that we have listed have not been specified
as Hindu or Muslim and they should invariably be treated as caste
names common to both. Thus Teli or Julaha includes Hindu and
Muslim Teli or Julaha.
43. We suggest the setting up of a Board for the implementation
of the policy for the advancement of all backward classes. This
Board should be empowered to investigate the conditions of the
communities who may later seek inclusion in the list of backward
classes.
 CHAPTER VI
CONDITIONS OF BACKWARDNESS AND MEASURES
FOR THEm REMOVAL
.1.. While discussing the causes of backwardness of a large
maJortty of .the people, we have noticed that the social evils per·
meatmg society are generally attributed to their ect>nomic back-
wardne?s and'. i.t is confidently predicted that improvement in
econom1c conditions of the depressed, suppressed and backward
people would help the eradication of all social evils. But there
~re ~orne who feel that in India, at any rate, economic backwardness
IS allen the result and not the cause of many of thes.e evils. Indian
society has not been based on an economic structure, but on the
med:aeval concept of 'Varna', of caste, of ceremonial purity and on
Ideas of taboo regarding food and drink. Society consists of care·
f~lly. graded castes or communities and strangely enough the dis-
hnctlon l:letween high and low is often observed more rigidly am<..ng
communities in the lower rungs of the social ladder. Modern con·
d1t1.ons, no doubt, are causing the disappearance of some of these
soc1al evils, especially in urban areas, but the people in villages
sill! cling to· antiquated customs and practices. It is, therefore,
necessary that in any plan for the uplift of the backward classes,
removal of social backwardness in rural areas must receive fore-
most consideration. Improvement in economic condition~ will of
course give them the needed strength to fight these social evils.
2. It should be remembered that in modern conditions of life,
isolated treatment of any one cause of backwardness will not bring
about the desired result. An integrated plan for the removal of ~II
causes of backwardness accompanied by ameliorative measures will
alone be able to remove this malady inherent in our society. Economic
Improvement, removal of social inequality, educational advancement
and representation of these classes in spheres of power, prestige and
authority should form the main features of such a plan. ·
3. During our tour in the State we were struck by the appalling
conditions of poverty, unemployment and under-employment, illite-
racy, antiquated social customs and practices and. other character-
Istics of backwardness of a large part of the populatiOn, We d1scussed
the problems of backwardness with representatives of various com·
rnunities, leaders of public opinion, social workers, Government
servants and Ministers. We also recorded evidence both oral and docu-
m~ntary produced before us on the nature and extent of causes con-
tnbuting to backwardness and on the vaned nature of ameho~:at1w
measures suggested for the advancement of thes~ ci.asses. The de·
mand everywhere was for ad~quate educational a1d m the. form of
f~eeships, scholarships, hostel f~cilities, resenration of seats m educa·
bona! institutions adequate representation m Government Service,
fuller employment facilities by reviving and improving cottage in-
dustries, improvement in housing conditions, improvement in agricul-
tural practices, protection to the tenants, land for the landless,. mml-
rnum wages for nr,ricultural ](.lbour, adequate rural cred1t facilities.
marketing facilitie;, prevention of exploitation, etc,
nt
 52

4. We noticed that the advent of freedom had not yet sufficiently

brought about the necessary change in the psychology of the people
and very little had been don~ to cre~te a sens~ of urgency in their
mind for purposeful act1on m rebmldmg Ind1a. To the backward
classes at any rate, the ideals propounded in the Constitution al)d
the go~! set by the Planning Commission remained largely a distant
picture. The Commission had the painful experience of finding
among the mas~es a feeling of restlessness, discontent, apa~hy, a
sense of resignation or resentment at the1r own low soc1al pOSition. It
also discovered, apart from the policy of the Governments-Central
and State-that the administrative machinery through which their
policies are implemented has not been sufficiently reformed and
geared up to zestful action. It was working in the same old manner
of British days except for a few enthusiastic officers here and there.
It still retained an air of official· superiority and consisted mainly
of persons who look with disfavour and disdain upon manual labour.
In fact, the grievance was that the administrative services lack
sympathy and understanding of the feelings and aspirations of the
backward classes.
5. These symptoms are not conducive to enthusing the masses
to vigorous action in rebuilding the social structure and fusing
various elements of society into a common nationhood. The Com-
mission recognizes that under the democratic Constitution which
the Nation has adopted, it is neither possible nor desirable to use
totalitarian methods to bring about the desired change. It
is also conscious of the meagre improvement that is possible
in an acquisitive society where conscious or unconscious exploita-
tion is not definitely discouraged. It was only too clear to
the Commission that the past social and political movements for
the uplift of the backward classes. led sometimes by short-sighted
leaders had not brought about rad1cal improvement in their condi·
tion. The political struggle before the advent of freedom and the
subsequel)t State Policy has awakened the masses to a realization
of their own low position in the social scale and to the lack of
ade(j';late. facilities for their advancement, lack of sufficient oppor·
tumtles m Government and other services which could give them
presti&e and security. This has brought about an awareness in them
of theu bemg neglected by the socially advanced classes.
. 6. We, therefore, consider it necessary that a definite national
1deal of Sarvodaya for soc1ety as a whole, and of socialistic pattern
for the Government should be placed before the Nation, in un·
amb1g~ous terms, and that steps should be taken to achieve that
1deal In as short a time as poSSible. Unless this is done it will be
d1fficult to create hope. . and enthusiasm
. among the ba ckwar' d c1asses
Wh o have been VICtims of soc1al and economic 1· ·
centuries. It is gratifying to record that the I d' epxp Olltatlon hfor
accep ted th · r· · pattern of society as then irnmed'
1an art 1ament as
. ecsoc1a ·1stlc
7· Th IS · . 1a e ob.)ec t'1ve.
ommlSSIOn IS mainly C
social .~nd educational backwardn~~sce~~e "thlth
Classes . Yet as noted earlier . f
d ·
. e
<if;
er
proBblekms odf
ac war
have to be investigated and ~e~~~ses 0 dal! kkmds of backwardness
provement in the conditions 0 f res un erta en for all round im·
for, human activities toward hall the backward classes together,
hensive treatment. The appro!ch ~matnh progress necessitate compre-
0 ese problems should be essen·
 53

tially human. Conditions or causes which have contributed to back-

wardness should be removed and the necessary atmosphere
re-established in which their progr~ss is not only not impeded but is
pos1t1vely faster. These problems will be dealt with under the follow-
ing heads:-
A. Political •
B. Economic and industrial
C. Communications
D. Public Health and rural water-supply
E. Rural housing
F. Social
G. Education
H. Representation in Government service.
A. POLITICAL
8. Many representatives of the backward classes and a few
leaders of public opinion urged before the Commission that the ii).-
terests of these classes have been sadly neglected even in the
present political set·up. They pointed out that the ptesent advance-
ment of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, however slow it
may have been, was in a great measure, due to their effective re-
presentation in the Legislatures of the country. They argued that
such a representation to other backward classes will secure for them
· a vo~ce in the affairs of the country and will help in the speedy
amehoration of their conditions. They demanded, therefore, adequate
representation in Parliament and in the State Legislatures. These
arguments, though they appear plausible, are not essentially sound.
9. The special or additional representation accorded to
Sch~duled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Legislatures was due
to h1storical reasons as well as to the peculiar social conditions pre-
vailing. The Scheduled Castes suffered for ages from the stigma of
unt~uchability and social segregation. On the other ha~d. the mode
of hvmg of the Schedule Tribes was peculiar. These c1rcumsta.nces
necess1tated special safeguards for these classes and due provlsu:~n
~as .. therefore, made in the Constitution for a temporary periOd m
he. mterest of these classes. It was not the idea to perpetuate segre-
gahon. ·
· 10. It may be remembered in this connection. how the policy of
Mparate electorates and .reservation of seats in the Legislatures for
ushms, brought about disastrous results. It IS too recent to be for-
§otton. Even the reservation granted to Scheduled Castes ~nd
cheduled Tribes under the present Constitution is only for a period
cl ten years. Any extension of this principle to Other Backward
v lasses W11l have far-reaching repercusswns. Instead of kmthng
anous sections of the population into a common nahonhood, It
would only generate disruption and disunity.
.:5 11. Some thirty years back, a movement was started in t~e
outh, known as the Non-Brahman Movement. The BrahmaJ;JS 10
~at
1 Part of the country had almost a traditional monopoly of0 all
Illovernment services and learned professions. They were als~ ~ ~~
orost ln the political life of South India. The new movement 8
lgm ll) Maharashtra and gradually travelled South because of t
he
 54

sociological reasons mentioned above. All commu~ities, including the

Muslims and Christians, joined together in the1r struggle agamst
Brahman supremacy, to secure a sha~e in Government service and
in political powex:. Although the genes1s of that m_ove!I!ent was essen-
tially communal, the masses who resented an mfenor status sup-
ported the leaders of that movement. It brought about a few social
and economic changes and worked for the~advancement of backward
classes in the field of education and representation in Government
service. The results were not very outstanding. This movement could
not stand against the powerful nationalist movement under the
leadership of Gandhiji and his lieutenant, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel,
both of whom were non-Brahmans. The leaders of the non-Brahman
movement had to shed their communalism and most of them joined
nationalist forces.
12. Communalism and the psychology behind it, is a complex
phenomenon. It has its roots in the clannish spirit and tribal loyalty
of primitive society. It is undoubtedly an anachronism in the
modern world. A progressive people working for national solidarity,
must discourage such a tendency and remove all causes of sectional
self-aggrandisement and communal domination.
13. The framers of the Indian Constitution recognized the histo-
rical proce5ses that were at work in India and the uneven develop·
ment of the various sections of the Indian population. They took
cognizance of the social system with its undesirable features of caste
hierarchy. They have, therefore, made adequate provision for the pro-
tection and uplift of Other Backward Classes also. While all that was
necessary was granted and fully assured they discountenanced the
extending of political privilege to any further sections of the popula-
tion. The introduction of universal adult franchise, a far-reaching
and revolutionary step was conceived essentially in the interests of
the masses. It was an act of faith and the nation owes this vital step
to Gandhiji. It has given to the masses the most potent and powerful
mstrument w1th wh1ch to shape the1r destmy. Many were sceptical
at the time as to its wide use by the illiterate masses of the country.
But the results of the ·last general elections (1952) justified the faith
reposed in them. With adult franchise, all power is virtually
transferred to the masses, who form the bulk of the population· and
if they are today too weak and untrained to wield such treme~dous
power,_ what is wanted is the strengthening of their hands through
education and propaganda and not to offer another weapon to weak
hands. With the growm,g a'Yakemng of the, masses, it is possible to
bri?g about desuable sh1fts m poht1cal power, provided· the franchise
IS JUdiCIOUSly Used.

14. After considering all aspects of the question, we have come

to the conclu~i?n that 1t waul~ be suicidal to accord any additional
or spec1al.pohhcal representation to any community or communities.
15. We are not unaware of the disruptive forces that are tr ing
to .entrench. themselves by exploiting the prevailing atmospli'ere.
It IS essent1al m t~e 1nterest of national solidarity that such ten-
dencies are mpped m the bud. We, therefore, suggest that the oliti-
cal_parhes should take note of the unhealthy symptoms in the pbody-
po~hc, ald draw all people together under a well-defined econom.ic
~n soc'a programme, leaving no room for bitterness or frustration
 55

or any feeling that the interests of certain sections of the community

are being ignored, · .
B. EcONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL .
16. The problem of the backward classes is really the problem
of Rural India. The backwardness and appalling poverty of the
masses are due largely to two centuries of foreign rule. The devastat-
ing assault on the old village economy_ hastened the disruption of
rural life. The educational and industrial policy followed by the
British attracted all available talent mostly from the upper classes
to the urban areas and to Government service. Unrestricted com-
petiti~n of mills and factories and the import of foreign goods dis·
organiZed the once thriving rural industries and village handicraft~.
With the decay of rural industries and domestic handicrafts, the
artisans lost not only their gainful occupation but also their here-
ditary education, skill and culture. They were driven to backward-
ness and despair. No effective attempts were made to improve
agnculture, increase irrigation facilities or to develop power ou an
adequate scale. Mineral resources were not fully tapped. Commum-
cations were not developed on an adequate scale. In the last four
or five decades, there has been some industrial development, accom·
pamed .by urbanisation and expansion of commerce. Large towns
and Cthes have grown up denuding the v1llages of local talent and
leadershtp. The process of migration to urban areas must now be
reversed if the villages are to become once again the centres of
Vttahty and activity.
17. Political freedom will not mean much to the back~ard
classes unless the much needed social freedom is also assured m as
short a time as possible On page 28 of the First Five Year Plan the
objectives are stated as' follows:-
"It is no longer possible to think of developm~nt as a proc~si
merely of increasing the available supplies of matfna
goods· H is necessary to ensure that Simultaneous'! a
steady' advance is · m~de towards th e rea ]'1sa t'on 1 of w1derf
objectives such as full employment and the remova1 °.
ecot:~omic inequalities. Maximum production, full emp1~Y1
ment, the attainment of economic equ~ht~ and so1~~­
justice which constitute the accepted obJechves of P
ning under present-day co~ditions are not really ~oc~~~~
different ideas but a senes of relatedh at~S
country must work for ...... On the ot er an ' h ro·
d ~quality
and social justice, will have little co~ten~ unleb~t~n~iflly
dl!ctton potential of the commun>ty IS su
ra1sed."
:1' . 18. We are chiefly concerned with the amelioration of ~~er~~~j
a~ttons of backward classes, a large majority of whom. 1f~e \0 !951
C eas. Out of a total population of 35.7 crores a_ccol~ · gt 5 58 000
.ensus, 29.5 crores or nearly 83 per cent live 10 a ou ~t iive
f~llages while the remaining 6.2 crores or ~ear!Y 17 per fi~ee times
th a,Ol8 towns and cities. The rural population 15 . ne~rly 1 areas.
at ofd' the u r ban, 1.e.,
Acco . near Iy ·5 ou t of 6 Indtansb0ltve ruracent are
ut 29tn per
Self. r tng t~ the same Census, 10.44 crores, or a nother. on the
supportmg, the rest depend .in one degree or a
 56

self-supporting persons. Some are earning dependants while others-

are non-earning dependants. Of the 10.44 crores of self-supporting
persons in India, as many as 8.57 crores or 82 per cent live in the
rural area. Of the 3.79 crores of earning dependants, 3.51 crores or
93 per cent and of the 21.43 crores of non-earning dependants, 17.39
crores or 81 per cent also live in the rural area. Thus, out of the
rural population 29 per cent are self-supporting; 12 per cent are
earning dependants and the remaining 59 per cent non-earning
dependants. Self-supporting agriculturists in the rural area number
6.8 crores and constitute about 80 per cent of the total number of self-
supporting persons in that area. According to the same Census, about
12 per cent of the total of self-supporting persons who live in the
urban areas are also dependant on agriculture.
19. The following table gives the pattern of livelihood (1951
Census).•
S.lf.Supporting per· All including
ISQllB dependant.
Livelihood CJ..,
Number Percentage Number Percentage
(in crorea) to total (in croros) to total

A. Agricultural broadly-

I-Owner.cultiv.tor (as defined by Cenaus) 4·57 43-8 16·73 46·9

Il-T•llBDt·cultivator (.. defined by Cenaue) 0·88 8·4 3·16 8•8
ID-Agricultwallabour<lr .. .. 1··40 14·3 4·48 12·6
IV-Others .. .. .. .. 0·16 J.5 0·53 1·6

Total .. 7·10 68·0 24·90 69·8

»-Non-agricultural broadly-
I
I I

V-Indu.otry .. .. , 1·22
I 11·7 10·5
3•771
VI-CommorCf;l 0•69 6·7 2-13 ' 6·0
Vll-Transport 0·17 1-6 0·66 Jo6
VID-Othel'll ..
1·36 13·0 4·30 12 ·I

Total 32·0 10·76

Grand Tot•l
100·0 36•66 100•0

• Summ•ry T•ble1V-Livelihood 0 •--8611 -

1953. . """ and .eub.clfMISOe, CcneUJJ of India, Paper No. &
 57
The following table• gives the pattern of livelihood of the
rural non-agriculturists.

Mcano of livelihood Number Percentage to

(in eruree) total

I. Commerce .. .. .. .. .. 0·24 14·6

2. Tr&nsport, otoi'Bgll and oommunleations •• .. 0·06 3·6
3. Processing and manufoctnri"!l: •• •• •• 0·28 17·0
(o) foodatulfo, leather, toxt1les and product& thereof
(I) metal.a, cbemi<:Aiond products thereof .. 0·06 3·0
{<) not cl ... itied cleewbero , . ,• •• 0·15 9·1
.f. H~!th, education and public administration .. 0·12 7-3
6. lumng and quarrying .• •• ,. 0·06 3·0
fl. Construction and utilities .. .. .. 0·06 4·8
1. Othe! primary indUBtries not elsewbero apccified 0·21 12·7
8· Sernooc not elsewhero tpecified .. •• .. 1----'--1----
24·9
0·41

Total 1·66 100·0

It ~hould be noted that 29 per cent of those classes as rural non-

agnculturists are engaged in the processing of foodstuffs, manufac-
turmg of textiles, leather, metals etc. and other cottage and small-
scale industries. [Item 3 (a) (b) and (c)]. In addition, as many as
!3 _per cent are engaged in other primary industries which include •
animal h.usbandry, forestry, fishery, etc. (item 7) making up, to-
~~~~r With the previously mentioned group, 42 per cent of the

~0. The picture of rural life will not be complete. unless we

consider the growth of population and the area o£ cullivated land
W~Ich sustains it. The following table gives the growth of popu-
lation:-
lnoreMe(+)
decrease(-)
Number during
C.nsua Year (in lakh•) preceding
det'ade
(in lskhs)

1891 2,359
1901 2,355 4 (-)
1911 2,490 135 (plus)
19~1 2J481 9 (-)
1931 2,755 274 {plus)
IIIli 3,12St 373 (plus)
1961 3,569 «I (plus)
- 'Summary Table No. V-Employers, employe~s and independe~t 3 195
Workers by divisions and sub-divisions, Census of India, Paper No. • · ·
tAccording to the 1941 Census, this figure .should be 3,148. It is ~~c3:.
tY,
8 however to deduct 20 lakhs as the estimated allowance f~r f this
(j ~n of. returns in West Bengal and Punjab. For a fuller ac~~~~f ~ucces·
1
siv~Uchon and the reasons for the view that the reto~t:dr~f~ence may be
Ill d censuses are sufliciently accurate and compara •
a e to Paras 10-15 of Appendix II.
 58

It will be seen that during the thirty years following 1921 the
numbers have increased from roughly 25 crores to. about 35 crores.
The following table• gives per cap1ta area of cultivated land from
decade to decade.
ArM of cultivate<!
land per capitA
(cents)

109
1691 ..

103
1901 ••

109
1911 ••

Ill
1921 ..

104
1931 ..

94
1941 ••

1951 •• 94

The drop from the 1921 level, it may be noted, is nearly 25 per
cent.
"There is little doubt" says the Census Commissioner "that the
rate of growth of rural population has substantially outstripped ~~
rate of progress of cultivation. Has there been a growth of ru•"'
industries and services on a scale sufficient to offset this difference
or indeed to any extent at all? The picture of the land and the peopld
which the Census reveals is one of increasing pressure on the Ian f
by the people of India as a whole whether they are consumers o
what the land produces or are themselves producers on the land.
For the latter, this, in turn, has implied an increasing inability to
earn their normal livelihood. from the land" .t
21. The All-India Agricultural Labour Enquiry Report reveals
a striking growth of rural agricultural labour population. It points
out that from available evidence it appears that "in pre-British India
there was no class of agricultural labourers as such, in the rural
areas." The system of land tenure appears to be an important factor
in the growth of agricultural labour. According to the Enquiry, "the
villages consisted predominantly of agricultural families wh<l
formed 79.8 per cent of the total, agricultural landowners accoUJlt•
ing for 22.2 per cent, tenants 27.2 per cent and.agricultural workers
for 30.4 per cent. The non-agricultural families formed 20.2 per cent
(this included familie,.s with no specific stable occupation who formed
· •Census of India, 1951, Vol. I (India), Part !-A-Report, page 141.
tAll India Rural Credit Survey, p. 22.
about 0.5 per cent of the total). The more important occupations
pursued by non-agricultural families were artisanship, public or
private service (village officers, teachers etc.) and other salaried
employment such as domestic service, and· trade. The non-
agricultural families of the above description constituted 14.7 per
cent, while non-agricultural families depending on wages accounted
for 5.5 per cent". The occupational pattern within the agricultural
hierarchy shows considerable variation from State to State and from
Census Zone to Census Zone, as given in·the following table.
Percentage· distribution of rural families by categories.•

Agricul· Agrioul· Agrioutlurallobouroro Non~

tural tural agrlc'lltu..
land· tenon to rists
ownera With Without Total
land land

li'orth India .. 7·7 56-1 5·7 8·6 14·3 21·0

Ea.tlndia .. .. 16·3 29·9 19·0 13·7 32·7 . 21·1

South India .. 23·0 6•1 27·3 22-8 50·1 20·8·

1\'.,t India .. 44·8 18·4 8·8 11·6 20·~ 16·4

C.ntratlndia .. 25·0 22·0 14·6 22·1 36·7 16·3
North Weal India .. 42·2 25·0 2·7 7-1 0·8 23·0

All1ndia .. .. 22·2 27-21 15·2 15·2 30·4 20·2

Of the 30.4 per cent of the total number of rural agricultural

workers' families 25.8 per cent are casual and 4.6 per cent attached.
The agricultural' families had a larger size (5.50) than the ?on-
agricultural families (4.54). Amongst the agricultural fam1~~~
the average number of persons per family of land owners (5· 45 ) k
tenants (5.39) was much higher than th<1t of the agncultura1 wor brs
families (4.70). Thus, the land-holding classes had a larger num e~
of. persons per family than the landless ones. t. Ac~ordmg to thihs'::\
shurce the average size of holdings per fam1ly lS 7.5 acres holdi~g
t IS average varies in different zone~. ~ht e . avi2a6ge acres in
16
4.5 acres in East and South India 1 . 15 · ld" 5 is
North-West India. Whereas the average ~Ize of re"bel~$ this
:~out 7.5 acres, about 70 per cent of th~ h~d!~g~ w;er cent those 7
h ;rage, Holdings below one acre forme a ~u d those b~tween
2: ween 1 and 2! acres to about 21 per cen • an mber of holdings
ab and 5 acres another 21 per cent .. Of the total :n~ther 35 per cent
b out 35 per cent were cultivated 'by owners. er cent by non·
/ tenants, 20 per cent by labourers,. and /~h[ total area of the
~turists. The percentages distributiOn o
'All-India Agricultural Labour Enquiry, Page 9·
tAgricultural enquiry, Page 13.
 60
holdings as amongst these categories was 52.4 for land-owners, .35.7
for tenants, 7.8 for agricultural labourers, and 4.1 for n?n-agncul·
turists." The type of farming, therefore, in the rural areas IS natural·
ly on a small scale. The number of work-animals and _Plo~ghs owned
are closely related to the number of holding~ and their s1ze. Accord-
ing to the general family survey the farruhes of agncultural land·
owners had 44.8 per cent of the ploughs, while those of tenants;
agricultural workers and non-agriculturists had 38.2, 11.7, and .5.3
per cent respectively. On an average there was 0.7 plough per fam1ly.
The average head of cattle per family of land-owners and. tenants
varied between three and four and the average per agncultural
labour family was about one. The average number of sheep and
goats per family came to 2.3, and the average number of poultry
to only 0.9.
22. Housing conditions in rural areas according to the same
-enquiry reveals a dismal picture. A few big landlords, merchants
and money-lenders ·had pucca houses but the working classes, the
artisans and the marginal cultivators lived in kuchha houses With
mud walls and thal.l!hed roofs. Eighty four per cent of the houses
were kuchha though in East India the percentage was as high as
98.5 per cent. Houses with a single room formed 38 per cent; with
two-rooms 28 per cent and 3 or more rooms 34 per cent.
23. Two factors are considered to be mainly responsible for the
large-scale increase in the population of agricultural labour-the
system of land tenure and increase in man-land ratio. The decay
of rural industries is also responsible for adding to the class of agri·
culh1ral. labour. Smallness . of land-.holdings, primitive system of
cultivation, ~ack of educational facilities, lack of adequate agn·
cultural equipment, decay of rural industries causing unemployment
and under-employment-have all contributed to the present poverty
of the rural people.
24. It i~ often argued that the communities who own land and are
owner-cultivators must be considered advanced. That this is an
erroneous impression is clear from the fact that a large majority of
the~ .possess small patches of !land, often unaided by irrigation
facilities an~ consequ.ently are not able to make enough out of the
land. Vag!lnes ?f ramfall, and frequent occurrence of floods and
droughts m various parts of the country· further contribute to the
misery of the . seve.ral communities that depend on agriculture.
La~k .of education,. madequacy of rural credit, lack of marketing
fac\hbes and exploitation ~y .middlemen, have kept down a large
!llaJorJty of them .to the pnm1bve type of agriculture. Poverty and
Ignorance are the. mev1table result of the social and economic forces
that are at work m rural areas.
25. It will .be seen from paragraph 19 above that 70 per cent
~f11the. poptu~ ti~n depends on agriculture for its livelihood The
1
ototwmg ad~ gives the estitnates of the National Income· Corn·
rm ee, accor mg to which the total t
·in 1950·51 amounted to .,_ 9
t' 1 d d'
ne na 1ona pro uct of In Ia
=· ,550 crores.
•Final Report of the National Income Committee, 1954, p. 106.
 61

Crores of Rs.
1. Agriculture, animal husbandry and ancillary activities 4,780
2. Forestry and fishery .. . ... . .. llO
3. Mining ... ... ... ... 70
4. Factory establishment and small enterprises 1,460
5. Commerce, transport and communication 1,690
6. Other services 1,440
Total 9,550
It should be noted that half the net national product of India is
contnbuted by agriculture, animal husbandry and allied activities
wh~eh absorb as much as 70 per cent of the total population. The
poverty of our backward classes who are mainly dependent on
ignculture, is thus evident. In this context the results of the Rural
ncome Survey in Uttar Pradesh should be noted for they throw
considerable light on the conditions of rural life.
•"Ten per cent of villagers i1.1 Uttar Pradesh have no land at
all and about 85 per cent have no economic holdings, it is revealed
Ill a survey conducted under the State Government's direction. It
is understood that six village families out of every 15 are indebted.
Thh~ survey work covered 15 sample families in each village and
t e1r 'per capita' income was found to be Rs. 190 as against the
average per capita income of Rs. 261."
. "Five per cent of the villagers are self-sufficient and running
Ill surplus. Ten per cent are normally self-sufficient but run into
debt when they perform marriages and the like. Fifty per cent of
. the yillagers live hand to mouth-they wo.rk in fields or. they. go
out m search of employment to neighbourmg towns. or b1g Cities.
Most of the remaining 35 per cent, constitute co~tage mdus.try work-
ers and artisans. They are almost well off for SIX month~ m a year.
Fo: the rest of the year they run into debt to meet the1r da1ly re-
quirements or go out in search of employment. Thus the results. of
the survey draw pointed attention to the need for a floumhmg
cottage industry sector in Indian economy."
. The investigations by Dr. Ramamurti, Director, Central Statis-
hcal Organisation also show that in some States th~ mcome of the
agncultural labourer is higher than that of the agi'Icultural tenant
or even the owner-cultiva'tor. The latter two groups do not ear!l
enough from agriculture while the agricultural labourer who IS
free to take up private labour at will earns more throughout ~he
Year. This emphasises the necessity of giving subsidiary odcupj hon
to all persons employed in agriculture. The cottage an VI 1age
Industries form the most important group of subSidiary employme~i
and we strongly recommend that the backward classes even !
employed in agriculture, shoul~ be g~ven maximum help for the1r
economtc uplift through these mdustr1es. .
Th . · ·1 'ous States came mto
d' e Commission, durmg 1ts tours ~ varfl the backward classes
trect touch with the several commumtles o ·
and the miserable conditions of their life.
--.._ of the Community
p .•Pnlle 5 of the Kurukshetra. month1Y organ
l'OJects Administration for JanuarY 1955.
l,/fi18M,.fi!A
 62
26. Any plan for the economic re~onstruction of the country
must necessarily include measures designed for ~he speedy uphft
of the backward classes. Piecemeal reforms or ISolated measures
of uplift are no solution. Almost the first thing that should engage
the attention of the Governments-Central and State-and the
Planning Commission should be to recreate conditions in the country
in. which the development of these classes ~kes a natural gr_owth.
Economic and social causes that are operatmg to thell' detrunent
should be removed first.
27. The First Five Year Plan -has emphasised on page 30; "while
a fuller utilisation of idle man-power in the country must be ~
major objective and every effort must be made to create opporturu-
ties for work in the rural areas, through improvement in agncul·
ture, development of cottage and small-scale industries and exten·
sives programme of public works, especially in the slack season,
the lack of necessary equipment and other materials needed for
improving labour productivity limits the rate at which idle man·
power can be absorbed ......steps must, undoubtedly, be taken to
ensure the fullest possible utilisation, in furtherance of development
progrmrunes of labour power now running to waste ......... " In ~ur
opinion, it is not necessary to wait indefinitely for, "producave
equipment of a community". As a matter of fact no time should be
lost in making fuller use of the human resources, available skill
and experience of the artisan and occupational classes to produce
goods which are needed by the community. In recent months trends
of development which are labour-intensive and which give read~
and large-scale employment are finding favour with the author!'
ties. We are. not dealing with people who are totally untrained for
a.ny occupation, as we have 'in India, large sections of the popula·
tlon who are a.t least trained in their traditional occupations and
who Will acqmt themselves well if conditions are recreated for
plying those. cottage iJ!-dustries and village handicrafts which w~re
once the pnde of Ind1a. We are not unaware of the need for 1m·
proved .or modern equipment for better production and increased
output m cottage and rural industries under modern conditions, but
these. ~easures should not indefinitely postpone the full utilisation
of ex1stm~ sources of production and employment of traditional
commumt1es. Improved equipment or improved tools and training
m modern methods of production may follow the above measures.
28. The main ~olution, therefore, for the speedy uplift of the
backward classes m rural areas is not so much to wait for the
creah~n of. new ~venues. of employment as to provide favourable
conditions m wh1ch the1r lost or decaying occupations may be
revtv~d. A large-sc~le employment of these communities in their
~radthonal occupations of cottage and rural industries will alone
~mmed1ately reheve the present pressure on land. It will also help
m creatmg a suitable social atmosphere for economic uplift. It is
only thre.reafter that we Will have a clear picture of rural life
which Will .enable us to re-organise agriculture on a sound and
ratwnal bas1s .
. 29i?hi FirsJ Five Year Plan envisages substantial increase in
agncu Tur\ pro uctwn of food-grains as well as of commercial
crops. 0 t at end many development programmes relating to major
 6::1

and minor irrigation works, power production, extension of culti-

vation, reclamation of land, inte:1sive farming, development of
dairying and horticulture, have been included. They have also a
programme for the development of fisheries to supplement land
resources. But the plan, as such, has not evoked widespread enthu·
siasm among the masses. This point has been clearly brought out
in the Report of the Constructive Work Committee of the Indian
National Congress. •
"The economic policy and the ideology behind the Five Year
Plan do not inspire sufficient confidence. It is felt that even the
policies en uncia ted in the Five Year Plan have not been properly
implemented. There is, therefore, no requisite urge on the part of
rongressmen to devote themselves whole-heartedly to constructive
activity for building up a new India."
If the leaders of the party in power are unable to muster enough
enthusiasm, much less can be expected from those who are socially
1111d educationally backward.
India has elected to be a Welfare State, but the administra-
tive machinery to implement the welfare measures under the ;plan
has remained the same as was designed mainly for the mamte-
nance of law and order. Chester Bowles in his Ambassador's Report
states on page 186: "Fully aware of my own lack of intimate know-
led~e of lndian village life, I began to real1ze that many . of the
lnd1an officials from Delhi on down through the State capitals ~o
the villages themselves brilliantly educated ' and competent m
western ways, were alm~st equally estranged in one way or another,
from Village India". The following passage from another source
makes the position clearer still:-
. "Though it is now truly Indian Government, the people ~ee the
same officials in charge of administration, and often react Wlt.h the
same non-committal attitude as they previously used. But It IS not
all due to the people's attitude. Government offices are places. ~f
f~rms, unintelligible red tape and waiting-rooms that the umm;
bated and uneducated feel it is best not to appro.ach. A lawye
~hom the author knew decided to leave h1s practice and devote
himself to the service of his country. He therefore applie~ toT~e
allowed to work in a scheme of rural development nea~ Y· ;
answer was no, he was not a Government servant, and thl~r:~~nt
Government project. A proper answer, perhaps for . Gov desires
must be free to choose and engage its workers when lt s?
~U\ hardly Calculated to fire local enthusiasm for th~ prOJ~Ct, r a
'

are often only interested in carrying out the l~t.ter of the !? 1 t6'
eehng of response to Government's. policies! Officials, t er~ f~e:
r.arely do they feel themselves to be the publics servants m . ~
hteral sense of the term "(Land and society in Malabar by Adna s
;. Mayer. pp 143-4)". The administrative set-up therefore,f::~u~he
1'1! complete re-orientation. There was Widespread deman~umber of
thPresentatives. of the backward classes ~hat a blarge bout better
eJr own men should be taken in the serv1ces to rmg a
social contact with the masses.
•congress Bulletin, December 1954-page 415.
 64

30. There is a variety of causes disturbing the ~en t.enor of rural

life; for instance, factious feelings, presence of antt·soc1al elements,
litigations often leading to breaches of peace. The removal of these
causes is necessary for ensuring rural development. The present
attraction of towns and cities which draws men away from rural
areas should be removed by providing healthy modern amenities
in the villages. It may not be possible .in the beg~ing to serve all
the villages but a start could be made m central VIllages of compact
blocks of lh-15 on a planned basis. For this purpose, rural areas
may ·be divided into Panchkroshis (or Panchkoshi) (compact
blocks of a certaiu number of villages where the outlying ones will
be within a distance of five miles from the central village). All
developmental activities should radiate from the central village of
each such block. With these initial steps it would be possible to
arouse enthusiasm among the backward classes for the re--building
of India. Panchkoshi units with Basic Education and rural develop-
ment activities will serve as pioneers for spreading ~he philosophy
of self help, mutual help and Sarvodaya.
31. For the uplift of backward classes it is vital to have a proper
laud policy. Although the Five Year Plan has dealt with the
question of land reforms and land distribution we make a few sug·
gestions pertinent to the interest of backward classes as such. The
abolition of feudal tenure, such as zamindari, jagirdari, is in
progress in many States. A few tenures of feudal type· still persist
in some States. We recommend that early steps should be taken for
the abolition of all kinds of tenures which jeopardise the imple-
mentation of the national land policy.
We were informed that old long-standing tenants or crojl'
~harers had been evtcted by powerful zamindars in favour of thell
own men. This is perhaps due to the non-maintenance of correct
record of the rights of those who work on the lands in zarnindari
areas. Other communities who were affected by the abolition of. these
Intermediate ~enures were potters, fishermen, and cultivators of
Smgada-n?ts m shallow tanks. The grievances of these helples!
commumttes who have been de~rived of their prescriptive rights of
generatwns, should be looked mto by the authorities and theu
nghts safeguarded.

. 32. The land legislation is of such a complicated nature that i

ts not eas1l~ understood by the rural population. Land reform act'
shou~~ be. Simple a?d easily understandable by the backward co!ll
mumttes m \yhose. mterest they are enacted. Otherwise, it will leal
to en~less ht1g~t10n and exploitation. There should be no looP
holes m legislahon that might lead to social conflict in rural area!
Too many and frequent changes in land legislation create confusiol
and difficulty.

33. In spite of the many difficulties that still lurk as residuar'

legacy, of the old zamindari system, the abolition of zamindari an;
other mtermed1ate tenures has brought the cultivator into direc
relatiOnship With the Government. The problems that need atten
tJ vn now are those of large owners small and ·ddl t'
t·::J~nts·at-will and landless workers. , mJ e owne .
 65
Large Land Owners and Ceilings on Holdings
34. "The growth of population and repeated sub-division have
led to .a system of. distribution of land in which large estates are an
exceptiOn and the vast majority of holdings are relatively small in
size...... The ~eneral picture ~s one of numerous small holdings, a
large proportiOn of them bemg uneconomic, a small number of
mtddle peasants and a sprinkling of substantial owners. If it were
the sole .object of Policy to reduce the holdings of the large owners
wtth a vtew to providing for the landless or for increasing the farms
of those who now have uneconomic fragments, the facts at present
avatlable suggest that these aims are not likely to be achieved in
any substantial measure.,. The principle of an upper limit for land
holdtng must, therefore, be considered in relation to the general
~nomic pattern of the country as a whole rather than in relation
to the possible use that could be made of land in excess of any
~eiling limit that may be fixed. Some representatives have urged that
tl woul~ be invidious to fix the ceilings on land-holdings, while no
.such pnnctple has yet been thought of in the case of other sectors
of the country's economy. They argue that such a course will damage
the _even development of agricultural production and -divert enter·
pnsmg persons to more lucrative fields of trade, such as commerce
and_ indust~y. We are of the opinion that t~ough t~e fixing of a
tethng hmtt on large agricultural holdmgs ts a destrabl~ re~orm,
such steps should be followed almost immediately by placmg hmtts
on mcomes from other fields of national economy. Only then would
tt be pos~ible to create a psychological satisfaction among those who
are. requ1red to surrender . their property for the comlll:on good.
Ftxmg a ceiling on land-holding is necessary as a soctal. prmctple to
remove .the existing inequality of cultivators' holdmgs 11) the
countryside. In applying this principle care should be taken to work
out ddl'erent ceiling for different types of land. What would be a
~e~trable limit for land planted to food crops, might not be at all
sUI!able for land where plantation crops are gro;vn on a large and
ctenttfic scale. It is necessary to take into constderatton the types
of land, the rainfall in that area, the type of .c~ops grown, the
Pressure of population, etc., in determining the cetlmgs.
lllstribution of Land
· 3.5. The excess land resumed after fixing the ceilings on hold·
~g5 . 15 not easy to distribute under the conditions at present p~evThl­
:ng m the villages There are numerous claimants to such Ian · .e
haldless agricultu~al workers and those cultivating uneconomiC
Bo dtngs alike lay claims to such land. The recent ~ontroversy 10
engal as to whether the excess land should be dtstrtbuted first
~~ong the cultivators of uneconomic holdings, brings out t~e ac~~
of 55 of the problem. Orthodox agricultural economtsts are 1h fav all
hot creatmg economic holdings by adding more la~d to 1. e ;mual
ho!~mgs, while Bhoodan workers are in favour of dts.jhbut~na~an1 is
de 1r~s among the landless a(lncultural workers. e P v be
o;P Y attached to the land. however small the holdmgit~n th~
rur~!ersh1p of land has always given him a status~~ tdtfhe )andless
shout commumty and it is, therefore, necessarY, a first instance.
...__ d be preferr~d in granting all available land m the \ .
·~
lrst Five Year Plan, Page 187.
 66

Throughout our ~isit. to the St.ates the landl~ss agriculturists de-

manded the distnbut10n of ava1lable land to 1mprove ~he1r econl>
mic condition. It was complained that there was no umform pohcy
adopted by the States even in granting available Government land.
Tt was stated that the more vocal and influential invariably got the
iand while the weaker sections were neglected. It is necessary that
the existing land revenue rules regarding disposal of. Governl!'ent
lands should be amended so that the land in a v1llage IS first d1stn·
buted to all the landless, pro rata and the excess, if _any, to those
who own uneconomic holdings. Any infringement of th1s rule should
be severely dealt with by the State authorities. Duri~g ou_r tour we
found that land is not available in sufficient quantities m all_ t~e
villages and-that the landless are not willing to migrate. to localities
where land is available. State Governments must create mcent1ve for
the landless to go to those areas where land is available, and measures
should be taken for their settlement in such areas.
In Uttar Pradesh, petitions were made to us that after the
abolition of zamindari, land vested in the Panchayats and such lands
were not made available to the extremely poor communities.
The fear is that these village Panchayats being practically in
the hands of dominant communities. feudal forces came into play
and the extremely poor are neglected.
The same conditions perhaps obtain in some other States also.
We recommend that a proper investigation of the problem be
maoe and as a rule, after abolition of zamindari, land should vest lD
the hands of the State, and its distribution should be left in the
hands of Government Officers. who should be instructed to pursue
the Government policy of helping the landless agriculturists first
and foremost.
Small and Middle Owners
36. A good many communities of the backward classes are
drawn from the class of small and middle land-owners. These two
groups include many who have small. uneconomic holdings which
are also seno!-isly .fragmented. These holdings are scattered and
make cult.1vatlon dtff!cult. The general aim should be to bring about
consoh~a!ion of holdmgs. The experience of consolidation of holdings
1n Pu_n)ab, Madhya Pradesh and Bombay has established the value
of th1s measure for small and middle owners and fragmentation
beyond a certain limit should be prohibited by Jaw.
37. Regulation crf ~enancy Rights-In the case of large holders
who ar~ not engaged m personal cultivation but who have leased
out the1r lands, 1t 1s necessary to protect the tenants from arbitrarY
eviCtiOn and from the levy of unreasonable rent. A limit on the
a_mo~nt of land ~o be resumed by the owners for personal cultiva·
t10n IS 1,1ecessary ~~ all cases where ceilings on holdings are not fixed.
Otherw1se there w~ll be the problem of unemployed evicted tenants.
In .cases where ceilings are fixed, the tenants should be given the
~ptlon to. acqUire the excess land by payment of a sui table price
m e~sy mstalments. The quantum of rent to be fixed and the
s7cunty o~ te~ancy should be determined in relation to local condi·
t1.ons. Leg1slat1ve measures in this behalf should not unnecessarilY
d1stur~ the local atmosphere or create unnecessary bitterness ana
litigatiOn. ·
 67

38. There are a large number of cases all over the country
where even the small and middle owners have leased out their
holdings, or a part thereof. These cases should not be treated on a
par With those of absentee landlords. In such cases, domestic causes
or the temporary absence o.f owners from their villages have made
the leasu~g of. holdmgs mev1table. Confirmation of permanent
tenancy rights m such cases would work as a great hardship on
owners. wantmg to resume land for personal cultivation. The tenancy
nghts m such cases should be for a period of 5 to 10 years and it
must always be open to the owner to resume the land without diffi·
culty at the end of the period. The relationship between such owners
and tenants could be regulated by simple laws.
Reconl of Rights
39. It may not be practicable to socialise land for some years
to come. Peasant-proprietorship, however small the holding, will
for some years be the pattern in most rural areas. In view of the
a.ttachment of the peasant to ·the land, it is necessary in the mean·
time that the rights of all interests in land be correctly recorded and
maintained. This would serve as a safeguard against unnecessary
litigation and exploitation of the ignorant peasantry.
Agricultural Class Structure
40. According to 1951 Census: "Of the 545 lakhs of cultivators,
owner-cultivators number 457 lakhs, and tenant-cultivators 88 lakhs.
The preponderance of owner-cultivators is the most important and
characteristic feature of our agricultural class-structure.. The cult!·
vating hbourers JJUmber approximately 149 lakhs. These agricultural
classes have to support a number of non-earning dependants. The
total number of owner-cultivators, tenant-cultivators and cultivat-
ing labourers are 16.7 crores, 3.1 crores, and 4.4 crores respecti.vely.
On the other hand non-cultivating owners and rent-receivers
number only 5.3 lakh;." Though the owner cultivators form the bulk
of the agricultural population the per capita holdi.ng is less .than an
acre. According to the Agricultural Labour Enquiry Comm1ttee, 70
per cent of the holdings are below the average size of 7:5 acres. In
a~most all cases the holdings are scattered and present ~nsuperable
difficulties to proper agricultural development. The vagan~s of ram·
fall and the frequent occurrence of floods and d~oug:hts m va;.10us
parts of the country render the prospects of cultivation precaHous.
Lack of an assured water-supply by a net-wo~k of irrigatio~ works,
renders intensive cultivation difficult. The agriCultural practi.ces pur-
~ued by the cultivatore are still largely primitive, and the agncul~ural
Im~lements and equipment used in cultivation ar~ ~ar from efficient:
It IS therefore evident that the economic cond!lions of the com
rnu~ities engaged in agriculture are far from satisfactor:y and a largj
, maJonty of them have necessarily to live below subs1ste~ce lev.e ·
Growth of population and decay of cottage and rural mdust~les
ha~e aggravated the poverty and misery of the rural populatiO~
It Is no wonder that these people frequently run mto debts an
!ead a precarious existence. Their position is such that they are
Inevitably the helpless victims of exploitatiOn. .. ed
. 41. The amelioration of the condition of commumties. engag d
1n agriculture and subsidiary occupations in rural areas IS mdee
a difficult problem. They need State help in abundant measure,
 68

not only to improve the agriculture which. is .t~eir mai~s~ay, but

to bring about general improvement in the1r hvmg. condttlon. The
Planning C~~ission has reco.~ended the adopt~on. of the co-
operative prmc1ple for re-organtzmg rural hfe. But 1t IS seen from
the Report of the All India Rural Credit Survey that ev~n co-
operatives in rural areas have become instruments of exploitation
in the hands of upper castes. It is, therefore, necessary to remove
all forms of exploitation from rural life and estabhsh co-operattves
on a planned basis-both functional and regional-manned by the
proper type of person who would work devotedly for the better·
ment of the rural people.
Rural Credit and Marketlnr
42. The Planning Commission has dealt with other problems
of agricultural development and it is not necessary for us to refer
to each one of them. However, we lay a great emphasis on the
urgent need for creating rural credit· and marketil)g facilities, ~he
absence of both of which on an adequate scale are hindenng
agricultural progress. The Report of the Committee of Directi.on
on the All India Rural Credit Survey recently published, deals wtth
these problems exhaustively. The Committee estimate that the
combined contribution of the Government and the co-operatives IS
about 6 per cent of the total (each accounting for about 3 per cent)
credit supplied to agriculturists, commercial banks contributing
only 1 per cent. "The private money-lender thus dominates the
scene, the professional money·lender with about 45 per cent and
the agriculturist money-lender with nearly 25 per cent of the total
credit made available."
They, therefore, recommend an integrated scheme of rural
credit with State partnership. The main parts of the scheme are
three, each related to and dependent on the other two ......... "The
first is the credit and monetary part designed (i) to make credit
available to the rural producer, where it is not now available, or
is only .inadeC!uately available, and to do this through his .own
assoc1at1on w1th h1mself and the State, i.e., by an institutional
system of State partnered co-operative credit which the State Gov·
ernments are to promote with the active assistance of the Reserve
Bank; and as a necessary and precede!!! condition in many cases,
(~1) to make .bankm~ and n;mittance f.aci!ities available to co-opera·
t1ve c:edtt .mstttut10ns, . ex_1sbng or mtended, especially in those
areas m whtch such facthtles are now scarce or non-existent. and
thus throu~h. the agency of the State Bank of India, :working in
close assoctatlon wtth the Reserve Bank. assist in rectifying condt·
t1ons whtch are of grave disadvantage to the rural producer of
those areas."
"The second of the main parts of the integrated scheme is the
promotion by. State Gnvernments of the development on a co•
operahve basts, of certa1n economic activities essential t~ the rural
producer, such as. marketing and processing, and the parallel pro·
motion by all Ind1a and State organizations of the development of
dto~a~e rd
10 n wfarehouslng of agricultural commodities together with
IS n u ° goods and Implements of importance to the culti·
va~fi as pro~ucer and consumer. At the all India level of planning
(to-opera
mant~e. Doth these lmes of development converge in the national
Ive eve1opment and Warehousing Board.
 69

"The third main part of the scheme is that which is concerned

with the provision of trained personnel for these tasks of re-organi-
zation and development even as the other two are designed, each
m Its own sphere, to furmsh the framework of organization and
generate the forces of development, i.e., development of co-operative
credit and development of co-operative economic activity. For this
Important task of training the workers, official and non-official, in
the (leeded way and in the needed numbers, the responsibility, as
we see it, will be vested at the all India level in the Central Com-
mittee for Co-operative Training, strengthened we hope by the
participation and support of a select, informed and purposive body
of. non-official co-operators, into which the All India Co-operative
Unwn has today the unique opportunity of converting itself by
taking the appropriate decisions. From the Central Committee, the
~hannels of action will then be official and non-official, in close
intersection, the former aligned to State Governments, the latter
to co-operative institutes and associations.
"The three main sectors of the integrated system of develop-
ment, .then, are co-operative credit, co-operative economic activity
(especially processing and marketing) and co-operative personnel.
In the first the Reserve Bank will occupy the most strategiC posi-
tion; in th~ other two, it will be among the principal. participants;
and, for all three much will have to be expected of 1t by way of
active co-ordination. That is what we mean by the observation that
the Reserve Bank's role in the integrated system env1saged by us
will be of crucial importance."• They further obserye o~ page 533
that " one .of the prior objectives of policy (as. explamed m Chapter
XXX) has to be the creation of conditions m .which ~o-operatlve
and other institutions will function effectively m the mterests of
rural production and for the benefit of the rural producer, and not
as. hitherto be largely stultified by the oper~tion of .more powerful
"PriVate interests; for this. the necessary ass1stance. ~n the form. of
finance, technical personnel, etc .. and not merely adv1ce, superviSIO~
and administration, has to come from the Stat~; hence State partnerd
sh1p m some of the more strategic mstltutlons,. co-opetatl\fe ~n
-other, existing or new, is recommended as an 1mp.ortant ea ure
of the re-organization that should take place. InstJtutJonbl .devef
lopment, with the object mentioned and ~n the . 8 ~\s ~­
State partnership should extend to (i) co-operative credit, ~~~.1 c
~~erative economic activity e~pecial.ly procesmn~ 1ab:n~~r !s ~~:
(Iu) storage and warehousing and (1v) commercia. d b g k In
Presented by the important sector of Stat~-~ssoclate an 1· of
respect of each of these there should be provlsto~ for the suppufsite
tramed personnel in needed number and With the req
oOUtlook."
ndations contained in
43. Early implementation of the recomme · r essential
the Report of the All India Rural Credit SurveY th ve r~s erity of
to strengthen the rural economy so n~cessary fl~dia \~ve ~ccepted
~~rtcultui:al communit~es .. The Governmekt ~~ it is hoped that the
·oteh Prtnciple of rstabhshit:tll a State tBhan :arne5t consideration.
er recommendatiOns will recetve eir

-'All India Rural Credit Survey, 'Chapter 33, pages

393-394 '
 70

Rural Indebtedness
44. Agricultural communitie~ habituall;Y run into debt, and more
so when adverse seasonal conditions prev:ail. The assume~ prospenty
of agriculturists during the war years d1d not actually Improve thde
economic conditions of a large body of them. For most of them d1
not belong to the class of surplus lan~holder~. Only a sma!l p_er·
centage of substantial landholders. and m particular non-cultJvat1~g
owners may have made some profits during the period of boom Ill
agricultural prices. This increased income, however, ~as offset to a
large extent by the corresponding increase in ~he pnces of commo-
dities and articles required by the agncultunsts. It IS necessary
that provision should be made either through Land Mortgag_e
societies or through the proposed State Bank for long-term credit
to redeem them from the clutches of unconscionable mone{'·lenders.
Relief from usurious rates of interest is also needed. Scahng down
of the debts of impecunious cultivators is also desirable.
Marketing Facilities
45. The creation of proper marketing facilities has a significant
effect cin production and on the welfare of the cultivator. ''In the·
absence of staying power, a large number of small farmers compete
with each other and the markets witness conditions of occas10na1
glut and scarcity." The cultivators are exploited by the village
money-lender or the Mandi merchant in marketing their produce.
It is necessary to remove these handicaps by establishing co-operad·
tive marketing societies, regulated markets. with warehouse an
banking facilities. The Report of the All India Rural Credit Survey
contains very valuable suggestions in this connection.
Price Support
46. The conditions of agricultural communities are largely
governed by the prices they get for their surplus produce. Even m
the case of deficit producers, part of the produce grown must be sold
to meet the immediate family requirements. It is, therefore, neces·
sary that they should get reasonable prices for their agricultural
produce. Durmg slump years of prices their condition becomes pre-
carious and they run .in~ debt. The question of price support to·
agncultural p~oduce, .In times of falling prices, has not yet been
considered on 1ts ments. We understand that this question is engag·
ing the attention of the Unien Government. We recommend that
minimum fair prices should be guaranteed to the cultivators both
from the poin.t of view of. keeping up agricultural productioh and
of the prospenty of the agricultural communities.
Irrigation
47. The Plal!-ning Com~J!ission observes-"In India nearly four-
fifths of the cul~1vated area IS dependent on rainfall which is seldom·
adequate ~nd timely throughout the whole country. Annual failure
of crops m different reg1ons of India. is, therefore, a common
feature of Ind1an. agncl_llt':lre. The most effective way of increasing
crop production m India IS tp provide through irrigation an add!·
bona! source of. water-supply to the cultivated land ......... Small and
mediUIJ! 1:rlg~tlo~ works have an important part to play in deve-
lopmg Irngatlon m the country. They have many obvious advant·
ages. They prov1de a large amou~t of dispersed employment. TheY
 71,

involve smaller outlay and can be executed in a comparatively

shorter period." A provision of Rs. 30 crores for minor irrigation is.
made in the First Five Year Plan. The condition of the backward
communities engaged in agriculture and other allied occupations.
cannot be substantially improved unless the present dependence
upon uncertain rainfall is removed and an assured water-supp;y
prO\·ided. In view of the urgency of this problem, we recommend
that greater attention should be paid to the execution of small and
medium irrigation works and to provide irrigation from wells and
nvers wherever it is not possible to have tanks and anicuts.
Land Tax Policy
48. There is now no uniformity in the matter of taxation or
levy of land revenue throughout the States. There have been com-
plaints that the present system of land taxation has not been equit·
able. and is particularly oppressive in the case of uneconomic
holdings. The present system has not been based on the capacity
of the cultivator to pay the tax. We recommend that the. question
of land taxation in its relation to the capacity of the culttvator be
thoroughly examined and an eqLtitable system of taxation be
evolved. ·
Rural Savings
49. With the increase in agricultural production and the deation
of SUitable marketing facilities with fair prices for ~gncultural
produce, there will be scope for effecting savings in rura1 areas. _But
lllcreased earnings are likely to be squandered unless the agncul·
tural communities are educated to put something by for the ramy
day. There are no organizations at present to collect the small sav·
mgs of agriculturists and there is therefore, need for orgamzmg
rural savings schemes at village lev~! to promote thrift and economy.
Problem of Special Agricultural Communities of the Backward
Classes .
50: Among agricultural communities there are some ~ho are
exdus1vely engaged in the cultivation of vegetables, fruitS an~
fiowers and in growing betel vines. Such commumt1es ar~ found a 11
over India. The population of these communities is relallv~ly srai
When compared to those who are engaged in general farmmg. t
esttmated that about 3 million acres of land are under frul\~ti
J
about I million acres under vegetables which roughlh ~eanl ~ \·10~
ovhr one per cent of the total cropped area. The ru1t cu.ttva
w tch was once the monopoly of the community engaged Ill veg;;;
table cultivation has now been taken up by othtr farmers, ~
~e~etable C!Jltivation is still largely confined to them: Betel vme
u ltvatJon ts still mainly confined to a smgle commumty.
Vegetable and Flower Growers . .
51 c .. .
are k · ommumhes engaged m flowers an
d gelable culttvatton
·k:\ K hatriyas, and
A . nown by the names of Tigalars, Vannht u a 5 M li Saini
li:gnt~ula Kshatriyas in the South, and Mali, Phool ~munities
Pl:ct' detc. in the North, The representatives of ir.es;i;~ that they
ar e that they have not sufficient lands for cu tva h t they are
ex~t~ot sdtly tenants subject to exhorbitant ~ents, a~dbl~sa and fruits
01 e by middle-men in marketing thetr vege a
 72

also complained that enough facilities are not provided for cultivation
of vegetables and frui~s .in ~nd around municipalities where ~ew~ge
water is available for Irngatlon. The extent of land under culttvatlon
by each family is very small and is not sufficient to secure an
adeql.tate livelihood. The percentage of literacy is generally low
among these communities. They demanded increased facilities for
their occupation and education facilities for their children. The
Planning Commission has indicated the direction in which vegetable
cultivation could be improved, but as yet little has actually been
done. We recommend that in all the places where these communities
are found the following steps should be taken:-
1. Enough land should be made available for growing vege-
tables and fruits. Suburban belts around large towns
should be developed for raising fruit and vegetables by
organizing these communities into co-operatives, especial·
ly for the supply of improved seeds and for marketing
their produce.
2. The exhorbitant rents iP all cases of tenancies should be
scaled down as in the case of other tenancies.
3. Instructions. shoul<;! be given to the young men of these
, communities on Improved methods of fruit and vegetable
cultivation.
4. Schola~ships s~ould be established for the purpose of
traml!Ig qualified students among them in general horti·
culture.
52. These communities must be instructed in the art of home
canrung and preserving of fruit and vegetable on modern lines.
Betel Vine Growing
. 53 .. Betel leaf o~ pan is commonly used on all important occa·
Sions. m lnd1an. soc1et~. It figures prominently on all auspicious
occastons bo~h m marnage c~remonies and in the worship of G0d.
T~kmg pan Is popular m India. It is stated that vitamin 'C' in the
d1et of the rural population mostly comes from 'pan'.
54. C~ltivation of. the betel vine is mainly confined to one
caste .. wh1ch IS fo~nd m all parts of India. It is known as Barai.
~h:u~~~d rT~b61\·· o.r dYe!etigaliru in different parts of India.
. I? 0 I IS enved from the word 'Tambul'-the betel
lea~. It. IS cultiVated In small patches of 1 d d th ·ty
which 1s engaged i t 1 1 an an e commum
the land they hold fsc 1~;se~ ~v~tion is not very prosperous. Often
cultivators complained that the hem. under oppress1ve rents. The
from Government. either in the~ rece1ved no ass1stance, whatever
.ance in eradicating the pest d0 Jm of grants of land or of assl~t­
was stated that no resea hs an k hlseases that attack betel vines. It
rc wor as been undertaken in the field.
55. The greatest difficulty th t th . .
growers encounter is in th a e commumty of betel vme
~hey are poor and illiterat: a~dtter of marketing their betel JeavPS·
places away from their villages havj ~o carry betel leaves to markrt
T
vanably exploited by middl ' an 1 market centres they are 1n·
leaves to Pakistan Ce !on Bemen. hey used to export betel
llow completely disap~ear~d un;a and Nepal but that trade has
· ey, therefore, asked for proper
 73

marketing facilities so that they could get adequate price for their
produce. We, therefore recommend the following measures:-
!. Grant of sufficient ~nd suitable land for raising betel vine
t<_> members of th1s community and reduction of oppres-
SIVe rents.
2. Establishment of co-operatives to grant medium-term loans
for the purchase of agricultural implements and manure
and for marketing the betel leaves.
3. Exploration of foreign markets by State for betel leaves.
4. Resea_rch w~rk for eradication of pests and diseases and
f<,>r 1mprovmg the quality of the vines, and in the nutri-
tional and medicinal value of pan.
Reorganization of Village Economy
56..The First Five Year Plan advocated co-operative farming for
thed ral;lid reorganization of village economy. It suggested that small
an ID1ddle farmers, in particular, should be encouraged and assisted
;o grhoup themselves voluntarily into co-operative farming societies
or ~ e purpose of introducing a scientific form of agriculture and
for mcreased capital investment so that the national agricultural
Produ~tion might be stepped up. It has further said: "While the-
jxtenslon of co-operative farming and co-operative ~ctivities general-·
~ Will do much to develop the social and econom1c place of the
~hllage, and, in particular, will benefit small and middle land-holders,
e scope of rural organization has to be conceived in wider terms."·
For th1s purpose, they have advocated co-operative village manage-
ment as the ultimate objective. How far these ideas will ~ake _ro~t
under an acquisitive society based on an urge for profiteermg, 1t 1s
too early to say. The results of experiments conducted in co-operative·
farming in some of the States have not so far been very encouraging.
If only the sense of possessiveness could be eliminated or subordi-
nated to a larger common purpose, the way might be paved for the-
successful introduction of the co-operative principle in village
management. But it is not possible to ignore the socio-economic
structure of present village life. The following extract from th~ ,re-
port on the All India Rural Credit Survey sums up the posttlon
succinctly: (Page 278).
. "In considering the record of the co-operative credit moveme~t
10 the Indian village it has accordingly to be remembered that m
India, as wholly distinguished from other countries, ther.e has been
the unique combination of the following features. (1) a ~oclo-economlt­
structure largely based on caste within the village 1tself, (2) the
hnking up of the upper parts of that structure to a cash economy
and an administration centralized in the urban sector, and (3) the
fa,ct that the linking up took place as the outc01_ne of .thre~ processes
IV.ltch historically happened to opera~e t~gether m ~nd1a, vlZ., coloma!
rule and administration, commerctahzatwn of agnculture and urba-
ntzation of industry.
"It Is within a socio-economic structure so distorted by this
combination of events and forces as to present a .grave dtspanty
Wlthin the village itself and an equally grave d1spanty between the
 74
village on the one hand and the town ~nd the ~ity on the other, that
lhe co-operative effort to develop credit has hi~herto taken ~lace m
India. Co-operation had-and has-the great miSSIOn of see~mg out
the greatest common measure, firstly of good in the economiC sense
.and secondly, but not less importantly, of ~ood i!l the ethical sense
in t~ leadership and following of the Indian Village. The. task m
.effect was to combine these two elements of good and to d1rect the
force so generated towards a great endeavour for the common
betterment. Perhaps, in this effort, co-operation might have succeed-
.ed a little better if it had recruited a band of devoted workers at
.and from the village level capable of knowing and applying ~he co-
.operative technique among their co-equals. Attempts have mdeed
.on occasion been made Jiy co-operative leadership to build up a body
.of competent co-operative workers from the village upwards. But
it was not the fault of the leadership or of the Movement that an
approach which had to be at once scientific and missionary, village-
minded and country-wide, failed to be adopted on any significant
-scale. It may be that the time itself was not ripe for such techniques.
In any case, for a non-official agency the task was stupendous. For
Government, as till recently constituted, the task was impossible.
'The context has now changed and the time is clearly propitious. This
1s specially true of the opportunity which now presents itself before
'Government, of developing co-operative societies or administrative
·panchayats or other comparable village institutions-in a manner
which ensures that those institutions, together with the structure of
which they are the base, are so designed in their relation to the
internal pattern of village leadership as to be for the advantage of
·the village as a whole and in particular for the protection and benefit
·of the weaker elements that so largely inhabit it." The basic causes
'hindering the development of the co-operative spirit must be remov·
-ed. b~fore agriculture can be reorganized on the co-operative
'jlrmclple.
5~. A few essential steps are necessary to facilitate such a re-
-orgamzatJOn. They are:
(1) Prohibition of investment on land as a source of income by
persons who a~e n~t the~selves cultivators or by those
who do not res1de e1ther 1n the village in which the land
IS Situated or on the farm,
(2) Acquisition of land from persons who own the land in a
village. but. who a~e themselves not agriculturists, and do
not reside m the v11lage. · .
·(3) Res~ramt on alienation of land in favour of a non-agricul-
tunst. ·
(4) Reservation of the required extent of land for grazing
purpos~s and f?r village plantations.
·(5) Immediate r~-d1stributi~n of the remaining land among the
landless agr1cultunsts m the village in the first instance
and amen~ the owners of uneconomic holdings next
(6) CO!JSo.hdat!'On of holdings. '
(7) Bf nngmg tn~o vogue mutual aid among agriculturists in
arm operations.
'(B) ~rganizatio~ of multi-purpose co-operative societies for
e~ter farmmg or for distribution of seeds, fertilizers agri·
cu tura1 equtpment for marketing and financing, et~.
 75
Bhoodan Movement
58.. Ac~ary~ Vinoba Bhave has set in motion a great agrarian
revol~tton m his J?hoodan Movement. He is successfully applying the
pnnctple of non-VIolence for the acquisition and distribution of land
among the lan.dless in th~ country. What began as a modest move-
ment for securmg small bits of land from owners, big and small....:.has
assumed vast proportions. His walking tours for gifts of land have
awakened the social conscience of the people to such an extent that
voluntary gifts of land are offered from all over the country. He has
extended the principle of Bhoodan to embrace Sampattidan,
Shramadan, and Jeevandan. In essence, he is striving for the establish-
~nt of Sarvodaya society, based on non-exploitation, and in which
Wtll work for the common good. His movement is creating the
n;cessary psychological climate in the country for the establishment
0 SOCial ownership of land through voluntary non-violent means.

. 59. This Commission is mainly concerned with the human factor

Ill all activities whether they are economic or organizational. The
~hoodan Movement has caught this emphasis. It is trying to inftuence
e psy.chology of the 'Haves' as regards money, power and prestige
and to mculcate in them a feeling of social solidarity by aslting them .
to recognize their duty towards the backward people as members of
a vast family. His success in the distribution of land amongst the
!andless\ although phenomenal, is the least part of the revolu~ion he
IS effectt.ng. He is teaching the 'haves' to accept the 'have nots as on
a par Wtth one's blood-brothers. He is, not only removmg the back-
wardness of the 'have nots' but he is also removing the bitterness
whl~h the 'have nots' in their desperation are nursing. The. 'have
nots can no longer be the orphans of society .. For the first bme m
bPProximately a thousand years, the poor and the neg1ected have
hgun to feel that they have a status in the human family and that
t ey can rely upon the goodwill of society as a whole .
.60. The Bhoodan Movement would not succeed unless accom-
Panted by 'Sampattidan' which can secure for the lan?Jess the
Ftntmum capital necess~ry for cultivation. 'Shramadan' IS equally
tnportant because voluntary labour is, perhaps, the. ~~st active
ca~Jtal which the nation possesses, and with the ava1labiltty of th1s
active. capital all movements will succeed much ~aster (han by met;e.
organt.zational reconstruction. This great agranan revoluti~n IS
~h~enttally spiritual in its content and the success at;td secunty of
U15 movement is dependent upon the fourth factor, VIZ., Je~vandan.
nless the proper type of social servants co~e forward. m large
burnbers to serve poor and rich alike, the social rev~lu!lon cannot
e expected to last long. Therefore, Bhood~n, Sampattldan, Shrama-
dan and Jeevandan together constitute an mtegral whole an? there
15
no movement or activity in India which can compare wtth this
moyement of Acharya. Vinoba Bhave. The future ~ell-bemg of
SOctety as a whole depends largely on the success of thts Movement.
61. We therefore recommend both to the Government and to
the nation 'that they ~hould take up the work of Bhoodan Movement
bnd spread it to all nooks and corners of the country. It should noJ
e necessary for Vinobaji to go on foot to ali parts of India, al
~IJ those who are interested in the future of the backward peop e
•hould offer their services for his great Bhoodan Movement.
 7li

Development of Livestock
62. All the communities engaged in agricultu~e and allied occu-
pations are also engaged in rearing livestock. With the growth of
population and the continued pressure on _Ian~ from. decade to decade,
pasture lands have been diverted to cultivation, w1th the result that
communities once engaged solely in the breeding of cattle, sheep and
goats, have now taken to mixed farming. We did however, come
across some communities in Saurashtra, Rajasthan and H!machal
Pradesh devoted solely to the breeding of cattle and b~:~ffaloes m large
herds. Similarly, communities of the shepherd class m many Stat~s
are engaged in rearing large flocks of sheep as the source of the.tr
livelihood. Generally, Gujjars in Himachal Pradesh, Ah1rs m
Rajasthan, Ahirs, Bharavad and Rabaris in Saurashtra own and
breed large herds of cattle and buffaloes. Gaddis of Himachal Pr~­
desh, Gadarias of North Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan, Dhangars lD
Bombay and Hyderabad are mainly engaged in sheep breeding. The
conditions of livestock breeders are far from satisfactory. Breeders
have to move from place to place to graze their herds and flocks and
thus lead an almost nomadic life. They are subject to many difficul-
ties and are helpless victims of exploitation in marketing their cattle,
dairy products or other produce. The Gujjars of Himachal Pradesh
take their large herds of cattle to the plains during the winter season
for grazing and during their journey endure many hardships for
want of pasture for cattle and shelter for men. The plight of cattle
breeders in Saurashtra is equally bad. For most of the year they go
to the forest areas for grazing. It was stated that about Rs. 3 crores
worth of ghee was annually exported from Saurashtra, but that the
cattle breeders were not getting a proper price for their dairy pro-
ducts, and that middlemen exploit them. They also complained of
their difficulties in finding proper pasture lands, and veterinary aid
for protection of their cattle from various diseases and epidemics.
6.3. The development of agriculture is bound up with the develop-
ment of hyestock; for bullocks are the principal motive power used
almost umversally for agricultural operations. According to 1951
Livestock Census there were 150 million cattle and 43 million
~uffaloes in !he country. It was estimated that the gross national
mcome contnb~:~ted by livestock was about Rs. 1,000 crores a year.
The.refore, tt 1s 1mpor~ant that the cattle wealth of the country shou~d·
. be Improved m the mterests of the backward classes But in India
the problem of unservice~ble and unproductive cattl~ is great and
presents many dtfficult!es m v1ew of the sociological factors involved.
The overall estimates made by the Cattle Utilization Committee
showed t~at about 10 per cent of the cattle population or roughlY
11.4 mt!lion adults were unserviceable and unproductive. It was
also ~sttmated that t~e ell:isting fodder and food resources can ·main·
tam ~~ a fatr conditiOn only about 2/3rds of the cattle population.
And st~ce destruction of cattle on a large-scale is not to be contern·
plated ~~ our country, there must be a planned programme for the
s~g~egathton of all useless and decrepit cattle and Gosadans establish·
ed botr dtl etr upkeep. The cost of maintenance of such cattle is un·
ou e Y 1arge, but must be faced.
64. It is recognized that there is great need of improving not
only the breed of cattle but also the milk-yielding qualities of the
 ?1
Cows. In addition to establishing cattle-breeding stations for known
breeds, all encouragement should be given to the local breeders to
improve their stock. It is equally necessary to conserve the existing
pasture in the interest of village cattle welfare.
. 65. Cattle in India are subject to periodical diseases and epide-
mics, and veterinary aid has not been sufficient to tackle the problem
on any adequate scale. The Royal Commission on Agriculture (1928)
had proposed the establishment of one veterinary institution for
every 2~,000 head of cattle but that goal has yet to be reached. The
recent mtroduction of the key-village scheme is proving of great
benefit both in upgrading cattle and in controlling diseases. Arrange-
ments should also be made on a large-scale for 'the castration of use-
less and scrub bulls to prevent deterioration in t)le quality of cattle,
Dairying
. ~6. Small-scale dairying is a general feature in the villages and
II bnngs in a subsidiary income to agriculturists. Though India has
a large cattle-population, yet the per capita consumpti~n of ~
works out at 5.5 oz.-the lowest in the world. Consump!lon of IDilk
and milk products varies considerably in different parts of the
country. It is as high as 16.89 oz. in the Punjab while it is only 2.64
oz. in Orissa. The average yield of milk per cow in India is 413 lbs.
per year. There are no large-scale producers of milk ~xcept in ~ few
cases. The small producers of milk are often explotted by mtddle-
men when marketing their milk and milk products.
67. Most of these milk producers nee.d both m?netary .help and
prope~ marketing facilities. Efforts are bemg made m some States to
orgamze co-operative milk unions for the benefit of producers ~o
that. they can get a proper price for their milk an~ purchase t~err
requtrements at reasonable prices. Immediate ~teps m this drrec.tlon
are absolutely essential to improve the condrtwns of commumtles
engaged in cattle breeding and dairying.
Cattle Insurance
.68. Agricultural communities lose their cattle. in large numbers
durmg periods of epidemic and often become practically pau~el'l! an~
helpless. They have no other source to depend upon for therr liveli-
hood,. It is necessary that their interests should be safeguarded through
~ suttable form of cattle insurance. No attempt has yet been f?ade
~n this direction. The State Governments must sponsor cattle msu·
ance schemes as early as possible.
Sheep and Wool ·
69. One community (class of shepherds) is engaged mainly in
sheeP-breeding. It is known by different names in different. parts of
the country, The condition of sheep breeders is far from satisfactory._
Many of them lead a nomadic life taking their sheep from place t~
Place for grazing. Sheep constitute an important sou,rce ~f woolhan
!'Jeat for the country. It is estimated that thereare 39 mrlhon/ ee)
In the Indian Union On an average about 55 m!lhon pounds 0 woo
are Produced every year and about 31.6 million pounds of wo~l worth
about Rs. 43 crores are exported from India. Rajasthan a one
c~unts for nearly one-third of the total production ~nd yet the con •
df"
!ton of sheep breeders in Rajasthan is far from satisfactory.
tJiil5l!ol'll:A
 70. There is great scope for the 1mprove~ent o~ sheep-both of
the wool and mutton types. Besides est~bhshmg _regional centres for
improving the quality of wool by selective breedmg and cross-br~ed­
ing, it is necessary to make available su.fficient grazing are~ to the
sheep breeders in several States. W~at IS ~ost needed to. rmprove
the economic condition of breeders IS to gtve them orgamzed help
to improve the flocks of sheep and to protect them from diseases and
epidemics.
Poultry and Bee Keeping
71. Poultry and bee keeping could form an important subsidial{'
industry for the poorer classes in rural areas. It would be a? addi-
tional source of income to them. The number of poultry m the
country is estimated at 17 million. But the ordinary village fowl
is generally undersized and lays only 50 under-sized eg~s a year.
There is need to introduce new breeds of fowl, such as whtte Leghorn
Rhode-Island Red, etc., to add to the income of the backward com-
munities in the rural areas. The rural population should also be
instructed in the art of bee-keeping, and State help extended to
popularise bee-keeping in rural areas.
Piggery
72. Communities engaged in pig-rearing are considered low
castes. Some of them do not have any fixed place of residence. They
move from place to place with their pigs. Their children have
practically no education. There is great scope in India for pig-re3!·
ing, but' the eradication of the stigma attached to pig-rearing IS
necessary before pig-rearing can become a useful occupation to be
undertaken by rural communities. The State Governments should
give more facilities to communities engaged in this occupation, and
they must be induced to lead a more settled life.
Fisheries
73. A number of communities are engaged both in inland fishing
and in sea-fishing. Some of these communities are regarded as un-
touchables. In addition to fishing, some are also engaged in plying
boats or ferries across inland streams or cargo boats along the coastal
area~ ..These fishing communities are poor and illiterate. Their living
cond1tlons are extremely unsatisfactory, and they are subject to
e.xploitation by middle men. They lead a very hard and strenuous
hfe.
74. The fisherman is as important as the farmer cowherd and
shepherd, in terms of supply of food to the nation. Fi~heries have to
be developed to supply adequate food to the masses. We have a long
stretch of sea coast and innumerable rivers that supply fish, and we
have also a n~ber of fisher~en communities throughout the country
who are tradit1~~ally adept m fishing and in the handling of boats.
Those commumtles must be organized and helped to form multi·
pu~pose co-operative so~ieties .. Today for want of capital they cannot
bu1ld strong boats or b1g fishmg nets. Wherever co-operatives func·
t10n, fishermen do have. s.trong and powerful nets, and they are able
to supply fis~ to b1g Cities. These fishmg communities should be
ena.bled to bmld or P.urc~a.se steam launches so that they can conveY
thetr catch to the b1g Cities without undue delay. They. should be
~ven faci~ties for quick and cheap transportation including facill-
ties for preservation of fish during transit.
I 75. The fishermen co-operatives should also be encouraged to
develop the carrying trade along the coast. This would help these
enterprising people to rehabilitate themselves. Free India must
develop its mercantile navy as fast as possible.
.76. The Khalasi communities should be encouraged to join the
Indian Navy. Candidates should be selected on their potential effi-
Ciency as sailors, and they should be taught both Hindi and English
after selection. This little change in the procedure of enlistment
would help these backward communities to take their full share in
the defence of the long coast of our country. Owing to unpardonable
neglect, our fishermen are not able to hold their own even against
the competition with the fishermen from Ceylon who are allowed
to peach in Indian waters. Fishing in sweet water and sea-water
must be developed with full vigour and all the fishermen communi-
ties ~long the coast should be organized to take their natural share
ID Ibis department of the national existence.
AgricnituraJ Labour
71. Dr. Radha Kumud Mukherjee, in his "Local Government in
~c1ent India" (pp. 37-41; 70-74) has stated that from available
evtdence there was no class of agricultural labour as such in the
rural areas in pre-British India. The system of land tenure appears
to be an important factor in the growth of agricultural labour. The
iecay of cottage and rural industries also contributed its share. The
rlcu!tural Labour Enquiry recently conducted by the Government
1h lnd1a puts the families of agricultural workers at 30.4 per cent of
e total number of rural families, 25.8 per cent bemg casual
fbourers and 4.6 per cent attached. The percentage of agricultural
abour varies from State to State but is as high as 50.1 per cent m
South India. '
.,. 78. A~ricultural workers may be classified broadly into two
" 0.Ups, VIZ., casual workers and attached workers. The recent en-
~Uiry undertaken by the Government of India has disclosed that as
~a~y as 89 per cent of the total number are casual workers. The
hl~lod o~, unemployment for agricultural workers ra~ges from 3 to 6
1 nths. Another class of agricultural labourers cons1st of those who
eeave their villages in groups for fairly long terms in search of
itnp1DYment. A large number of them can be seen in the more
l:ortant cities without practically any shelter. The. ex1stence of
hl ge numbers of agricultural workers who lack sustamed employ-
a ent and frequently suffer from social handicaps is to be regarded as
ag~ource of serious weakness and even of instability in the pr~sent
hav~rian system. With the decline in rural industry, many ~rtlsans
sub..dib~c?me part-time labourers. The increase in fragmentatiOn an~
casu VIsion of holdings has driven many peasant farmers to se~
~ro ~~ la~our. Reduction in the larger. farl!ls which has .b~en . 1 ~
in fh ss In consequence of tenancy legislation leads to a .d1m1nutto
agric e amount of higher employment which may be available. FeV.:
co ultural workers are dependent on agl'icultural labour alone,
la~lllonly they also combine other casual work with ag~icultu!al
ur. Generally, agricultural workers have short periods of mtenslve
empioyment, for instance at harvest time, sowing seas~ri. ~r wh~
cotton is picked. As compared to the farmer, the agncultural
workers' problem is perhaps in a larger measure one of unemplo~
ment rather than of under-employment but the degree of unemplo~
ment depends almost entirely on the character of local agricultutl
and on the distance from urban centres.''* _ I
79. Agricultural labour consists of communities belonging to tb
backward classes, and a good percentage of Scheduled Castes aru
Scheduled Tribes are among them. They form the most vulnerabl1
~;ections of the population and their condi~ions of. living are far fro~
satisfactory. Though compulsory labour 1s abolished by law the~
are still instances where agricultural labour fami.lies are ~ttache~ ij
farms and continue to serve them for long penods for msuffiCJen
remuneration, in discharge of old debts or for money paid in advanCl
I
80. The question of rehabilitation of communities depending ~
agricultural labour should receive the earnest consideratio'!- of Gn1
emments--Central and State. Revival of cottage and rural mdustne
would provide employment for considerable portions of artisa:
labour, and re-organization of agriculture would afford greater scop
for employment of these communities. The re-distribution of Ian
among the landless would further improve the economic conditio
of these classes. Establishment of industries would find employmet
for a good number of these communities. But all this will take tim
and meanwhile steps should be taken to prevent the unconscionabl
exploitation of these helpless classes.
Minimum Wages
81. The practice in the rural areas of payment in kind for servic
rendered by labour is found to be not very advantageous. A Wel~ai
State will have to accept the responsibility of fixing and from tur
to time revising the standard of minimum wage and this shoul
apply not only to industrial labour but to agricultural labour als
The next s!e.p, after the necessity of cash payment is recognized,
to fix condi!lons of work and the scale of wages. According to tl
Fair Wages Committee appointed by the Government of India I
1948, the lower limit of the fair wage must be the minimum wag
the upper limit .to be determined by the capacity of the industri1
to pay. The findmgs of the Report resulted in the Minimum Wag'
Act at the Centre with its counterparts in many States. Minimu
rates. have been fixed in the States of Ajmer, Bhopal, Bihar, Bomba
Delhi, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Mysore Punjab Rajastha
Saurashtra, ~ripura, Vin~hya Pradesh and We~t Bengal.' The Gover
ment of India are pressmg other State Governments to impleme
the provisions of the Central Act. The Central Government h
fixed minimum wages for workers engaged on road construction,
b1.1i!ding operations and .in s.tone-breaking or stone-crushing in vario
departments and orgamzabons such as Railways Defence InstaU
tions and ~orts. Th.ey have also fixe~ minimum ~ages for work~
employed m tannenes, leather factones and other similar industrl
which affect the labour concerned.

•The First Five Year Plan (page 204).

 81
82. To prevent exploitation of Scheduled Tribes in 'Backward
as', particularly in the Forest Coupes, Bombay State was the first
fix rates for forest labour. Other States have followed suit. The
'nimum Wages Act has been applied so far mostly to industrial
bour. Its extension to unorganized labour in rural areas is consider-
difficult, but we feel that the very difficulty is in itself a sufficient
ason for taking early action. We endorse the recommendations of
e Planning Commission that "full and effective implementation
f the Minimum Wages Legislation should be secured within the
· t Five Year Plan. The enforcement of minimum wages for agri-
tura! workers in low-wages pockets in the larger farm areas
lected for intensive development of agricultural work should
, ceive high priority." These recommendations should be extended to
!II agricultural and other labour particularly in rural areas. We have
Indicated the traditional occupation of most of the backward classes
which should give an idea of the communities which require early
lttention. ..~

83. The statutory fixation of minimum wa~es which is ~ssenti:U,

nas to be supported by rigorous implementation. The agriculturist
nnployer may find it difficult to increase wages during a period of
~!ling prices, and labour itself may acceot lower than the minimum
wages due to unemployment. We· feel, however, that barring a few
iXceptional cases, the· fixation of the minimum wages is desirable.
84. The conditions of work for factory labour have improved
~llSiderably in recent years due to Factory Legislation . brought
lbout by pressure from labour Unions-both the factors bemg help-
~ by the prosperity of the industry.
85. The following figures• show that the agricultural labourer

-
~IVed less than half of what his industrial counterpart gets:-

Annual incomo per capita in rupoea

~

Agricultural Ind..trial Peroentage

lobour family fomily 1951 per capita of

--
1060-51 (I) to (2)

(I) (2) (3)

'•&ogaJ .. .. .. .. 160 2118 59

ih.,
.. .. .. .. 119 332 36

l<lhr•Pr&c~alh
....
.. .. .. 87 262 33

.. .. .. .. 70 245 64

'"i•b .. .. .. .. 121 216 56

"'"' .. .. .. .. 881
368 24

~
ve. AJ~·-D~.
work and
Ramamurti's Agncultural.Labour, How :h~J India, May
iSi lnd1a Agricullural Labour Enquiry, Oovernmen
'p, 30,
 82
86 These large differences between the remuneration of the
employees in the agricultural _and in~ustria!. spheres ~r~ expresstve
of the necessity of vigorous action for mcreasmg the mt_nm_tum wagll
of agricultural labour. Further, the regularity _and _contmwty as we
as protection against retrenchment or reduct1on m staff, are other
advantages which industrial labour has over farm labour. Factory
employees are able to secure the facilities ~~C?IIlll_lended . by the
International Labour Organization. These facllttles mclude .-
(i) Minimwn standards of hygiene and sanitation;
(ii) Establishment of hospitals and dispensaries in or near the
place of work; .
(iii) Education of workers in the use of sanitary and medical
facilities;
(iv) Organization of adult classes to combat illite!acy and
development of ability to acquire industrial sktll;
(v) Schools for children;
(vi) Promotion of training facilities;
(vii) Responsibilities of provision of proper housing and neellS-
sary finance;
(viii) Arrangements for proper food and nutrition;
(ix) Creche for children of workers;
(x) Recreation facilities for utilization of workers' leisure
time;
(xi) Welfare facilities;
(xii) Health insurance and compensation during illness, and
leave on full pay; and
(xiii) Provision of qualified welfare officers of both sexes.
87. Considering the present state of the country's financi~ and
economic position, it may be difficult to provide these facilibes ~
labour employed in agricultural or village industries. We may 00 '
at th\! present stage, press for all these amenities, but we do hope
that the requirements regarding (1) minimwn wages, (2) minimUJil
housing, (3) drinking water supply, (4) education, and (5) health
facilities will be treated as overdue to the backward classes. We a!Sil
hope that the Ministry for the Advancement of Backward Class~
will secure. t~e co-ope~ation of the Labour Ministry in extendin!
these amemtles to agncultural and rural artisan labour.
Development Ot Industries
88_. It. is noted in paragraph 16 how unplanned industrialisatio~
urbamsatlon, and. expansiOn of commerce during the British rule
have tended to dtsrupt the old village economy and to disorgamze
rur.al life. The pres.ent misery and backwardness of most of tbe
artisan ~nd occupahona.l ~lasses in rural areas are not a little du~ 1 ~
th1s pohcy. The. Comll!ISSion has nothing to say about the establish
ment of heavy mdustnes regarded as essential for strengthening the
econo~y of t~e country. But it is anxious that the conflicts betwe_eo
heavy mdustnes on the one hand, and cottage and rural industrl~
on the other be removed. It is often stated that since the industrial!·
sation of the country W?uld provide a large volume of employment
and absorb surplus workmlJ force on an increasing scale, steps shoul~
 83

be ~aken to industrialise the country as early as possible. This pro-

position may be partially true. But very large monetary resources are
needed to establish industries on a large scale, and even then it may
be difficult to p:ovide employment for all the unemployed and
underet;nployed ~ the country. It is also necessary in establishing
mdustnes to av01d the ugly features of industrial life. In view of
the. under-developed nature of our economy, lack of sufficient
capital and trained personnel it will take years before India can be
~ly ~dustrialised and in the meantime a large part of the popula-
llon will have to undergo privation and hardship in the hope of the
f~ture rewards of industrial life. India is essentially a land of
vlllages and it will continue to remain so for a long time to come.
Among other things, this Commission is concerned with the effect of
unplanned industrialisation on the lives of the communities who are
engaged in cottage and rural industries and other handicrafts. The
unrestricted competition by mills and factories have- ruined these
occupations and have rendered miserable the living conditions of
numerous communities and unless the spheres of production of each
~ategory of industries are clearly demarcated, establishment of more
mdustries would not be in the interest of such backward communi-
~ies. It is necessary that while planning for the establishment of
mdustries this factor should be taken into consideration, and conflict
between the two classes of industry should be removed. It is equally
necessary to avoid the heavy concentration of :population around
)liban areas that results in the growth of undesirable elements of
mdustrial life. It is also essential to disperse industries all over the
country according to a plan. With greater power production, such a
plan of dispersal will become more feasible.
89. At present communities belonging to the backward classes
are employed only as unskilled labour in these industri7s. T.he
supervisory and administrative posts of almost all the mdustnal
establishments have been manned by persons belonging to advanced
communities. Many representatives of the back.war~ classe~ demand-
ed representation in the higher ranks of s~rv1c~s m t~e ~~dustnes
on the same principle which is being apphed m Indiamsmg the
Pe:so!lne! engaged in establishments wholly run by foreigners. The
Pnnctple of recruiting and training suitable men f_rom backward
communities to the higher ranks of service at least m Government·
Controlled industries should be conceded. Many labour. lea?ers w~o
met the Commission complained that labour in the eXIstmg mdustnal
establishments had no chance of rising to higher ~adres fo_r want. of
adequate facilities for short-term training courses m th?se mdustru:s.
Introduction of training courses in industrial estabhsht;ne~ts Will
equip labourers to become better workmen and hence will mcrease
efficiency in industrial establishments.
Rural and Cottage Industries
90. The Commission found the conditions of committees enga~ed
in village and cottage industries and other h~ndicrafts heart-rendmg.
These people have either lost their occupatwns altogether, or have
found only partial employment. A considerable number of them have
taken either to agriculture or to casual manual labour. Some of th~m
have migrated to towns in search of employme~t and are undergoi!l!l
hardships and privations. Some of them have etther lost or are lostns
 84

the hereditary skill handed down from generation to generation.

The sub-human level of living of some of these commumt1es can
better be imagined than described. During times of unemployment,
they have either to depend on dole from Governm~nt or to resort to
begging. A comparable situation was witnessed 1n parts of South
India during the crisis in the handloom industry. E.verywhere t~e
complaint heard was that the mill and fact?ry pr?ductlon ktlled their
traditional occupation, and they asked for unmedtate protection from
ruthless and unfair competition. They did not dare to demand ~he
closing down of mills or factories; they only wanted the reservat1on
of certain sectors of production exclusively for cottage and VIllage
industries in order to prevent unhealthy competition.
91. We found that on the question of the resuscitation of cottage
and village industries, there was a conflict of opinion between the
policy-makers. and those entrusted with the implementation of poll-
des. We observed that some of the permanent servants in the
Industries Depariments of several State Governments did not appear
to have much faith in the survival capacity of cottage and rural
industries, and other handicrafts. Their interest was at best luke-
warm. So long as such an atmosphere prevails, one cannot expect
sustained efforts on the part of officials in giving all-out help to the
backward classes engaged in cottage industries. Another factor which
contributes to the. present apathy of permanent servants is the fact
that the supervisory, administrative and technical stall's employed in
the industries departments are almost all drawn from the classes
who have never had anything to do directly with artisan and occupa-
tional classes.
92. The policy of giving subsidies to sustain these industries is
at best only a palliative and is not conducive to a natural growth.
The only feasible course would be to remove all factors hinderiM
natural development of these industries and to recreate favourable
condit~ons in which the~e in~ustries could flourish spontaneously.
In Ind1a we .are not dealing w1th people who are totally untrained for
a'!ly occupat1?n· We are r~ally dealing with crores of people the tradi-
tional ~xpenen~e and sk1ll of whose ancestors were once the pride
of lnd1a. Creatwn of favourable atmosphere for these artisan and
occupational classes to ply their trade is all that is needed They by
!heir own exertions,. will not only find employment but ~ill try to
t~prove thetr conditions. With Government assistance and help it
Will become easter for them not only to improve the technique of
productio~ but to organize themselves on modern lines and thus
effect destrable improvements in these industries. ·
. 93. The C~mmission is interested mainly in the scheme for secur•
mg both full employmen~ :and a decent standard of living for the
masses. The vanous trad1 tiona! and domestic industries and handi-
crafts. ~ad therefore been the mainstay of communities who have
now Jomed the unfortunate ranks of the backward classes. Nothing
should be done t? rob them of their traditional mainstay. Production '
of more wealth, IS no ~ou?t, absoluteL;y necessary for the well-being 1
of the nation, but. contmu1ty of employment must also be the first
char~~ on the nat1,on and that can best be ensured by helping the ,
traditional occupations that for generations have sustained the lives
of crores of people. ·
 85
94. The Government cannot afford t~ ;eglect the small scale
rural and urban industries. Industries connected with the universal
needs of food, clothing, and shelter can alone provide maximum
employment, and therefore in such industries priority should be
reserved for traditional and rural occupations. It is proper and
advisable to suggest technical improvements in processing, organiza-
tion, marketing and distribution, but greed for larger profits through
mechanization and the establishment of big industries should not be
penmtted to destroy the small rural industries. The great merit of
these domestic and rural industries and handicrafts is that they pre-
serve the family pattern and prevent migration of rural populations
to urban areas. The indigenous population is thus not cut off from its
natural moorings.
95. The cultural development of a large section of the population
depends largely upon the skill developed while pursuing these
domestic handicrafts. No formal education can ever be an adequate
~bstitute for the education and culture derived through these crafts.
eople engaged in domestic handicrafts usually cultivate the psycho-
1ogy ?f peaceful life as against that of cut-throat competition, pre-
datonness and strife. This rural type of life dispenses, to a large ex-
tent, with the money nexus and thus helps the bulk of the popula-
tion to lead a life of contentment and culture.
96. Once the age-old village industries are revived and given
proper protection, any utilization of improved technique beco~es
onlr. ~ question of time, capacity and organization,. Proper marketmg
facihbes throughout the country will secure fair pnces for th~se
Products. Gandhiji focussed the attention of the nation upon the dire
~eed for .revitalising cottage and rural industries. He ~!so sa_w the
an~er of the country's wealth being drained by the ITnportmg of
foreign goods which could' conveniently be produced at ~orne. That
h'15as why he made the revival of rural industries the mam plank of
constructive programme.
. 97. The Planning Commission h~ve stresse~ the importance of
11
Vtal age and small-scale industries in the First F1ve Year Plan. They
1 te:-

"Village industries have a central place in rural development

programme. Diminishing opportunities for gainful ~mploy­
ment account to some extent for the reductton m the
standard of life of some sections of the rural popu!at~on.
Products of large-scale industries have increasmgly ltmited
. the market for the products of several classes of artisans.
Their occupations now give them · only partial .employ-
ment, so that they tend to join the ranks of agnc.ultural
workers. Development outside the. rural .sector has not
been rapid enough to arrest the mcreasmg pr~ssure .of
population on the land. The development of village In-
dustries, should, therefore, be as much a mat~er of State
action as the increase of agricultural pr~ducll?n· Indeei~
one cannot be sepa1·ated from the other, for,. 1pcr~ase
agricultural production presupposes fuller utilizatiOn of
the available man-power and release. of surplus workers
for other occupations. Village industries, therefore, call for
 86

programmes which will develop a great .deal _of local I

initiative and co-operation, and an economiC enVIr~nment
in which they have a reasonable chance of su~cee~mg. Il
the measures to be undertaken are to be effective m deal·
ing with so difficult a problem, it is essential that they
should be commensurate with its size and importance... :···
We may refer here also to f!ll'al. arts and crafts which
have both social and economic s1gmficance. V1llage pr!DI·
ing, embroidery, and pottery and the crafts .o~ tnbal
people, for instance, have not only a long tr~d1t1on but
have also been essential elements in the orgamc umty and
the culture of the village. In any programme .tor the
revival of the village industries, these crafts which have
suffered much from the economic development of the past
two decades, will deserve special attention."
While the significance and importance of cottage and rural
industries in the resuscitation of our economy is recognized, yet, .the
policy of giving practical shape to the ideal has been very haltmg.
The misery resulting from unemployment and under-employm~nt
of the backward communities engaged in cottage and rural mdustnes
has not been fully appreciated. ·
98. While the magnitude of the problem of unemployment and
under-employment is recognized by our policy-makers, it is distr_ess-
ing to notice that they seem to concentrate their attention m9JnlalY
on the employment of the educated middle-class. The coloss
problem of unemployment and under-employment of the artisan and
occupational communities, who ought to be our main concern,
receives only a casual reference, and very little attention.
99. In this connection, the words of Shri C. D. Deshmukh in ~~
speech on Government Economic Policy are worth noting. "In splillte
ni all that had been achieved the problem of unemployment st
remains. The problem could not be tackled successfully without a
significant increase in the rate of investment. The central objective
of our economic policy from now on must be to create full emploY·
ment conditions within a measurable period, say, ten years from now.
This means that we have to create at least 2 million new jobs, if not
more, every year. These jobs must obviously be created in the non·
agricultural sector." Shri Deshmukh estimated that the total invest-
ment in the economy would have to be on the order of Rs. 1,000 crores
a year, if we have to create 12 million new jobs within the next five
years. An investment of Rs. 1,000 crores a year meant 10 per cent of
the nationa~ income .. He was, therefore, of opinion that "in futv.re
!'lans, ~ecw.l atte~twn .would hav~ to be paid to small-scale
mdustnes. beanng tn mmd our pauctty of capital OT our abundance
of TMn-power." (Italics ours).
100. On the other hand. Shri V. T. Krishnamachari Deputy
Chairman of the Planning Commission, in a recent broadc~st speech,
dealin~ with the problem of total unemployment and underemploy·
ment m the country stated that an mvestment in the order of Rs. 18
to Rs. 20 crores would be needed to tackle this colossal problem.
101. It is, therefore, clear that an enormous amount of moneY is
needed to tackle the problem of total unemployment in the country,
 87
if we are to go by orthodox standards, Economic planning in under·
developed countries like India with a vast unemployed labour force
having hereditary tradition and skill for cottage and village industries
cannot depend solely on monetary resources but must bave a
different orientation. A great deal of rethinking has become neces-
sary. Our main task is to organize and utilize the available man-
power in the nation. It is often forgotten that we have a large man-
power already conversant with hereditary occupations and in most
cases possessing more than average skill and capacity for production
of useful articles-provided proper conditions are created. Removal
or control of factors that are operating against the successful
rehabilitation of cottage and rural industries and domestic handi·
crafts will immediately provide vast scope for employment and
removal of human misery. Such a revival of traditional skill will
mean resuscitation of culture and self-respect, Additional employ-
ment can also be found by establishing new small-scale indus~es
not m competition with, but complementary to1 the old village m-
dustnes. These measures will not only rehabilttate rural lif~ but
wlll.check the depopulation of rural areas which has been gomg on
contmuously for several decades.
102. In recent debates on economic policy, our Parliament has
accepte~ t_he socialistic pattern of society for India, an~ we feel that
a sociahshc economy must inevitably mean a decentr~hsed economy.
In any. plan for resuscitation of rural and cottage md~tt:es, the
most VItal condition, let us repeat, is to remove the eXJ~tmg ~­
healthy competition between large-scale and small-sca!e mdustnes
by clearly demarcating their respective fields of production.
.103. We recognize that it may not be possible to revive all th.e
~aned types of cottage and village industries in present-da;r condi·
~~~ns. But a large number of them which have a defimte slll'VIVal an.d
h ltural value can and must be protected and improved. The emphasts
0
ereaft~r should be on providing employment for those artis~ and
c~upat10nal classes who are backward and who are now leading a
SUu-hUinan existence owing to the loss of their traditional occupa·
!Ions.

of 104. The Planning Commission has dealt with the development

to cottage and rural industries somewhat in greater detail: We refer
th so~e of their reports in the following paragraphs mamly f!ijm
f e pomt of view of affording employment to bac~':l'ard communt es
or the purpose of improving their economic condition.
Spinning and Weaving (Khadl Industry)
tion 1~ 5 ·. Hand-spin'ning and hand-weaving have been India'1 tra~i­
exis~ Village industry. It is on record that this industry hthas ~~~
of r ence for over 2,000 years, and every process, f!om e cfc1c b
handw cotton to the turning out of the finished fabriCS, was one
the · The count of yarn and the quality of cloth produced was on d
!e
tot ]Wonder of the world "The story of the deterioration, decay an.
a exte · · · . . · I d'an villages IS
Writte . rrnmahon of so umversal an mdustry m n d1 . ed the
spinni n In blood and tears". It was Gandhiji who .r~ 1 ~covef rural
India ng wheel and khadi for the economic rehabtltta.tion °tivities
' and made it the central feature of his constructive ac ·
 88
It started as a part of the Congress movement and with the rising
tide of nationalism, khadi gained an importance. The All l~d!a
Spinners Association was set up to develop and propagate khad1 m
the country. It is stated that in the year 1941-42 ther~ were 3,25,000
part-time spinners, 25,000 weavers and 5,000 other. arb sans employed
in khadi industry. The total production of khad1 m 1943 was worth
Rs. 1,35,97,000. (All India Khadi Board).
106. The employment potential of this industry is indeed gre~t
but there are many people who are highly sceptical of the eco~on:uc
usefulness of khadi. But the part-time and full employment this In·
dustry gives to lakhs of villagers and in particular to the poorer sec-
tions of the backward classes should be an effective answer to such
people. The State has shown its interest in the development of the
khadi industry and has accorded it a prominent place in the firs~
Five Year Plan. The Government of India constituted the All Indta
Khadi and Village Industries Board in 1953, with Shri V. L. Mehta
as Chairman, for preparing and organizing programmes for the pro-
duction and development of khadi and village industries. But what
place khadi will have in the economy of free India will ultimately
depend on the type of democracy and social structure the people will
work for. Subsidising of the khadi industry is not enough. What was
accepted as the "livery of freedom" during the period of our national
struggle, must, under freedom be the uniform of the State. Without
State patronage khadi cannot come to its own. Even organized
machine industry in India has to depend on State protection for its
existence, and still more so khadi. .
There is great scope for the development of the khadi industry,
particularly in cotton growing areas of the country and more
especially where there are no mills. The need for improvement in
the technique of spinning and weaving of khadi is recognized.
Improved charkhas and improved looms are being introduced to cut
~own cost. and to step up _production. This, it is hoped, will bring
mcreased mcome to the spmners and weavers and provide employ·
ment or partial employment to a large number of villagers.
Handloom Industry
107. After ~hadi, t~e next most important cottage industry, and
the one that ~ttl! prov1des a la~ge volume of employment or partial
employment, ts the handloom mdustry. "From times immemorial
textiles of a very good quality and a high repute have been manU·
fact~red in India. Muslins of Dacca, the Patolas of Baroda and the
~abncs of Assam and Manipur, Orissa and South India have been
JUStly famous for ages." • ·
108. The tradition, .e~perience and skill of handloom weavers
have .been long and dtstmgutshed. The Devangas and Kuruhins
-Chettles of Mysore and Madras, Padmasalis of Hyderabad · Maha·
• rashtra and Andhra, Momins of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar h~ve been
famous as producers of beautiful handloom fabrics. There is still an
enormou~ vanety of handloom cloth of distinctive designs of more
than ordmary beauty and excellent workmanship produced in India.
The counts woven are from the coarsest up to 120.
 . i09. Among the States of India Assam and Manipur have ti
stron~ domestic weaving tradition 'and most women are adepts in
weavmg. very fine fabrics. It is stated that it would be difficult for a
woman m Assam to get married if she does not weave her bridal
clothes. Almost every home in Assam has a loom or two and women
y.-eave at .least part. of their own requirements. The handloom
lr_tdust!Y m Assam IS not commercial, being domestic and self-suffi-
Cle~t. m character, particularly in the matter of women's clothes.
Th1s IS also true of Manipur to a large extent. ·
. 1.1~. We have looms in India from the almost rudementary and
Pt;Jml~lve throw-sh~ttle and loin types, to the fly shuttle variety
With improved equtflment. The cost of looms varies from Rs. 5 in
Assam t~ about Rs. 50 for fly shuttle looms in other parts of India.
Lov.: capt tal cost and high employment potential are their chief
ments. The preparatory processes give employment to the family
of the weaver.
111. The growth of the Indian Mill Industry has inevitably
affected the fortunes of handloom weavers. But even now, as the
!argest cottage industry in India it occupies a place of prominence
Jn the general economy of the country. Production of cloth on hand-
doo~s has recently been about 1,200 million yards out of a total pro-
~cllon in the country of about 6,200 million yards per annum. In
spl!e of numerous vicissitudes and economic upheavals this industry
has shown great vitality, still survives and sustains millions of
people.
112. During our· tour the plight of the handloom weavers was
brought to our notice in all the States. The representatives of
weavers narrated their difficulties and poor conditions of living and
Pl~aded for adequate protection against unfair competition from the
m!lls by reserving certain categories of production exclusively for
~he handlooms, and for financial assistance for organizing themselves
1 ~to co-operatives. They demanded a network of marketing organiza-
tions throughout the country for the sale of their products. The
re~ommendations of the Textile Enquiry Committee, recently ap-
pomted by the Government of India, did not have their support.
More than spoon-feeding in the form of subsidies or other palliatiyes
they want creation of conditions favourable to the natural growth
· o~ the industry itself. They questioned the number of handlooms
gtven by the Textile Enquiry Committee report and stated that the
number of handlooms in the country was 28.64 lakhs affording em-
ployment both direct and indirect to a population of nearly one crore.
The All India Rural Credit Survey Report (on page 116) states that the
handloom industry supports 100 lakhs of people including dependent~.
The rehabilitation of this one industry would ameltorate the condi-
tions of almost a crore of people. about 70 per ce~t of whom live in
~ural areas. It would not only add to the production of more wealth
tn the country but would remove povert~ and misery from most of
the homes of this crore of people. There IS no need to be apprehen-
sive of the future of this industry. If the past is any guide it is certain
th~t ~his industry will develop rapidly if th~ competing forces of the
m1]) Industry are either removed or effecltvely controlled and the
handloom weavers are allowed to function in a favourable atmos-
Phere. The traditional experience and skill is enough to put them on
their feet almost immediately. Training in improved technique and
design and supply of improved equipment may follow up later.
There is now no doubt exploitation of the poor weavers for they are
too weak and unorganized. There is also sweated labour in the hand·
loom factories run by master weavers. All this has to be remedied.
With State aid as envisaged in the Five Year Plan there is a great
future for this industry.
113. The problem of the handloom industry is essentially an
economic one and a large number of weaver communities are mainly.
dependent on this industry for their livelihood. Whenever the in-
dustry suffers the weavers are put to severe hardship. The well-being
of these communities depend on the early rehabilitation of this in-
dustry. It is not necessary for us to deal in detail with all the plans
proposed for the rehabilitation of this industry. The All India Hand-
loom Board is already taking some steps in this direction. We, how-
ever, make the following recommendations:-
1. Clear demarcation of spheres of production exclusively for
the handloom should be made with immediate effect. Since
the weavers are accustomed to produce varieties of fabrics
like Saris, Dhotis and Lungis, all these varieties should be
exclusively reserved for the handloom industry. The present
partial reservation has not helped the industry to any desir-
able extent.
2. Regular and adequate supply of yarn of required counts and
colours at reasonable prices should be ensured to the hand-
loom weaver.
3. All weavers should be brought into the co-operative fold as
soon as possible with a view to protecting them from ex-
ploitation by middlemen and master-weavers.
4. A chain of marketing organizations should be formed
throughout the country and possibilities should be thoroughly
expl?red for creation of foreign markets for handloom
fabncs. .
5. After full protection and patronage to khadi only handloom
products shou~d be P:urchased by Governments-Central and
State-for the1r reqwrements.
6. Financia~ assistance by State should be provided to weavers
f~r
tlon.
the 11nprovement of their looms fot increased produc·

7. Wedv~rs are at pres.en~, living and working in "shocking

Ei§~~~~~~!r~s~~~~~dn ~!J~~h~~/~~~~:~~~ f~: j~Je~~~:

be undertaken by G les 15 urger;tt Y called for and should
. . overnment w1thout any delay.
a. i:'Z~~lo~rl;d:~~ ~d t~e techni9u~ of production of th~
mills should be re uiredmcrease m Its yardage, the textile
the production of ~bri gradually_ to confine themselves to
luxury fabrics of fin t cs of ebxportmg varieties as well as of
consumption. es yarn .oth for export and for internal
 91
Such graded policy alone will help the weaving communities of
the backward classes to shed their backwardness and to take their
rightful place in l'ldia's march to progress with full confidence.
Special Features of Cotton and Sllk Weaving in Assam and Manipur
1~4. We have already referred to the strong domestic weaving
tradition of Assam and Manipur and the non-commercial nature of
handloom-weaving in those States. We were informed that the weav-
mg mdustry there is severely handicapped for want of a regular
supply of yarn from the mills. There were complaints that the yarn
merchants exploited the weavers. The situation should be remedied
quickly ~nd arrangements should be made for the regular supply of
yarn plam or coloured of the required counts at reasonable prices.
There is a great possibility of making Assam and Manipur completely
self-sufficient in cloth. The geography of the States and the weaving
tradit.Ion in almost every home and the special skill of women in the
wea~ng art are, indeed, favourable factors to make the States self-
sufficient in cloth. The first step should be to prohibit the entry of
all mill-cloth into these States and to encourage local production on
hancllooms, by financial assistance and the regular supply of yarn.
To this end, the State Governments may give special help to hand
spmmng and khaddar and also set up a yarn mill with required
sp~ndleage. It is stated that there is a great possibility for cotton
culti:-ration in some parts of Assam. If co-ordinated effor~ are made,
It wlll perhaps be possible to achieve successful results m this res-
pect. It will provide a large volume of employment to backward
communities including a large number of tribals.
Silk Handloom Industry
· 115. Silk weaving once belonged to certain special communities
of Weavers, though recently other classes of weavers also have taken
~ weaving of silk yarn and other artificial fibres .. These. ~eaver~ of
~Ilk have attained a high degree of skill in producmg artlstic designs
tn cloth. They suffer today from the hard competition of mills.
Sudden and sharp fluctuations in the price of silk yarn often throws
a good number of them out of employment, and their condition ?e-
comes miserable during such periods. There is ~eed for supplyif!g
these weavers with silk yarn at reasonable priCes. The All-India
liandloom Board should draw up programmes for improving the
conditions of weavers and in marketing their cloth.
Sertculture
. 116. Sericulture is one of the successful. cottage i~dustries giv-
Ing ~ubsidiary employment to a large population of. ~gncultural com-
rnumties. In Mysore about 60,000 agricultural famlli7S are report.ed
to be engaged in the cultivation of mulberry and m rearmg s1lk
W~rms. The area under mulberry is stated to be about 1 lakh acres.
In West Bengal about 15 000 acres of land are under mulberry; and
about 1.15 000 persons ar~ wholly dependent and about 1,75,000 per-
sons are partly dependent upon this indust~y. In M~dras, the area
Under mulberry is about 22.000 acres. The mdustry IS on a s~all
scale in Orissa, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. The at;tnual production
of raw silk is estimated to be about 16 lakh pounds m Mysore, about
 92
4 iakh pounds in West Bengal, about 3 Iakh pounds in Macihya Pr~·
desh about 3 Jakh pounds in Madras and about 1 lakh pounds m
Bih~. About 1,37,000 handlooms are engage~ in... t~e product.ion_ of
silk and art silk cloth. Sericulture industry IS subJect to penodiCal·
crises. due to wide and violent fluctuation in the silk yarn markets.
The internal production is not yet sufficient to meet the country's
demand and the unregulated imports of raw silk from abroad creates
crises i~ the local industry. The Central ~il!t Board has recently
taken up the question of this industry, and It IS hop~d that all ste~s
will be taken to place this industry on a stable basts so that Ind1a
could become not only self-sufficient in the production of silk but
also attain the international standard in silk-yarn. Then alone wou!d
the industry ensure employment to a large number of persons w
their cottages. ·
Wool Spinning and Weaving Industry
117. India is a large producer of wool, and a great part of the
locally produced wool is exported and soft wool for feeding woollen
mills is imported.
118. The wool spinning and weaving industry is mainly confined
to the community of shepherds who are found all over the country.
The industry is still in a primitive stage and very little improve-
ment has been made either in the method of spinning or in the method
of weaving woollen blankets. Severe mill competition has been
responsible for the decay of this industry. According to the Census
Reports, the number of persons engaged in this industry has fallen
from decade to decade. Consequently, the condition of spinners and
weavers of wool has deteriorated. The programme for development
of this industry in the First Five Year Plan is not very encouraging.
More adequate steps are needed to improve the conditions of these
classes.
119. The non-availability of wool for the handloom weaver
througl)out the year is a serious handicap. The mill agents and the
exporters of wool render it difficult for the spinners and weavers of
wool to buy it at reasonable prices. Proper organizations, should be
set up, preferably on co-operative lines in suitable places for the
purchase and supply of ~ool to the spinners and weavers. There is
also need for the marketing of woollen blankets so that the weavers
may get 11roper prices for their products. It is necessary to improve
the techruque of softenmg wool and of production of both woollen
yarn and blankets to suit the changing tastes of people, A good
amount of woollen cloth could be standardised to supply the needs of
Defence forces and hospitals.
Village Oil Industry
. 120. :Vi.llage Tel.is or Oil-pressers are found all over India. The
VJI!age 011 mdustry IS mostly. in the hands of the community of Te}is.
Soll!e among them are considered untouchables in certain States of
Ind1a. After the advent of the oil mill industry, the condition of Telis
has become unsatisfactory. Census Reports indicate that the numbel'
of workers engaged in the village oil industry has been falling
stead1ly fr?m decade to decade. The number of ·persons engaged in
VIllage 011 mdustry is reported to have fallen from 5 Jakhs in 1921 to
 93
12lakhs. in 1951. A large number of them are either unemployed or
have JOmed the ranks of agricultural labour.
121. India is one of the most important producers of oil seeds,
and there has been a signi:lcant growth in the cultivation ard pro-
duction of oil seeds in recent years. Yet the tragedy of the situation
IS that the traditional oii pressers find it difficult to sustain their
rndustry tn the face of competition from the oil mill industry. The
development of the oil mill industry in recent years has been the
matn cause for the decay of this vital rural industry. It is estimated
that there are about one thousand registered oil mills operating in
the _country, apart from a large number of unregistered mills. The
otl tndustry has drifted more and more to urban areas, causing un-
employment and under-employment among the te!is in the rural
areas. The telis have difficulties in procuring oil seeds at reasonable
rates, '!!'.also in marketing their oil produce, in the face of seve~e
compehtton from the mills. The crushing capacity of the local ghams
rtS still as high as 11.5 Iakh tons as against 22.12 lakh tons of otl seeds
pressed by the mills. There.is great scope for re-employment of many
tdle _ghanis in the rural areas. The argument that the village ghan~s
are Inefficient is not valid. On a rough estimate the village ghams
Yteld about 35 per cent of oil while the mills yield about 40 per cent.
It ts possible to improve the village oil industry by mtroducmg
Improved ghanis. Fresh ghani-oil has better food value tha~ the mlll-
otl. Both ~rom the point of view of employment and of tmprovmg
the cond1ttons of village tells. it is ess~ntial to reserve the crushmg
of edtble otl seeds to the village ghams. Thts mdustry could be
rehabthtated. Initially if the competition is removed a,nd the regular
supply of oil seeds ensured then the te!is themselves wtll1mmedtately
revive the industry. Then ~1ay follow the supply of improved ghanis
and organization for the supply of oil seeds and for marketmg the
ol} Produced by the village oil industry. We endorse the programme
framed by the All-India Khadi and Village Industri~s Board for the
revtval of this industry. We would add that immedtate steps .should
be taken to stop the use of machinery for pressing edtble 011. The
Government may also start refusing further licences to. the ~ew 0
!Jlllls, and later may gradually stop the crushing of edtble oil-see s
i
'n the existing mills. ·
VU!age Potter .
. 122. The community of village potters have preserved the tradt·
\onal art of producing not only artistic and elegant eart~nware b~t
1
~·so
1
articles for the daily use of ull the poor and backwaid AFmum·
• es. The potters are poor, illiterate and very backwar. · every
'\age of production they are harassed and taxed. They aI edoften not
!lowed to take mud from the tankbeds. At present they fin no ~1
,n the production of modern ceramic wares. T~e potter~ .cou 1 abe
e
;~ouraged to improve their methods of productwn by &1vmg them
atn,ng and better implements.
lalllboo and Cane Workers ..
. 123, Certain communities are engaged in the trad1ttonal occup~­
ton of producing articles out of bamboo and cane. These dcommumf
tes are known by different names in different States, an some o
'lltOH,fHA
them are treated as untouchables in some States. These communities
generally Jive in segregated areas in villages or in the vicinity of
forests. They are poor and very backward. They live in highly
insanitary surroundings and move from place to place. Their main
difficulties are lack of raw materials at reasonable prices and proper
marketing facilities. They are invariably exploited by middlemen
who manage to secure contracts for cutting of bamboo and cane from
forests, etc. The poor Buruds are always indebted to these middle-
men. In view of the wide variety of bamboo and cane in our country
there is unlimited scope for improvement in the production of
articles of bamboo and cane to suit modern taste. There is need for
proper housing and education of these extremely backward people.
Paddy Husking .
124. Hand-pounding of rice is an important village industry, It
is stated that 65 per cent of paddy is still locally hand-pounded and
husked. It is a source of employment to a large number of agricul·
tural labourers who are partly employed in this industry. It is stated
that hand-pounded rice is superior in nutritional content to the
milled-rice. There is a danger that the establishment of more rice
mills will reduce employment for the poor villagers. It is desirable
to eliminate rice mills altogether from rural areas.
Coir Industry .
125. The coir industry is still providing a large volume of em·
ployment in Travancore..Cochin, but is subject to periodical depres-
sion. The recent setting up of a Coir Board is expected to help this
industry.
Minor Industries
126.. Th~re are a number of communities whose tradi tiona!
occupation IS t~ _prepare leaf-plates, collect lac from forests, etc.
These communt~1es are poor and backward. They need special
measures for the1r uplift at the hands of State Governments.
Village Handicrafts
127• A number of village artisans produce many useful articles.
F~ctory produ~ts throw them out of employment, causing great
m~s~ry. There IS always a large and popular demand for articles of
uh~1ty produced by village artisans. They need protection and
asststa~ce at the ha~~ o.f the public and the State. In all ro osals
regardmg ~he rehabilitation of village artisans care must ~e b.ken
to distinguish between artisans who produce ~rail f 1 rt' les
and the makers of fine art d Th Y use u a 1c
who are main! en a ed i pro ucts. ~re are certain communities
sandalwood iv~ry fnj in bro~:e PThductlon ksof artistic articles in
duced on a ~ass scale The elit · ese ~or of art cannot be pro-
artisans. With the di~appearan~ea~d th~ nch only can patronise such
Zamindars. the old traditional pat/ King~, Maharajas, Nawabs and
used to patronise the fine arts but ~~af~ IS gone. Once the temples
artisan classes should be assisted ad 15 no longer the case. These
museums of art and art em ori an encouraged, and national
these artists. These artistic 1:-ticf should be established to patronise
Parliament and Legislatures It ~ alfd bhould ~dorn our Embassies,
substantial foreign market f~r suc~uarticl~losslble to build up a
 95
8ldl lndusky
~28. The Bidi indu~try canno~ be regarded as socially useful, and
yet, 11 must be recogmzed that 1t has a great potentiality for the
employme_nt of lab_our, It has hel_d its own successfully against the
most fashionable Cigarettes and c1gars. It was a wise policy on the
part of Government to prevent the manufacture of bidies with
machine, because that would have thrown a large number of back-
~ard ~ople out of employment. The same policy of protecting hand
mdus~nes should be consistently followed in similar rural in-
dustnes. Steps are necessary not only to prevent exploitation but
also to organize bidi workers on a co-operative basis.
129. Protection of backward classes from unrestricted competition
of the mills and factories, and decentralisation of industries will
greatly contribute towards rehabilitation of the backward classes.
Communities whose Traditional Oceupation Is Personal Service
130. We have so far dealt with the measures for the uplift of
communities engaged in agriculture and other allied occupations and
also !or those engaged in cottage and rural indu~~ies and villag_e
h_and1crafts. Besides these, there are other communities whose tradi-
tional occupation is to render service to others. They are the washer-
ll_lan, the barber, the kahar or water-carrier and other classes of domes-
be servants.

. 131. Wa.sherman-The washerman community is known by

~lferent names in different States. They are treated as untouchables
m some of the north and north-eastern States. The degree of un-
touchability is not so severe in the South. They are paid in kind for
their services in the rural areas all over India, and in the fluctuating
COnd!t!ons of agricultural prices they are often h~d-hit ..Their living
conditions are miserable and they are often subJeCt to Ill-treatment
by higher castes. Even the payment in kind is not regular. In ~he
ll!'ban areas many capitalists are exploiting these people by opemng
b1g laundries and rendering many of them unemployed.
132. Barbers or Nayis-The conditions of Nayis is not very differ·
ent from that of the dhobis in the rural areas. They too receive pay-
ment in kind for service rendered and are subject to the same irregu-
lar payments There is however considerable improvement in their
P?sition in the urban ~reas whe;e their standard of. Hying is a little
higher. They have organized themselves into associations and have
Opened shaving saloons to cater to modern taste. But slill a large
number of them go from door to door in search of cus.tomers. This
community has a little better status in the north than 1n the_ south.
There is hardly any education among th~m. The re~resentatlves of
th1s community complained to the Comm1ssfon that ~ so'!le ~~ ~he
n?rth Indian States they are subject to unhealthy social disabi!Jbes,
Y!z., shaving of dead bodies and the removal of leaf-plates after caste-
dinners. .
. ·133. There are also talented vocal and i~strum~ntal musicians in
th1s community and they requested that th1s traditional art should
.
be encouraged. .
 96

134. ·Water-cam€TS and other dcnnestic servants-:-There are a

large number of communities engaged in domestic semce. These ser·
vants are not only poorly paid but. are of~en thrown out of employ·
ment without sufficient cause or even notice. In many cases service
is continued from father to son and they are often passed on to other
families after marriages between two families. In Rajasthan we came
across cases where daughters of domestic servants were passed on to
bridegroom families along with the brides. There is practically no
education among these communities. .
135. Wandering communities-~here a~e a lar~e number of SI~C~all
communities who eke out a precanous existence m the country-side
They have no fixed place of residence and they move from place to
place in search of food or employment. They often rear pigs and
poultry, hunt wild animals to satisfy their hunger, and collect forest
produce to make a living. They live in thatched sheds or gunny tents,
and more in groups. They believe in witchcraft. Because of the in~
security of their life, some of these communities are given to crime.
It should be the special responsibility of Government to give them a
settled life. ·
136. Traditional beggars-In a country and under a civilization
where the best servants of the public, namely, those who were respon-
sible for .maintaining the highest idealism, for centuries past have
been expected to live on whatever society gave them and not to work
for a livelihood, it is difficult to consider the problem of beggary.
The Brahmans have often ~imes been described by western socio·
log1sts a~ an Intellectual ~nstocracy of beggers, the Sanyasis are
another.mstance. A Sanya~1 voluntarily_ went out of the pale of orga·
mzed society. The Sanyas1 was a law mto himself and therefore he
renounced all pr?r>erty and llossessions. He also renounced all family
relationship. Rehg1ous tradi lions and rituals were also given up and
he was not to reve~l hts birth, learning or reputation. He lived on
what soCiety .gave him. He was not even to exoect that food should be
cooked for hun. •
. 137. The teacher was tr~ditionally a beggar and so was the physi~
c~an. These servants. ?f society were expected to live on voluntary
a.uns. The same tradition was carried on by Buddhists and J ains.
138 .. This. ancient ~radition has dignified a life of mendicancy.
T~e ancien~ Ide~l ~equired that only those who accepted selfless ser·
VIce as a hfe miSsion were entitled to live on alms Oth h I' d
on alms ~ere threatery.ed with hell-fire. The popul~r be1~tw~s ~~t
whoever IS !JOt a religious or social servant yet Jives 0 1 ·n be
born an ammal in the next life and m t' ( h n a ms, WI
food he now eats without giving a th· us . t en) serve those whose
ny mg m return. .
139. This ancient noble tradition t .
sullied. People who did not wa was oo goo.d to remain un·
the name of religion and the sig~ a~d ~~k for£ their. ~read assumed
0 ens o a religious order and
took to begging.
140. Famines and invasions s t' ·
beggars because they were thrownomet Imfes created a large band of
mity. ou o employment by social cala·
 97

. 141. Hinduism enjoined feeding the poor as one of the duties of

the. householder. The same injunction is equally imperative in Islam.
lnd1a, therefore, contentedly maintained a large army of beggars till
at last the institution broke under its own weight. It is difficult now
to segregate the tribe of selfless servants who take to mendicancy
and the unsocial element, i.e. those too idle to work for themselves.
. 142. The caste system also must share the responsibility for the
norde~ of beggars. Some communities claim that beggary is their
tra~1t1onal profession and that they cannot take to any service, occu-
patiOn or. industry without going against the rules of their caste. The
whole thmg is a welter and legislation will defeat itself if it tries to
tackle the problem without a careful study of the whole situation. The
problem did arrest the attention of certain saints of old who com-
manded their disciples to live by some decent and honest profession,
not to amass wealth and never to take alms as a remuneration for
the religious service they rendered or the spiritual help which they
gave to people.
~ 143. Some begging communities, finding their profession not suffi-
Ciently lucrative, took to providing entertainment. or sometimes ser-
VICes of questionable nature. Some pass themselves off ~s fo~tune
tellers; others as acrobats· still others as astrologers. Some smg village
songs. AI! these professidns could be dignified into an entertainment
class. But for lack of organization and social respect they eke out a
precarious existence bordering on beggary. Society. has to consider
the. whole situation and tackle the problem by ms!Stmg on certam
soc1a] standards being accepted universally both by those who accept
alms and those who give them.
~ 144. It was once argued that unless you give a decent living to
i'Sb!P.-bodi~d persons, you must be prepared to give alms; otherwise
People Will take to crime and hence beggary was regarded as a form
of Insurance against crime.
145. What is needed most is 'that the ideal of self-respect and the
concept of the dignity of labour should be .i~stilled i1_1to the mmd~ of
the people, This can be done only by rev1s1ng our Ideas of chaflty.
People give charity with ill-concealed. contempt. They mus~ realt~e
that the giving of charity if accompamed by .contempt or disgust. IS
not a religious act at all. It degrades both h1m who g1ves and hu_n
Who receives. No amount of legislation can tackle the problem. It Is
only by direct inculcation of social ideals that beggary can be effaced
and the man-power of India fully utilized.
Measures to Prevent Exploitation of the Backward Clas~es . .
146, The great majority of the backward classes are Ignorant, Illi-
terate and poor. They are easily exploited by several classes of per·
s?ns, Not only is their labour exploited but they do not get remup~~­
IJVe prices for what they produce. The trade and commerce o e
country is largely in the hands of the advanced cla~ses. Some of
them exploit the ignorant peasantry and .the poor arhsan whe~ t~ey
come to market their produce and ~heir products. The money- en er
and Vllla~>.e officials also explmt this class.· . .
·
147. Measures t o save the backward classes from . expl01tahon
.
•. a~e. absolutely essential to. the improvement o,f thell' econoO?IC con-
Ch\ions, An evil which has crept into the fabnc of rural soc1ety for
 98
the last quarter of a century is the tendency to indulge in litigation
even on trivial matters. Many communities have ruined themselves
in costly litigation and this evil is so widespread that in almost every
village there are factions ranged against each other. Early steps are
necessary to remove these evils.
148. Another measure of vital importance is the setting up of
proper institutes for the distribution of the wealth produced. A chain
of suitable c<Hlperative institutions or Government Stores is badly
needed for this purpose. Steps should also be taken to train these
communities in running institutions set up for their benefit. In some
of the States the exploiting classes have crept into the c<Hlperativel
and are working for their downfall. Such attempts should be preven•
ted to ensure the abiding interest of backward class communitie~
in the future of C<Hlperatives.
. 1_49. :t'he ultimate solution seems to be that all production ani
distrtbutton should be on a socialistic basis and that people should ill
encouraged to establish the necessary moral basis and to train them
selves for the change over.

C. CoMMUNICATIONS

~50 .. India is a land of vast distances and unless all kinds of com·
mumcattons are developed it will not be possible to remove either
~he b~c~wardness of areas cut off from urban centres or of the people
mhabttmg these areas.
?f·
the 1 'fhereb are large areas .which are not easily accessible. There
eve;\~a ton ecomes more dtfficult during the rainy season when
difficult et forpdt~s become impassable. There are areas where it is
type of c~unor nver .stre~ms and nallas. In many localities the old
try craft ts still used for crossing rivers and streams.
152. The maintenanc 0 f L ·d · 1 t
times for want of e aw ~n .Order also becomes dtfficu t a
proper commumcattons.
153. The hilly areas f th U h
Bihar, Bengal and Madh np ern ttar Pradesh, Himachal Prades ,
communication Large yaal radesh cannot be developed for lack of
Pradesh, Bengal, Mad rur areas of Rajasthan, Orissa, Vindhya
remained backward f hya Pradesh, Saurashtra and Andhra ha~e
therefore, urgent neeJ£ want of adequate communications. There ts,
roads and National Ht" hor the development of approach roads village
g ways. •
154. The provision d .
of roads, bridges and rna e m th~ Five Year Plan for development
great need for roads ccausew.ays ~~ altogether inadequate. There is
towns and cities or maroknnt~ctmg Vtllages with each other and with
e mg centres.
155. India has neglect d
water tr~nsport. There a e her waterways and modern means ol
~h~aged ~~ plying boats t~e c!~ least a dozen communities who ~re
the estabhshment of road d ry. passengers and merchandise. Wtth
ese communities has det a~ rail communications the condition ol
to find alternative employ~rt~rafted. Effective steps should be tllile~
· en or these communities.
 DD
D. Puowc liEALTH AND RuRAL WATER SuPPLY
156. Backward class communities generally live in insanitary
conditions and in ill-ventilated houses. The residential localities of
these communities are often segregated. Ideas of sanitation and pub-
lic h~alth .among them are still primitive. During periods of illness
or ep1dem1cs many of these communities resort to witch-craft rather
than. to public health measures. It is no wonder that quacks exploit
tbe Ignorance of rural communities.
157. Dysentry, malaria, hookworm, guinea-worm, tuberculosis
and seasonal epidemics still take a heavy tool of these communities.
The Five• Year Plan has rightly emphasised the importance of health
as a National asset.
158. "Health is fundamental to national progress in any sphere.
In terms of resources for economic development, nothing can be
~onsidered of higher importance than the health of the people whlch
ISa measure of their enerJ!Y and capacity as well as the potential of
man hours for productive work in relation to the .total number of
persons maintained by the nation. For efficiency of industry and agri-
culture, the health of the worker is an essential.consideration."
. 159. Great efforts have been made and are being made for improv-
mg the health of the country. Considering the vastness of the country
the present measures are not commensurate with the requir~ments
of the rural areas. Large-scale preventive measures and -;duc~t10n are
necess~ to improve the health of the peopl~. For a radical 1mprov~
rnent m the situation, it is absolutely essen~1al ~.at the rural publi.c
s~ould be educated in the necessity of mamtawng sawtary condi-
ttons,
160, Generally people Jiving in cities or towns have no idea of the
!!feat hardships the rural population has to undergo on account of t~e
Inadequate supply of good drinking water. It has been found that ~~
ce~ain areas the water which the people dri~k i~, not at all safe.. Shrt
~aJagopalachari once said almost in despa1r; I shall. be sa.hsfied
If I am able to do nothing el~e but supply pure and ~uffictent drmkmg
Water to the people of the villages." This expressiOn o~ a .seasoned
social worker and administrator ought to set everyone thinkmg about
the gravity of the situation.
161. The conditions in scarcity areas like Rajasth~n and Rayal:
seema are most distressing, and yet, as if to compete WI~~ and dgg;!
Vate the curelty of nature. man has invented unt?uchablhty an p of
Vents Rome human beings from even approachmg the sources
Water. The poor untouchables are often obliged to beg for~ ~otful of
water for hours together before their thirst can be quenc e ·
162. Public wells and reservoirs must be built wi*~~
of ~he Harijan quarters for the use of the whole are~.·
rnamtained in sanitary condition und~r the supernston
lte=h~;;dag~
a village
Water committee with a Harijan pres1dent.

"Page 488.
 100

E. RURAL HOUSING
163. The housing conditions of many of the commumtie~ belong·]
mg to the Other Backward Class group are far from satisfactory.
(rhey live in ill-ventilated mud houses or thatch~ sh~ds. The surro_und·
ings of these residential localities are also msamtary. Traditional
apathy and ignorance have also been responsible f~r renderi~g these
areas more insanitary. Filth, dirt, and rank vegetation found m these
localities are not regularly removed.)
164. The Commission had the opportunity of visiting the residen·
tial areas of these communities in many of the States and were struck
with the appalling conditions of living. There was a great deal of
overcrowding in the houses. Most of the representatives of sue~ com-
munities complained that they had no proper sites or financtal a1d
. to construct proper houses.
165. The problem of providing housing facilities for the poorer
sections of communities from the Other Backward Classes is colossal.
But the problem has to be faced boldly and measures must be under·
taken to provide proper housing. A planned programme of rural
housing should be drawn up, making adequate provision for village
layouts in proper surroundings. The sites must be made available to
the people either free or at nominal rates. Financial assistance either
in the form of subsidies 'ar loans must also be made available to help
them construct cheap houses. The most· feasible course would be to
organise housing co-operatives for the benefit of these communities
and make available State aid through these institutions.
F. SOCIAL BACKWARDNESS AND MEASURES FOR ITS REMOVAL
166. The origin and evolution of caste in relation to the Hindu
social order has already been discussed in a previous chapter. How
far the c?rrodmg effects of caste have devitalised Hindu society,
r~sultmg m untouchability and an unfortunate gradation of the social
~1erar~hy, have als? be~n noticed. The spirit of caste has prevailed
m .':anous degrees m differen~ parts of the country. While untouch·
abJI1ty and the keep.m_g of soc1al d1stances even within the four.fold
order prevalled m ng1d and intense form in the South and in parti·
cular .m Travancore·Cochin and Malabar, the same rigidity did not
preva1l or at least to thP samp extent. in the North. Taboos Gn food
a~d drmk are observed everywhere but more rigidly in the South. The
hl'~her c.astes m the 1'\orth accept water and pucca food at the hands
ofh~ ert~n ldwer castes within the four-fold order of Hindu society.
1
w} e bley. oNnot accept. the same from others. This was markedly
no ~c~a e m o!thern ,Indw where some of the othPr Navashakhi
r.as es were considered Jalacharniya'.
167. Modern conditions. no doubt, are gradually toning down some
~ai~;s;a~k~~~fc~~~e s~~~a~ b¥tt the spirit ?f caste. still permeate~ the
lower ranks who suff re Y. 15 a very d1scouragmg feature that the
cling to the system Theed sok mrh !rom the iniquities of caste still
0
heroic efforts of dandhtor soctal reformers of. the past, and the
influence but these hav~ nm our ~wn hmes have nad a wholesome
1

structure: The leaders of s~~i!tfic;ert!y J>enetrated the entire social

the undesirable features of th J· sd.a e . efore the Commission that
e m u soc1al system must go and that
 101

sus~ined. efforts must bP made to eradicate casteism as speedily as

possible m order to fusP the different castes into one homogeneous
society.
168.. The Commission observed that the rigours of the caste system
prevail m rural areas and that untouchability in a pronounced form
IS still !>ractised there. This has led to the formation of caste groups
or combmes with a view to securing redress of th.eir grievances and
to haVIng a place in the political and other spheres of activity. Some
representatives of the backward classes pleaded that this trend
tho~gh unhealthy, is inevitable in the prevailing atmosphere of caste
~reJUdice. They cited instances of ill-treatment and social discrimina-
lion at every step, including in the admission of their boys and girls
to educational institutwns.
. 1.69. It was evident to the Commission that this sense of caste and
discrim!nation based on social inequality is eating into the vitals of
the nation. The representatives of the backward classes feel strongly
that unless social inequalities are done away with they will never
have a fair deal at the hands of the advanced cl<~sses. Since India has
accepted a secular Constitution, casteism and all that it implies can-
nat have any place in its affairs. The administrative machinery of
Governments-Central and State-should be cleansed completely of
:~~ spirit of casteism and its undesirable features. For, .it is through
"15 machinery that the policies of Government are unplemented.
Then only will it be possfble to inspire confide.nce in the backw~rd
cl~sses. Any delay or hesitancy in tackling th1s problem forthwlth
lVIII have far-reaching effects on the future of society. ~elay will lead
to the formation of pernlexing caste groups or combmes each war-
no~ against ~~e other for power and place to the detriment of ~ational
sohdarit;r. Although Shri Jawaharlal Nehru has b.ee~ advocatmg thP
eradication of casteism unfortunately the CommiSSion .d.td not find
the same fervour motivating the actions of. many pohtlcal leaders
and other persons now in positions of authonty. ·
.. 170. In condemning the iniquitous features .of .the caste. sys~em
It IS not suggested that Hinduism should be. hQ!Jidated. HmduiSm
COUld be purified or cleansed of the dross whiCh 1t has accumulated
In the course of centuries and would then emerg: ~s o~e of the noble;st
of ~he world's religions. Hinduism is not a rehgmn. m t~e. sense m
Whtch Christianity and Islam are. It does not trace tts ortgm to. any
bingle Prophet, nor is it wedded to any particular Scripture. It IS so
. road-based that it has become a family of many cre~ds, ever grow·
Ing, eyer reforming and P.ver assimi!ating new expertence and. ne:w
rnatenal. It is not bound by any particular cree.d or dogma. Behe! m
a soul, the concept of a universal Soul and hfe afte~ ~eath m1!1ht
seem to be the basis of Hindu tradition. but its real basiS 1s the un.Ity
and solidarity of all life and a recognition of the gradual ev?lubon
of hfe from a lower to a higher form. Caste wa~ no.t an essential ele-
ment of Hinduism, but in the course of centune~ 1t cal!le to be the
rnain characteristic of Hit•du life. Several reformmg s.~cial groups. or
~ects like the Arya Samaiist, the Prart~ana SamaJist, t)le Indt~n
a Uddh1st, the Jains, the Shaivites, the. Lmgayat.s,, the Va~shnava1!s
nd the Sikhs have all accepted the Hmdu tradttton. ':!'he Hmdu. IS
free to accept anything in Hinduism, and free also to reJect anythmg
 102
that does not appeal to him. The spirit of synthesis, assimilati_on! ad·
justment and harmony is the chief and essential characteristic _of
the Hindu tradition. Hinduism has given refuge as often to the atheist
as to the orthodox theist. Unfortunately, during the course of cen·
turies much that is undesirable has crept il!to Hinduism. The c~te
hierarchy with its repugnant doctrines of h1gh and ~ow, ceremorual
purity, taboos on food and drink, is blemish on wh~t Ill. otherw1se one
of the best reli~ions of the world. Unless the blemish IS removed, all
that is noble in Hindu religion will be lost to mankind.
171. Hinduism not only has much to give to the rest of the wo~ld
but it has also much to learn from it. Hinduism must now re-exarrune
itself in the world context and boldly shed all its undesirable feat_ures.
It must cease to be mediaeval in its concept of life; must refresh 1tself
and take a new form which would liberate th!! spirit of man and
enable him to assimilate the best and the noblest that Hinduism has
treasured through the ages. Hinduism of the present difters in m~y
respects from the Vedic Religion, The Puranas mention the essential
features of Hinduism and cover all the activities of man. One of the
typical features of Hinduism of those days was the prominence of
the Brahman class. The Laws of Manu helped to perpetuate the four
divisions of the Hindu Social Order. But instead of moving with the
times as a progressive force the upper classes gradually became con·
servative and retrograde. Another typical feature was the contradic-
tion between theory and practice. Perhaps in theory no other religion
elevated the concept of the quality of man to such a high philosophi·
cal level as the Ved1c theory that the individual soul is the manifesta·
~ion of the One Eternal Soul. Yet in practical life no other religion
1';1 the world has been more guilty of maintaining invidious distin~·
b_ons between_ man and man, even when belonging to the same reli·
g10us persua~10n. Accordmg to its fundamental concept Hinduisf!!
bestowed a h1g~ place upon the soul as distinguished from the physt·
cal body. Yet m actual practice the physical purity of the body
~ecame an obsession un~il it unfortunately become the very found~·
ll?n of the Hmdu rehg10us structure. The inevitable result of thts
d1screpan~y between theory and practice was that while the mind
of the Hmdu was absolutely free, his hands were heavily tied. He
could .thmk as he li~ed, but almost every act of his daily life was
prescribed by authonty to an extent unknown to any other religion.
172. The Hindu v~ew of life was bas.ed on a harmonious pursuit
of the four ch1ef_ conceivable objects o.f life, viz., Dharma, Artha, Kama
an~ Moksha. It ms1sted upon a balance of spiritual and temporal pur·
~u~~h a\the best means of attaining happiness. It taught the universal
ft
.10r~. ~ 0 ~f man, or rather the essential unity of mankind as all
lVI ua emgs were regarded as part of one Eternal Soul.
havel ~;e~il~~s~ is a religion of humanity, and yet disruptive forces
74
cien! · Socia! Justice~In mediaeval times the world aimed at effi·
vario~s t~~~~1~~~~~~'TI:zemen.t df power and ~ workable balance of
pecting the human perso::',ilrH!t
1 ~· hwdas not particularly noted for reS<
not opposed to the a no code of Social Justict>. It was
leges of the strongp~tieethabond oftha social ?rder basPd on the. privi·
• s rew , e orgamsed and the cunnmg. A
 103
.
!hand~ul of communities that had power to rule and intelligence to
'oombme, assumed the leadership of society, and the masses were
merelr content to give their service loyally in return for security,
both mte~al and external. The minority ruled the majority, and
always clauned moral superiority. Religion and mythology were uti-
~ to support the claims of the ruling minority. It may be that for
a tun~ the minority maintained high standards of virtue and nobility
and dtsplayed extraordinary devotion to social good. But the tradi-
lJonal!y upper classes have lost their original moral and organisa-
lional superiority. Mankind has progressed and in the context of
modern conditions the common man is gradually coming into his
~~'11. He. has lost all reverence for the upper classes, who in turn have
Tht t?etr special moral virtues and have indulged in exploitation.
d e htgh standards once claimed by them, have disappeared, and have
egenerated into privilege and hypocrisy.
175. The Reform Movements of the last half century, the freedom
str~gg!e and in particular the heroic efforts of Gandhiji, to remove
r~l mequalities, the sectional movements organised by some of the
/c ward classes in parts of the country, the Poona Pact, the Parti-
100 ?f India and its after-effects, have given a severe jolt to thr.
~acbonary traditional forces at work in India. Political unification
bas u~d?ubtedly been achieved. But that unity can be sustained only
Y ehmmating all fissiparous tendencies.
. . 176. The aim of the Indian Constitution is to secure for all its
Ci 1IZens:

Justice-social, economic and political;

Liberty-of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
Equality-of status and of opportunity and to promote among
them all;
Fraternity-assuring the dignity of the individual and unity of
the Nation.
177. The Constitution of India thus guarantees to its citizens
equality before the law, and freedom from all . discrimination on
grou~ds of religion, faith, caste, sex or place of btrth. It also .makes
~rovtston for the advancement of the · socially and educattona!IY
ackward classes and for promotion of their welfare by securmg
an~ .Protecting a 'social order in which justice-social, .econom_ic and
i>Ohhcal-shall inform all the institutions of national hfe. .It
Provtdes also that the ownership and control of the matenal
resources be so distributed as to serve the common goo~ and that
the operation of the economic system should not result m the con-
;:entration of wealth and the means of production in the h~nds of a
~":' to the common detriment of the many. It ass1117s the rtght t~ a
hvmg wage, a decent standard of life, adequate letsure, and soc!al
and cultural opportunities for all. The introductio~ ~f Adult Fra.nchtse
as the Foundation of a truly Democratic Repubhc ts a revolutiOnary
~eform, particularly in view of the mass illiteracy and backwardness
In India. The franchise has given to the masses a m~st potent and
Powerful instrument with which to shape their deshny. The v~st
~Ulllbers that exercised their votes during the last General Election
1952) are indicative of the great awakening that has come over the
 104
masses. It is not possible for any length of time t~ deny social justice
to these classes. They are not prepared to submit. any longer to the
old order which is already crumbling. There are s1gns ~f. restlessness
permeating the rank and file of the ba~kward com":l~mtles; some of
them are already leading an attack agamst the traditional leade~ of
society· in the South some who were once backward have come m~
power ~nder the new political set-up. Since the backward co!'llnum·
ties have the additional advantage of numbers, they can retam theu
· newly-won privileged position with greater ease and better effect
under a system of adult franchise. The situation must be carefully
handled and the new forces must be utilised for the common good
What is needed is not the improvement of a few communities but the
uplift of all the backward classes. What the country requires to-day
is not that the power of exploitation should change hands but that
exploitation itself should go.
178. Now that we are free, we must be able to show that we have
the vision and foresight to shed all that is dross, petty, reactiona17,
antiquated, and anti-progressive in the Hindu social structure. It 1s
equally essential that all sections of Indians, not only the Hindus but
the followers of other faiths as well, should come together and work
for the consummation of this ideal. It must be clearly recognized,
understood, and practised that "religion" should be the private affair
of the individual. Orthodoxy and sectarian considerations should not
come in ~he way of the spiz:it of ~Y!lthesis. The privileged classes m~t
volun~ar.Ily renounce the1r pnv1leges and their claims to soCial
sup.enonty and must work wholeheartedly for the eradication of
soCJal ev1ls. The. equ!Jhty of a~l human beings must be accepted. A
complete revolutl?n ~n t~e soc1al outlook of the people is necessary
for rendermg soc1al JUstlc~ to all the backward people. There is no
longer any need. to apportl.on blame on any community or class for
caste-neglect. It 1s Wisdom to see and recognize the ill-effects of the
past~ and to see that from now on all the backward classes and in
partlc~lar th~ weaker sections of them, are given an adequate share
of ass1s.tance m order that they may rise to a common level as early
as possible.
.179. The pr?cess of equalisation is beset with many hazards.
Owmg to a vanet~ of causes-both political and social- a crude.
narrow a!!d sectanan outlook has dimmed the vision of the people.
~~verty, Ignorance and illiteracy make the task all the mo~e difficult.
tefore nothmg short of a firm determination by the entire nation,
~h :p the fundament~! social outlook of the people, can possibly fuse
e 1verse elements mto a homogeneous society,
dl80i·1 We merely in.dicate the steps that must be taken for the
iha Ica ~n ff soc~! ~viis. There are two modes of approach to hasten
e ~pm o synt es1s, one by the leaders of public opinion and in
~~~rcu~~r by se}fless social workers devoted to the cause ~f social
and S~a~~~~us re orm, and the other by the Governments-Central

of p~~licS~~i~i~~foa: i~thore e~ec1 tively

brought about by 'the leaders
and understandin er socJa servants, if a spirit of sympathY
about the task in~ ~er;neates al~ . their activities. They should go
Age-old prejudices a!en tof humility, not with an air of superiority.
o easy to overcome. The closest association
 105

ong different groups and devoted service alone can bring about
roper understandmg and the co-operation so necessary in this diffi-
lt task. Organisations consisting of persons drawn from different
mmunities and pledged solely to social service must be set up all
ver the country for this purpose. The members of such organizations
ust themselves firmly believe in the ideal of equality and work it
ut in their own lives. By their personal conduct as well as by their
ork, they must impress on the people the need for eradication of
~ste ~rejudices. They must arrange for periodical meetings and distri-
rute hterature specially written for this purpose. They must foster
:ultural activities ·directed towards this end. They must effectively
Ise the Press, Platform and Radio for the propagation of their ideal.

~
hey. must encourage and arrange inter-caste dinners, inter-caste
amages and periodical social conferences. It is necessary that they
hould eschew all party-politics and avoid all steps which may, parti-
~ularly in the early stages, arouse suspicion among the backward
~lasses and generate sectional conflicts. They should foster enthu-
,llasm and determination to work for the removal of social evils, The
~eed for national solidarity must be prominently placed before the
'ubhc, presenting social justice as a primary duty. It must be empha-
llsed that the private practice of any religion should not be inconsis-
:ent with nor antagonistic to a common social life. The spiritual side
1! the ideal, which was onca the pride of our heritage, should be revi-
~lfied. For achieving the ideal of Sarvodaya for society and socialism
or the Government, the following steps are assential :-
1. Suitable changes in the educational system.
2. A new sense of social justice embracing all spheres of human
activity.
3. Suitable changes in the concept of private property.
4. Suitable changes in marriage and inheritance laws .
. 182. During its tour of the States, the Comn:ission visited many
OcJal service institutions some of which are domg good work. The
ctivitics of some of them' are confined to members of particular com·
!Unities. Some of the educational hostels are run on commun~l lines,
nd it is ?nly recently that there has been a willin~ness to admit other
ers~ns Into these. institutions. What is perplexmg IS the fact that even
hal'ltable institutions with large monetary trusts are establtshed .to
erv~ the interests of particular communities only. Most of the social
;rv1~e organizations are concentrated in the urb~n areas and o~ly ~
.w, If any, are located in rural areas. A lar!ifemaJOrity of these mstl-
~hons are mainly devoted to economic activity. A few of them are
erving as rescue homes for unfortunate women, and an asylum for
~e aged and the disabled. Welfare centres established under the
.asturba Trust are doing unostentatious social work for the good of
•omen and children of all communities in rural areas. There are,
0 ~ever, no institutions devoted solely to the cause of removal of
!cia! inequalities or for the promotion of inter-com!llunal harmony
r. Inter-caste marriages. In any case, we were not mformed of the
11
stence of such institutions.
133 .. Governmental measures are equally n.ecessa~y for the early
msummation of a common social ideal and national !If~. T~e Govern-
lent must aid and encourage such of the social orgamzallons as are
 106

dedicated to this cause. They must re-educate their ~wn a~in!Jllra·

tive personnel so that it may function for the promotion of thiS 1deali
Social Welfare Boards recently establis~ed by t~e Gove!Mlent o
India on an all-India basis should be advtsed to w1den thell' scope o1
activities to include this social ideal.
184. We indicate below, on general lines, the measures that .the ·
Governments-Central and State should undertake for the eradica·
tion of social evils. .
1 A clear enunciation and effective implementation of thiS
· policy of social solidarity and national progress.
2. Necessary legislation on marriage and inheritance.
3. Prohibition by law of social disabilities. •
4. Arrangements for the production and distribution of litera·
ture on social problems.
5. Liberal use of the Press, Films, Platform and Radio for the
removal of social evils.
6. Prohibition of all observances tending to promote caste
feelings in Governmental activities.
7. Re-organization of the educational system with special em·
phasis on the dignity of manual labour.
8. Full assistance to promote education as speedily as possible
among the backward classes.
9. Adequate representation in Government service and Gov·
emment controlled industrial establishments of those sec-
tions who had no chance so far.
10. Encouragement to art, literature, special cultural groups. 'th
and assistance and promotion of cultural activities :WI
this social end in view.
185. Items 7, 8 and 9 will be dealt with separately in view of
their importance. Progressive legislation is urgently needed for the
regeneration of the Hindu social system. The bigotted and reactionarY
opposition to Hindu social reform secured a poor response in the
country. This is a welcome sign. It is necessary that Parliament, un·
mindful of the r~act!o!la~ opposition, should go forward and bo.ldlY
put an end to social mJustice, however strongly entrenched in soctety.
G. EDUCATIONAL BACKWARDNESS AND MEASURES FOR rrs REMOVAL
186. Investigation into the causes of educational backwardness
am~ng the 9ther Backward Classes and the devising of measures .for
their effective remo~al constitute an important part of our enquirY·
We consequently pa1d much attention to this subject, and endea·
voured to coll.ect as much data as possible. With this end in view, we
framed questions No. 49 to 69 (of our questionnaire) and expe<!ted
both from the ~t!lte Gov~rnments and from the representatives of
vano~ commumttes sufficient material to assess the cause of present
educational backwardness and to understand the educational progress
made by the several communities in the backward classes groUP•
We asked for the percentage of literacy among various communities.
He:e we found that the material furnished was meagre and far from
satisfactory. The State Governments pleaded that as the 1951 Census
 107
. umeration did not collect educational statistics caste-wise, it was
1fficult for them to furnish the statistics asked for. This was an
ilia! ~and!cap. We found from the previous Census Reports that
te-w1se literacy figures were given for some of the communities
ut the procedure fol!owed was not uniform throughout the country.
oreover, some States have disappeared after integration with other
tales, or after merger. It was difficult therefore to get a caste-wise
Icture of literacy in each State. We also realized that the literacy
gures given in the previous Census Reports might not be wholly
hable as it was difficult to envisage uniform educational advance-
ment by all the communities. We wanted in the alternative to ascer-
tain from the States caste-wise figures of the students belonging to
the_ Other Backward Classes studying in the various educational insti-
tutions. This would have enabled us to find out to what extent the
communities belonging to the backward classes have been able to
take advantage of the educational facilities offered by the States. The
States pleaded their inability to furnish even this information. The
~pres~ntatives of the various communities who appeare~ before us,
ave giVen us some figures regarding the number of matriculates and
graduates belonging to their communities. It was difficult to make
~ of these figures as it was evident that they were not always ob-
tamed
CU]
from authentic sources, and frequently they related to a parti-
ar area and not the whole State. The Ministry of Education, Gov-
. e_rnment of India, however, furnished us the total number of educa-
!Ional institutions and the total number of students studying in those
IIIStltutions. They did not furnish the caste-wise figures for this
gr~up, It was difficult, therefore, for us to determine exactly the edu-
cational advancement of each community listed in the group of the
Other Backward Classes. We were left with no alternative 'except in a
~eneral way to rely on the figures of literacy given in the previous
ensus Reports, oral evidence tendered by the re~resentatives of the
backward. classes regarding their general e~uc_atwnal advan~e.ment,
an~ the Impressions gained by the Comnuss1on durmg VISits to
Vartous educational Institutions. .

i!d Having thus ascertained from various sources the causes of

ucat1onal backwardness, we summarise them below:-
1. Traditional apathy for education on ac~ount of social and
environmental conditions or occupational handicaps.
2. Poverty and lack of means of a large number of communities
to educate their children.
3. Lack of educational institutions in the rural areas.
4. Living in inaccessible areas and lack of proper communica-
cations.
5. Lack of adequate educational aids in the form of freeships, .
scholarships and monetary grants for the purchase of
books and clothing.
6. Lack of residential hostel facilities in places where eauca·
tiona! institutions are situated.
7. Unemployment among the educated acting as a damper o.n
the desire of some of the communities to educate their
children.
 tos
8. Defective educational system which does not train students
for appropriate occupations and professions.
187. Existing social conditions are responsible for the traditional
apathy in some of the communities towards the education of child·
ren. These conditions are gradually disappearing in the wake of
modern ideas spreading in rural areas. Certain communities engaged
in out-door occupations such as agriculture, live-stock breeding, col·
lection of forest produce, fisheries and the like, usually employ the
children either in their own occupation or in earning a subsidiary
income. Extreme poverty has made them indifferent to education.
There are numerous other small communities who are poor, who are
without fixed habitation and who are extremely ind.ifferent to their
educational advancement. Their children can only be educated if the
parents are provided with settled conditions of life. The representa·
tives of the backward classes in all States pleaded that lack of edu·
cational institutions in rural areas and lack of adequate educational
aids in the form of freeships, scholarships, and hostel facilities were
standing in the way of their educational advancement. They also
cited instances where students were unable to get admission in
science, engineering, medical, agriculture, veterinary colleges or
other technical institutions for want of sufficient number of seats and
they pleaded that a certain percentage of seats in such institutions
should be reserved exclusively for their boys and girls.
188. That the general progress of literacy in India is slow can be
gauged from the following table:-
Year Percentage
1911 5.9
1921 7.2
1931 8.0
1941 Not avai!lable.
1951 16.6
189. The progreess of literacy in the various States is given in
th.e attached table for the purpose of comparison. (Appendix IV). It
wtl! be seen therefrom that the percentage of literacy in 1951 was
extremely low in the following States :-
State Percentage
Bilaspur and Himachal Pradesh 7.7
Vindhya Pradesh ... 61
Bhopal ... ·
Rajasthan ... ~-~
Uttar Pradesh ... w:s
d ~90, Ehven in other States the progress of literacy through the
~c!l es, as been slow. This will be clear from the case of the un·
f~':'Ided Madrffs State where some three decades ago educational faci·
i~ ~hars~t .ere~ to ~he backward classes. The progress of literacY
1

e IS gtven m the following table:_

Year Percentage
1921
1931 9.8
1941 9.3
1951 14.4
19.3
 109

~
e "literacy ?gures in that State for the livelihood groups of
) Owner-cultivators, (2) tenant cultivators, (3) agricultural labourers
e respectively, 15.4 per cent, 15.9 per cent and 7.0 per cent (1951
nsus). Even in a State like Mysore, where the education of the
'· ckward classes received early attention at the hands of the autho-
~ties. the progress of literacy has continued to be very slow. The rate
)f mcrease of literacy in that State is given in the following table:-
Year Percentage
1931 9.1
1941 13.0
1951 20.3
1~1. It is only in Travancore-Cochin that the percentage of Jite-
acy IS as high as 46.4 per cent (1951)....:.the highest in India. This pro-
ess was due mainly to the sustained efforts made by the Rulers and
their administrators and also by the Christian Missionaries in that
tate for a period of over half a century.
192. Moreover literacy percentages do not necessarily· give the
. e3.eral educational advancement of the people in any State. They
Ill Icate only the number of people who can read and write and that
~!ten with difficulty. To understand the educational advancement of
any ~echon of the people it is necessary to know the number of per-
sons In that section who have passed at least the elementary stage of
education and who are not likely to relapse into illiteracy. The recent
dnve In adult education has also contributed to the increase of literacy
at the time of the 1951 Census. But these neo-Iiterates cannot accu-
~a:eiy be described as educated. The conclusion remains that educa-
onal progress among the backward classes is extremely poor.
'h 193. The problem of education in most of the States is chiefly
' e problem of the backward classes, for it is they who are the
i~tremely backward in education. On the eve of independence barely
Per cent of the children in the age-group 6-11 were in schools of
'Oe kind or another. Lack of both·educational institutions and aid in
rral areas are responsible for the educational backwardness of these
asses. The number of primary schools in 195~ for the whole o~ Indi~
Vas 2,21,082 with 1,92,96,840 pupils. Accordmg to the provisicna.
gures that we collected from the State Governments the total num-
:jr of pupils belonging to Scheduled Castes and Other Backward
~asses in 1~52-53 was 57,19,009. The number of students from these
0 11roups In middle schools was 4,27,981, m high .schools 5,69,099
nd In arts and science colleges 25.973 (vide Appendix V). We could
~J.Verify the authenticity of these figures, but we are using them ~o
ICate the enormous leeway that the count~y has to make up. m
Ie educational field. The Planning CommissiOn, m Its First Five
.ear Plan (page 529) estimates an expenditure of nearly. Rs. 400
ores for providing education for 100 per cent of the children of
ge.!lroup of 6-14, Gecondary education for ¥0 per cent of those
~SSing from the first stage, university education for 10 per cent of
,0je Passing out of high schools, and t~chnical education on a modest
,a e and other minor items. tn addition, approximately Rs. 200
'hes will be needed to train 27 lakhs of teachers for Basic and High
· ools. and Rs. 272 crores for buildings. The F1ve Year Plan makes
"llll5l!ofl!A
 110

a provision of 151.66 crores (35.02 crores for the Centre, ~nd 116.64
crores for the States) for educational development. Accorch_ng to .the
Planning Commission, "it is extremely urgent tha~ !'Ill ?,ther possible
sources of help should be discovered and fully utilized to make up
the inadequacy of the provision in the First Plan. We could not ob-
tain separate figures for students belonging to the Other Backward
Classes.
194. We noticed that wherever educational facilities in the shape
of freeships, scholarships and hostel facilities were pmvided for the
students of the Other Backward Classes, they enabled a number of
boys of these classes to receive education. The quantum of aid was
invariably inadequate and the representatives of the backward
classes pressed for more aid. A number of communities among the
Other Backward Classes group are unable to take advantage even of
free educational facilities. In one of the High Schools of Vindhya
Pradesh, with free education there were only twelve students of Other
Backward Classes out of a total reported strength of five hundred and
odd, because the parents were too poor to pay for books and clothing
and for boarding charges. .
195. The essential stage of education, viz., elementary education
is not yet made free and compulsory throughout the coun·
try. In some States it is free and compulsory in some locaTities, while
i~ others fees are being le~ied at the middle-school stage. The Dire~·
tive prmc1ples of State policy under Article 45 of the Indian Consb·
t1;1tion have not yet ~een implemented, though four years have elapsed
smce the promulgation of the· Constitution. Further delay will only
halt the progress of the backward classes. It is necessary therefore
that in. the next .six years a scheme of free and compulsory elementary
education especially of the basic type should be introduced through·
out the country. ·
196. In recommending the immediate introduction of free and
compulso~ education for the age-group 6-14 we are not advocating
the extensi?n of the present orthodox system of education. We are in
~avour of Immediate conversion of the existing elementary schools
mto Bas1c Schools and the establishment of only Basic Schools
wherever there are no schools.
197. Basic Education-The sovereign remedy for the liquidation
of backward~ess of all ki!!ds is effective education. The nation has to
be e:~cated mto healthy Ideals of social equality and justice. People
mus. e made to feel that they are one human family and are all res-
ronsi~le to each other especially for the all round betterment of the
1owes amongst us. Neither differences of caste, nor of religion, nor
t'd~uaf~· ~or wealth s.hould be able to divide us. Unfortunately, in
tfo~a~re rn~~~;~lyO~c~flty ard gr~atJy nP.glected and those Of disrup-
j d d If k ve an gam support both from the narrow·
~a~ :n !~1 ;~~~de~ttfddtheffdrustrated
1 u e o !Stress andelement~ in society, who culti·
suspicion. .
bett~; in~~~t~o~ebu7Pf of tducation,
8
one calculated not only to give
people E;,en the n bl a 5 ~0 re-construct social life, can uplift the
nation. developed i~s h~thhteratu r~ of me.di~eval times, on which tne
1
Ig mora Ideals, IS m places vitiated by the
 111

'tradltional recognition of high and low in society. We shall conse-

quently have to create a new literature in order to inculcate correct
ideas of equality and respect for the personality of every individual
irrespective of his social status, wealth, education or culture.
199. The educational system which the British introduced in
,India could not foster any such social virtues. It was an education
.calculated to prepare individuals for a certain type of career. There
was a race for distinction in examinations, a race for jobs and a race
for promotions ,and preferment, the crown being safe pensions and
mdependence-not the independence of the nation, but the independ-
ence of the individual. The Government servant generally basked in
the favour of the foreign bureaucracy, had a substantial bank balance,
amid defy public opinon, and was not trained to feel responsible to
the society whose salt he was eating. All social virtues werj! confined
to the securing of more education and better conditions for one's per-
sonal relatives and caste people. .
200. The old charity was there, but it was confined to helping the
poorest of the poor in merely keeping body and soul together. It was
never intended or extended to making them into a self-respecting,
self-reliant citizens who would be assets to the nation.
. . 201. W,e cannot hope to build a nation on th.e strength of such an
md1v1du~hstic career-seeking system of educa.tlOn. The bulk of the
natton d1d not realise that such a career-seekmg education If made
UOlve.rsal can only· result in creating unemployment, and a class of
paras1tes competing wTth each other, hating each other and develop-
Ing unsocial instincts all around. The central urge of all career-seekmg
education is to secure a life of comfort through exploitation of the
labour of weaker sections of the community.
202. It is a patent fact that when a girl is to be gtven in marriage,
the parents are not so much anxious to find out whether the prospec-
ltve bride-groom is likely to be a loyal and loving h!-lsband, w!th the
caoac1ty to maintain the family, as they are anXIOUS to discover
Whether his family is rich enough to maintain a. servant or servants
so that their daughter will not have to work w1th her hands. Eve.n
When parents ask their children to study hard, the threat uttered IS
tfyou do not Jearn, and do not study hard, you will be given to work
Wtth your own hands. Those who have to work in the m1d-day
iUn are considered socially inferior: Those who can spend the whole
jay Under the shade of a roof are socially supenor. The upper castes
~~e those whose dress is not likely to be soiled by t~e c?l~ur of mud.
rne1e professions are called 'white-dress professiOns.. JU.st as th;
lolders of similar jobs in the . West are termed white-collar
workers .

.~03. Apart from the necessity of increasing production for !he

latton, social revolution demands that in the new system of educa.hon
~orking with the hands for manufacturing socially useful artiCles
·hQuld become an essential and central element. The three-fingered
~tlcation for quill-driving should be replaced by t~e ten-fingered
.ducation in which the hands are used for spinnmg, carp~ntry.
~tlhing, and various agricultural pursuits. It was the ~en1us of
~ahatma Gandhi that suggested that the present-day education could
 112

be replaced by Basic Education, in which all the elements of know·

ledge, efficiency and culture, are correlated to handicrafts of national
importance. Many people m~e the mis~e of regar~mg Bas1c Educa·
tion as a kind of mere techmcal education. GandhiJI was never t1red
of explaining that although he did want efficiency i~ handtcrafts and
finally the capacity to produce so~ially useful articles o! scientific
finish· he did not want basic educatiOn to be merely techmcal educa·
tion. He wanted all cultural elements that go to make for a liberal
education to be correlated to handicrafts. Handicraft, thus, was really
the medium of education. Language was merely a medium ot exchange
of thought, but the real medium of education was the nationally use-
ful handicrafts which could be learnt with profit by the nation as a
whole.
204. Educationists who are concerned with evolving a new society
based on social justice and universal brotherhood are unanimous in
the belief that such constructive activity is the best means of develop-
ing moral and social virtues.
· 205. One of the objections raised against Basic Education is that
by encouraging the handicrafts, it might revive the caslEl·system w1th
all its rigidity of hereditary professions thus thwarting the ambitions
of the backward classes. No criticism could be blinder than th1s.
Everyone wants education, it is true, as a stepping stone to Govern•
ment jobs or some other soft jobs. The remedy, as we have suggested
elsewhere, is that Basic Education should be made the gate-way to
Government service, and Government services ~Should be made hard
enough, that is a degree of physical labour must be made obligatorY
f?r all Government servants in some shape or another. Basic Educa·
!ton, bemg the better kind of education more virile and all round,
should receive the highest patronage at the hands of the Government
and of all communities. &! regards perpetuation of caste, there is no
fear of caste bemg perpetuated so long as all professions are thrown
open to all persons, irrespective of caste or class. The method of ap-
proach may be somethtng like the following:--.
1. fhere should be an examination in domestic handicrafts and
oth~r works of national importance, such as processes cf
agnculture, spinning, carding, weaving, carpentry, black·
smtthmg, .house-b.uildi:ng, road-making, bridge-building,
cattlNea:mg, da1ry work, poultry-farming, etc. These
exammabons should be. thrown open to all. Those who
have. an hereditary aptitude for these professions and
ha~di?J'afts will naturally prove themselves better and
~am In self-confidence. They will thus shake off their
mfer10nty complex.
2. Thos~ who pass this examination should be given an inten·
s•ve course of three years in general knowledge and cui·
lure. At the end of this course, there should be an exarni·
nfatton. It IS expected that at such examinations, student!
0 the backward classes (those of advanced classes w•l
necessanly be not too many because they would haVE
fa.ssbdttthrough the sieve of handicraft efficiencvl mal
air e er, and yet students of the advanced classes ma~
be asked to gr:t over a small handicap. After the secon1
 113

examination the students should be given a course in

pedagogy or teachers' training. Besides the usual s:Jbjects
?f child psycholDgy, class management, methods of teach-
mg, ideals of education, methods of education etc., there
will be the additional subject of correlation of handicrafts
with ··various subjects so essential for Ba~ic Education.
Students, during the course of general knowledge, will be
given lessons in the following practical subjects: Draw-
ing: survey and levelling, photography, motor-driving,
cooking, firs~ aid etc.
1 206. In a vast country like India, with an overwhelming number
hural population, domestic handicrafts will always remain, and they
nil be the mainstay of the rural population. The whole nation, there-
ore. must be trained in one or other of the domestic handicrafts.
207. Apart from its professional value, training in domestic handi-
afts has great educatio. nal value and it can well become the stepping

!
one. to training for big industries also. The knowledge of domestic
and1crafts gained is never a waste. It is an ideal equipment for con-
nlctive thinking and work. It trains alike the fingers and the mind,
h1ch 1s useful in every walk of life. Those who were already trained
. some domestic handicraft as a hereditary profession would thus be
~great advantage, but they would be free to give it up if they prefer.
e caste-system is not encouraged or petrified by this arr~ngement,
out those born in an aritsan family would naturally get spectal advan-
~ges. Caste is bad because it bound a man to his hereditary profes-
~on; but. when that binding is removed and .Jull freedom is given
~te dtstmctwn and the evil effects of caste will dtsappear.
' .
208. Teachers in Basic Schools should be drawn from the artisan
~kd occupational communities of the rural areas. Their traditional
~til would be of the utmost use in the new system of educatwn,
~andhiji's Basic Education did not fare well, so far, because the ini-
tal mistake was made in accepting teachers from the genteel classes
iho were prepared to talk, discuss and lecture1 but who were not
:(epared to work with their hands. Turning middle-71ass. or upper-
;ass teachers into efficient craft teachers is well-mgh ~mposs1ble.
Wen where they had tried to learn the crafts it wa~ more oft~n than
!0.t to succeed in getting promotion than with a des1re to acqu1re pro-
tctency or out of any respect for manual work. It is, therefore, of the
ttmost importance that persons selected from the artisan or occupa-
;onal communities should be trained in the Basi? Tea~hers' ~r~mmg
:olleges. They should first be given three years mtens1ve trammg m
,:neral education, and those who succeed ,in this should then be
'ven two years training in the modern sctence and art of peda-
;ogy, They should be taught the importance of Basic Education to-
~;her ,with the art of correlati?n of, all knowledge thr~ugh
ii natiOnally useful handicrafts m whtch they are p~ofic1ent.
, nee all life is one whatever knowledge mankmd has
lathered has inevitably a ~ita! correlation with. the means ot pro-
o~tton. Food, clothing, shelter and necessary 1mpl7ments are the
tf r Vttal needs of human existence. Whatever handicraft~ anse out
.these essential needs o{ man can easily be correlated w1th all the
~~ences and arts which mankind has evolved in its struggle fo; su~
· sful corporate life. Teachers should have a thorough groundmg m
 IJ.i

all the social sciences. Special magazines should be published which

would replenish month by month the general ~nowledge of all the
village Basic School teachers. These teac~ers Will be reCjUired e~ery
evening to deliver discourses to the V!lla&ers on vanous sub)ec~
relating to their lives. The old custom of recitmg tradttlonallore from
the Ramayana and Mahabharata should be revived but the subjects
would have to be changed to suit modern conditions. They have to tell
people something of the world to-day and the forces that are at work
in humanity at large. They should also teach the social virtues needed
for leading a nation to prosperity and greatness.
209. Care should be taken not to inculcate religious fanaticism.
or provincial or parochial patriotism, and young minds must be trained
to understand the evils of imperialism and colonialism, which almost
ruined the whole world during the last century. The people in the
villages must be told of the evils of caste and the theory of hereditary
superiority and inferiority. They should also be taught to discard
parasitic life and ignoble idleness.
210. We recommend that rural education of the Basic type be
introduced universally in India. The establishment of Basic Schoo~
should be on a planned basis, and our suggestion is that centrally
s1 tuated vtllages should be selected for the location of senior Ba~c
schools so. that they could serve all the feeder villages within a radius
of five mtles. Thts dtstance has traditionally been selected by our
people as a natural unit. A man starting from his home in the earlY
morning can easily cover a distance of five or ten miles. do his work
there, and return home before it is dark. This unit was known to tht
anctent as 'Panchkoshi'. Element!jry Basic Schools in feeder villal~
Will have a cour~e of four to five years and full-fledged Panchkoshl
Vtllage schools wtll have an additional course of three or more yeaJl.
Panc~koshi Basic Schools should have an adequate number of traill"
ed artisans teachers of the type described in the foregoing paragraphs
There should be a plot of land attached to each school and a spacioUS
hall or shed for carrying on the various processes of domestic handi-
crafts. The. education should be intensive, and the young men ~~
women fim~hmg the Bas•c Course of Panchkoshi village sch00'
~hould acqu1re as much knowledge as a student of the present daY
mt~rmcdtate standard possesses; only we would not burden tho~
takmg th1s course With the necessity of learning English. We would
be content With teaching the students the regional language and
H~j\dl. Those whose mother-tongue is Hindi or any dialect thereof
s' do well to learn one more language preferably of the soutlL
pec1al attent10n must be given to a thorough grounding in m~th~
mahcs because mathematics is ~e basis of "the scientific studY ani
res?a{ch, as it is also the basis of practical economics and workab!t
soct.o ogy. Of course, there would be instruction in sciences also.
211th With a policy of such free and compulsory education in rur1]
areas, ese. schools would have students from all communities an•
the pro~ortlOn of students from the various communities would ~
autr,m~tJcally ~djusted. If it should be found. that students of a pa~'
f.~)ar chmmSumty had d1fficulty in profiting by such educational fac:
lflites, Itt. e tate should make adequate provisions and remove succ
d I CU JCS.
 115

I. 212. Each Panchkoshi area should have a small Board or Com-

fUttee whose responsibility it would be to see that no child in that
area went without Basic Education.
1

1
• 213: Hostels-Closely allied to the new orientation in educafion
s the hfe of students who live in hostels. A sound training in Basic
Educahon is possible only if the students are enabled to live in
ostels. The social revolution that we envisage can be hastened by
systematically developing social or community life in hostels. It is,
therefore. necessary to establish student hostels throughout the length
and breadth of India and the maximum number of students should be
encouraged to live in the hostels. The cost of board and lodging for
the poorer sections of the backward classes may be borne by the
Government. Students of all communities and all religious denomi-
nallons should be encouraged to live together, and to lead a common
hfe. They will naturally share each other's lives and plan together
for the future. Every student, whatever his status in society, should
be obhged to take his share in cleansing the latrines and in cooking
I the food for all. The hostel should co-operate with the school in
~anaging a farm, a vegetable and fruit garden on the land attached
JOintly to the school and hostel. The main distinction of vegetarian
and non-vegetarian diet may be maintained. But there should be com·
·~on ~imng-halls, though cooking may be separate. Only such commu-
ntty 11fe can ever break down the social differences, communal anta-
gonism and idea of high and low. Students will naturally shed caste
loyalties and cultivate social solidarity and a humanistic approach.
214. It should be possible for teachers and students working to-
gether on the farm and at the handicrafts to earn sufficient money to
deiray ~t least in part the expenses of the school. Gandhiji_ laid special
emphasts on this point because he said that Indta IS too poor to-day to
undertake to defray all such expenses from the .State treasury. Even
When poverty is eliminated, India does not asptre _to acqUire riChes
on t~e scale at which the predatory imperial p~wers amassed by e~­
plottmg other countries and other races. The tdeal of Sarvodaya IS
that we ·shall not allow others to exploit us; nor shall we be guilty
ourselves of exploitinp, others. With such ideals we cannot be lavtsh
tn our expenditure. Universal literacy will of course be the target.
But literacy will not be the main drive bf our educational endeavour.
Proficiency in the various arts of life and in the social virtue Will be
:he key note of this general national education.
215. There were a number of private or communal )'Iostels in
nany of the places which we visited. Most of them were bUilt by su~
icnptions from members of certain commumtles supplemented m
lome cases by Government grants. The:; were originally meant for
he bepefit of students of those commumttes who contnbuted for thetr
lUilding. It is only recently that many of them have ~een t~rown
~~en to students of all communities though thetr admtsswn .Is res-
rtcted. Most hostels are financed by rich people who were anxious to
~due ate the children of their own communities.. Commun.al hostels
mcouraged segregation and are not likely to help m the soctal revoltl-
·10n which we contemplate. We recommend that hereafter all hostels
~e licensed and that no· h'•stcl shall receive a l.i~ence unles~ t~e Gov-
.rnment is satisfied that there is adequate provision for samtatlon and
 ll(j

supervision, and in addition that no hostel shall receiv~ a licence un·

less it is prepared to admit students of vanous co!Ylmunttles and more
especially up to a required percentage of the soc1ally ba.ckward com·
munities. The percentage should never be less than 20; 1t may go up
to 50 and these students of backward communities shall be chosen,
not by the managers of t.he hostels, but by ~ Local Board of Selection
consistin" of representatives of all commumtles of the area. No soctal
distincti;'n will be allowed. It should be laid down that students be-
longing to other religions must ~!so be admitted in these host~ls.
Hindus, Christians, Muslims, Pars1s, and Jews must all learn to hve
together, as they actually do to-day in Government college hostels.
216. Samata Ashram-We also recommend that a special type of
Ashram Schools where teachers v.ith their families live with the
students, share the common life, and make bold experiments in collec-
tive living, should be established in various parts of India. We further
recommend the establishment of at least one such Ashram School or
Samaia Ashram in each of the three hundred and odd districts into
which India is divided. These Ashrams should be run by specially
trained teachers who have equal respect for all religions and regard
11ll communities as belonging fa one human family. No respect should
h~ shown to religious practices and prejudices that divide man from
man, and that deny the family kinship o£ all races and all religions.
It is expected that these Samata Ashrams will be the centres of a new
Indian culture and they may become a pattern for many countries to
follow. Service for the people living around the school shall form
part of the school curriculum. The school, for instance, may run a
bakery and supply bread to the whole community, or it may evolve
new festivals suited to the sentiments and ideals of all religions and
all healthy "isms".
217. Since we want a social revolution calculated to establish
equality of status for all human beings, we recommend that schools
should have hostels attached to them. We do not expect hostels to be
attached to every village school, but there must be hostels attached
to the Panchkoshi schools. They should come as near as possible to
lhe Samata Ashram. Samata Ashrams will be the leaven .that will
serve all the 'Panchkoshi' schools. .
218. The Panchkoshi Schools, as also the Samata Ashrams will;
naturally culminate in Rurar Universities of the basic type. Here also!
the courses of study shall be determined not by some a priori ideals
but b.y the 1mmed1ate and long-rar1Je necessities of society. We want
to tram self-rehant men and women who will be assets to the nation.
Everyone will take his share in the production of wealth and in the
development of a democratic society capable of mana~ing its own
affairs t~rough brotherly co-operation. The spirit of competition leads
to explmtatiOn, and exploi~atwn generates fear, rivalry, suspicion an?
frustration. Our sole a1m m the new education is to banish competl•
twn and explmtatlon and consequent mutual distrust. J
219. Some one has defined society as a group of persons who trus 1

each other, love each other, and are not afraid or suspicious of ea~
other. Caste!sm has cut at the very root of this social ideal. Mutu
suspiCIOn, distrust and rivalry can be removed only through a ne
educat1on and a new life, evolved through the collective life of thes
new schools.
 117

220. For~unately •. experiments are being made in some parts o£

the country m evolvmg a new type of Rural University. These insti-
tutions co~ld really be. called Sarvodaya Vidya Piths, where you begin
With helpmg the lowhest and the lost and gradually climb upwards
towards a bet~er .order of society. As early as 1937, Gandhiji said, "I
would revolut10mse college education and relate it to national neces-
sities". "The Rural University represents the highest stage in the edu-
catlOnal programme under the Basic System and is a continuation of
post-Basic Education at a higher level". "True education is that"
Gandhiji once said, "which answers the vital needs of a nation". "Th~
.most urgent national needs to-day are food and shelter, work, health
·and sanitation, education and a clean and devoted band of workers
social servants, administrators from the village-level upwards". Th~
educational programme or courses of study of the Rural University
will be organized around basic national needs. "The method will be
the Basic method of educa:ion for and through life. All research.
experimentation and studies will centre round actual problem~;, of
rural life, and will be developed to activities and studies leading to-
wards the solution of this problem."•
221. In planning for the introduction of tlie Basic System of Edu-
cation throughout the country, one psychological factor has to be-
borne in mind. The backward classes are suspicious of the advanced
classes. They are not prepared to accept the bona fides of the latter,
neither do they have any conception of modern dangers and the dras-
tic remedies required. If any other type of education is recommended,
they simply say "Give us only the kind of education which you have
been giving to your own children and that in abundant measure. We
know this much that you and your children are able. to occ~py the
best places in society on the strength of the education wh1ch you
choose for yourself. We know that Government recognizes the degrees
of the present-day orthodox education, and those who occupy high
places in Government on the strength of these orthodox Indian and
Foreign degrees are held in high esteem in society. It is they who
~icld all power. We do not want ~ny other education, howev~r i?eal
1t may be". You cannot quarrel with them because they are JUStlfied
in their inference. They say "by the fruit shall the tree be judged";
222. Therefore in order to make Bas1c Education popular with
the masses, and t~ carry conviction with the~, it is 1_1ecessal'l! that
Government should categorically declare that m selectmg cand1dates
for Government service, especially of the upper 9rades, students
trained in Basic Education will be given a dectded preference.
This one statement will change the psychology both of the masses and
the educated classes. The leaders of the nation have by now seen the
utility and necessity of Basic Education. The Congress has also adopted
th~ same as the pattern for education. Government .w11l not los~ any-
thmg by this change of policy. It has ~een reco,:ntzed by unb~assed
observers that products of Basic Eductlon, prov1ded t~e expenment
Is honest and thorough-going, prove to be better admmtslrat~rs and
are more sympathetic to the people. They are abl~ to S?lve soc~al pro-
blems much better than graduates of orthodox un1vers1hes. One great
advantage of the Basic type of Education is that people from the rural
• Extraet from a pamphlet by Hindustani Talimi Sangh, Sevagram.
areas take to it very easily and succeed better. In Basic S~hools they
will not be the victims of an inferiority compl~x. They Will ~.out
to be better administrators and better leaders m comrnumty proJeCts
.and social reform movements.
223. It would be unj~st to judge Basic Education by the :esults
obtained in the half-hearted eXPeriments that have been earned on
for the past ten or twelve years in some parts of the country un~er
State Patronage. Even the experiments carried on by the Gandh1an
groups cannot be said to have evolved the standard type of Bas1c
Education. People have erred on account of the1r ~ersonal Jlred:lec-
tions. In some places, the experiments were not earned on wtth suffi-
cient educational insight. Gandhiji's insistence on turmng every
national school into a Charkha School was also partly responsible for
the one-sided tum which Basic Schools took. It is possible for men
of education to plan a systematic scheme of Basic Education suite.d
to the ideals which India has placed before herself. The Basic ideal IS
-substantially sound. It corrects many mistakes which we have been
making for the past thousand years and more. It should therefore be
tried with a National Will and National Enthusiasm.
224. Pre-basic or pre-school Education-The Planning Commission
l'ecognizes that "the highly impressionable, plastic, and educationally
potent period of a child's life preceding the age of six, has been neg-
lected in India although it is all the more important in this country
in view of the extremely depressing conditions of home life in most
cases" and yet it states that "in view of the shortage of funds, Gov·
.ernment can accept only limited responsibility in this field, confined
to research in evolving methods suited to our needs, training of
teachers, helping private agencies who take up this work in rural
areas by grants-in-aid and running a few model Balwadis or nursery
~chools in each State." The existing schools are mostly concentrat~d
m towns and cater only to children of the richer classes. while the
nee'! of the rural areas and of industrial labour, is almost completely
neglected. .
225..We have observed elsewhere in this Report that the social
and environmental conditions of the backward communities are not
~onduc1ve to the educational advancement. Extreme poverty and
Ignorance have f';lrther accentuated the situation. Pre-Basic or Pre-
school educal!on 1s. therefore, very necessary to overcome the initial
l!Oc1al ha~d1caps. The ·training of children during this period will
greatly help them and prepare them to take their place in the Basic
Schools alon~ with children of other classes. We recommend that
Central and State G?vernments should take a more active interest in
estabhshmg Pre-Bas1c Schools in rural and industrial areas .
. 226. We have dealt with Basic Education in greater detail in vieW
{)f 1ts imp.ortance. It is not necessary for us to deal with other stages
of education m Sl~mlar. detail. The University and the SecondarY
EducatiOn CommJSslo!!-s 1!1 their reports have made very valuable sug·
~es!tons for .re-0rgamsatJon of the whole system of education. '!'he
Central Adv1sory Board of Education and the Education Ministry,
Gtv~rnment of Ind1a. have formulated various schemes in the light
<O t ose suggestions. But we have noticed that implementation of
 ll9

~hese suggestions is delayed and in some States no tangible steps

ave yet been taken to reorganize the education~! structure.
. 227. Secondar11 Education-\Ye recognize that it will b~ some
time before Basic Education Is made universal throughout the
<:ou~try. The. trammg of the personnel for Basic Schools and the con-
ve~tmg of existmg sch~ols into Basic Schools, as and when the trained
peisonnel become available, may take some time. Till then the
present orthodox system of education will have to be continued
. 228. The Secondary Stage of education is vital from the po~t of
VIew of the educational advancement of the backward classes. For
a great maJority of students from these classes will necessarily have
to seek employment or occupation immediately after completing this
Stage. The secondary stage is preparatory for life for the majoritY'
and prel'aratory for a University career for those who have the neceS.:
sary aptitude. It IS necessary that the students should receive instruc-
tion m such of the courses as will train them for the professions and
occupations whic~ they intend eventually to enter. They must also
becom~ fully equipped for the arduous duties of social life and for
~ood Citizenship. It is gratifying that this aspect of secondary school·
~g has received increasing recogaition at the hands of the authorities
m ~ecent years: and the Government of India have already proposed
to mtroduce diVersrfied courses of studies in every District Head-
quarters Secondary School all over the country.
~29. The great handicap under which students from the back-
ward classes labour is the lack of an adequate number of Secondary
Schools in rural areas. They find it extremely difficult to prosecute
their studies in schools located far away from their homes. They have
no means to pay for their stay in such places nor are there any board
and lodging facilities for them. It is necessary, therefore. that more
Senior Basic or Secondary Schools with hostels attached to them
should be established in rural areas for the benefit of backward class
students. These hostels should also provide accommodation for stu-
dents of other communities so that the hostels may be run on non·
communal lines. But it is equally necessary that a majority of the
places in 'those hostels should be reserved for the boys belongmg to
the backward classes. Students belonging to the poorer sections of
. these classes should be provided with free board a~d lodging, an? ti!l
such arrangement is made, a scheme of scholarships should be msb-
tuted to enable them to prosecute their studies by paying for board
and loqging in suitable places. The aim should be to. make the hostels
a traimng ground for developing that common social outlook which
is so necessary for the future well-being of the country.
230. In view of the extreme poverty of the majority of students
belongin" to the backward classes, some would need monetary md·
for the purchase of books and clothing. Necessary provision will also
have to be made for this purpose.
2~1. University Education-It is generally recognized now th~t the
present rush of students to the Universities should be prevented m ~he
larqcr interests of the country. That can only be done by trammg
students in various occupations and professions at the secondary stage
itself. However that cannot be done so long as University Degree
qualification co~tinues to be a pre-requisite to Government service.
 120

Only when the parents of the students of the backward classes dis-
cover that the University Degree IS no longer a passl?ort for Gove.rn-
ment service, will they Jose the incentive to send. the1r boy.s and g1rls
to the Universities. The recent statement of policy on. th1s ques~1on
by the Union Minister for Ed?catiDn is a step m the nght direction.
It is the implementation of th1s policy that alone w1ll check the mad
rush to the present-day Universities.
232. The Basic Rural Universities will gradually take their place.
The present-day Universities can then confine themselves to techmcal
education and research.
233. Many spokesmen of the backward classes complained that
their students could not secure admission in the University Colleges,
and particularly to the Science, Engineering, Medicine, Agriculture,
Veterinary and other technical institutions. The accommodation in
these institutions of higher learning is naturally limited, but they
complained about discrimination against some classes in the matter
of admission. They, therefore, demanded reservation of a certain per-
centage of seats in such institutions for the students of the backward
communities exclusively. We are not advocating University Education
for all students, yet it is necessary that a certain percentage of seats
should be reserved for qualified students of these classes, and the
poorer amongst the meritorious should receive liberal scholarships.
Studies in Post·Graduate Courses and in Research Centres in India
and Abroad
234. No nation can hope to survive under modern conditions un-
less its te.ch11;ology reaches the highest point. Simplicity of life and
non-explOitation shouldnot mean inferior equipment. We shall need
the b~st experts 10 vanous sciences. The nation will run national
laboratories and national teaching institutions for the development of
yarwus sciences. Judgm~ from the progress we have already achieved
m th1s dtrectwn, there 1s every likelihood of India achieving a place
~!. ohonour within the next twent~ years, and students of other coun-
t'Ls Will be commg to In~ta for h1gher studies. But before we achieve
h1s. we shall have to tram our students in post-graduate courses in
rese<.rch centres both in India and abroad. We shall have to continue
to send a. large batch of our best students to foreign countries for
tram,Jg m modern sciences and technology, Students of advanced
classes may have proved their capacity for higher learning· but it is
not proved that students ~f backward communities, given the chance,
c~tnot do t~e same smce mtel!igence and capacity are not ap~ortion·
for ~~~~~~~t~-bisek W~ therefore,. recommend special scholarships
1 °. ac war commumhes. It is necessary for some time
abt keast, dto avoid ~o.mpetition between students from advanced and
ac war commumbes.
235. At present no schola h' . . .
States for qualified candid t rs }PS are exclustvely reserved m the
courses.
t
have selected student8 0 f esko these classes though some States
ac ward classes for training in special
236. The Government of Ind' tt d . .
ward classes.
°
studies in 1953-54 and twel d 1 ~ a11 e SIX scholarships for foreign
ve urmg 1954-55, for students of the back·
 121

237. We recommend that adequate provision should be made

both by the States and the Government of India for training students
of all backward classes in post-graduate courses and in research
~entres both in India and abroad.
238. Adult Education-The importan~e of adult education cannot
be _ove~-er_n!)hasised in a country where nearly 80 per .cent of the popu-
latton IS Ilhterate. Democracy will not take root until a progressive
programme of adult education trains the adult illiterate population
of the country. The present programme lays emphasis mainly on lite-
racy. The importance of recreati&'nal and cultural activities has only
recently been recognized. In the interests of the backward classes
this scheme of social education should be expanded to cover the whole
country.
. ·239. ~ural Reading Rooms and Libraries-It is necessary to estab-
lish readmg rooms and libraries in rural areas. The present facilities
are very meagre and the neo-literates turned out by the adult edu-
cation classes relapse into illiteracy. for want of follow-up courses and
-suitable literature. A judicious selection of books must be made for
stocking rural libraries. Important periodicals should be read out in
the Rural Reading Rooms to keep the people in touch with the day
to day happenings in the country. Also seminal books should be read
before serious adults and explained.
240. All India Institutions for Higher Learning-It is said in a
facile manner that the fissiparous tendencies in our land are only
superficial but that unity runs through the whole land. We feel that
new conditions should be created through which casteism, regional
and linguistic tendencies can be rooted out. We recommend the setting
up of special residential institutions of university grade in various
States to inculcate an all-India outlook among the students. These
institutions should be manned by professors and lecturers of out-
standing lear11ing and patriotism. The courses of studies must be
suitably devised to enable the students to rise above communal,
regional and linguistic predilections. The medium of instruction should·
be Hindi-the official and national language of the country. One or
two regional languages also must be taught in these institutions. Pro-
fessors and students drawn from all parts of the country and from all
communities should live together, study together and work ~ogether.
The details may be worked out by a special committee appomted for
the purpose.
241. In advocating the speedy educational .advancement of the
backward classes, our object is not merely to _brmg them to the level
of more advanced communities but to seek m the very process the
removal of social inequalities.
242. With this end in view we have suggested the establishment
of Basic Schools all over the rural areas on a planned basiS. There
must be at least one school in each village-big or smal!-givin~
primary education of the basic t~pe, an~. a~ least one Panchkosh1
school in a central village servmg adJmmng Vlllag<; . schools. A
Panchlcoshi school will have to make adequate provisiOn for all
the students that gather there fro!ll its feeder .area. These schools
should be manned hy artisans tramed as effi~wnt bas1c teachers.
On a rough e£timate, we may have to establish nearly five lakhs
•
 122

of schools in villages and about fifty thousand Panchkoshi schools

in central villages. It is expected that these schools, when proper~y
manned and equipped, will so train the students that ther~ Will
be no need for them to go to High Schools. The present pollcy of
locating higher educational institutions in cities and towns. should
be discontinued. The Panchkoshi schools can be as effic1ent as
modern High Schools are expected to be. In course of time these
must become feeders for Rural Universities of the basic type. The
whole scheme envisages the setting up in due course of hundreds
of Rural Universities of the basic 'Jpe in the country. Then alone
can education achieve a social revolution.
243. We have suggested elsewhere the establishment of non-
denominational Samata Ashrams in various parts . of the country.
These Ashrams will not be mere schools. They will be the training
ground for a casteless and classless society. It is expected that
persons trained in these Ashrams will eventually run the Panch-
koshi Schools. These Ashrams will be conducted by men and
women imbued with the new ideals of Sarvodaya Society, and the
Rural Universities will necessarily be under the guidance of such
men and women. With the establishment of Ashrams of a proper
type, and the recruiting of basic teachers from the artisan and
occupational classes, the training of teachers for Basic Schools.
need not be so costly as is predicted by educationists of the ortho-
dox type. In fact, the question is not so much of the cost as of the
time it will take to train Basic teachers. The principle of the·
"inevitability of gradualness" has to be accepted whenever we are
out to have a social revolution. We recommend that the Government
decide to spend all the money they can on basic education. Only
where Basic Schools cannot be started should money be spent on
orthodox education. '
Educational Aid by Government of India for Backward passes
244. The Government of India decided in 1944 to institute a
scheme for the award of scholarships to Scheduled Caste candidates
to enable the~ to prosecute studies in post-matric courses in scient1flc
and technolog~cal subJects. After independence the scone was widened
~0 mclude Schedt:led Tribes and a grant of Rs. 50,000 ·was sanctioned
0 r scholarships m the year 1948-49. The scheme was reviewed by
?Vernment towards the end of 1948-49 and a revised scheme of
~c!lolafshlps to mclude other educationally backward classes was
orm~~~g~· The g~ant for this purpose ·was raised to 10 lakhs in the
0
year · and m awa;ding scholarships preference was given to
!~~ds~l~n~~~dymg Medlcme, Engineering, Technology, Agriculture

1950 1~ Aftebl the adoption of the Constitution on

2
the 26th January
forefron~ PAll ~h~ s~ \he educationally backward classes came to the
for the 'ra a e . overnments formulated their own schemes
tion I g nt of concessiOns to these classes at all stages of educa·
1 · n most of the States the expenditure under this head was
fg:
on~i~ t~~hO~hledB Cktes dancd Scheduled Tribes. The quantu~
for x · er ac war lasses was very little. The deman
matr~cg~~~~~n s~~d~~: gCentrald Scheme of Scholarships for pos~
the f rew an the Government of India approve
con muance of the scheme for a further period of five years
 123
!rom 1950, with an initial grant of Rs. 12 lakhs This sum was late!"
mcreased to 15 lakhs in 1951-52. In 1952-53 the total grant amounted
to Rs. 30 lakhs and the total mm~ber of scholarships awarded in
that year came to 6,018 scholarships. The provision during 1953-54
was 62 lakhs and in 1954-55 it was, 107 lakhs. The number of appli-·
cants for central scholarships grew year by year. The number of
apphcan.ts a_nd the number of scholarships awarded during the year
1953-54 IS gtven below:-

Numhrof Number of
applications Scholatships
received. grJ.ntod

I. Scheduled Cut.. 6,560 5,054

2. S'hedulo<l Tribco • 1,779 1,5S7'
3. Other Baokw•rd Class.. 10,666 4,393'

!t will be seen that while almost every one of the applicants belong-
tng to the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe groups got a
scholarship about 55 per cent of the candidates of the Other Back-
ward Class group had to do without.·
Facilities for Advanced Studles Abroad
246. The Government of India have instituted scholarshiPs for
studies abroad. During the years 1947-48 · to 195o-53 only 2·
Scheduled Castes and one Other Backward Class candidates were·
g1v~n scholarships for studies abroad under this scheme. There was
a demand for more scholarships for these classes, and the number
was raised at the rate of two for each of the three groups, viz.,
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes.
Selection of candidates was entrusted to the Union Public Service
Commission. The number was raised to 12 during 1954-55. As has
been observed elsewhere in the Report, great importance is attached
~0 the training of students in various sciences in foreign universities
In order to equip the students of the backward classes to take
the1r place along with others. It is therefore necessary that Govern-
ment of India should make adequate provision for award of fore1gn
scholarships. The amount needed has been mentioned under the
Head 'Grants'. · · .
Scheme of Scholarships In States
247. The importance of scholarships to enable the students of
Other Backward Classes to study various branches of htgher
learning has already been discussed in detail. Schemes of freesh1ps
~nd scholarships for the poorer sections of these classes have been
ln force in some of the South Indian States for. some years past.
The Commission was told that the amount prov1ded for was m-
adequate and that therefore sufficient number of .stu~ents c?uld not
be awarded scholarship. No such schemes were mshtuted 1n other
States and it is only recently that efforts have been made to award
some scholarships to the Other Backward Classes. It was urged m
those States that a large number o~ poor studeJ!tS of the Other
ll ackward Classes went without h1gher edu!!atton for want of
 124

educational aid. Representatives of the backward classes drew the

attention of the Commission to the increasing number of Scheduled
Caste candidates in view of the monetary help they receive, and
urged that unless such help is extended to Other Backward Classes
there will be no hope for educational advancement amo!lg . these
classes. In view of the extreme poverty of these classes 1t IS. not
possible for them to take advantage of the educat10nal facthttes
<lfiered by the State unless they are financially helped. We recom-
mend therefore that schemes of freeships and scholarships should
be introduced in all the States for the benefit of students belong·
ing to the Other Backward Classes also. The State Governments
must make adequate provision in their budgets for this purpose.

248. In the States in which schemes of scholarships are in force,

it was urged that in awarding scholarships the claims of all the com·
munities should be taken into consideration. Some others pleaded
that the allotment should be first on the basis of districts, and then
Qn the basis of the population of the communities in the several
districts. This was necessary, they pointed out, because of the likeli-
hood of students of certain communities getting the scholarships to
the detriment of those who are extremely backward and who had none
to back up thetr cases. Instances of discrimination in the award of
-scholarships were also brought to our notice. Scholarships should
~o to those who are in most dire need of them. We recommend that
· m awardmg scholarships the claims of all communities should be
taken mto constderahon and the allotment in the first instance
should be on the basis of population of the various communities in
that State, preference being always given to those who are extreme-
ly backward. We further suggest that small committees consisting
Qf representallves of various communities be constituted for various
grades ?f scholarships in each State to assist the educational
authontles to select deserving candidates from among the different
·col'll;mumtles for t~e purpose of award. This would ensure an
equttable dtstnbutwn of. scholarships among the students of all
-commumhes. I~ was also brought to our notice that in the circum·
bta~es ldevathng today, it is likely that the most vocal among the
a~ wdr T may ~et scholarships while the most unfortunate are un·
no lee · o obv1ate this, it was suggested that the income of the
f~r~h~ Jf~~~~d .be t~e ~asishon which scholarships should be awarded.
State G~vern~n w tc sc ~mes of scholarships are in force, the
thA ceilin inc~~ts have .,latd down a certain minimum income as
St;tes ha~e presc;ibe~hll:ng a student to get a scholarship. Some
provided Rs 3 OOO e 1 s. •500 \)er annum and some others have
State snd c~n~equr~u annum.-! Ltvmg. conditions differ from State tdo
down for all the s Y a um orm mmtmum income cannot be lat
ject to local variatl~~es. ~ut a general rule could be laid down sub·
income of the arent s. e recommend that generally speaking the
not exceed Rs.pl BOO pof a student applying for a ~cholarship should
ship up to the Seconder annum to make him eligible for a scholar·
higher when students ary Course. The expenses of education are
"Of learning, particularte. sent for studies in the higher branches
all such cases, we reco~ m professtona! and technical courses. In
not exceed Rs 3 600 mend that the mcome of his parent should
·scholarship. · ' ~er annum to entitle a student to apply for a
 125

Reservation of Seats in Science, Medicine, Engineering Agriculture

Veterinary and other Technical and Technological fustiutions of
Higher Learning
249. We have already discussed in sufficient detail the claims for
reservation of seats for all backward classes in the professional and
techmcal branches of higher learning. Actually, in some of the
Indian States, reservation for backward classes is already being
made in such institutions. Reservation is necessitated on account of
the limited number of seats in these institutions. There would have
been no necessity for such a reservation if all the qualified boys of
backward classes could secure admission. One view was that reserva-
tion of seats on caste basis is not desirable, and that the State must
provide educational facilities for all the qualified students who seek
admission to the higher branches of learning. This view is ideolo-
gically sound, but, as financial resources of the States are limited,
and as it takes time for the establishment of institutions, we do not
sec any possibility that in the very near future professional and
technical institutions in sufficient number will be established to pro-
vide for all the students seeking admission. Another suggestion was
that qualifications for admission being equal, prior~ty should be
given to the students of backward classes and then only should
students of the advanced classes be taken. A via media had to be
found between these two views and it was suggested that reserva-
tion of seats in Science, Professional and Technical Colleges or
Institutions should be apportioned on the basis of population of the
several communities in a State. In practice, this would reduce the
chances of brilliant boys from the advanced classes getting admission
to reserved seats. There was also a view that reservation should
not go beyond 50 per cent. All these points of view were discussed
thor.oughly. We, therefore, finally recomme~d that in all the Science,
Engmeering, Medicine, Agriculture, Vetermary and other techmcal
and technological institutions, a reservation of 70 per cent of t~e
seats ~hould be made for qualified students of backward classes. !111
such lime as accommodation can be provided for all students ehg1ble
for admission. In making selection to the reserved quota of seats,
l:jualified candidates from the extremely backward classes should
be taken into consideration first. The remaining 30 per cent, as also
all seats unavailed of by backward classes, should go to the rest
of the students. The problem of further distribution of seats among
the various communities in the backward classes group came up
for consideration. It was pointed out that unless some arrange-
lllent is made for equitable distribution of the seats, there would
be no justice to the more backward. We recommend that as. far as
Possible the reserved quota of seats in these educatiOnal. mshtu-
tions should be distributed on the principle of favounng . the
lower of the two claimants among the candidates from the vanous
communities A selection committee cons1shng of some represen-
tatives of ali communities, not necessarily of the .~ack~ard alo~e,
should be set up to assist the educational authontles m selectmg
the best from among the students of the vanous commumhes.
R. Representation of Other Backward Classes in Government
Services-Central and State
250. The most insistent demand of the Other Backward Classes,
next. to educational facilities, was for adequate representabon of
tllll5llo11U
 126

the qualified candidates from among them in various J:>ranches .of

Government. They argued that as Government serviCe cames
prestige, power and influence, the backward classes too should have
their due share in it. The representatives of the backward classes
stated that their members are not getting a fair deal at the hands
of the appointing authorities for recruitment to various services.
They pleaded that in the present atmosphere of caste structure, a
definite percentage of posts must be reserved for them and the
policy must be implemented scrupulously.
251. The Commission sought for exhaustive information on the
rules of recruitment and on the number and percentage of persons
belonging to the Other Backward Classes in the several branches
of services-Central and State. Questions Nos. 70 to 86 in Question-
naire were framed somewhat in detail to elicit adequate informa-
tion to determine to what extent the privilege of posts in the
services is shared by all sections of the people. We asked for caste-
wise figures of Government servants in all grades of services, but
most of the State Governments could not furnish the necessary in-
formation as the caste-wise facts were not recorded in the case of
Government employees. Only a few states have supplied caste-wise
figures of Government employees with percentage of representation
for some years. The rules of recruitment were modified to some extent
in undivided Madras. Andhra and Travancore-Cochin also modified
their rules after the promulgation of the Indian Constitution. These
?tates in previous years had adhered strictly to the basis of caste
m r<~eru1tment.
252. In view of the importance attached to Government services-
due to lack of sufficient openings in other spheres all classes aspire
to them and even more so the backward classes 'who for centuries
have had no share.
253. I~ mediaeval India, when the Varna system of social
class1fic~tlon jlrev~1led, each .class was trained for a particular kmd
of sen:1ce. H1stoncal e.voluhon produced governing classes every-
where m the "Yorld durmg mediaeval times. Modern conditions have
cha.nged the p1cture completely, and we must now devise a method
wh1ch would not on~y g!ve .equality of opportunity to all but would
render complete soc1al JUSbce to every section of the population. !
254. *Toynbe~ h~s observed that out of twenty civilisations that,
went down .the h1l~ m the ~ourse of history, fifteen failed to adjust!
the c?mpetmg cla1ms. of d1fferent sections of 'the population. The!
superlO~Ity of the ruhng and priestly classes in India the HelleniC!
conceptiOn of the philosopher guardians as the R~lers of the'
re!lubl~~; the .class-efficiency of the Roman Civil Service· the Con
i'ecldnl Dte~attl who administered the Cinic Universal 'state, the
ele':n:nts j~mf' 0J. andC~he Saml!rais of Japan and the recent British
the progressiv~ f~~c lVI} ~~rvlce, have a\1 bee.n disintegrated ~
world Th t d'f 1 es 0 e new dynam1c soc1ety throughout t
down· b e ra IOnal Plutocratic methods of administration brok
is stupi~ca~~~k~fa;he err~neous assumption that the common rna
government Whe: and .'trratlonal, and therefore incapable of sel
· e po1' 1ca1, economic or social slavery wa
37
•Pages 2-374 "The Study of History" by Toynbee abridged edit[o;
 l2i

tolerated in some form or other the gulf between the ruling class
and the ruled masses led to eventual liquidation of the former It
has, therefore, been recognized more as a measure of State ciaft
than as a philosophic . do~trine, that the internal stability of a
country. cannot be ma1ntamed unless all the various strata of the
populatiOn are g1ven a fair share in the administration of the
country. ·
255. The above lessons of history were gradually recognized to
some extent during the Muslim rule in India. Some of the success-
ful Muslim Kings shared control with Hindu administrators ·even
at the highest level. The British also had to recognize this factor
although they did it slowly and reluctantly. Partly as a measure
of State policy and partly as a result of public demand for a greater
share in the administration, the British ruler!\ very gradually con-
ceded the recruitment of Indians to the Superior Services. Indian
Civil Service Examinations formerly held in London only, were
later held in India also to throw open greater opportunities to·
Indian candidates. The history of Indianisation of all branches of
services including Army, Navy and Air Force is too recent to need
detailed discussion.
256. Alarmed at the growth of political consciousness in the
country, the British Government tried to weaken the Nationalistic
forces by offerin~;t representation to the minority communities in
Government services. Thus reservation of a certain percentage of
appointments in favour of minority communities and groups like
the Muslims, Christians, Sikhs and the Scheduled Castes was accept-
ed and given effect to. When it was discovered that their candidates
were unable to compete successfully in the open competitive exami-
nations, a system was introduced of nominating a certain quota of
the number recruited in open competition, in order to ensure their
representation. In spite of this, for a long time the share. of Indians
Ill the administrative services of their own country remamed small.

257. After independence the reservation for l!linorities othe~ than

Scheduled Castes was withdrawn, but it was latd down ~~at m the
case of recruitment made otherwise than by open competitiOn on an
All-India basis the reservation of 13-1/3 per cent for Muslim~, and
10 per cent fo~ other minority communities be continued. (This was
Withdrawn on 26th January 1950). Instructions were. issued b;; the
Government of India as early as 1934 that duly quahfie~ candtdat~s
be!onging to the depressed classes should not be depnved of fatr
opportunities of appointment because they could not su7ceed m
Open competition. As it was difficult to get qualified candidates :n
sufficient numbers owing to their general educational backwardness,
no definite percentage of vacancies for these classes was earmarked.
The position was reviewed in W42 and the progress ~as found to be
Unsatisfactory. While the then Government of ~dt~. felt that the
slow progress might be due mainly to the unavatlab1hty of suitable
candidates, it was felt that reservation of a de.fimte percent~e
would provide the necessary stimulus to the candidates from these
castes. The age-limit for entry into service was relaxed and the
examination fees were also reduced. Though the Sche?uled Castes
Were entitled to 12.75 per cent reservation on the basts of popula-
tion, orders were issued in ~ugust 1943, to reserve 8-1/3 per cent
only in view of the paucity of their candidates. This reservation
applied only to direct recruitment and not to recruitment by. pr~r
motion. Central Services, Class I and II, and the Subordmate
Services under the administrative control of Government. o~ Ind1a
were brought under the scope of this order. The age-hm1t was
raised by three years in the case of Scheduled Castes candtdates
and the examination fees reduced to one-fourth. These rules were
further liberalised in June 1946, and the percentage was raised to
12! per cent to correspond approximately with the total popula·
tion pf the Scheduled Castes in the country. This percentage was
continued after independence and it was further laid down that
in the case of recruitment made otherwise than by open compel!·
tion, but made on an all-India basis, a reservation of 16-2/3 per
cent of the vacancies should be made for these castes. At about the
same time, the Swardj Government examined the question of pr~r
viding reservation in the Central Services for the tribal people. It
was decided that no useful purpose would be served by providing
such reservation, since the number of qualified candidates available
from the tribal people would be extremely small. Instructions were
issued, however, in December 1947, that the appointing authorities
should keep in view the desirability of recruiting suitable candidates
from amongst the tribal people to the vacancies reserved for other
minority groups, particularly in recruitment from the States of
Assam, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. In July 1949, further
orders were issued granting the tribals the same age and fee con-
cessiOns as were allowed to Scheduled Castes.
258. With the coming into force of the Indian Constitution the
policy of recruitment of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
":'as reviewed in the light of the provisions made therein. (Resolu·
t10n of the Government of India under Article 335 and 336 of the
lnd1an Constitution is given in Appendix VI). The position now is as
follows:-
Scheduled Castes-
(a) Reservation of 12! per cent of the vacancies 'filled by direct
recruitment through open competition.
(b) R.eservation of 16-2/3 per cent of the vacancies filled bY
dtrect recruitment made on an all-India basis otherwtse
than by open competition. '
Scheduled Tribes-
(a) Reservation ?f. five per cent of the vacancies filled b1
open competition or made otherwise.
!

259. T~e age-limit for gazetted service was relaxed by th~

years and .m the case o~ non-gazetted service by five years. and th~
fe~ prdscrtbed for admiSSion to any examination or selection w~
re uce to one-fourth. These orders were made a licable to Ill!
services unde,r ,the control of the Government of Pfndia includin!
posts m Part C States. It was further laid down that if in anY ye~
the quota ~f reserved vacancies is not fully utilized the balanCI
Will be camed ~orwa_rd to the next year, but to no sub~equent yearS
F.urther concessiOns In the matter of confirmation retention in se~
VICe, mcrement etc., were also granted to these ciasses.
 129

260. The rules were further relaxed in 1952 and it was laid
do;vn that if the car:tdidates of the Scheduled 'castes, Scheduled
Tnbes and Anglo-~ndtan community obtained by competition a less
number of vacanc1es than are r~s :nc:l for them, the difference
Will be made good by the nomination of duly ·qualified candidates
from these communities who have sec;.~:·ed lower ranks than others
(vtde Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs Resolution
No. 42/21/49-NGS dated the 29th January 1954).
261. The policy of reservation for Scheduled Castes was in
force in most of the States prior to the coming into force of the
Constitution, .and after· the 26th January 1950, all States Govern·
ments made reservation of posts in their services for Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes under Article 335 of the Constitution
of India. The percentages of reservation do not correspond with the
population strength of each· of these classes uniformly through the
States.
262. To ensure proper representation the Government of India
(Ministry of Home Affairs) prescribed the maintenance of rosters
to indicate the orders in which the recruitment should take place
both to reserved and unreserved quotas in the vacancies. They
further prescribed grouping of posts, where only a few posts were
a.vailable for the purpose of representation of these classes. Instruc-
ltons were issued to all the appointing authorities that the recruit-
ment to the reserved quotas of appointment should be strictly
followed and directed that communal returns should be submitted
by all the ministries to enable the Government of India to watch
over the observance of these orders.
263. The principle of communal representation was reviewed
first in August 1947, (vide Ministry of Home Affairs Resolution dated
the 21st August 1947). It was again reviewed after the promulgation
of the Constitution of India and reservation was made only in the
case of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Anglo-Indians in
the light of the provisions of the Constitution of India, and represen-
tation of other minority communi ties was withdrawn.
264. The claim for representation o£ backward classes in the
State services was voiced early in the south Indian States on.iy. I;
gained great momentum by the non-Brahman 'Movem~nt in Bombay.
Madras (undivided), Mysore, and to some extent m Travancore-
Cochin. There was at one time a recognition by the Bombay Govern-
ment of the principle that the recruitment of advanced classes
should be stopped till an adequate n1;1mber of backward ~lasses
should be recruited to the services. Th1s, however, was not imple-
mented. But the Qecessity and desirability of recrl!iting candidat.es
belonging to backward classes was recogmsed and implemented till
the promulgation of the Constitution. ·
' 265. In Madras a system of communal rotation was introduced
~o accord representation to ·an the recogmsed b~ck~ard cla.ss grou~s
In order to remove inequalities .of representa~wn m services. Th1s
Was in full force during the Justice Party Mimstry under the Mont-
ford Reforms. ·
266. In Mysore the question of remoying inequalities of ~~presen·
tation in the State services of certam important commun!itles was
 130

recognised as early as 1894. Strict instructions were issued in 1895

that certain reservation of posts should be earmarked fo~ all com·
munities except the Brahmans who till th~n ha~. ~ pracl!cal mono-
poly of the entire services. The progress m util~smg opp?rtumttes
was slow. Discontent and dissatisfaction grew w1th the nsmg tlde
of communal consciousness.

267. The whole question was reviewed in 1918 by a Commit.tee

under the Chairmanship of Sir Leslie Miller, the then Chtef Justtce.
Accepting the Committee's ·recommendations the Government
directed that the proportion of members of backward commumttes
in all Headquarters and District Qffices of all Departments should
be raised to fifty/er cent of the total strength within seven ye~rs.
To secure this en , standing instructions were issued to the appomt·
ing authorities to give preference to the candidates of the backward
communities in making initial appointments, so long as those candt·
dates possessed the prescribed qualifications. The age for entry tnto
service was raised from 25 years to 28 in the case of these com·
munities. A Central Recruitment Board was constituted to watch
the progress of the new arrangements. The Government further
directed the granting of special educational facilities in the form of
freeships, scholarship, and hostel grants to stimulate educational
advancement among these classes so that qualified candidates might
become available for recruitment.

268. The scheme of recruitment was altered in 1927 as progress

was found to be slow, and the proportion of backward community
candidates to be recruited was raised to 75 p(1r cent of the total posts
avatlable, the remaining 25 per cent being filled up irrespective of
communal considerations. Even these instructions were not fully
implemented. Seven years later, in 1934 a revised set of rules of
recruitment was issued, and the Centr~l Recruitment Board was
given greater powers to implement the rules of recruitment. Leading
non-offiCial members belonging to various communities were
rej)resented on this Board which reviewed the progress of represen·
tatto~ of vartous communities in the State services. The rules of
recrUitment related only to non-gazetted service. But the same
pohcy was followed bv the Government in recruiting persons to the
gazetted ranks of the State Services. • It was realized in Mysore earlY
enough that reserva~ion of posts for backward communities did not
by ttself ensure equttable distribution over the whole range of com·
mumltes mcluded m \hts group. In actual practice it was found that
the. more backward among them did not receive sufficient represen·
t~tton. The Government, therefore, evolved a policy which would
gtve representalton to all communities by according representatiOn
to the unrepresented first, the under-represented next and the
represented last. '

269. The Governments of Travancore and Cochin States before

merger had foll~wed a policy of according representation to the
several communt\tes tn the State approximately in proportion to

•~ statement sh?wing the number and percentage of representation

of var1ous communtt1rs both in the gazetted and non.Nazetted services tn
Mysore ts at AppendtK VII. "'
 131

the}r population. Communal rotation was continued after the for-

ma,JOn of ~ravancore-Cochin St~te uptil 17th November 1952, when
new !ecru1tment rules were 1ssued under Article 16( 4) of the
ConstitutiOn.
270. The situation changed to some extent in the case of
Bombay, Madras (undivided), and Travancore-Cochin after the pro-
mulgation of the Constitution. The Government of Bombay abolish-
ed t~e hst of Intermediate communities after 26th January 1950, and
C?ntmu~d to .acc?rd representation only to the communities men-
honed m the1r hst of Other Backward Classes in addition to the
Scheduled Castes and Tribes. They accorded a reservation of 12.8
per cent of the posts for Scheduled Castes. Scheduled Tribes and
Other Backward Classes put together in Class I and II posts. In
a.ddition Scheduled Castes got' 6 per cent and 7 per cent representa-
tion 1n Class III and Class IV services respectively. Similarly,
Scheduled Tribes were given 7 per cent and 9 per cent reservation
m Class III and Class IV services respectively. They did not adopt
any procedure for the even distribution of the reserved posts among
the communities comprising these cate~ories. The Government were
unable to furnish community-wise figures of representation in
Government service.
271. The Government of Madras (undivided) modified their
communal G.O. in the light of the decision of the Supreme Court,
but subsequently restored reservation under Article 16( 4) of the
Constitution of India. According to this Order a reservation of five
out of every twenty vacancies is made for qualified candidates of
backward classes, other than Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
They have also relaxed age 'l:estriction and have given fee
concessions for admission into competitive examinations. The same
rules are now in force in Andhra.
272. In Travancore-Cochin State, under the new rules of recruit·
ment ~fter 17th September 1952, reservation for backward com-
mumtles was introduced for all grades up to a ma?'u~um pay of
Rs: 175 per month. Representation on analagous prmc1p!es IS no:w
b~mg given in the case of selection of officers to Travancore-~ochm
C1v11 Service, MunsitTs etc. Thirtyfive per cent of the vacancies are
reserved for Other Backward Classes and 10 per cent for Schedu~ed
Castes and Scheduled Tribes. They have made a further prov,1s1on
that out of every 20 vacancies, 2 posts should go to Scheduled Castes
and' Scheduled Tribes and 7 posts .to Other ~ackward Classes. They
have also fixed the order in wh1ch vacanc1es could be filled by
open competition, or by recruitr~1ent from amongst the back~ar~
classes group for reserved vacancieS. The order. ~!so .fixes the distri-
bution of reserved posts among the _commum!le~ m each of the
backward classes group in the followmg proportion:-
Out of every 35 appointments, 13 shall be given to Ezhavas.
5 to Muslims 3 to Kammalas, 3 to Nadars, 1 to S.I.U.C.,
6 to Latin c~tholics, 2 to Other Hindus,. and 2 to Other
Christians. The order also fixes the d1stnbution of these
appointments.
273. It is provided in the rules that if no candidate is available
from a community when its turn comes. then the vacancy w1ll be
 132

filled by open competition. The community so. passed over will get
the earliest possible opportunity within a penod of 3 years, a cor·
responding omission being made in the number to be filled up by
open competition.
274. It is of interest to consider the case of representation. of
backward classes in Saurashtra. In 1949, soon after the formatwn
of this State, Government took steps to prescribe certain percent-
a"'es for recruitment of backward class candidates in certain cadres
p~ovided the candidate had the requisite ql!alifications. The
question was reviewed several times, and finding that progress was
slow, it was decided to go ahead even at the sacrifice of a certam
dJ?gree of administrative efficiency. To achieve this end they
directed (vide their Resolution No. HS/ A/4-1(1), dated the 11th
November 1953) that:-
(i) The recruitment and promotions will now be confined to
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes until the overall
ratios laid down for them in all services are attained. Only
when these candidates are not available the recruitment of
non-Scheduled Castes will be made.
(ii), If a Scheduled Caste candidate is available in the lower
cadre for promotion, he should be promoted, whatever his
rank in the lower cadre, provided he is otherwise suitable.
The second promotion to the same persons will not be
given out of turn, which is five years unless otherwise done
in the ordinary course.
(iii). There will be s.eparate standard of qualifications for this
. class,. which will be as low as possible, although for
techmcal posts the reduction in qualifications will be
hmited. For a purely administrative post a Scheduled
~astes non-graduate will be accepted if he shows average
Intelligence, and he will then be trained at Government
expense in order to maintain efficiency of service.
( iv) In the. selection posts, the Scheduled Castes person~el
otherwise eligible for promotion, except for the condition
of select10n, Will be coached for promotion at Government
expense before an opportunity for selection arises.
(v) Personal servants of Ministers, Secretaries, Heads of
Departments, and Gazetted officers, will invariably be
recruited from Scheduled Castes. •
(vi) Government will make arrangements for a coaching class
or classes on a wh~le time basis to equip Scheduled Cas~es
candidates for clencal and other services as need anses.
(vii) The percentages of reservations for Scheduled Castes and
backward classes apply also to work-charged establish·
men~s. and. municipalities, ·and Government grants for
. mumcipahtJes WI!! be conditional upon their carrying out
the above condition.
(viii) All authorities concerned are asked to see that the above
prmciples and policies are carried out scrupulously and are
warned t~at non-observance thereof in any service will be
VIewed WJth serious displeasure.
 133

275. :rhe following table gives the percentage of recruitment as

ordered 1n 1949:--
---------~----------~----------
Percentage up
Cadre 1Percentage of to which.
j recruitment appointments
oould be made
Clerks 10 5
Taln.tis 20 10
Ballifs 10 10
Teachers Iii 15
PeQtl!l 20 10

Reviewing the position in 1950, the Government remarked: "That

there has not been much effort on the part of all recruiting autho-
rtttes" to imple_ment the policy of reservation, and impressed on them
the respons1b1bty m regard to attainment of percentage laid down in
the Government Resolution, and directed them to maintain a list of
yarious services and posts and to check the percentages at regular
Intervals. It was in February 1951, that the Government fixed the
following percentages in modification of the 1949 Order:-
(1) There will be an over-all ratio in recruitment at 12! per
cent for Scheduled Caste and Other Backward Class candi-
dates. This would apply to posts other than peons.
(2) In the case of recruitment of peons there will be reserva-
tion at 6:l per cent for Scheduled Castes and a similar
percentage of reservation for Other Backward Classes.
Again in 1953 the Government directed that 5 per cent of
vacancies advertised by the Public Service Commission in
all categories should be reserved for Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes.
(3) Ten per cent of the vacancies could be reserved in all other
categories except Class IV posts.
(4) For Class IV posts, the existing reservation of 6! per cent
for Scheduled Castes and Tribes and 6! per cent for Other
Backward Classes should continue.
(5) The age limit should be relaxed by five years.
276. The following information furnished by the Government of
~aurashtra on the percentage of represen~ation of ba~kward classes
tn various services indicates poor results m sp1te of VJgorous efforts.
made:-
Number of poets
held by membem
Number o( posts of tho backward
Cadn>. classoJJ (including
unotioned
Scheduled Castoo
and Scheduled
Tribeo)

65 Nil
Gnzotted Officers I
~lt?n:Gazett<ld Officeta 9
58
a 1 fl~'ltc.•rial 506
350 220
lloninl
-
 134

The remaming Sta:es in India made no reservation of seats in favour

of the Other Backward Classes, and it is not possible to judge the
representation of this grouP. in various branches of service without
reservation unless caste-wise figures are given. Of these States,
Assam. Bihar, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Coorg, Tripura and Vindhya
Pradesh have furnished us figures indicating that a few of the posts
are held by persons belonging to the Other Backward Classes.
277. It should be instructive to consider the degree of imple-
mentation in States where reservation of seats for the backward
classes has been in force for some years past. In the case of the
Government of India where there was reservation of 12~ per cent for
Scheduled Castes and 5 per cent for Scheduled Tribes in All-India
Services where recruitment was by open competition, the percentage
attained by these two classes is 1.9 and 0.1 respectively as on 1st
January 1953. In other services of the Government of India.where
there was 16-2/3 per cent reservation for Scheduled Castes and 5 per
cent for Scheduled Tribes the degree of implementation is still more
revealing. The following table makes this position clear:-
As on 30th June 1953

Scheduled Castes Scheduled Tribes

Category of posts Total

-
number No. of No. of Nc.. of No. or No. of No. of
of posta can~i· poets posts oondi· pn!\l~
po~Jta due dnWs o.ctually duo dntea ncturtlly

()Ia,. I .. .. 5,751 958

available filled
- --
i> 20
--- -~
287 ••
-
avai111blc filled

6
<Jlaas II (Gazetted) .. 5,653
•
~
•
., IS
942
•0 50 282
a
<na.. II (non·Gazetled) .. 3,103 617 .~ 63 155 .s• 3
Cl•" m .. .. ':l ~

a~
<na..IV .. ..
6.49.300 91,550
7,89,027 1,31,604
~j
t.Si
,!';
24,819
161,958
27,405
39,451
·-
..g.;
.!:
2,548

14,512
-.
278. In Madras where the reservation is 15 per cent for these tw~
7lasses together the degree of implementation is only 2.45 per cent
m gazetted ranks, 6.9 per cent in non-gazetted ranks and 14.25 per
cent m the last grade which includes a large number of scavengers
and sweepers. In Mysore where the reservation for Scheduled
<:;astes and Scheduled Tribes is 16.7 per cent, the actual represents·
hon IS 1.7 per cent m gazetted ranks and 5 08 per cent in non-gazet·
ted services . In T_ravan.core-Cochin the per~entage of representation
~ctually achteved ts ml m Class I, .44 per cent for Class II, 1.7 per cent
or Class III, and 4.02 per cent in Class IV for Scheduled Castes and
Sched~led Tnbes together. The. figures simply show that progress
must mevttably be. gradual. These figures for the south should be
accepted as the ratt? of no~mal healthy growth. Other States should
be tested on the basts of thts ratio of progress In Bombay where the
~ehcentage of. reservation is 12! per cent ·for Scheduled Castes,
f c rduled Trtbes. and. Other Backward Classes, the attainment IS
atr Y poor. The Situation m other States is bad.
 135

279. The one conclusion to be drawn is that all-out efforts must

be. made to provide t~e~e communities with greater educational
facihlles and opportumtles. Moreover, any infringement in the
observance of the rules of recruitment should be severely dealt with
and any loopholes in the rules by which the spirit of fair practice~
may be passed. should be sealed off, so far as possible.
280. The plea for unimpaired efficiency requires to be examined
carefully to find out ~ow and to what extent it is being used to the
detriment of the Other Backward Classes. It was once assumed that
high academic qualification is the hall-mark of efficiency and is neces-
sary for success in official life. To remedy this one-sided view the
personality test was introduced to help the non-Brahman element.
But 1t seems there is discontent about the way the personality test
1~ used. Open competitive examination, although a fair test of effi-
Ciency, often times does not help us to select the best man for the job
contemplated. It was found necessary, therefore, to balance the
results of opPn competitive examinations by a personality test. This
latter test is of great value but cannot be easily measured. There is
every likelihood of the examiner arriving at incorrect results on
account of his predilections. It is best, therefore, to provide for this
personality test, yet, not to give it preponderating weightage. Those
who frame rules in this regard should have both these considerations
before them, and the rules should be modified from time to time to
secure best results and to obviate criticism and heart-burning.
. 281. Whatever might have been the case in the past, the measur-
Ing rod in recruitment of services in a welfare State must be far
different. The type of officer that is needed now should be of a
different mould altogether. In addition to requisite educational
qualifications he must have broad outlook on life and an innate urge
to render mo~e than social justice to the weaker sections of the popu-
lation. He must have the zeal to mix freely with the masses whom
he is serving, so that the gulf between the classes and the masses may
disappear.
282. We found no complaint in the States of Madras! Andhra,
'I'ravancore-Cochin and Mysore where the system of recrUJtmg cand1·
dates from Other Backward Classes to the reserve quota has been
in vogue for several decades. The representatives of the upper classes
Who met the Commission did not co~plain about any lack of effi-
Ciency in such offices. A good many Important offices are held by
members belonging to the Other Backward Classes, and we found
very good co-ordination between the administration and the people.
Nevertheless it must be recognised that the environmental conditiOnS
of the backward communities are far from conducive to t~e cultiv~­
hon of any special aptitude for a purely academic educatiOn. T~e1e
may be some creditable exceptions, but the gene~al body o~ \ese
classes will always find contest in open competitive exam1na wn,
especially when of a purely academic cha~acter, unequal for many
Years to come Adequate educational facilities and proper tramm1
after selection. will certainly enable them to fill the Governmen
service with a very considerable measure of success. .
¥83. Behind the plea for efficiency. there is pe~haps a 'k~~a
1
suspicion that a large-scale entry of candidates ~elongmg ~o bdc ced
communities may reduce the monopoly now enJoyed by t e a van
 134

The remaming Sta:es in India made no reservation of seats in favour

of the Other Backward Classes, and it is not possible to judge the
representation of this grouP. in various branches of service without
reservation unless caste-wise figures are given. Of these State~,
Assam. Bihar, OriSGa, Uttar Pradesh, Coorg, Tripura and Vindhya
Pradesh have furnished us figures indicating that a few of the posts
are held by persons belonging to the Other Backward Classes.
277. It should be instructive to consider the degree of imp!~
mentation in States where reservation of seats for the backward
classes has been in force for some years past. In the case of the
Government of India where there was reservation of 12~ per cent for
Scheduled Castes and 5 per cent for Scheduled Tribes in All-lnd1a
Services where recruitment was by open competition, the percentage
attained by these two classes is 1.9 and 0.1 respectively as on 1st
January 1953. In other services of the Government of India.wherE
there was 16-2/3 per cent reservation for Scheduled Castes and 5 pel
cent for Scheduled Tribes the degree of implemeQtation is still moll
revealing. The following table makes this position clear:-
As on 30th June 1953
Scheduled C..tea Scheduled Trih<o

Category of poata Total

-
number No. of No. of NCi, of No. of No. of !(o. of
of poota can~!- pools po•h candi· pnlri'
pooto duo da.tea octuotly duo <!Atee actually

(:Ia,. I ..
- Bvailable filled
-:; --- ~

i
--
•vailable filled

6
5,751 958 287
Claaa II (Gautt.cd)
"

" 5,653 942

>
•
i
20
50 282
.••
0
~
18

Claaa n (non-Gazetted) '.

Cla;;slll
"

..
"
3,103 517
5,49,300 91,650
0

L
~'i
63
24,819
155
27,46/l
.'8
·;;
~.s
~~
' 2,54
3

Claaa IV .. 7,89,027 1,31,1i04 ,!; !61,958 39,451 .s Jj,!l

. .
278 · In Madras where the reservation is 15 per cent for these tW~
~1asses together the degree of implementation is only 2.45 per cen
m ~a~etted ranks, 6.9 per cent in non-gazetted ranks and 14.25 pel
~e~ m the last grade which includes a large number of scavengj"
en sweepers. In Mysore where the reservation for Schedu ec
f astes i?d Schedul~d Tribes is 1G.7 per cent, the actual represent~
Ion IS : per cent m gazetted ranks and 5 08 per cent in non-gaze
!~~u!ff;~;~; In tava":core-Cochin the per~entage of represen:at~~
for Cl eve IS ntl m Class I, .44 per cent for Class II. 1.7 pel c 1
s h d ajs pr. ~nd 4.02 per cent in Class IV for Scheduled Castes an
mcus~ ln~vit~b\byesb togetdher. The. figures simply show thathpr~~~~
ted e gra ual. These figures for the south s ou 1
~;c~st d as \~e rbatio of no~mal healthy growth. Other States sho~h
e on e 881 S of thts ratio of progress In Bombay, where
~ehc~ntj~e of. reservation is 12! per cent . for Scheduled Caste;
f~iriy u e TTrhlbes and. Ot.her Backward Classes, the attainment
poor. e SituatiOn m other States is bad.
 135

279. The one conclusion to be drawn is that all-out efforts must

be . made to provide these communities with greater educational
facilities and opportunities. Moreover, any infringement in the
observance of the r~les of recruitment should be severely dealt with
and any loopholes m the rules by which the spirit of fair practice;
may be passed, should be sealed off, so far as possible.
280. The plea for. 1unimpaired efficiency requires to be examined
carefully to find out now and to what extent it is being used to the
d~tnment of the Other Backward Classes. It was once assumed that
h1gh academic qualification is the hall-mark of efficiency and is neces-
sary for success in official life. To remedy this one-sided view the
personality test was introduced to help the non-Brahman element.
!'Jut it seems there is discontent about the way the personality test
I~ used. Open competitive examination, although a fair test of effi-
Ciency, often times does not help us to select the best man for the job
contemplated. It was found necessary, therefore, to balance the
results of opE>n competitive examinations by a personality test. This
latter test is of great value but cannot be easily measured. There is
every likelihood of the examiner arriving at incorrect results on
account of his predilections. It is best, therefore, to provide for this
personality test, yet, not to give it preponderating weightage. Those
who frame rules in this regard should have both these considerations
before them, and the rules should be modified from time to time to
secure best results and to obviate criticism and heart-burning.
. 281. Whatever might have been the case in the past, the measur-
Ing rod in recruitment of services in a welfare State must be far
different. The type of officer that is needed now should be of a
different mould altogether. In addition to . requisite ~ducational
qualifications, he must have broad outlook on life and an mnate urge
to render more than social justice to the weaker sections of the popu-
lation. He must have the zeal to mix freely with the masses whom
he is serving, so that the gulf between the classes and the masses may
disappear.
282. We found no complaint in the States of Madr~s! Andhra,
Travancore-Cochin and Mysore where the system of recruiting candi-
dates from Other Backward Classes to the reserve quota has been
in vogue for several decades. The representatives of the upper classes
who met the Commission did not complain about any lack of effi·
ciency in such offices. A good many important· offices are held by
members belonging to the Other Backwa.rd Classes, and we found
very good co-ordination between the admmistratlOn and the people.
Nevertheless it must be recognised that the environmental condiUons
of the backward communities are far from condu~1ve to t~e cultiva-
tion of any special aptitude for a purely academic educatiOn. There
may be some creditable exceptions, but the gene;al body o.f t~ese
classes will always find contest in open competitive exammatmn,
especially when of a purely academic character, unequal fof m~ny
Years to come. Adequate educational facilities and proper ramm~
after selection will certainly enable them to fill the Governmen
service with a very considerable measure of success. .
283 Behind the plea for efficiency there is perhaps b lkrkma
suspici~n that a large-scale entry of candidates ~elodg~nygt~~ a~~a~~~d
communities may reduce the monopoly now en)oye
 136

communities in the several branches of Government services. In the

final analysis it is fear on the part of the vested interests. Tlfe pre-
sumption that a human being is incapable of advancement in spite of
training, discipline and collaboration is unscientific. Modern psycho-
logical investigation finds no justification for discrimination in
employment and it is not necessary for us to quote from the
U.N.E.S.C.O. literature on this subject. Even in a most enlightened
democracy such as the United States, although the principle of
equitable treatment of the Negro element in society has been
accepted, implementation has been slow. Now, however, the situation
has improved, especially since the appointment of the Fair Employ·
ment Practices Committee to ensure equality of opportunity_ for the
backward Negros. Conditions in India are different. Here it IS not a
case of racial discrimination as in the U.S.A. but one of rendenng
social justice in a caste-ridden society.
284. The educational policy of the British rulers was in the main
to train Indians to fill the subordinate ranks of the administrative
service. The upper classes, who were in superior social posi~on,
naturally took advantage of the facilities offered by the Bntish.
Moreover, the educational institutions were nearly all located Ill
C1t1es and towns. No facilities were either created or thought of Ill
~e interest of the large body of the rural population. Britishers were
mterested mainly in the collection of taxes and in the maintenance
of law and order, and they needed only such as were able to. quahfy
for these branches of the administration. In fact, the adm1mstraton;.
of those days did not encourage any particularly close contact
between rulers and ruled. Officers were therefore drawn from the
educated middle-classes who were already distinct from the class ,of
manual labourers. Thus a gulf was created between those in admmJs-
tratlve serv1ces and the masses at large. This suited the foreign
admlmstrators admirably and they continued the policy for a long
hme. With the growth of political consciousness and the agitation by
the people of India for a share in the administration, a safety v.alve
was. ~ound m according representation to the Muslims, Sikhs,
Chnstlans, Anglo-Indians and Scheduled Castes. In the South, the
movement for the amelioration of the backward classes resulted
t~e speclal recruitment of these classes to Government service. Con 1"
f.
~tons. have completely ~hanged since independence. Ind.ia ryas .C0~~
W
1 0 1ts. own, and there 1s now a readiness to render soCial JUstice le
a f se~~~~s of the people. Moreover, the country has assumed the roly
~0 a e are State, and the administrative services have necessaTlhe
ass!lme a _larger role than was previously assigned to them. e
scope 15 50 Widened that there is no aspect of life which does not co!ll
10
co~tact w_i.th the administrative services in one capacity or ~nothe~
Tbe mcreasmg_ tempo of developmental activity has necessitat~d ·t
h~r~~~gnbdmg mcrease. in the strength of the services. In its _wa d:e
rought recru1tment of varied types of people to fit mto
new character assumed by the State. I

mad 1· ;this relevant in this connection to quote the obsery ti~fa

1
285
Rur:l cn det rseport of the Committee of Direction for the AI • n .
re 1 urvey on page 525 : • I
"As we have ~!ready emphasized. not only the training but dl~
the recruitment of the personnel will have to be Iooke 1
 137

from the point of view of the new functions. Thus, a capa-

city for s~pat~y, understanding and responsiveness, in
the sense m which we have used those terms in relation
to the rural environment and to the needs of different
rural classes, should be among the qualities to which
importance should be attached in recruiting new candi-
dates. For unless that capacity is initially present and is
fostered and encouraged at all stages, the warning would
be relevant that 'to exchange the landlord for the tax-
gatherer, the merchant for the agent of State monopolies
and ihe money-lender for the state bank official may prove
to be not progress but enslavement'. To the extent that
official ~ttitude. are rigid, unresponsive and unimaginative,
they w1ll stultify progress m every one of the directions
envisaged .. In particular, they will be fatal to the objective
of evolvmg ·state-partnered co-operative institutions
especially at the rural level, into fully co-operative insti~
tutions at the earljest possible stage. Moreover, it is here
that the administrator and the official will be called upon
to discharge the extremely difficult task of helping others
to help themselves; in other words, while doing important
work as an officer of Government, yet so to perform it as
to make himself dispensable within the shortest possible
time."
286. We have referred elsewhere in our Report to the provisions
of the Constitution ensuring special protection of weaker sections
of the population and for providing reservation of pQsts for all the
(!!asses who are socially and educationally backward. The Constitu-
tio~ has also emphasised the need of rendering social justice to
var1ous communities. Moreover, the principle of reservation for
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes has already been accepted
.and acted upon throughout India. In some of the South Indian States
and in Bombay reservation for the backward classes has been in
operation for many yeal'll. The aspiration, therefore, of the Other
Backward Classes to obtain an adeauate share in the services of their
coun~ry is only natural. Their claiin for representation is long over-
due m many of the north Indian States. Unless the services are
manned by a fair proportion of the candidates belonging to back-
ward class groups, they will not inspire confidence. Securmg the
confidence of the masses is so necessary to the new role assumed by
the State, that unless this is done, the administrative machinery
cannot become an instrument to implement the policy of a Welfare
State. It is no longer possible to disregard the claims for adequate
representation of all the communities belonging to the backward
dasses.
287. The apprehensions entertained by some of the adv~nced
classes that they will be wiped out of existence by the reservation of
a large percentage of posts for backward dasses are reai!Y unfounded.
N?body ever proposed to disband or replace the ex1stmg personnel
~nth a view to recruiting candidates from the ~ackward ~lasses. What
IS demanded is that a certain quota of vacancieS that anse hereafter
should be reserved for t.he Other Backward Cla~~es as they are not
Yet confident of the results of an open competitiOn. It may be re-
membered that when compared to the large num~er of posts. already
held by the upper classes the number of vacancies that anse from
 138

time to time or are likely to arise is exceedingly small. Even here a

certain percentage is always open for recruitment through open
competitive examination. Persons who are already in service will
continue to remain till the period of superannuation. The process of
drawing into the services a fair proportion of backward communities
is inherently slow. As figures furnished by the Government of Mysore
indicate, it took a period of 30 years to reduce the percentage of
Brahmans from 69 per cent to-about 39 per cent. The expanding scope
of employment also opens out further avenues to all, including the
advanced classes, in the quota thrown open for competition. There
is, therefore. no fear of their total number being appreciably reduced
in the near future.
288. Some of the representatives of the advanced classes in north
Indian States expressed the fear that the reservation of seats for
backward classes might perpetuate casteism and that the privilege
once granted could not be withdrawn later. The very opposite is un-
fortunately the case. It is casteism that is keeping these backward
classes from participation in administrative services. Shri Jawaharlal
Nehru in his address to the Congress Parliamentary Party on
December 2, 1954, remarked as follows:-
"We have never been a united nation in the real sense of the
word in the past. We have had united urges. The way we
tend to disrupt is amazing-whether it is provincialism.
whether it is Hindu, Muslim or Sikh. We have not yet
developed the outlook of a united nation. We felt that we
have reached our goal and we can allow disruptJ~e
~enden~ies. t~ exist. We have always to fight it, w~ether 1t
IS provmc1ahsm or communalism or casteism. I w1il lay a
special emphasis on casteism because it is a: most dangerous
tendency. We talk about casteism ~nd we condemn it as
we should. But the fact remains that half a dozen, or maY
be 10, so-called superior castes dominate the I~dian scene
among the Hmdus. There is no doubt about 1t. And If 1
talk about the removal of caste ism, don't understand. by
that that I want to perpetuate the present classification,
some people at the top and the other people at the bottom.
If w~ don:t equalise or tend to equalise, undoubtedly,
caste1sm w11l flourish in a most dangerous way. It will not
really be a casteism of the old type but will be of a new
type". '
The~e are pregnant words which every patriot should ponder. The
feehng of caste may persist for some years. But as and when educated
members of the Ot~e: Backward Classes become available in larger
numbers, then a sp1r1t of competition even among themselves Vf1U
narrrally appear and it is hoped that the edge of communal feehng
WI wear away. On the other hand refusal to recognize this neVI
~rge Wll~ only accentuate caste feelings and leave a trail of bittern~ss
10
the Y!l1!ids of these communities. The movement in the south which
was ongmally CO!f!munal shed its communal outlook in the wJder
~ovement of nationalism. It is safer to recognize the spirit of the
lmes and remove all causes for bitterness In the course of a feW
;vears t~e communities themselves will reaiize the need for widen·
mg their own outlook. The impression ehould not be created that the
 139

rivileges were wrenched fr?'!l the hands of the upper castes; it

ust be made clear that prtvlleges were shared with the greatest
amount of goodwill.
289. The scale of pay in Government service, security of employ-
ment, pow~r and prestige and the scope to distribute patronage, all
have combmed to make Government services highly attractive and
c~nsequently greatly desired. The introduction of adult franchise has
VIrtually. transferred power to the masses; there is therefore every
JUshfication for their aspiration for a place in the actual governance
of the country. One way to lessen this keen desire for governmental
sernces IS to render them as unattractive as possible by reducing
emoluments. Social justice and communal harmony both demand
that the present alarming disparity between the scales of pay of the
!~west and the highest appointments should be reduced. As an imme-
dftate step of a modest character, the ratio between the emoluments
o the lowest and those of the highest paid persons may be reduced
to 1 : 20. But this ratio must ultimately be brought down to 1 : 10.
Then only will the charm attached to Government services begin to
d1sappear.
290. So long as the present state of aft'airs continues, claims of
Other Backward Classes for representation in the services must be
recognized. The question that comes next is the quantum of repre-
sentation that may be accorded to the Other Backward Classes with-
out disturbing the efficiency of the services. We are in no way inclined
t? allow efficiency to suffer. But we want the maintenance of effi-
Ciency in conjunction with the rendering of social. justice to all
sect10ns of the population. We are, therefore, of the optmon that open
competition for securing the best candidates without any caste con-
Sideration should be the rule; also in the sector of reservation the
best alone amongst the qualified backward classes should b~ recruited.
In considering the question of quantum of representation several
VIews were expressed. One view was that a small percentage of the·
yacancies may be reserved in the beginnin~ with a promise to. raise
1t as and when a sufficient number of candidates becomes available.
Another view was that in the larger interest of the serv!c.es, fifty per
cent of the vacancies should be filled by open competition, leavmg
the rest for distribution among all the three backward class groups.
Another reason was given for this view, namely, t~at th~ advanced
classes have no other occupations to take to m the 1mmed1a~e futu~e
as they have not been trained for any other .type of actlVlty. Still
another view was that as some of the more bnl.hant can~tdates from
the backward communities would probably obtam places m the quota
thrown open for competition, there is no need for reducmg the quota
reserved for open competition. On the other hand, the demand on
behalf of the Other Backward Classes was that a larger percentage
should be reserved for them to compensate for the lack o~ opportum ty
under which they have so long laboured, and that the mequahty. of
,representation in the existing services should be reduced as spee~1ly
as PO!lsible in the interest of communal harmony: T~e representatives
of the Other Backward Classes in all the States mststed that reserva-
tion should be in proportion to the population of each caste or group
of castes and that that is the least they expect from the Gove_rnment.
The me~orandum submitted by the President of t~e All-Indta Back·
ward Classes Federation has pleaded for a reservation of 60 per cent
 l-10

o! the vacancies for the Other Backward Classes. Instances of small

or no representation of backward classes in some of the North-lnd1an
States were put forward to justify the claim for weightage to redutt
the disparity now obtaining in the services. We gave anxio\16 thought
to all points of view and have come to the conclusion that it is good.
under the circumstances, to recognize the principle of reservation of
seats for the best among the qualified candidates of all backward
communities. The next question in one of quantum of representa:10a
While considering this we have kept in view the interest of the State,
the efficient running of the administrative machinery and the increas-
ing role of welfare that the administrative services have now to take
in relation to the masses of the country. We have also kept in view
the long period that is required to get a fair representation for these
communities. We, therefore, recommend that where education is suffi·
ciently high among the communities, the reservation should be m
proportion to the population of the communities of the Other Back·
ward Classes. We are conscious that this percentage vanes frorr
State .to State, and in some States the population of backward com
mumlies put together is unduly large. The principle of reservation~
nroportlon to the population is already conceded in the case 0
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. In cases where It ~oes no
leav~ sufficient scope for highly qualified candidates to come mto ~~
sernces .we .have thought it reasonable to reduce the percentage
reservation. On consideration of all these factors we recommend, ~
dectded by majority, that the minimum basis of representation. 0
Other Backwara Classes in all Government and Local body servtces
wtll be as follows:-
Class 1-25 per cent of vacancies.
Class II-33-1/3 per cent of vacancies.
Class m { .
Class IV --40 per cent of vacanctes.
. f Other
The whole position of the adequacy of representation 0 the °.
Backward Classes may be reviewed at the end of ten ye.ars Censlll
hght o.f statistics then available as a result of 1961 or earcher iS6ion
regardmg the population of communities listed by the ornm
in Other Backward Classes group. thod
291. .There was a divergence of opinion with regard to the ~se that
of recruitment to the reserved quota of services. One VIewBwckward
the best candtdates from the communities of the Other .a w and
Classes group should be selected after a personal intervledidates
nommated tcr the vacancies. Another view was that these can 5 and
~hould take their chances in the open competitive examlnatlO~ation.
that the best from among those who have passed the exaWhatever
even though they secure lower ranks, should be selected. tition or
the procedure. of recruitment: whether through open comP~ntrnent....
through selection or personal mterview for any type of app~ secured
~mporary or permanent the reservation sugl!e~>ted should e s:r:ct
1
d favour of candidates of the Other Backward Classes grou~~r anY
a herence to rules of recruitment with a severe penalty
breach thereof is the best remedy. ' .dera·
. ~92 · ~nother important question which came up for co~;~r~·ed
ttOn m th 1s connection was the equitable distribution of thehr r sack·
cf
1J.UO~ posts among all the communities comprising the Ot de on thiS
war lasses group. Divergent opinions were also expresse
 141

Sl:'biect. Some th_ought that it is a very cumbersome procedure to

~strtbute ~acanc~es among all the communities. According to others
tt was posstble With a little more effort to ensure an equitable distri·
button of posts so that even the most backward would have some
representation in ~overnment Service. We studied ~he procedure that
has been followed m some of the States. The practice is not uniform,
In Bombay the three categories of backward classes are considered
toget~er and the ayailable candidate is chosen for the vacancy. The
quesh~n has not ansen m other States because the question of repre-
sentation of Other Backward Classes has not been considered at all
by them. Madras once followed a system of communal rotation.
whereby even the most backward communities among the Other
Backward Classes had some chance of representation, however
distant. Travancore-Cochin has adopted a system whereby com·
11_1unities or groups of communities are taken by turn for representa·
tion in service in the prescribed quota for each group. This has opened
up some chances to all the communities in the Other Backward
Classes group. In Mysore a system has been evolved over a period
?f years whereby each community with a population of over a lakh
JS considered as a distinct group for the purpose of representation
tn the reserved quota, smaller communities being grouped together
for. the same purpose. The Public Service Commission in that State
mamtains lists of these communities for the purpose of guidance
showing the percentage of representation already obtained. The first
vacancy invariably goes to the most unrepresented, second to the
under-represented and the third to the represented and so on. Thus,
representation of almost all the communities is ensured by a system
of rotation. An annual review of the position is made and statistics
published.
293. We had to consider this suggestion in somewhat greater
detail, not because it is not practicable. but because it is equitabl~.
111:any representatives warned us that unless some such method 1~
devised, it is likely that the more advanced among the Other Back·
ward Classes will get ell the representation and the most. backward
Will be left out. This would perpetuate ~h~ very sy~tem wh1ch we are
attempting to remedy and, therefore, 1t ~s essential that a su1table
method should be devised to ensure equ1table representation of all
the communities in the Other Backward Classes group. We do not
propose to lay down a hard and fast rule for all th~ ~tates. But the
Circumstances and the social conditions that prevatl m the country
necessitate greater consideration for the most backward and un·
represented communities in this group. That can ~i!lY be ensured ~Y
some system of rotation worked out in the cond1tions preva~hng m
the respective States. We recommend. however, that ~ommumties be
conveniently grouped according to the degree of thetr advancement
tn each State and representation out of the reserved q!lota be grant~d
bellinning with the most unrepresented groups. Th1s ne~d not e
adhered to for all time. After a period of 10 years the question should
be reviewed.
294. We recognize that only the best qualified candidates s~ould
be accepted in the technical services.·There is at present a PWCI~ of
iUch candidates from among the Other Backward Classes. e ave
recommended elsewhere that students be!ongin!'( .t? the Othet Back·
'~~ard Classes should be increasingly given facJ!tlles at educatiOnal,
Ltll'lGMotllA
 142
and more especially at technical institutions. And it should be a fixed
policy for many years that, qualifications being fairly equal, pref~r·
ence should be given to a candidate from the backward classes.
295. One view was that candidates belonging to backward classes
should be provided with facilities through coaching classes befo!E
they appear in the competitive examination. Another view was thai
qualified candidates· should be selected for appointment and ther~
after trained for the specific kind of service to which they well
appointed during the period of probation.
296. We recommend that in cases where such training is need!(
to !mprove efficiency among candidates after they are selected. tl
vanous posts, they should be given training for a year or two dunn!
the period of probation.
297. Representatives of Scheduled Castes and Tribes as welllllo
of the Other Backward Classes demanded representation of tbde
backward classes on. Public Service Commissions. We carefully an
thoroughly examined this suggestion.
One view was that there should be definite reservation for back·
ward classes in the appointment of members of Public Servl(:e
Commissions.
Second view was that in the selection of members for Public
Service Commissions the claims of backward classes should be kept
in mind and it was also fel't that other things being equal, members
ot the backward classes should be given preference.
In answer to this our attention was drawn to cases where perso~
from backward. classes have already been appointed; and we ee 1
that. such appomtments should continue on as liberal a scale as
posstble.
"?fe r~cognize _that Governments have always to allay the app~
hens10ns m. the. mmds ?f the backward classes on this score, and 6uc
our 170nclusl0n ts that m the appointments of members to the Pu
~ei'Vlce Commissions, caste or community considerations should ~;
ave any place whatsoever and the persons should be selected 50
on ments.
1
298. Many suggestions were offered for the creation . of n:
ra~mery
0
for the proper implementation of the policy of recruttme a
overnment service. The most important of these was that 11
Board should be established with sufficient powers to enforce 1 ~
~~d J:~pe~hm~leme~tation of the policy of reservation recomm;nt~at
this B m e oregomg paragraphs. It was furthermore urge 10111
th oabd skhould also have powers to consider any complaints f t in
Goevnon- ac war~ classes in the unreserved sector of employmen
ernment servtces.

bodi9~£ fr:int~ref~e, reco~mend that a Board cons is tin~ rf 80~r~

with sufficient an expertenced administrators and soct~ W owe!!
and f t' powers be set up for this purpose. The prec1se P to
ensur~~h~f~h of ~he Boa~d ~ill. have to be carefully worked 001
e a ove pohcy 1s properly implemented.
 CHAPTER VII
MJ:msTRy FOR THE AllVANCEME!fr OF BACKWARD CLAssES
:. The prob~ems of backward classes have assumed considerable
~portance smce the advent of freedom. Special provisions are
!J!Corporated in the Constitution of India for looking after · the
mter~sts of t~es.e classe~ and for their uplift. With the appointment
othf th~ ColllllllSSion public attention has been sufficiently focussed on
e p~ght of these classes and on the urgency of ameliorative mea·
sures If these people are to take their place along with the compara-
tively advanced sections of the pop)llation. Conditions of society in
!Jldia nec.essitate not only measure for economic uplift but also steps
m ~he. direction of removal of social inequalities with a view to
achievmg the ideal of a casteless and classless society. The Parliament
and the Indian National Congress have now adopted socialistic
pattern of society to be established in the country. The task of achiev·
mg this objective is of no mean order. It requires initiative, drive and
cofnstant vigilance to safeguard the interests of the weaker sections
o the population.
,, 2. Provision is made in the Constitution' of India under Article
..,a for the appointment of a Special Officer for Scheduled Castes and
~cheduled Tribes by the President. He is invested with the duty of
mvestigating all matters relating to safeguards for the Scheduled
Cas tes and the Scheduled Tribes and is to report to the President
upon the working of those safeguards at such intervals as the
11-eside~t may direct, and the President shall cause all sue~ reports
to be la1d before each House of Parliament. In sub-clause (111) of the
same Article it is laid down that "references to the Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes shall be construed as including references to
such Other Backward Classes as the President may, on the rec~ipt
of the report of a Commission appointed under clause (1) of Article
340, by order specify". It is, th~refore, clear that the Con~itution has
reco!1Ilised the importance of this. proble~ '!he functions of. the
Special Officer under the Constitution are hmited, and he has mdi-
cated in his reports to the President how progress is hampered by the
delays in implementing the policies. ·
3. The Constitution of India under Article 164(1Y ma!£es provision
for the appointment of Ministers to be incharge of Tribal Welfare,
Who may in addition be incharge of the welfare of Scheduled Castes
and Backward Classes in the case of States of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh
and Orissa and in the case of Madhya Bharat under Article 238(6).
Provision of a similiar nature is not made in the case of other States.
But in view of the importance of uplift of ~cheduled C~stes and
Scheduled Tribes separate departments or secttons under . J?evel?p-
tnents" have been created in most of the States for the admllllstration
of Welfare measures.
4. We have noted in appropriate places in oufr R ~portfthe gro:Mng
awak · h b k 1
d classes and a ee mg o uneasmess
that ~~~~~~~~~rt themafo~f!ck of facilities for a~vancement in all
iPheres of.Jife and its activities. We have also indicated that unless
I.S
 144
the problems are tackled on a footing of urgency on a vaster scale
than what is being done at present, anti-social elements are likely to
exploit discontent and foster disruptive tendencies. It is, therefort
necessary that all-out efforts should be made both by the Government
of India and tbe State Governments to handle this problem in a mare
effective and co-ordinated manner. To this end we recommend the
creation of Ministry for the advancement of all the backward classes
both at the Centre and in all the States just as there was a Mi.nistry
for Rehabilitation appointed whim emergency arose. The func!lonaf
this Ministry will be to co-ordinate the work of uplift measures which
are being executed by various agencies. It should also see that ~tfic
schemes are drawn up for their advancement and adequate finances
are provided for their implementation. Sanctioning of schemes, allaallt·
ment of funds, co-ordination of work, training of personnel etc .
nee~ the watchful care of a full-fledged Department .under. t_hil
Mtmstry. We further suggest that in view of tbe prevaihng optman
thts Department should have distinct sections, each admimstenng ~
affatrs of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Back\Vi!lu
Classes separately. Funds allotted must in the first instance be sept'
rately earma~ked and the expenditure must also be separa.te;
deb1ted. For, m the very na:ure of things, schemes of welfare dtft~
from one class to another, and the amount required will be more w
the ~ase of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and the starred conr
mll;lllbes of Other Backward Classe£. The ultimate aim, however~~
~ mtegrate all these groups into the general society, and when th ~
IS s~ctent general advancement, the affairs of these classes maY·~
admmtstered as one unit. After the next elections the three categan
Will come much closer together.
5. The work of this Department will necessarily be varied;
nature and large in scope. A great degree of co-ordination betweenbaUI
epartments of States and the Cen~re will have to be b~ough:Jd 1)1
and. the schemes pushed through with expedition. ~~~s wo itlt a
posstble only by the constitution of a separate Mmtstry WI s¢
sellarate Department for the welfare of all the backward c a
untformly both at the Centre and in the States.

CONSTITUTION 01!' AN ADVISORY BoARD

d · e work of the Ministrv and of the Departmen t for1 (0~
6 Th tbe
:uu:~.cementhof backward classes nr,cessarily requires c~nrt:~rvan~
Ions Wit 1eaders of public opinion well tried socta eforl·
and some representatives of these back~ard classes. We, ~!Jecentrl
~ed":~mend the constitution of an Advisory Board both ~t. \ e tion ~
n 10 each State to assist the M; nistry in the admmts ra es fot
~;fff~re meabures • Major questions of policy and sp~cific s~hf:O. ~he
Board mfJ be Paced 1 before this Board for elictttng optn
W! e of an advtsory capacity. ,
ked au•
in d~ta'fthb Pf;'eGrs and functions of this Board may be wor
Y e overnment of India.
8 W
Std
of b~ck: rdcojmend further that the Ministry for the Yes shou1•
8
oce!1ler.:

have suffi~len~ asses both at th~ Centre and in the •lf:re done li
powers to ca-ordma tc the work of we
 145
various States, and in particular the following should. be its special
concern:-
(i) All educational problems.
(ii) Rural housing schemes.
(iii) Representation in services under Government and Local
Bodies.
(iv) Administration of grants for welfare measures.
(v) Provision of full employment in rural areas.
 CHAPTER VIII
GRANTS
One of the terms of reference requires from the Commission
recommendations "as to the grants by the Union or any State that
should be made for the purpose of taking steps to remove the diffi.
culties under which Other Backward Classes labour or to improve
their conditions and the conditions subject to which such grants
should be made". We have to consider, therefore, the question of
grants in relation to measures that should be taken to remove the
difficulties that tl).ese classes are facing. We examined the ameliorative
measures undertaken by the Government of India and State Govern-
!'lents in the interest of backward clas6eS, and the expenditure
mcurred by them. We have not been able to obtain from most of the
States separate figures of expenditure exclusively for Other Back·
ward Classes:-

(In IAiduo) Espondituro in !ll5U3

O.B.fJI,
-
s.c•.
-
S.Ta.
(lll53·611

Andhra •• Nil Nil HI

A.oaam .. 9·11 90·3' !·II
Bihar .. :: •• ,,.36 «·00 10·11
110 ' 11
Bombay .. .. " 24·71 63·87
:M.adbya Pn.deoh .. :: ·71
1·24 87·00 11·11
Hadru
Ori&sa
••
•• •• •• 126·18 26'36 xa
Nil 21)'62 NU
.t';"J:~b.. . :: :: 6·62
49·62
1·20
Nil
6·11
Weot. Bengal .. .. :: 8•24 12-18 !·SI
Hyderabad .. .. 6·23 2·83 1·70
NU
Madhya Blwa' •• 6·47 26·40 9·il
lrlyoore .. .. .. •16 "'
6•94
P. l!l. P. 8. tJ. .. " " Nil ""
B.ajaotbao .. :: "
7·93
1-19 37-16 No$ ,nilJb~
S.uraebtra .. " 6'"
8•92 1-48 8·71
Travanooro-Cocb.in :: •• 9•62 ·40 Nil
Ajmer •• •• :: ·26 ·87 ·Ill
Bhopal •• •• •• '. •18 2·00 .1)1
·10 ~
ff.:'UJ :: .. .. ·1!0
1·20
Nil Notonil' '·
~~':'hal p~~ :: :: 2·46
•33 Noi•"Uobl•
3·11
Manipur •• .• •• •• •44 I· oo Not ,.,uobil-
.. Nil 6·00 ·~bl•·
Tripura •• •• 4·00 Nolo\'111 Nil
Vindbya Pradoab " " .. Nil
~ t.nd Nloob&r L.ia.d. :: •• •82 '. 26 ..U•blo·
.. Not available. Not available. ~
111 111
286•01 879·90 '
~~~~~~----_j---=~L-----~~
Moot of the States . dul d easte
and Scheduled T 'bncur expendtture at present for Sche e]iorati~
measures mainlyri esthonlfy. Only a few. States .have got arnBeackwafl
n e orm of educattonal atd to Other
140
 147

g\assfr~J'~pe/'ichn1ituhe on Odther. Backward Classes is limited to

() ' . 0 ars 1ps an stipends for books and clothin ·
2
(3) lf~~~~;lb~~~n:'~~ t~o~~fti~tf~~i;~~s{~u~~~i~ ~~p~C:Jfl:eui~~nf;;
we are of these classes. Expenditure on ameliorative m ·e
:J;;fdcase ~f ~c~eduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes gives !a~:d'~~bi~
C an.ce. m ~ng ~ants for Other Backward Classes. The Plannin
ollmm~SSIOfin, m the1r Progress Report for 1953-54 have given th~
fo owmg gures on page 266: _

(Rupees in lakhl)

1951-56 1951-52 1952·53 1953·54

Plan Aotuals Actuals Rovised
pro'riaion

ll'n>m Statos ProvWon .. .. 2,388·6 320•10 391•10 474•10

'From Centro's Grante

(a) For Scheduled Tribos & Schodu· 1,500·00 141·07 176·08 267·76
(bled Are.. undor Art. 275(1), (S&nctioned)
.For Scheduled C..teo ,• ' 18·18
(S&notioned)
400·00 18·18
(c) .For Ex-Criminal Triboa •, } (S&notioned)
(d) For Other Backward Cl..,oa •• 9·66
(Sanctioned)

f ~· Besides ameliorative measures and the expenditure incurred

to1r1owmg
c~eduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the same Report, the
paragraph appears on page 270:-
"Other BackWard Classes: The report of the Backward ·classes
Commission is still awaited. Meanwhile, these classes also
have been helped educationally and economically. 20,363t
scholarships were awarded in 1953-54. One hundred and
eighty one schools were opened and hostel accommoda·
tion was provided for 1926 students".
3. It is, thus, clear that sufficient provision has not yet been made
Tsh the Planning Commission awaited the Report of this Commission.
e Commission also had the benefit of discussing the problems of
0 ther Backward Classes with Shri S. K. Dey, Community Projects'
Administrator. He indicated that at present no specific provision is
rnade for the amelioration of Other Backward Classes as such, and
that measures under the First Five Year Plan are contemplated in
the interest of all people of course including the backward people
who are in the majority in rural areas ..
. 4. It is argued sometimes that the problem of backwar~ classes
IS the problem of the nation in view of the vast numbers mvolved
and that it will be difficult, therefore. to make specific and definite
- • Out of19 croroM Contm.l Gmnt only&. 7 croroR hM'O bo~n inoludOO i~ tb.oPlan. Tbemtia
glvon from tho Oonoolidoled Fund of Indio undor Arliclo 276( I) of tho Oonot•lul•oo •
t Th.,.. Oguroa rolate to Roj ..lhan, Bihar, Madhya Prodosb, Uttar P...,doob. Sal11'118htra
Olld M•drlll,
provision for the amelioration of Other Backward Classes exclusively.!
But in the prevailing conditions of India, and particularly because'
of her caste-ridden society, some of the general uplift measures do
hot reach the weaker sections of the population and even where they
do reach the lower strata of society they trickle down in very small
proportions. It is generally the strong and the most vocal that manage
to snatch most of the help. It is, therefore, necessary that special prflo
vision should be made specifically for those communities that are
extremely backward educationally and socially. We notice that m
the Budget estimates for the year 1~55-56, the Government of Ind1a
have, for the first time, made a separate provision of a sum of only
Rs. 160 lakhs for the Other Backward Classes. But we are of the
opinion that since the problem is vast and has been left untackled in
the past, a much larger provision has to be made in the years to come
so that backwardness may be removed speedily. According to our
estimate on the basis of a period of five years, the minimum amount
required for the purpose would be of the order of Rs. 200 crores as
detailed in the following pages. Most of the measures we discussed Ill
the previous chapters are general in character and would not only·
help the Other Backward Classes but would also strengthen the
gener~l economy of the country. We recommended specially the
followmg for early action in the interest of backward classes:-
_(i) Edi!Cati??~a! Aid-;-The urgent need should be reco~ised fo~
~he unmed1ate mtroduchon of Basic Schools and for convertmg exJst
mg elementary schools into the Basic pattern in the rural areas.
In any scheme of liquidation of educational backwardness spedal
efforts must be made to draw the children of backward classes .10
these institutions. In view of the extreme poverty they require speC!~
grants f_or books, writing materials and clothing. In many cases the
cost of ~mplements required for studies in Basic Schools should also
be provided for. Out of a total population of children of school gomg
age (~14 years) of approximately 4l crores according to the figur~
supplied by the Education Department, already 192 lakhs of boys an f
ghrls are o~ the rolls in 1952-53. The roughly estimated figures ~
~ e .P 0 J)UlatJon of backward class boys and girls in these p~una
mshtutJ~ns was 57 lakhs in 1951. With increased facilities 10 the
feahwhJ!e, and also as a result of the extensive aid that we pro~fy
or t em, we thmk the number of such boys and girls could be sa 70
is~:atefd tho be 100 lakhs of backward classes of all varieties and nt
a0 s 0 t e Other Backward Classes Of these about 50 per ce 'II
{
0
of
~~d need financial aid for purchase books and clothing. In j 1e8
. e small number of Basic Schools we have assumed that on y r
limJted nul!lber would be in those institutions. Of these about ~6
cent need l~plements for Basic study. A '!urn sum grant of. 'te-
for books a1d, Rs. 20 for clothing and Rs 10 for purchase of unP
rnents per head per annum is provided. .
Senior Basic of Secondary Course
assu~e~h~~~h~ oft~~e figures available for the year 1952-53 ~~t:n~
require educatl~al15
.dstaged of education~ about 2.8 lakh s
a1 un er the followmg heads:-
~~>. Book-aid to boys and girls at Rs. 50 each per annurn.
(nl Fe~ concessions at Rs. 25 each per annum.
 (iii) Schol~rships (hostel expenses to Secondary School boys
and g1ds of about 1.4 lakhs at Rs. 200 each per annum).
Post Bll3ic or Post Matric Education
(1~ We .assume that at least ~bout 90,000 students requiring
financml. aSSistance are hkel:( to. be m the Post-Basic or Post-Matric
courses mcludmg general, sc1enhfic and technical lines. Stipends for
these at an average rate of Rs. 600 each per annum is provided for.
. (2) Similarly we have made a provision for 500 students who are
hkely to take post-graduate courses and also in Research centres in
India at the rate of Rs. 5,000 each for the full course.
~3) In view of the importance attached to training of qualified
candidates in advanced courses in foreign Universities, we have made
a provision for overseas education for 150 students at the rate of
Rs. 20,000 each for the full course of studies.
5. We have advocated elsewhere in the Report the establishment
of Samata Ashrams, or Ashrams for the eradication of caste prejudices
and to bring about social harmony. Provision for this purpose is made
\Jnder the following heads:- ·
(a) Grant-in-aid for Samata Ashrams for about 2.3 lakh
students of Other Backward Classes, at the rate of Rs. 60
each per annum. This is meant for accommodation.
(b) New Samata hostels in rural areas for 2 lakh boys, each
hostel accommodating 50 boys. Four hundred such hostels
are proposed each at a cost of Rs. 25,000. The establishment
of hostels may be based on phased programme.
6. In view of the extreme backwardness of women of rural areas
and especially those of Other Backward Classes, we have thought it
~ecessary that special provision should be ma~e for th~ir education
In crafts and home sciences. As we were not Ill a position to deter-
mine exactly the number that needed special help, we have made
lump sum provision under the following heads:-
(i) Adult women (arts, crafts and home science).
(ii) Girls of lo-14 years age-group (arts, crafts and home
science). .
(iii) Advanced courses of education for women in teaching,
nursing and social welfare work.
7. Measures for the care and uplift of unfortunate women,
neglected children nomadic communities, professional beggars, and
denotified commu~ities, are il) our opinion, equally necessary and
urgent. We have made provision for tbe establishment of separate
rescue homes for neglected c~ildren, for..unfortunate women, for
colonies for beggars and nomadic communities.
8. The organisation of social service agencies must be .non-political
and non-communal in outlook, and sh~uld work for brm!Png about
communal harmony and social solidm~y..we. have provided lump
sum provision for grant-in-aid to such mstitutions. .
7. In view of the acute housing shortage in ru~al areas we have
recommended a planned programme of rural housmg for the back·
Ward classes. We have suggested that steps should be taken for the
 150

construction of 50 lakhs houses in the next ten years. We have re-

commended subsidy to the extent of 75 per cent of the cost of the
house in the case of 5 per cent of the housing programme and for the
rest we have recommended a loan only recoverable in easy instal·
ments. This undertaking may require a loan of 50 crores annually
and we have provided only interest charges as loans are intended to
be given to the poorer sections free of interest.
10. While dealing with cottage industries and village handicrafts
we have dealt with the question of credit facility for those who are
engaged in those industries. Non-availability of credit has been a
serious handicap in the way of resuscitating cottage industries. We
have proposed a loan of 100 crores to be distributed through noJCI!lal
channels working for their uplift. Here we have merely proVIded
for interest charges under grants on the loan investment of Rs. 100
crores.
11. Conditions of GTantt-We have been asked to suggest condi·
tions subject to which grants should be made. Though a few repre-
sentatives suggested the pooling of all resources earmarked for the
amelioration of. Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other
Ba<;Jtw~rd ~lasses, we are for the present not in favo1:1r of such a
policy m VIew of the strong opinion held by representatives of Sche-
duled Castes and Scheduled Tribes against such a course. We are,
therefore, in favour of a separate allotment of funds for each onede
of these groups, till such time as Scheduled Castes and Scbedul
Tribes come up to the level of Other Backward Classes.
12. The allotment of funds for the amelioration of Other Back·
ward Cl~es should be on the basis of projects and schemes approved
by a _spectal organization which we have suggested both at the Centre
and m the States.
13. Funds allotted by the Government of India for vario'!5
schemes s~ould be generally distributed to the States on the. basiS
0! population of backward classes in each State. A further considers·
tion should be borne in mind, namely that certain States are t~em:
selves so backward that they cannot afford to supply an enVIron
ment. of advancement even if they are helped to spend l!berall["
Spec~al grants will have to be given to such States. This is true :C
~e ~e of border States whose backwardness constitutes a dan~ r
f \n~.safety of India. Backward States that are not on the ~or ~
~ t If dshould not be regarded as safe because they give !1~ rs
m erna anger of social mal-adjustme~t and resultant disor e ·
Thes\State~ also should be openly taken care of. It is not enough·~
~t;f t et h~hal.I{I"ants, but special efforts must be made to appol:n
f emkn Twit VIsion and strength to lay down the policy of a pthe
Ce ~or · he schemes drawn up by the States and approved by the
n r~ Jl!Ust also confonn to the general policy laid down by a
f~~:h~~a~~~J~ \~e Ce(ntref. In the St~tes out of the a~lotment ~ta~fon
f .. u Ion as ar as possible on the basis of pop While
~oi~~m~~~n~~:S . 0 ~Othter Backward Classes) should be made. unitieS
ta d . m res s of these extremely backward comm re-
; rre ~n the list of Other Backward Classes should be given p
enmce m the matter of receiving State help. nd
~4. The grants should be eannarked for specific schem~ ed 8
contmued from year to year as a fixed charge on the Consobdat
 151

Fund of India. Any unspent balance of one year should be reallotted

for expenditure in the following years. This procedure is necessitated
by the fact that if money earmarked for developmental expenditure
is not fully spent and part of it is allowed to lapse.
15. In proposing grants we are unable to fix the share of expendi-
ture by the State Governments. During our enquiry we tried to
elicit the capacity of State Governments to make provision for the
scheme for the uplift of Other Backward Classes. They invariably
pleaded financial stringency and in some States even lack of trained
personnel to undertake schemes on the suggested scales. We have
considered the whole aspect in relation to the capacity of the State
Governments to make adequate provisions for ameliorative measures
for the Other Backward Classes on the scale we have recommended,
and have reluctantly come to the conclusion that the Government of'
India should come to the aid of the State Governments in a generous
measure in alloting grants or subsidies for the success of these
measures; and the States should instead of insisting on their auto-
nomy be prepared to accept the policy of the Centre. We are unable
to indicate the portion of expenditure to be borne by each State
as the States were not in a position to commit themselves for any
extra expenditure in this behalf. We have, therefore, contended ~ur­
selves with ·merely indicating the total sum of mone.Y reqwred
under various heads. We leave to the Government of Indta to deter·
mine the share of expenditure they or the State Governments have
to bear.
16. In the various chapters of the Report we have made ?ur sug·
gestions for the amelioration of the backward classe$. We gtve here
a brief summary of our recommendations in t~e financial setting, so
that they may be given preference . ~t the time of a~sessm~nt of
schemes for sanction out of the addttional funds mentioned m the
previous paragraphs
Approximate oost
Rup... in Ja.kho

Roourring Cnpltal Para of

expondi· upondi· Roport
tnro turo
or
DOD•
reourrlng
I 2 B

I. JUNIOR BASIO-
Provision for 70 lakh "Othor Baokwnrd Olass obild.ron
going to oohool" (primary otago).
(I) Book-aid noodod for GO% only @ Ro. 8 per annUDl
210 .. ..
(ii) Clothing aid noodod for 25% only @ Ro. 20 per
360 .. ..
annum.
(iii) Implomonto for Baolo otudonta @ Ro. 10 25%
m "
..
boyo. 17 •G lakbo.
 152
..
. 1 2 3

2. SECONDARY OR SENIOR BASIC-

(i) Book-aid to 2·81akho boy8&nd girls@ &.50 each
• par &nnum.
140 .. ..
(ii) Foo concession for the same number @ Rl. 25
01cb per annum.
70 .. ..
(iii) Scholanhip-{Hosool erponseo for bolf tho
number to nc.n.rly l·41nkh boys and girbJ in Secoo~
280 .. ..
dory Schools @ Re. 200 eooh per &DDum.
'3. POST BASIC FAILING WHICH POST MATRIC-
(i) Stipeodo for boys and girls in gonoral ecientiflo
&ni toehnical linea (Poot.M'atrio) for 00,000
640 .. ..
otud ente on &n average @ &. 600.
(ii) Provision of ocholal'!lbipo for poat.gradnate
Atudiea and rosoorch iD the country for 600
25 .. ..
S<br•L\1'11 (full OOUI'IIO) @ Re. 5,000.
(iii) Ov(!r~R education for IUO atudenta@ Re. 20,000
nvcrage (full courao).
30 .. ..
4. S.UlATA ASHRAM (HOSTELS)-

(i) Grant-in-aid for rent and ostahli•hmont for bootel•

for 2·0 lalr.b. Othor Backward ClaM boyo@ &.
120 .. ..
60 per annum,
(ii) N"" 8amnla-Hootols in rural areao for 21akh
boyo, each h01tel aceommodoting 50 boyo. 4,000
.. 1000 ..
ouch hoooola each at a coot of Re. 26,000 only 800
hoot<lls ovary year (Inc......, of 20% ;. not oon!em·
ploted in thia).
G. EDUCATION· FOR BACKWARD CLASS WOMEN-
Special provision for edur~'\tion of Other Backward
Cl.a.uo8 in achoolft for Homo l'cicnoo.
....
....
(i) Adult wornoo (in &rta, cr11.fut and home IK:ionoe) 23
(ii) Girls of ten to fourteon yoaro ago group .• "
(jii) Advo.ncod Mttcl\tion for women in eotU'IWfl for
teaching, nllhing, aooial and welfare work eto.
'23
50 ..
G. IIOHE FOR NEGJ,Ecn'ED POPULATION-
8pooial. ednC&tion hom"' In rural •rea• for delinquent
chddrrm, unf,,rtnnnlo women, ox-criminal triboa
profOBHional bt."':;g.~rs nnd nomadic oommunitiCI' '
(i) liO Hom.. with 100 D&J!looted ohildron in oaoh:
C,..pitft.l, e~:ponditu~e @ R11. tiO,OOO
R«-umng oxpond1turo@ R11. 20,000
•• .. .. 10 ..
23 ....
(ii) liO Hom.. with 100 inmates for ~otluJJAi;,
women:
Capitalerpondlturo@ Ra. GO,OOO •••h . ,
Recurring expenditure @ &. 20,000 ""cb .. .. 10 .. 26 ....
(iii) ColonWti for roolaiming hoggare and nomad!~
tribos:
Capital oxpondituro lnmp 10m ••
· ' Roourring expommure .,
.... .... .. 10 .. 26 ....
(iD) Colonitw for oz·crimioal tri001:
Capital o:tpondit.uro
'· Rocurring exponditoro
....
.... .... .. 10 .. 26 ....
~
 153

1 2
I 3
7. SOCIAL SERVICE AGENCIES FOR BACKWARD
COM.MU.lllTIES-
Prov~ou for non-political and non-communal social 64 .. ..
l()rvace agencies, working amoort the Othor Buck·
ward Cia...,..
8· LOA.liS AND SUBSIDIES FOR RURAL HOUSING
PROGRAllME- •
Rural boWling programmo; t..rgot 50 lokb ho'"""' in 10 .. !iO,OO ..
yoa111 @ Rs. 1,000 ooch.
(i) lntorost ohsrgos on tho capital outlay on loana to
rural houtttng at B.a. 60 crvres annuaUy.
150 .. ..
(ii) 75 per cont rnbaidy to 5 per cont boiUIC8 for 187-5 .. ..
l.Ddtgunt porsons.
9• ~LP TO BACKWARD COmiUNITlES EllfPLOY·
IN VILLAGE INDUSTRIES-
Crod1t fncilitioa for cottage industrie"
(i) Copit..l outt..y Ro. 100 oror<l8 intorost ftco crodit .. 100,00 ..
fauiliti011.
(ii) Intoroot chorgos .. .. .. .. 300 .. ..

Total .. l\s.2771-5 161.00

lakb• lakha

The outlay durmg the first year will mvolve a cap1tal expend!·
~7re of about Rs. 161 crores and recurring expenditure of about Rs .
.71 crores. So far as the housing scheme is concerned, there will
be an annual addition to the interest charges on account of the in-
crease m the capital at the rate of Rs. 50 crores every year.
The expenditure under the first seven heads is to be increased
at the rate of 20 per cent every year during the next five years.
Roughly the total expenditure for the five year period will bl:l on
the order of Rs. 200 crores excluding the capital outlay of Rs. 361
crores on housing and cottage industries credit facilities.
We have suggested the above grants for the Other Backward
Classes only but we expect that provision on a similar scale would
be made for the benefit of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
also.
 CHAPl'ER IX
REvisioN oF LISTS oF SCHEDULED CASTES AND SCHEDULED TRIBES
The President of India was pleased to direct the Commission to
examine the lists of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tr!~es as
already published under his order and to suggest ~y reV1S10n of
those lists, if on enquiry it was found ~ha~ s~ch a reVIsion was neces-
sary We undertook the enquiry to this limtted extent and collected
a m~ of material, and also heard the representatives of Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes on this aspect. In view of t~e .pending
legislation on the amendment to the Delimitation Commt~ston Act,
1952, in Parliament, we were requested to submit an Interun Reportd
containing the revised lists of Scheduled Castes and Schedule
Tribes, which report we sent on 20th December 1954.
2. It will be seen from the revised lists that in some cases f!~sh
additions have been made and in other cases certain commuruties
on the list of Scheduled Castes have been transferred to the list foulf
Scheduled Tribes. These changes were necessitated by a care
verificat.ion of materials collected by us. We have invariab~Y. been
helped m this task by the State Governments or by the op1ru~n edof
Adimjati Sevak Sangh or by references in the Reports publish
by the Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tnbes.
In view of the Delimitation Commission concluding its labours
before they could. have the benefit of our revision, anxiety y;as
expressed m certam quarters whether the submission of the reVIsed
lists of these two classes would not be too late to secure for them
the political .rep:esentation guaranteed under Articles 330 and 332
o.f the Constitution. That anxiety has been minimised now. by the
tunely amendment to the Delimitation Commission Act and mcorpo-
ration of a provision for the re-determination of seats for Scheduled
Castes or Sc~eduled Tribes on collection of Census figures arising
out of any m1stake or omission before the 1st January 1956. We hope
that our Interim Report (with the revised lists of Sc'heduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes) has served its purpose.
3. It must be borne in mind in this connection that reservation
of seats in legislatures for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
is only f~r a period of ten years from the commencement of ~he
ConstltutiOJ?- .under Arti~le 334. To secure increased representatiOn
on the basts of the ~VIsed Lists' for the remaining period-when
only one general election may take place-it is essential that steps
be taken to amend the Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Order,
1950, and the ~nstitution (Scheduled '£ribes) Orde'l", 1950, as also
the correspon~mg orders relating to Part 'C' States. It will not be
d1fficult to estu;nate the population figures of the communities recom·
mended to be. mcluded or excluded. Final figures thus arrived at ~or
each Sta.te Will form the basis for representation either in Parha•
ment or m the State Legislatures. It was also urged that unless these
amendments are made retroactive. it will not be possible for these
classes to secure what w.as. their. due-that is they will n?t b~ able
t? ta~e advantage of the1r mcluston for want of specificatiOn m the
bsts ISSued under the President's Orders.
1114
 155
' 4. Duri~g the course of our enquiry, representations were made
that educational and other facilities extended to Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes in their own States should be extended to
them when they go from one State to another. It is true that the
status o~ these communities may change from State to State and a
commumt:y known as belonging to Scheduled Castes may, in a
ne1ghbourmg State or in a distant State, be regarded traditionally
as untouchable or even as a tribe. And yet, it must be borne in mind
that although untouchability or the tribal character may not be
found, the backwardness persists. Therefore, members of Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes, when they go from one State to another,
should receive the amount of help that is given to the Other Back-
ward Classes in the State where they have gone to reside. It is not
poss1ble to lay down detailed rules for the guidance of administration.
The greater the number of rules or details, the more mechanical
becomes the help given. The administrators serving the backward
peop.Je of all descriptions should be sympathetic and must be able to
cons1der each case on its merits.
Revision of the Lists of Scheduled Tribes
. 5. In dealing with revision of the lists of Scheduled Castes and
Tr1bes, we have indicated generally the procedure we have adopted.
"!Ve feel, however, that a little more has to be said about the Tribes
m general, and the Tribes of Assam in particular.
6. Assam-So far as the tribes of Assam and Manipur are con-
cerned, it was not possible for us to go into details, first, because of
lack of communications and want of time, and secondly, because
information in the possession of Governm~nt was neit~er adequate
nor up.to·date. From information made available to us, 1t was f~u_nd
that the tribes in Assam and Manipur had. been class1fied ~y Bnhsh
Officers as Kukis, Nagas, Akas or Lushais m a cas':'al f~hion. Some
of these are tribal names and others reg10nal. Certam tribes resented
being included wrongly under different regional or tribal names. It
Was suggested that the Schedule should si~ply mention any Naga
or Kuki or Lushai tribe, but this, to our m~d, ~oul.d ~ot solve the
problem satisfactorily. There are the 'Hmar,:;, the fmte~, and, othen;.
for instance, who refused to be classified amon~st ;l{ukis or ~agas .
Th~ugh some of the 'Paites' are 'Chins', an. obJeCti?n ;;vaf raised to
their classification under the general headmg of Chins. In these
circumstances, we are of opinion that it would be .more C?nvement
to list all the tribes by their own particular names m the hilly areas
of Assam and Manipur.
7. It is necessary· to have an exhaustive i!lvestig~tion of these
tribes and their 'conditions. Some agencies like Tnbal .Rese.a:ch
Institutions under the Government of India, or under gmvers1tlesi
lliay profitably be made use of for this purpose. The. ove~ef
lliay also co-ordinate the work done by th~se agenCies an eP
them to collect more reliable data on the var1ous tribes of Assam.
8. Uttar Pradesh-The policy of the Uttar Pradesh Government
rGegarding the Tribes in their St~te is somewhat ~ll,~~· 4~;
. overnment have refused to classify any group .as ·h The
tnsist that there is no need to classify any of the tribes as sue bi ms
reason advanced by them was that this would create n.ew pro e •
 156

though they conceded that some of .the co~munities who were

living in accessible forest areas and m the h1Jly reg10ns of Uttar
Pradesh were very backward and deserved all help that was now
being accorded to the tribals in other States. This, in our view, is
not a sound policy. It is unwise for Uttar Pradesh to fol.low a dis-
tinctly different policy from that pursued by the ne1ghbounng
States, especially when the conditions of life and surroundings of
these tribals are almost identical. The poor hill people m the border
areas fail to understand why they are tribals in one pl~ce wh~e
their kith and kin in the neighbouring hamlets are not tnbals. We
are unable to accept the opinion of the Government of Uttar Pradesh
and recommend that the tribals found in Uttar Pradesh should be
included in the list of Scheduled Tribes.
9. Rajasthan-The loudest complaint in Rajasthan was that the
list of Scheduled Tribes furnished by the Government of Rajasthao
was incomplete and that the President's Order on the basis of that
list worked as a great hardship on the Tribes of that State. The
position there has become anomalous as pointed out by the CoJII-
missioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes at page 9 o1
his Report for 1951:-
"In the Constitution (Scheduled Tribes) Order, 1950, the
Scheduled Tribes in Rajasthan have been specified as below:-
Throughout the Scheduled Areas of the State :-Bhil. This
means that if any specified part of a Scheduled Area 1 ~
Rajasthan ceases to be a Scheduled Area, or if any ~ern·
tory not already included in the Scheduled Area, IS so
included under an Order of the President (vide para 6 of
the Fifth Schedule of the Constitution), the Bhils of tedhe
specified Area that may be excluded from the Schedul
Area will automatically be taken out of the Scheduled
Tribes, or the Bhils who may be inhabitants of the area
later included as Scheduled Area will automatically be-
come Scheduled Tribes."
10. The other anomaly in that State was pointed out was tha~
the Scheduled Areas of Banswara, Dungarpur and Chittorgard
excluded a number of towns, big villages and police out-po~ts, an
consequently, Bh1ls who formed the bulk of the population In these
places were not brought under the list of Scheduled Tribes. BY. thiS
they not only l~st political representation, but also other facihties.
The repres.entat\ves pleaded that this anomaly should be set right
and the Tnbes hvmg m any part of this State should be included Ill
the hst of Scheduled .Tribes as is done in the States of BombaY•
Hyderabad! Kutch, Tnpura, Vindhya Pradesh and Ajmer. TheY
further P~mted out that Bombay State has recognized as manY as
SIX sub-tnbes of Bhils as Scheduled Tribes throughout their State.
It was brought to our notice that according to the estimates mad~
by the S~ate, the tnbal population in Rajasthan in 1931 was 18 lakhS;
m 1941, 1t has dwindled to 15.51 lakhs and in 1950 it was furtbe·
reduced to 4.47 lakhs. And it is learnt that the figure for 1951 is put
at 3.16 lakhs.
11. This question raises the vital point whether the Tribes i~
spec1fied Areas alone should be considered for inclusion in the bs
 157

of Scheduled Tribes, or whether Tribal people found anywhere in

a State should .be brought under the list. The same problem came
up before us el~ewhere. The representatives in other States also
urg~d that the mv1dious distinctions now made between Tribes in
not1fied .areas and tribals in other parts of the State should be done
~way w1th, and a uniform policy followed throughout India in the
mt~rest of the advancement of these classes. They pleaded that
Tr1~es ou~side the notified areas have not yet been able to shake off
~he1r traditional tribal characteristics and have not been assimilated
mto the general society. The situation was similar in Madhya Pradesh
and Madhya Bharat. ·
, . 12. We have taken each State as a unit in considering the con·
d1t1on of the backward communities, including Scheduled Castes and
Sche~uled Tribes. Some States, in their anxiety to find out the exact
area. m which the' Scheduled Tribes are found, have demarcated
particular areas even within the State itself. Such information is
useful to find out where a particular Scheduled Tribe or all the ·
~cheduled Tribes are concentrated, so that efforts for their ame!iora·
tto~ may be started through these centres. But it is another thing
!o mterpret these regional differences as amounting to saying that
. In all other parts of the State the Scheduled Tribes may not be
regarded as tribals and may not get the necessary assistance which
the law and the policy of the Government have offered to Scheduled
Tribes.
13. We do want these tribal people to come in closer and closer
contact with the bulk of the nation i.e., with society in general. We
do not want them to lead a segregated or secluded existence. They
are free to follow their own tribal ways, but they are equally free to
assimilate whatever they find acceptable to them, and naturally
they may shed certain elements in their tribal l!f~ which ar?se. out
of. an incomplete appreciation of modern condthons and c1vihzed
eXIstence.
14. It is inevitable therefore, that members of the Scheduled
Tribes when they com~ and stay in the cities and district head·
quarters, should accept the ways and means, a~d education of other
People. To that extent the tribalness w1ll be diluted, but to declare
them as non-tribals would be doing an injustice to them. They
belong to their own community and the tribalness of the rank and
file of their community is the measure of the tnbalness of the whole
community. If we offer certain concessions and help to the Scheduled
Tribes in their effort to come up to the general stand~rd and at the
same time, declare that they will lose al.l thiS help 1f they ~o to
capital cities and district headquarters, tt will amount to settmg a
Premium on their remaining withm the tnbal areas. It would be a
kind of internment not by law but by t.emptati?n· ln fact the correct
Policy would require that the tribals m distnct headqu~rters and
cities should be encouraged to get more and more education and to
spread it amongst their own people. The tnbals m rural areas .should
also be encouraged to come to these centres of modernisation. In
this way the whole community would be .able to progress towards
modernisation It would be invidious to smgle o~t sectiOns ht7e ff
community or' areas of modernisation a.nd to depr~ve ~eote o e P
on that score. Let the whole comm~ty get modernise ·
L!l!t~MofHA
 158

· 15. Modernisation does not demand that they should give up

their peculiar marriage customs (unless, of ·course, the customs are
repugnant to the moral sense of society as a whole). They should be
·encouraged to retain their folk-dances, folk-songs and many customs
which it would be worth our while to copy. Let us not forget that
if they have to assimilate a good many things, they have also certam
good things to offer to us. It is only on terms of equality that we can
expect them to come down to us.
16. Of course, a time will come-and such time should come
sooner rather than later-when the tribal people, although retainmg
all that is beautiful, romantic and useful in their tribal ways, will
be .s~ciently modernised and sufficiently educated not to need
artificial props and supports; and a day will come when we shall
have to decide, with a firm policy, that the crutches sh~uld be
removed and each community will then have to stand· on Its own
legs. The policy adumbrated above, is the correct policy to hasten
such a day. Therefore, we are against maintaining pockets of tnbal·
ness and other ·pockets where tribalness is not required. The whole
State shou.ld be one unit and the help offered to the tribal people
must be gwen to them irrespective of their shifting from one area
to. another in the State . · . ·
17. Himachal. Pradesh-Cadis and Gujjars in Himachal Pradesh
lead almost a tribal life. They are breeders of cattle and sheep. They
endure many difllculties when they trek down to the plains durmg
wmter for the purpose of grazing their cattle. These two tnbes
deserve not only help to improve the breed of their cattle, but also
amemties and rest-houses both for men and cattle along the route
by which they shift to the plains during winter months.
18. Rajasthan-There are some nomadic tribes who are breeders
of cattle and sheep in Rajasthan. They also need assistance.
Kaka Kalelkar
Narayan Sadoba Kajrolkar
Bheekha Bhai b-
Shivdayal Singh Chaurasia (su
ject to my note of dissent)
ttajeshwar Patel
Abdul, Qaiyum Ansari
T. Marippa
P. G. Shah•
Anup Singht
' N. R. M. Swamy rnY
Arunangshu De (subject to
Of)ice of the note of dissent)
Backward Classes Commission
2, Man.ringh Road '
New Delhi. . '
illst March, 1955
· •with a separate note.
tSubject to my note of dill.l!ent.
I
 159

Summa,. 'of Conclusion~ and Recommenclationr

Rooommoo 1dations Chapter Page Paragraph

2 3

I. CENSUS AND OASl'E

1
'
Before the disease of caste is destroyed II 11 5
all facts about it have to be noted
and classified in a aoientific manner
as in a clinical record. To this end
we sugg. st that tho 1961 census be
remodelled and re-organized so as to
eecura the required information on
the following lines.

(1) The Census operation should be

conducted as a well-equipped con-
tinuous organisation competent .to
supply information on vsrions topics
of sociological importance.
(2) The Census Offices must ~ave.
permaneJlt ethnologists and soct?lo-
gists in addition to the econonusts
attached to them.
(3) As long as social welf~I? and
social relief ba ve to be ad.mintst<lnld
through castes, classes or groups,
full information about theae groups
should bo obtained and tabulated.
II 12 5
(4) Some of the staff for the oens_n~
abould be recruited from soOJa
k
wor ers an
d village-level·workere of
el ment De· . '
the Planning and Dev op
partments.
fl 'Jy income and
(5) Estimated a~d be colleotod and
expenditure sho
tabulated.
r s shoud oonsist
(6) The CenS1111 8,:P sto" in a fl('parnte
amongst others ·we eensns should
oolUIIUl· If poll_8ll!J57 instead of in
be carried out ill
1961. .
 (160

Summary of Conclusiom and Recommendationi--<:ontd.

I 1 2 3 4
---~--~-::-----~--- --. -.· - . -..- .. ,...,.
2: SPECIAL GROUPS
(1) MUSLIMS-,1t would.not bo co~ot IV 27
or jnat to list all Mwilims as secu1lly
and educationally backward. But
there are a number of communities
amongst them that are suffering from
social inferiority in their own I!OCiety
and ooll8equent educational back·
wardneBB. Such backward communities
. are included in the list of Other B&llk·
ward ClaBI!Is. Various State Govern-
mentS have mentioned such commu-
nities under separate heads of Hindu
and Muslim backward communiti1111.
·. But the Commission has indicated
the names of the communities to in·
elude those of Muslima and. Hindus.

(2) CHRISTIANS-Christianity has 27-29

consistently refused to rccoguias
caste. And yet, in practice, it was
found that segregation of converts
from Scheduled Castes was not suc-
cessfully overcome in certain parts
of South Indil'•. We have included such
communities, especially in the South,
in the list of Other Backward Classes.
We add that if Scheduled Caste converts
to Christianity in other parts
;·. of the:country also suffer from any re-
cognisable degree of segregation and
social disability their case should be
considered for being included in tho
. list of Other Backward Classes.
1

(3) ANGLO-INDIANS--Tho problem of 29

~gl~-Indians d?es not como strictly
Withm the purview of our enquiry
Yet, certain ropresentatioua wor~
made on their behalf. The Constitution
of India guaranteed certain . conces-
sions to this community for a fil(cd
period. Apart from this, this com-
munity cannot be classed 118 hack-
• ward either educationally or socially.
 161 .

Summary of Conclusions and Recommendations-contd.

1 2 ( 3 4
-
(4) EURASIANS IN TRAVANCORE- IV 29 13-H
COCHIN-A lllllllll community in
the extreme south which is roolly
Eurasian in oharactor .is now ooing •
called .Anglo-Indian in the list pub-
lished by the Education Ministry,
Government of India. This nomen-
clature is a mistake. lt may be
renamed Eurasian for the purpose of
relief and included in the list of Other
Backward Classes of Travancore- .. ·
Cochin Stato.
15) SI~It is our view that the 29 15-18
Sikhs constitute an integral part of
the broador Hindu religion. Although
in theory, the Sikhs do not subsoribe
to casto ~ystom, in actual practice
they cling to m~~ny Hindu traditions
and practices. We rocommond that
the communities or groups who are
tresttd as untouchables among the
Sikhs should be included in tho list
of Scheduled Castos. Any distinct
community among the Sikhs found
to oo socially and educationally
backward must be included in he list
of Other Backward Classes. .'

(6) GURKHAS--The Gurkhas are

so 19-20
socially and culturally an integral
part of tho Hindu community. Such
of the communities among Gurkhas
found in Uttar Pradosl1, Bil1ar and
West Bengal, who are eduo~tionally
and socially backward are moludud
in tho list of Othor Backward Classos.
In tho rost of India they are known
to ignore oasto and to live as one
homogeneous community. Such ?f
tho so who havo settled down m
other Statos (exoept U. P., Bihar ar;d
West Bengal) should be inoluuod tn
tho list of Other Baokwnrd Clussas
if they are found, to bo sooially and
_lld~u~oa~t~io~n~al!!;ly~b~ao~kw~ar~d~._ _ _ _;__ _ _ _ ,._
 Summary of Conclusions and Recom~ndations-contd.

1 2 3 4
I

(7) BHANGIS-The lot of Bhangi!J at IV 30-31 21

present is far from aatisfactory. Their
living conditiorl are bad and the tools
with which they work should enable
them to csrry out their work in a
more decent and hygienic manner.
The Bhangis should not be condemn·
ed to live in segregated localities. They
should be distributed and given
quarters among other groups.
(8) WOMEN-Women in India have 31-32 22-30
lived under great social handicaps
and as a class must be regarded as
backward. But since they do not form
a separate community they cannot be
included in the list of backwatd classes.
The conditions of women among
backward clasees is worse. The girla
from among backward clasees should
be given better facilities for edu·
cation. They should be encouraged to
live in special hostel.s for girl.s of all
communities. They should be trained
in Basic Education. Women should
have a share in the political life
of tho country. The following mes8Ul'es
art> recommended for the advanoo-
mont of Women in general.

1. l!'ree education in all stages to all

gtrl.s whose parents' income is less
than Rs. 3,000 per aunum. '

2. Scholarships for girl.s belonging

to the backward class68 • ·
'
3. Residential hostel.s for girl students
with priority for girl.s of the baok:
ward classes.

4. Bamata .ti.Bhrams for girls of all

communities to bo run by trained
stl\ffs of women and men.
 163'

Summary of Conclusions and Recommendations-contd

1 2 3 4

5. Creation of special facilities for

girls to study Medicine, Home
Sciences, and other subjects spe·
oially suited for women.

6. More facilities for training women·

in tho Fine Arts, and in Soda!
sorvice.
(9) UNFORTUNATE WOMEN-The IV 33-34 31"-36
administration of "suppression of
Immoral Traffic Act" is found to be
more punitive than reformative. It
is found that the punished offenders
drift baok to their old profession
· in the absenco of any properly orga·
nised rescue homes , ' where they
could find refuge. Thera is great
scope for starting rescue homes
and Government should be able
to help such efforts with finanoe
and legislation. Rescue homes should
not bo mere asylii.IDB for such women.
Such homes must be controlled by
committees consisting of social wor·
kers under Government supervision.
Women sooial workors from well-to·
do society should accept an increasing·
ly larger role in tackling this problem.
In addition to providing food and
shelter for these unfortunate women,
they must be taught different ocou·
pations to enable them to oarn a
living and become useful members of
society. They must also be taught
to change their outlook and to lead
norinal married lives.
37-40
(10) DELINQUENT CHILDREN-
The lower sootions of sooiety often
neglect thoir ohildron with tho
result that tho lattor go astray and
somotimos become the victims of
greed, cupidity and passion. Such
 164
Summary of Conclusions and Recommendations-contd.

1 2 3 4

children generally loom all kinds of

vices and are trained to deceit and
crime. The provisions for the rehabi-
litation of delinquent children arc
totally inadequate. It is not legislation
that ID11ttors but better provision
for the ID11intenauee and education
of such children that count&;
it is the qnality of the reforming
· agency that is all important. The
State must help persons who taka up
the work of amelioration of those
delinquent cllildren.

(11) DENOTIFIED COMMUNITIES

(EX-CRIMINAL TRIBES).
The following measures are recommen· IV 84-37 41-48
ded for adoption for tho amelioration
of the conditions of the communities
in this group;-
1. The Ex-criminal tribes shonld
hereafter be called denotified eom-
munities. Vimochit Jatian.
2. Those communities have been
cla88ed as Schednled Castes, Sche·
dnled Tribes or Other Backward
Cla88e8 according to the criteria
appliesble to them for the purpose
of relief.
3. The nolD11dic groups shonld be
given facilities for looding a settled
life.
Efforte must be made to distribute
them in the towns and villagas so
that they could gradunlly be
assimilated by the acoiety.
-4. Tho obildrcu of these groups should
bo trained in Basic Education.
~1oy m~tBt also b~ trainod in cottage
mdustrms, handicrafts and agrj.
culture. Services of traillOd psycho-
logists and social workers should bo
omployod to reform those habitual
offenders.

"··-----';"----_:_---·
 1M
Summary of Conclusions and Recommendations-contd

l' 2 3

5. Group criminality should be

treated differently from the acquired
criminality oft.he individuals.

(12) BACKWARD AREAS- Backward IV 37-38 · 49-51

areas in HiDlllchal Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Udaipur in Rajasthan, Bas·
tar in Madhya Pradesh, Alimjpur and
Jobat in Madhya Bharat, Ama.rakantak
in Vindhya Pradesh should be deve-
loped by allocating more community
projects, national extension eervice
blocs, social welfare extension projects
and other developmental schemes. The
proposals of some of the States to de-
clare them as Schednled Arons may be
examined by Government of India and
early action taken.
CRITERIA OF BACKWARDNESS
A. variety of oaiL'l~ocial, environ· v 40 8
mental, economic and politioal-have
opemted both openly and in a subtle
form for centuries to create the present
coloaaal problem of backwardness.
Economic backwardness is the resnlt
and not the oaiL'le of many social evils
of the present day. Social backward·
ness, therefore, is not to-day due to the
particnlar profession of a pmon. It is
not easy to group sections of people
under certain occupations. There are
certain distinct communities who nre
not confined to any one occupation and
it would be difficult to oategorisil them
under any known occupations. There
are certain castesand aub·olllltes blllled
on regionalism. 42 11
The Commission is jiL'ltified in interpret-
ing the terms of reference as mainly
relating to social hierarchy bnse.d on
oaste. Caste generally depends up?n
birth; it DliiY also depend upon habits
and it mny create further olenya~ duo.
to conversions and denommational
-~di~ft'o~ro:!!n~cos:!!:.._ _ _._____. . : . . . - - · · · · · - - - - -
 166
~~~· and Recommendations-con!:!
Summary of Conel..-~·~

1 2 3
After a consideration of the I!OOUli con- , v 46 25
ditlons m Indian soCiety and the caus-
es for backwardness of a large section
of the people, the followmg cnterw.
are adopted for general gwdance.-
1. Low soCial poBition, m the tm·
ditional caste Iuerarchy of Hmdu
SOCiety.

2 Lacko£ general educatiOnal advance-

ment among the major section of a
caste or community

3. Inadequate or no representatiOn m
Government semce.

4. Inadequate representation m the

field of trade, commerce and mdus·
try.

cLAsSIFICATION OF COMMUNITffiS
We have taken mto consideratiOn the
socml positiOn wluch a commuruty
.. 47 27

occnpies m the soCialluerarcby, the

percentage of bteracy and 1ts general
educatiOnal advancement, and 1ts re·
presentatiOn m Government semce
or m the mdustnal sphere. The ecou-
onuc backwardness had also to be kept
mVIew m order to find out the ab1hty
of the commun1ty to take advantage
of the available opporturut1es aa also
the recent trends m Its advance-
ment.

The LBU! of Other Backward Claaaes pub- 47

lished by the Educat1on Muustry, Gov-
ernment of India, and the haUl funu-
shed by the State Governments fonn
the baaJS, The opnuous of the repre-
sentatives of vanous commuruties,
leaders of pubhc opm10n, and SOcial
workers were also taken mto conside-
ratiOn.

-
 167

Summary of Conchtswns and Recommendat10ns-contd

1 2 3 4
.

We thus prepared the hsts of Other Back·

.
v 48--50 30,40 & 43
ward Classea and also reviSed the llllta ' .
of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled·
Tnbes. We have made every effort to
brmg m as many coJ11J11urut1es as pos·
Sible who answer the cntena but we '
are comClous that m the condit1ons
prevailing m the country 1t has not
been possible for us to get m touch mth
some coJilJiluruties who are not well-
known Our desl.ftl Ill that such omlll·
&IOns should not come m the way of
any COJilJiluruty bemg mcluded later '
and we suggest that m these cases
backwardness be presumed We have
suggested the settmg up of a Board for
the unplementat10n of the pohcy for
the advancement of all the backward
classes. Th!B Board should be empower-
ed to mvest1gate the conditiOns of the I
COJ11J11Ulllt1es who mav later seek m·
olus1on m the h~t of Other Backward
.
Classes. 1

The names of castes have not been specdi·

ed as Hmdu or Mushms and they should
mvanablv be treated as caste names
COJilJilOn to both, .. 50
'
~

CONDITIONS OF BACKWARDNESS
AND MEASURES FOR THEIR RE·
MOVAL
VI . 51 ..
'• ,,
' '
A-Pol111cal 54 13
The framers of the Indian Constitution .
recogn!Be the lustorJcal processes that
were at work m India and the uneven
development of the var1ous sectiOns of
the Indian population They have,
therefore, made adequate proVJsion
.
for the protection and betterment of
Other Backward Classes also Umver· '
sal adult francluse has g1ven to the
masses the most potent and powerful
 168
Summary of ConclUSions and Recommendatio~ntd

-•-
1 2 3
m.strument with winch to shape theu
destmy. What 18 wanted now 18 the
strengthenmg of theu hands through
educat1on and not to offer another
weapon to weak hands

After considenng all aspects of the ques VI 54 u

tion, we have come to the conclusion
that 1t would be swctdal to accord any
additional or Special polit1cal represen-
tabon to any commuwty or eommu·
mttes.

There are disruptive forces that are tty·

mg to entrench then~Belves by explo1t.
.. 55 15
mg the prevatlwg 80C!al atmosphere
We suggest that the politiCal parttes
m the country should take note of the
unhealthy symptoms m the hody-poh·
ttc and draw people together under a
well defined econollllc and social
programme,

B-Eoonmnte &: Induatna!

The ob)ecttves should be fu-n employ-
. 55 16-17
ment and the removal of economic w-
equshties Maxunum productiOn, full
employment, the attainment of econo-
llllc equahty and SOCial )ustme should
coust1tuts the acoopted ob)ecttve of
pla=g under present-day conditions
Unplanned mdUiltr!al development m
India, urbamsatton and expai!Bion of
. 5~

trade and commerce, growth of towns

' and large Cities and the Br1bsh educa,.
ttonal and mdustnal pohcy have d1s·
rupted the old VIllage economy and
have resulted m denudmg the rural
areas of local talent and leadership.
Dunng the 30 years followmg 1921 tho
populatiOn hag mcreased by 11 crorea, .. 57 20
and there 111 a drop of 2~ per cent tn
the per cap1ta area of cult1vated land.
 169

Summary of Conclu.nom and Recommendatwm--contd

. 2 3 4
1

The pressure on land h88 mcrea.sed from ' '

decade to decade The decay of rural
mdustncs h88 aggravated the rural
SituatiOn, All these factors have con- '
tr1buted to the growth oflandless agr1-
cultunsts' family
Smallness of holdmg~, pmmt1ve system VI 60 23
of cultlvatJOn, lack of educatiOnal fac1-
ht1cB, lack of adequate agricultural
eqwpment, decay of rural mdUBtnes
causmg unemployment and under-em-
ployment have all contnbuted to the
present poverty of the rural people '
I 'l

Any plan for economic recoustruct1on of . 62 26

the country must necesaartly mclude
me88Ures des1gned for the speedy upW't
of the backward class•a. ('ondJtlons
must be recreated m whJCh the deve·
lopment of these classes takes a natural
growth. Removal of economiC and somal
causes that are operatmg to thell' de
tnment should receive first pnor1ty

No ttme should be lost m makmg fuller .. 62 27

use of the human resources, avatlable
skill and experience of the artisan and
occupatiOnal classe.q to produce goods I

wluch are needed by tbQ commuruty

Improved eqwpment or Jmpro,-.d toolR
and trammg m modern metl1ods of
production m&y follow the above
measures
62 28
The mam soluhon, therefore, for the
speedy uphft of the backward classee
m the rural areas 1& not so much to
wa1t for the creat1on of new avenues
of employments, as to provtde favour-
able condtttons m wbJoh the1r lost or
decaymg ocoupatJODB could be revtved
A large scale employment m tradition-
al occupatiOns w1ll alone rebeve the
 170

Summary of Conclusl0118 and RecommendatioTI$-Contd.

..
1 2 3 4
'

present pressure on land. It Will also '

help m creatmg SUitable soc~al atmos-
phere for econoJXUo uphft It ll! only
thereafter that we will have a clear
piCture of rural hfe winch Will enable
us to re-organiSe rural}hfe on a sound
and rataonal baBJ&
''The econoJXUc pohcy and the Ideology VI 62 29
behmd the Five Year Plan do not ms· '
prre sufficient confidence It IB felt that
even the pohc1es enunmated m the
Five Year Plan have not been properly
Implemented "The ad.m.m:istrative set-
up entrnstoo WJth the task of llllple·
' mentmg the we!iare measures requues
a complete re-onentatwn. There was '

WJdespread demand from the repre-

sentatlves of the backward classes that
a large number of tbett own men should
be taken mto serv:tces to brmg about '
better soctal contact WJth thtl masses '

All developmental actmt1es should ~-

dmte from central VIllages of compaot
. 64 30

blocks cons!Btmg of 10 to 15 VIllages.

The country should be dmded mto ' '

compact blocks of such dtmens1ons on

a planned basil!, and modern ameruties I
shouid•be taken to such Panchkosh1
nruts The dll!turbmg causes of rural
hfe such as factJO~s feelmgs presence .
of anti-social elements and the hab1t
of ht1gatwn often leadmg to breaches
of peace should be removed to help
development of the rural arelll!,
LAND POLICY
31
For the uphft of the backward classes, 1t
18 VItal to have a proper land pobcy It
'

.. 64
18 neoossary that all kmds of mtor·
med1ary tenures should be abohshod to
htlp m tboformulatwn and 1mplomon·
tatwn of a nstwnalland pohcy
 171
Summary of Cond'U.'IU>m and Recommenda.ttons-eontd

1 2 3 4
- --- - .

The l&nd legtslat10n must be s~mpleand ·VI ' 64 32

eas!ly underBtllndable by the l'llr8l
populatiOn There should be no loop
holes m such a legJslatJon that llllght "
lead to sQCtal oon61~t Too many and
frequent changes rn lar.d leg~slation
create confus1on and d!liiculty and '
often lead to· endleSll ht1gatton nnd
0:1plo1tehon

LARGE LANDOWNERS AND ' CEI·

LINGS ON HOLDINGS '

),>

The general ptctu:re m the country is one VI 61! 34,

of numerous small holdmgs, a large
proportron of them bemg uneconom.lc,
a small number of m1ddle peasanta and ' '
a sprmklmg of substanttal owners If
1t wete the sole ob]ect of pohoy to
reduce the holdmgs ot the large owners
mth Bj VIew to proVldmg for the land-
loBI! odor mcroasrng the fnrmsot thoSII •
who now have uneconomic fr8gments,
tlle facts at present avMlsble suggest
that these mms aro nat likely to oo
achieved m any bnbstsntJal mearue
The prmCJple of nn upper lnrut far
land holdmgs must. be oonstderod m
relatiOn to gem;ro.l0eononuo pattern of
tlle country as a whole, rothcr than m
relatton to tho possible use that could
be mado of land mexcess of any ~e1bng
!!nut that mny be lixrd. F>lOilg a col· '
lmg on land holdmg 1s necessa.ry 11611
sooull prmc1ple to romove tbe exrstmg
m·eqnahty (lf the oult!Vators' holdmgs
in tho countryside But 1t s.bmtld be
foUowed almost llllllled>ately by plao-
ing lumts on mcomes from othlll' nelda
of natiOnal economy. Only then would
1t bo poss1ble to create a psyohologwal
sat1sfaotJOn among thoso who are reo
quu:OO to swrendor th01r property for
tbe Qomman good The oe1hngs should
-
 172

Summary of Concluswns and Recommenda.hons-contd

1 2 s 4

be different for different types of land

and conditiOns of ramfall, types of
crops grown, pressure of populatton,
etc should be taken into constdera-
tton m determmmg the cetlmgs
DISTRIBUTION OF LAND
Tbe available government land should VI 65 36
firstly he d!stnbuted among the land·
Jess and then among the owners of
uneconollllc holding& To thta end land
revenue rules should be IIU!tablyamen·
ded Any mfrmgement of th1~ rule
should be severely dealt w1th by State
authonttes
Tbe excess land resumed after fixmg the
ceilings should also be wstnbuted first
among the landless
Tbe dtstnbut10n of land should be left m
the hands of Government officers who
should be mstmcted to 1mplement the
Government pobcy m thiS behalf
'
SMALL AND MIDDLE OWNERS
Tbese groups mclude almost all back· 66 36
ward communttles Thc1r holdings are
unecono1111c and ser10usly fragmented
Tbe general aun should he to brmg
about consohdat10n of holdings.
FragmentatiOn beyond a certam h1111t
should be prohtbtted by law

REGULA'fiON OF TENANCY RIGHTS

It IS necessary to protect the tenants
under large holders from arbttrary
. 66
37

evwt1on and from the levy of unreason-

able rent A hmtt on the amow1t
of land to b£ rosumod by the ownors for
personal oulttvatJOn ts nocestlllry mall
ca86s where cellmgs on holdmgs are
not fixe-d. In caf!Os whore e~tlmgs are
fixed tho tenants may be gtvon the
option to acqulle tho excess land by
payment ofsuttable prwe m easy m·
stalments Tbc qu11ntum of rent to ho
-
-
-
 173
Summary of Concl'I.ISW7!$ and Recommendattons-contd
' 1 2 3 4
- - (

fixed and the soounty of tenancy

should be determmed m relatiOn to
local conditiOns
In the case of small and lll!ddle owners VI 67 3S
and m cases where ceilings are fixed the
rights of tenants under such owners
should be regulated by s1mple laws
and 1t must always be open to the
owners to resume the land mthout
difficulty at the end of the tenancy
perwd, wlucb may be fixed from 5 to
10 years
'
RECORD OF RIGHTS
Peasant propr1etorslup, however small . 67 3q
the holding will for some years be the
pattern in most rursl areas The r1ghtsj
of all. mterests m land should be
oorreotly rscorded and mamtamed

AGRICULTURAL CLASS STRUCTURE 40

The preponderllllce of owner-cultiva- 67
tors IS the most Important and c!Jarac-
1ler1Bt1c feature of ouragncultural class
structure Tho eoonollliC condlt1oDB of
com.mumt1es fll)gaged m agnculture
are far from sat1sfactory and a large
maJOrity of them have necesS~mly to
hve below subsistence level Tholl
pos1t10n has beoome such that they
are mev1tably the helpless VICtiMs of
exploitation They nood State help m
abundant measure, not only to tm·
provo agrtculture whtch IS their roam-
nt{ly but to brmg about gonernl tm·
provement m their hvmg condittons
It ts equally necessary to remove all
forms of oxplottatwn from rural !Jfe,
and estab!Jsh co-operatives on a plan·
nod btiBls~both functwnal and
regwnal-mauned by proper type of
person~ who would work devotedly
for the betterment of the rural people
-LJHIGI>!ofHA
 174

Summary of ConclUSWIIS and Recommendattons-contd.

l 2 s
RURAL CREDIT AND MARKETING
We endorse the mtegrated soheme of VI 68 42
l1ll'lll credit With State partnership
recommended by AJl.India Rnral
Credit Stll'Vey
RURAL INDEBTEDNESS
Ag:nculto:ral oommumtiell habitually ll1ll 70
mto debts and more so wllen advel'86
seasonal condJtmns prevail It 16
necessary that prommn should be
made e1ther through land marketmg
SOoietiell or through proposed State
Bank for long-term credJt to redoem
them £rom the clutches of uncoiiSOiona·
ble money-lenders R.>hef from
llSUI'iol16 rates of mteresta 16 also
nesded Scahng down of the debts of
unpecuruous cultivators 16 eq116lly
desll'llble

MARKETING FACILITIES
"In the absence of staymg power a large
number of small farmlrs compete With
.. 70
each other and the markets Witness
oondJt1ons of occasional glut and
acarcity "They are subJect to exploit·
atJOn at the hands of money-lenders or
mandJ-mercbants m marketmg thoU'
produce It 16, therefore, necessary to
estabhsh co-operative marketmg SOC!o·
t1es, regulated markets at swtable
centres With warehouae and bankmg
faciut1es ,
PRICE SUPPORT
The cond!tmns of agricultural oommuru-
ties are largely governed by tho pnoe .. 70 46
they get for thell' surpl118 produce
Mmunum fall pr1ces should bo guaran-
teed to the cultivators both from
the pomt of VIew of the koepmg up
agricultural productmn and of the
prospor1ty of the agrJCultlllal oommu-
IUtJos. ! ,
 175
Summary of Conclusions and Recommendattons-<:ontd

1 2 3 4
- -~ -· . -- - --· - - --~- ---

ffiRIGATION
The most effeotlve way of mcreasmg
crop production m India 1s to proVIde
.
VI 70 47

through UTigatJon an addttwnal source

of water-supply to the cult1vated land
Small and medium UTig&tion works
have an m~portant part to play and
'
they have obVIous advantsgsa In VIew
of the urgency of thiS probltm we
recommend that greater attentiOn
ehould be paid to the executJoll of
small and medtum u:ngat1on works
and to prov1de UTig&tion from wells
andnvers wherever 1t IB not possible to
have tanks and aruouts. '

LAND TAX POLICY

There have been oomplamts that the . 71 (8
present syetem of land taxat1on has "'
not been eqwtsble and 1t IS part1oular·
ly oppressive m the case of uneconomiC
ho!dmgs The present system has not
been based or the ca-pac1ty ot the cult1· '
vator to pay tne tax The system of
land taxation w 1ts relation to the
capacity of the cultivator should be
thoroughly examined and an eqwt-
able system of taxation be evolved
I
RURAL SAVINGS 71 49
With the mcrease m agr10ultural pros·
-pe:r1tv there should be sco-pe for effeot·
mg savwgsw rural areas The villagers
have to be ~ducated to pl'IICtiso thrift
and economy The:ro IS, therefore, n~ed
fo1 orgnmswg rural sawgs schemes
at village level. '
cOMMUNITIES ENGAGED IN THE
OlJLTIVATION OF VEGETABLE
AND FLOWERS 71 61
There are some distinct oommuintles wno
are mamly engaged m the cultivatiOn
of vegetables &nd ilowe:re They are - --
-
~

-
 17~

Summary of Concluswns and Recommendatlons-eontd.

--
1 2 3
•
knoWll by dllferent names m d1ffeTent
pam of the country The foUowmg
stepsar~ recommenlird to ameliorate
then: condlttons -

1 Enough land sbould bQ mad6 avl!Il-

able for growmg vtget:c.bles and {nuts
Suburban le'ts around large towus
should be developed for ra1smg frwte
and vegetables by organiZmg tl.ese
C{)llllilllmtJes Into cooperatives,
o$pumally forth~ supplv of 1mprovrd
seeds aud for marketmg thm produce,
2 The exorbitant renta in all caae~~
of tenancies should be scaled down
as m the case of other tenanC!tll
3, lnstruct!o!IB should be g!Ten to the
young men of these commumttes
00 unproved methods of fnut and
vegetable cultivation,
'
4 Scholarslnps should be estabhahed
for the purpose of trammg qtta.Wied
students among them m general
hortlc11ltnre '
I
COMMUNITIES ENGAGED IN GROW. '
ING BETEL VINE Vl '
72 I
53
CultiVation of betel Wine LS mamly '
confined to one caste which 111 found
all over the countcy. It 111 cultlv&.ted
on small plots of land and the oommu:·
mty u. geMrally pcor The greatest
d!fficulty Ill m the matter of mll.l'kctiJU!
betel leaves. Pan-growers have lost
the1r llltport markets in Pakistan, (
Ceylon, Burma snd Nepal. The
followmg meBBures are recommended
for thel!' amehoratJOn '
1 Grant of su:tliment and BU!table ~
,
land for ral8mg betel VIne tr.
members ofthLS commumty and

-
reductiOn of opptCBBlve rents.

-
 177

Summary of ConclUSions and Recommendatton&--eontd.

'.1
-
1 2 3
'
2. Establishment of co-operatives to
grant medium-term loans for the
purchase of agncultuml IDlple-
menta and manuxe and for ma.rke-
twg the betel leaves.
S. ExploratiOn of fore1gn markets by
state for betel leaves.
4:. Rea.earch work for eradteataon of
peats and dtseases and for unpov-
mg the quality of the vwes, and
m the Lutntaonal and medtcwal
value of Pan.

REORGANISAT-ON OF VILLAGE
ECONO:!lY. ,,
'
VI 7S li6
The first Five Year Plan advocates
Co-operative fa.rmmg for the rapid
reorgalll88tion of village economy
The Plannmg Colll.1llll1I!Ion has also
suggested co-operative village manage-
ment as the ultimate obJective. But the
socio-economic structure of the
present VIllage hfe IS not congemal
for proper functwmng of co-opera-
tives m rural areas The basiC causes
lundenng the development of the
I ..oo-operatave spmt must be removed
before agnculture could be re-orga·
msed on co-operative prwmple.
A few essential steps a.re necessary to
facilitate such a reorgruiiBIItJOn,

Theyure -
.. 74 117

1. Prolub1tion of mveatment on land as

a sou.ooe of mcome by persons who are
not themselves oultivators or by those
who do not reBide either m the ,~nage
m wluoh the land IB situated or on the
flll'm,
 178
Su.mmaTJI of ConclU81.0m and RecommendatiO'M-Contd.

1 2 4

Acqlllllit!on of land Ill a village from

pm.oru. who own the le.nd bu.t
who ate thellll!<llve~~ not agncultunsts
8lld do not re111de m the village.

Restramt on ahene.tton of land m

favour of a non-agncultunst,

Rellervatton of the reqttll'lld extent

of land for grazmg purpose~~ 8lld for
village plantatJons

& Immedul.te redlstnbutton of the

temauung land Qmong the landlw
agneultumta m the ~em the first
llllltance and QIDong the owners of
un~no!lllc hold.mgs next.

6 [Conaolidahon:of holdwgs

7. Brmgtng mto vogue mutu&l 111d

among agncult111'!8te m farm opera-
tions.

8 Orga!ll.Batlon of multt-pm:pose co-

operative eoctettes for better farm-
mg or for dlstnbutton of Slleds, fer-
tilizem, agncultnral eqwpment for
marketmg and tinanmng, ete
BHOODAN MOVEMENT •• VI 68...01
Bhoodan mm wence the apphcation of
the prmmple of non-VIolence for the
acglllSitlOn and dlstrtbutton of land
among the landlw m the country
Tins movement baa set m motton 11 great
agra.nan revolutton, and 1.8 creatmg a
Jlece!IS!Iry psychologtca\ climate m the
country for the estabhahment of soctal
OIV!lershtp of ls.nd through voltmtaey
and non-VIolent mesl\11 It Ill teymg to
infl<tenca the psychology of the ''lu.ves"
Ill! regards money, power and presttge and
to nwulcate 111 them 11 feeltug of !IOCtlll

~------------------~-----L----~--~~
 179
Summary of ConclU81ons and Recommendatwns-contd

1 2 3

sohdanty by askmg them to recognise

theU' duty towards the backward people
as members of a vast fam:tly. Acharya
Vmoba Bhave 1.6 teaclung the 'haves'
to accept the 'have-nots' as on a par With
ones' blood brothers He IS, therefore,
not only removmg the backwardness of
the 'have-nots' but he 1.6 also removmg
the bitterness wluch the 'have-nots' m
th6U' desperation are nursmg Tlus
great agranan revolutiOn 1.6 more spll'l·
tuai m 1ts content. The scope ofBhoodan
Movement JB Widened to molude m 1ts
scope 'Sampatt!dan' 'Shramailan' and
'Jl!el!anilan' so necessary for the establwh·
ment of Sarvodaya soo1ety. We re-
commend both to the Government and
to the nation that they should take np
the work of Bhoodan Movement and
spread 1t to all nooks and corners of the
conntry.

VI 76-77 62-65
DEVELOPMENT OF LIVESTOCK
The development ofagncultnre 1.6 bound
up With the development of hvestook,
for bnllooka are the prmo1pal motive
power used ahnost universally for
agncultural operatiOns. It 1.6 1mportsnt
therefore, that the cattle wealth of the
country should be Improved. All commu-
mtles engaged m agnoultnre are alao
engaged m reanng hve-stook The
prospenty of these ooDimUDltles depends
on the development of livestock.
The fqlloWJUg step~ are essentJal•-
1. Segregation of all useless and decrepit
cattle and estabhshment of Gosadans
for th6U' upkeep. I
 180

Summary of ConclUS\Ons and Recommenda.ttOns---<:ontd

-
1 2 3
'
~ Large-scale arrangements for the
castration of the useless and scrub
bulls, to prevent detenoratton m the
qW!.hty of cattle.
3 Cattle-breeding stations to l!llprove
the breed of cattle ae also to unprove
the IDl!k.yJeldmg quaht1es of the COli'
!hould !be estabh!hed All help and
encouragement should be g~ven to
local breeders to unprove theu stock

4, Steps should be taken to conserve the

emttng paeture land m the mtereet of
"flllage cattle

1!, More vetermary tnstltut10na should be

eetabh!hed

DAIRYING
Bmall seale datrymg IS a general featl!re m
. VI 77 66-67

rural areae and bnngs euba!d!ary m·

come to the agriCulturists Efforts should
be made to orgaDISe these small pro-
ducers mto co-operattve mtlkumona and
to gtYe them monetary help and other
assistance needed for developmg '
darrymg
.
CATTLE INSURANCE
Cattle m India are subject to penod!eal
.. 77 68

eptdeiiUcs and loBS of cattle dunng such

ep1demtC1! renders agnculturlSte helpless
They have no other source to depend
upon for their hvehho d when they lose
their cattle It 18 necessary to eafeg~~~~rd
their mterest by eponsonng schemes of
cattle maurance.
SHEEP AND WOOL
One commumty (class of shepherds) 1s
.. 77·78 69-70
engaged mamly m sheep breeding.
There 18 great scope for the Improve-
 181.

Summary of Conclustom and Recommendatlo!I.I'-Contd

1 2 3

ment of ~heep-both of wool and

mutton type. The pre,ent con·
d!ttoDll of sheep-breeders are far
from satlSfactory Bestdes estabhalung
reg10Dlll centres for 1D1provmg the quah-
~y of wool by selectave breedmg and
croes-breedmg, 1t Ill necessary to make
&vailable aufticlent breedmg areas to the
sheep-breeders m several States. Steps
should be taken to protect the tlooka of
sheep from disease and eptdemJCs

POULTRY AND BEE-KEEPING VI 78 71

Poultry and bee-keepmg could form an
IDlportan' substd!ary mduatry for the
poorer cl~~Mes m the rural &reM It would
be &souroe of &dd!taoDlll mcome to theJIL
Improved breeds hke wlute-leg-horn,
Rh,de-Island, ete should be m1iroduced
m the rur&l &rell8, The rural population
should also be IDlltru~ted m the art of
bee-keepmg, and State help extended to
populanse 1t.
78 72
PIGGERY
Communities engaged m pig-reanng are
constdered as low-castes. Some of them
have no fixed place ofresidenoe and they
move from place to place wtth theii pigs
The State Governmente should giVe more
facilities to commumties engaged m tlus
oooupa.ttor. and they must he mduoed to
lead a more settled hfe,
78-79 7~-76
ll'ISHERIES
Anumbor of c0mmumt1es arc ongaged both
m 1ulrmd &hmg and 111 sea-&hmg
Some of them ar~ regarded ns untouoh·
ables In r.dditton to fishmg, some of
them are nlso engaged m plymg boats
and femes mland stronms or cargo
boats along the oor.stal areas Theil
hvmg condtttous are extremely un·
satiBfaotory ar.d lend n vor) hard and
strenuous life.
 182

Summary of Conclu.swns and Reeommendat'lons-eontd

1 2 3

Fishenes have to be developed to supply

adequate food to the nation Fisher-
men should be orgamsed and helped
to form multi-purpose co-operative
soCietieb Through these soCI\ltttB they
should be hdped to bwld strong boats
or buy boats and nets They should also
be enabled to purchase steam-launches
so that they can convey their catrh
to coastal towns Facilities of qmck
and cheap transport mcludmg faCihttes
for the preservatiOn of fish should be
afforded to them
The Khalas1 con•mumty could be encourag-
ed to JOm the Ind.um Navy
AGRICULTURAL LABOUR VI '1'9-80
.Accord.mg to Dr Radha Kumud Mukher-
Jee, the system of land tenure mtro-
duced by the Br1t!sh m lndm was
responsible for the growth of agncultnral
labour populatiOn m Indm Th, dt.eay
of cottage and rum! mdnstries has
also contributed Its shares The recent
Agncu ltural Labour Enquny b. as reveal-
ed that 30 4 per cent of the populatiOn
m ru111l are&s lb of agrwultnral labour
The &'lrno enquiry has dtsclosed that
as many as 89 per c~nt of them are
Cl\911111 workers and the period ot un-
employment ranges from 3 t) 6 months

Agncultnrallabonr fol'lltl! the most vuln~r­

able eectton of the populatiOn, and tho
questmn of rehahibtstton of eommu-
rutles In thiS group should receive the esr-
nest constderatmn of the Government-
Central and States ReVlval of cottage
and n~ral md1llltnes and re·orgamsat1on
of a~teulture would afford greater oppor-
tunities for employment of thtse com-
muntties The redistnbutlOn of lnnd
among the lsndlass would further
!Dlprovo the economw cond1t10ns of
these classes.
 Summary of Conct'U$\om and Recommendatt011$-C0ntd.

1
---------------------~----~-----1-----
80--82 81--87
M!NIM.VM WAGES
In the cmee of agt1eultn:ral !abo~. we
feel, that bamng a few except!onal
C&ses the fizat1on of the mmunum wage
IB desll'8 ble All the faoilitws granted
to l.l'dustrull labour should also be
~nded tl the agrmultural Is bou.r
We lllliY not preSll at pl't'Bel't sta11e for
all these amentt~es But we do hope
that the raqurroments regardmg (1)
Muumum wages (2) Minunum Housmg
(3) Drmlnng water-8llpply (4) Educa-
tion, aud (5) Health faruht1es will be
treaood as overdue to these backward
classes
DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTR.ES
The Comrn!BSIOD Ill a!lXlous that ilia con-
fuct between heavy mdustrws on the
<lne hand and cottage and ru.ral mdtiBtl'les
on ilie other be removed It umecessary
Ill establlBlung mdliBtrlea to avOid the
ugly featurea of the md~strJsl hfe of ilie
West It 111 equally neaesaary to avo1d
he&vy ooMentJ:atlons of populatton
around urban e.reas Steps should be
taken to d1sperse industries all over
the oou.ntry accordmg to a defintte
plan
At present oommumttes belongmg to
backward o\assos are employed only
as unskilled !Jlbour m ilieso mdlll!trtes
Tmmmg faodJtl6s should be proVIded
for iliese communtttes to IDlprove fu~ll'
slo.II The prtnctple o£ reol'1lltwg and
trammg erutable ID6D from baokwn:rd
COIDDIUDltlOB to btgher ranks of SOl"VI06
at least w Government oontroUod mdu&-
trtes ebould be co!loedod Introduo·
t1on of ebort·torm trsmmg courses m
all mdustrtnl estabhsbmonts UJ equally
necessary.
 184•

'Summary of Concltmons and RecommendattoTI.S'-(:Ontd.

'
'

1 2 3 ~
.
RURAL AND COTTAGE INDUSTRIES VI 83-87 9Q-104

The cond.Jttons of commumtuls engaged

m village and cottage mdustr1es and
other hand.Jcrsfts are far from sat!Bfac·
tory DtUmg tunes of unemployment
they have to depend e1ther on dole
from Government or to resort to boggmg

TJ:ere lB conthot of opm10n betwOlllll the

pohcy-makers and those entrusted With
the unplementat1on of poh01es Some
of the Government servants m the
Industnes d~partm<)llts m several States
do not appear to h~ve much fattb m '
tho surviVal oapr.roty of cottage and '
rum! mdustr1es Theil mterest 18 at
best luke·warm The present supervi-
sory, adnnrustrative and teohmcal staff
employed m Industnes departments are
not drawn from communities connected
mth traditional rtUal mdu~trtes or
occup9tJQt s.

The pohcy of g~vmg subsidies to sustem

these mdU!tries lB at best only a palha-
tivo The only feasible course wonld
be to remove all factors hmdermg
llllttUal development of these mdustrJos
and recreate favourable cond.ltlllns m
wh1oh these mdustr1es conld f!ounsh
spontaneously These commun1t el Will,
by theu own exertiOns try to Dnprove
th~!IlB()lves and thett oondltlllnB If the
atmosphere lB favourable W1th Govern-
ment ass!Btence and help, 1t Will become
eas1er for th m not only to tmprove the
teohruque of ptoduot1on but to orgamse
themselvos on modern lmes
KHADI INDUSTRY
' .. 87-88 105--106
Hand splllllmg and hand-weavmg havo
been lnd~.t~'s traditiOnal v1llage mduatry
-
 185

Summary of ConcluSions and Recommendattans-contd

1 2 3 4
·------------------1·-----1~---------
"The story of tl-.e deter~orntw.J became
total e:rlermmatton of so umversal an
mduatry m Indtan vtlll\ges IS wntten m
blood and tears " Gandht]l made 1t
the Central prograllllllo of hts oontruct1ve
actlVlty, and mth tho rJSmg t1de of
nattonahsm, Khadt gamed 1n impor-
tance
The employment potent1al of th1s mdustry
18 great It gtves part-tune and full-
employment to lakhs of villagers 11nd
m partiCular, to the poorer BtlCttOns of
backward olasses There 1s great scope
for th& devolopment of khad1 mduatry,
parttcularly m ootton-growmg areas
of the country, ospertally where there
are no mills Improved oharkhas and
unproved looms should bo mtroduced
to cut down cost and to step up pro-
duction
88-91 107-ll3
HANDLOOM INDUSTRY
The growth of lndtan mtll mdustry bas
ln&VJtably affected the fortunes of hand-
loom weavers As the largest cottage
mdustry m Indta, tt occuptes a place
of prommence m the general economy
of tbe country ProductiOn of haJJd·
loom cloth has recently been about
1,200 Jllllhon yards out of a total pro·
duct10n m th& country of about 6,200
lllllhon yards per 11nnwn In sptte of
great VJOIBBttudoa m tho ~ononuc
upheavals this mdustry has shown great
vttahty to mrmve and oontmues to
sustam lnllhons of people It lB esti-
mated that about 100 lakh& of people
mcludtng dependents are supported by
tJns mdustry The trad1t on, experience,
and sk1ll of handloom weavor& have
be ,n long ~nd d1st1r gu1sh• d Thts rould
b11 pr\lll~rved only by l!raventmg :unfatr
. ' ' ·----
 186

Summary of ConclUS'IOns and Recommendahons-contd

1 2 3 4

competitiOn by the nlli1s The well-

bemg of the comm1lll.ltlea engaged m
bandloom weavmg dependll upon the
early rebabihtatlon of tlus mduatry.
The followmg measures are recommended
for the ruu.sc1tation of thiS mdustry- ,
1. Clear demarcation ot spheres of
production exclusively for the hand-
loom lib.ould be made With miiDedlSte
effeot Smce the weavers are accus-
tomed to produce va.net1es of fabr1cs
hke Bans, Dhotu and Lulig\s-all
these vtmetles should be exclusiVely
reserved for the handloom mdustry.
The present partml reservation
has not helped the mdustry to any
de&ll'8ble extent
2. lWga.larand adequs te supply of yam
of reqUited counts and colours at
reaso!lAble pnces should be ensured to
the bandloom weavers (Seem thJS
connection Clulll'lll8n's note on Ambar
yam)
8 All weavers should be brought mto the
co·operat1ve fold as soon as possible
With a View to proteotmg them from
explo1tatwn by 1mddlemen and master
weavers.
4o A cham of me.rketmg orgammt.tons
should be formed throughout the
country and posstbtht!es should be
thoroughly explored for creation of
forngn markets for handloom fabncs
5 After full protectton and patronage
to khad1, only handloom products
should bo purchased by Governments
-Centl'aland State-for thetr reqUite·
menta '
6 Fmancml &BB!J!tsnoe by State should
be proVIdea to weavers fo~ the
improvement of thetr looms for
mcreassd production
 187
Summary of ConclUSions and Recommendattons---eontd

1 2 3 4,

7 Weavets ats at present l!V'l!lg and

workmg in "shookmg conditiOns of
congestton ". A plrumed programme
for unprovmg thllll' housmg eondtt1on
and, wherenecesll3ty, for development
af weavers' Colontes 18 urgently called
for and should be undertaken by
Governme!lt wtthout any d~lay.
8 Wtth unprovement in tbe technique
of production of the handloom m-
dustry lllld morease m tts yardage,
the texttle lllllls should be :reqmred
gradually to ooniine themselves to the
product1on of fabrics of e:sportmg
var.tetlea as well as of luxu:ry fabnos
of lineat yarn both for e:sport and for
internal oonsumptton.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF COTTON
AND SILK WEA.VING IN ASSAM
ANDMANIPUR . . . VI 91 114
Asaa.m andMampur have st;rong domestic
weavmg tra.dtt!Oil In these two
State~~ hlllldloom weavmg 18 non-com·
mercia! m natu:re. Women of these
two States are e;x:pert weavers Weav·
mg md\ll!try here JS severely handi·
capped for Wllllt of regular supply of
yarn from the mills. There IS a great
posstbility of ma.kmg Assam lllld
M11n1pur completely self-eufliclent w
oloth. To thlll end, the entry of wll-
cloth should bo prolubtted and the .
State Qovermnents llhould g~ve
speczal help to band-spUllllllg and
weawg and also seb up a yarn mill
mth :requued spmdleage Cotton
oultJvatlon m some parts of ;Us&m
should also be encouraged. These atepll
should proVIde ale.rge volume of em·
ployment to the backward com·
mWlltJes moludmg a large number of
tnballl. '
 188

Summary of ConclUSions and Recommendatwns-contd

1 2 3

SILK H.ANDLOOM INDUSTRY •, VI 91 115

Silk hand!oom weavers suffer from the
hard competitiOn from the IDlUs. Sudden
and sharp fluctuations m the pnce of
silk yarn often throm a good nomber of
them out of employment Arrangements
should be madeq_for supplymg those
weavers WJth silk yarn at reasonable
pnces The All-India. Hand!oom Board
should draw progralDIWlS for unprovmg
the cond.!t10ns of weavers and m market-
ing theu cloth.
SERICULTORE 91 116
Senculture 1.8 one ofthe 1!11Qcessful eottage
mdustnes gtvmg subSid.!ary employment
to a large populatton of a.gnuultural
commomlaea The mteni.Sl production
of silk 1.8 not yet suffiCient to meet
the country's demand, and the unregulatr
ed tnlports of raw silk from abroad
creates C!rlBes m the local zndu.my.
There l8 great acope both for expan-
sion and foumprovement m the method
of produet1on of silk, ThlS mdustry needs
stabilisation and 1t 1.8 only then zt can
develop suffi.czently mp1d!y.

WOOL SPINNING AND WEAVING IN-

DUSTRY •
92 117--119
The woolspinnmg and WeaVlllg mdustry 111
JDalllly confined to a co=umty of
shepherds who are found all over the
country. Severe mill competztlon bas been
reapoUSible for the detay of thi.S m-
dustry Though lnd.!a IS a large producer
of wool, a great part of 1t I.S exported
and the local WeaVlllg mdustty I.S severely
hand.!capped. Proper orgaUI.Sattons
should be set up preferably on co-Operll-
tlve lmes m swtable places for the
p11l:chaee and supply of wool to the spm-
ners and weavers Marketing faclhttea ·
for the sale of woollen blanketB should
 189

Summary of Conchmom and Recommendat!~ontd

1 2 3 4

be proVIded so that weavem may get

proper pnce for therr products It IB also
necessary to unprove the techntque of
'
softelllllg wool and of production of both
woollen yarn and blankets to smt the .
changing tastes of the people, Woollen •
cloths shonld be Bta:ndard!Bed to supply
the needa of the Defence Forces and
Hosp1tsls.
VILLAGE OIL INDUSTRY .. VI 9l!-93 120--121
The Vlllilge otl industry IB mostly m the
hande of the oommumty of Te!ta. The
number of workers engaged m thiS
mdustry has been fallmg ete!ldtly from
decede to deoade. The otl mill mdustry
has affected tJus mdustry to a great
extent and a large number of te!ta are
etther unemployed or have JOined
the ranks of agncnltuml labour.
India IB one of the most 1mportrult pro-
ducers of oil seeds and yet the tragejl.y
of the mtuatton IB that the tradttaonal otl
pressers find tt dlflioult to eustam theu
mdustry m the face of compefataon
from otl mill industry. Both from the
pomt of VIew of employment and of
unproV!ng the conditaous of village
telu, 1t is essentull to reserve
the orushmg of edible otl seeds
to the VIllage ghaniB. Intt181ly tf the
compet1t1on ts removed and the regular
supply of oil seede eusured, the telu
themselves will unmedtately reVIve the
industry. ThiS m11y follow supply of
unproved ghama and the orgaruzatlon
for the supply of ot1 seede and for
marketmg oil produced by the
Vll!age oil mdustry. We would add
that tmmediate 6tepa should be taken to
6top the use of maoJunery for crush·
mg edible oil It 18 also necessary to stop
further ltoelll'mg of new ml mills and
gradtllllly stop the eruslung of edible
otis m the eJOStmg mtlls.

L/Hl&M.>fiiA
 19()

Summary of Conchmons o.nd Reconl7nendatlons-cuutd

1 2 I 3
-
-
4

'
VILLAGE POTTER . VI 93 122
The wmmumty of village potters have
preserved the trad1~1onal art of pro- ' '
ducmg not only axtlStlC and elegant '
earthenware but also artlCles for the
dmly 1l!le of all the poor and badcwe.rd
conunumtJes .At present they find no
place m the production of modern
ce:ram:~c wares The potters should be
encouraged to unprov~; thell" methoda of
production by g~vmg them traJlllng and
better unplemen te

BAMBOO AND CANE WORKERS ' 93-94 123

Commumt1es engaged 'n bamboo aLd cane
works e.r~ known by d!liettnt nam~s m
chfferent States They are poor and
backward, and hve m Begregated areas
ID villages or m the vtcimty of forests '

Theu: mam d.tfficult1es are lack of raw

matenals at W~Sonable pnces and proper
marketmg facilities. In vtew of the w•de
vanety of bamboo and cane m our count-
try there 1.8 unh1n1ted scope for the
unprovement mthe production of art1clea
ftom bamboo and cane to smt modem
tastes Steps should be taken to encourage 'I'
these commur,ItJes by arrang~ng supply
of raw matenalsat rea.aonable pnces and
proper marketmg fac•ht1es Proper hous·
mg and educatiOnal faciht•es should be
provided for liDpi<>vlr.g the con<htwns of
the people •

PADDY HUSKING. 94 124

The <!l!tabhshmen.t of nee m•lls ba.a greatiy
affected th1a Important VIllage mdustry.
Paddy huskmg 1.8 a source of employment
to a large number of agrt~ulturallaboure!'11
and It 1.8 stated that 65% of paddy IS etul
hand-pounded and husked locally It 1.8 '
desuable to 'ebmmate nee m1n8 alto'
gether from the rural areas.
'
 191

Summary of ConclUSions and Recommendat1ons-contd

·-
1 2 s 4
COIR INDUSTRY .. .. . .. l
94 125
Coif mdnatry is Btlll prov1dlng 11 large
volume of employment m Trevancore-
Cocbm, butts often subject to penod1cal >

depressJon The recent settmg up of Ooll'

Board IS expected 1;(. help th!li mduotry >

MINOR INDUSTRIES 94 126

Conunumt1es engaged m preparmg leaf·
plates, colleGtmg lao from forests, etc
are poor and backward Spec1al measures '
.
should be taken for thell' uphft a.ud re- '
habihtatlon

VILLAGE HANDICRAFTS .. 94 - 1:27

>

There IS always a large and popular de-

!Wlnd for a.rtlclea of ntlllty produced
by vlllage art!Sana Factory products
have affected the production of Vlilage
artlBtlna The latter need protection and
IISS!Stance at the hands of the public and
the States Care must be taken to diS-
tmgw.sh between artiSans who produce
useful arti<lles and those who produce
works of fine arts. Those works of art
cannot be produced on a mass scale
With disappearance ofKmgs, MaharaJa~.
Nawabs and Zanundlltll, the trad.Itlolllll '
patronage IS gone These art!S!IU c!IISI!es
should be &aS~Sted and encouraged and
National Museums of Art and Emporta
should be estabbshed to patromae these
art!Bt:B The Governments should pur-
ohaso these arttoles of art
to adorn the
Emb!ISI!Iea, Parliament and Leg~alatures
The Government of Inruu should asstst
Ill bu!ldmg up fore1gn mMkets for such
artJOles,
llEEDI INDUSTRY , . 95 128
The Beedi mdustry hs.s a great potentuility
foe the employment of labour Steps
are necessary not only to prevent e;t-
plottat1on but also to orgaruze beeru
workers on 11 co-operattve bii.91B
-
 192

Summary of ConclUS10118 and Recommendah011S-<:ontd.

1 2 3 ~

MILL AND FACTORY COMPETITION VI 96 129

Protection of cotte.gll and rural industne.a
from 1111N8tncted competition of the
nulls and factonea and decentrahsat10n
of mdustnes mil greatly contnhute '

ooward.s rehabilitation of backward

classes.

COMMUNITIES WHOSE TRADITION·

AL OCCUPATION IS PERSONAL
SERVICE . .. .. .. 95-96 130--IM
They are the washennan, the barber, the
' '
.
Kahar or the water-earner and other
classes of domesttc servants. The cond!· ' '
ttons of these commumb.e.a are far from
"
satiSfactory. They need apecml help ,.
for amehoratmg then: condit10ns.
'
'
I
WANDERING COMMUNITIES .. .. 96 135
'
There are a number of I!Dlllll commumtte.a
I
who eke out a precanous elO.Stence m
•
the countryatde. They have no fixed
ple.ce of re.atdence and they move from
ple.ce to pl8Ce m BeB.roh of food and em- '
ployment They beheve m Witch-craft.
I'
Booause of the wecurity of the~r hves, '

some of these commumtte.a are dnven to

cnme, It should be the specltl! respcnst· '
bility of the Government to g~ve them
a settled hfe. '
'
TRADITIONAL BEGGARS
Anctent tradttwn has dtgrufied a bfe ~f .. 96 136
mondtcanoy It enJomed that only '
those who accepted selfless servtce as a
ltfe mtsston were ontttled to hve on alms
Th18 tdea\ was teo good to romatn un·
sulbod l'oople who dtd not want to WOik
for thetr bread assumed the name of
rohgwn aud took to beggmg. Fammcs
and mvastons somotiiile.a created a l&rge

-
 193
Summary of Conclu.stons and Recommendatwns-eontd
------~-------,~~~=-~~-
1 2 3 4
·---·-~-~------ "'--'---'- 1 - - - - . . : : -
band of beggars Hmd= enJomed
feedmg the poor as .one of the duties of
the hoiiSe·holder. Indta, therefore,
contentedly mamtamed a large body of
beggars till at last the InStitution broke
under 1ts own wetght The caste system
also must share the responsibi!tty for a
large nnmber of beggars Some com·
munities clatm that beggary IB their
traditional prof68Blon and that they
cannot take to avy Slll'Vloe, ooonpat10n
or mdustry Sootety has to constder the
whole situation and tackle the problem
by msiBtmg on certam sootal stand·
ards being accepted universally both by
those who accept alma and those who
give them What IB needed most IS that
the tdtal of self-respeot and the concept
of d1gntty of labour should be msttl!ed
mto the mmds of the people It IS only
by direct moulcatton of soou~l tde11ls
that beggary oan be eft'acPd and the n:.an·
power of Indl3 fully utiliSed
MEASURES TO PREVENT EXPLOI-
TATION OF THE BACKWARD
97-98 H6-H9
CLASSES
Backward classes are subject to various
kmds of e:xplottatton Measures to SIIVO
them from OJqJlOJtation are absolutely
essentml for the tmprovement of thOir
economto condition&
Proper mstttutions must be set up for the
distrtbutton of wealth produced A cham
of suitable oo-oporat1ve mstitut10ns or
Government stores ts badly neoded for
th1s purpose Steps should be taken
to tram these commumt1es m runnmg
mstttuttona set up for thOir benefit
Tho ultimate oolutum sooms to ba thet all
produotton and dtstrtbutiOn should be on
a soou~hstto basts and that people should
be encouraged to estabhsh the necessary
moral basts and to got tramed for tho
ohango over
 194
Summary of Concl1LS10113 and Recommendat~onW..

C. COMMUNICATIONS VI 98 150-155
Indla IS a land of vast dJatancesand wllebll
all lands of commumcat10ns are develop-
ed 1t wlilnot be poss1b\e to remove e1ther
the backwardness of areas cut off from
urban centres or of people mhab1tmg
these areas

D. :PUBLIC HEALTH AND RURAL

WATER SUPPLY 99 156- 160
Backward olnss commumt1es generally
hve m lll.88rutary cond!t10ns and m Jil.
ventliated houses Ideas of san~tat10n
and pubhc health among them are stdl
prmutJve Large scale preventive mea-
sures aro necessary to unprove the hoalth
of these clnsses It 18 absolutely ~ent1al
that the rural pubhc should be educa-
ted m tho necess1ty of mamtammg
samtary cond!t1ons

Rural water-supply should be unproved

a ~t doal Pubhc wells and reservorrs
must be bulit WJthm the oasy reach of
the HariJan quarters for the use of the
. whole area. These should be mamtamod
m samtary condttJOns u.nder the super·
v1ston of a Vdlage Water Comm1ttee w1th
a HanJan as President
E. RURAL HOUSING 100 JGS-166
The housmg condttJOns of many of the
com.mumt1es belongmg to backward
classes are far from satisfactory They
bve m 111-venttlated mud hoW!eB of
thatehed sheds Thesehousesarogeneral-
ly overcro11ded
t
A planned programme of rural housmg
ahould be drawn up to prov1de housmg
for the poorer sections m proper village
layouts 81tcs for buddmg houses should
be made llVIulable to those people 01th61'
free or at nolllUI81 ratoa Fl!lllncial aas 1st-

----------------------------··---------------
 195
Summary of ConcluSions and Recommendattons-contd

1 2 3 4

ance either m the form of subs1dles or '

loans should also be g1ven tio help the
backward coD1DlllllltJes to coll&truct
cheap houses HousJDg co-opm:atJVIIS may
be orgamsed for thw plll'pose ' . '

F SOCIAL BACKW.A.RDNE$8 AND

MEASURES FOR ITS REMOVAL •. i00-106 166- 185
Somal backwardness of many coD1DlWlltJes
of the backward class group JS due to
the undesirable features of the Hmdu
sor1al system The sense of eaate and
d!SCrlDUn!ltlOn based on SOOI&J mequallty
is eatmg mto the VJtals of the natiOn
Modern condlt1ons no doubt, are
gradWIIly tonmg down some of those
ng1d caste 1deas but the spmt of caste
st1U permeat68 the maJor ranks oi ou:r
soc•ety In condemnmg the meqwtous
featurts of the oaste system, 1t IB not
sugg68ted that Hmdwsm should be
hqwdated HmdUlsm could be putt·
fied or olesnsed of the dross wh1ch 1t has
accumulated durmg the course of Cl!ll·
turJOs Hmdu1sm must re-examm<l
Itself m th01 wotld context and boldly
shed all!ts undes~rable footuros. It must
cease to be meduleval m 1ts concept of
hfe, must refresh 1tself and take a new
form which would hborate tho sp!l'lt of
man and ll!lllble htm to &BBUllllllte the
h68t and the noblest that Hmdu1sm has
treaaurod t-hrough the ages
Tho Hu,du vn w of hfe was based on ll
harmomous pursUit of tJ1e four oh1ef
concotvableobJ6Cts, 'II~ ,Dharma, Artho,
Kama & Moksha It taught the Uluverssl
brotherhood of man, or rathlll' the
essant1al umty of manlnnd 1\3 11ll
mdlVldual bemgs wore regr.rdcd as part
of one Eternal Soul
The process of equal1s&t10n tS besot w•th
lllllny ha~rds. Poverly, 1gnoranoo and
- -~ .... -~
 Summary of Concl1.1810'M and Recommendat1ons-contd.

1 2 3

tlliteraoy make the task all the more

d1fficult Therefore, nothmg short of a
firm detemunatton by the entue natton
lind m particular by the leadere oi
soo1ety to effeot a eomplete revolution
In the fltndamantal socml outlook of the
people can poestbly fuse the chverse
elements mto a homog~~nons soCiety.

We mdJCate below, on general lmes, the

mea!!Ure$ that the Government&-
Centrel and State-should undertake for
the erachoat10n of soo111l evd.s -

1 .A. clear enlm.OJatton and eft'eottve

nnplementatton of tblS pohcy of socw
sohd.ar1ty and nat10nal progtll&l.
2 Neoeasary legll!latJOn on mamago and
inhentance laws

3 ProhibttlOn by law of .soow chesbth·

ttes

4 Arrangements forth~ produetton and

dtatnbutJOn of literature on soo111l
problem•,

IS, L1beral nse of the Press, Fllms,

Platform and Radio for the removal
of .&oCUli eVlls,

6. Proh.tb1taon of all obsel'\'ances tendmg

to promote ceste feelings m Govern·
mentelaottvlties.

7. Re-orgalll%atJon of the educational

eystem wtth speoml emphae18 on
the chgn.ity of manual labour.

8. Full aesll!tance to promote education

es speed:dy as poestble among the
backward elaasee.

-
 Summary of ConclUSlons and Recommendatlons-contd

1 2 3 4
-
ll. Adequate representation m ~vern-
mentSemoo and Government control·
led mdustnal estabhsbmonts of
those sections who had no chance so
far.
10. Enco1U'IIgemont to art, hterature,
epsom! oultmal groups and assiStance '
and promotiOn of cultural actiVIties
Witb thiS BOCIBl end ID VIeW,
G. EDUCATIONAL BACKWARDNESS
.AND MEASURES FOR ITS
REMOVAL . .. VI 106-119 186-230

The followmg are the var1ous causes of

educational backwardness of the hack-
ward rlas.ses -
1. TraditJoiml apathy for education on
account of somal and enviXOnmental
conditions or occupatJOimi hand1caps
2. Poverty and lack of means of a large
number of oommurut1es to educate
the!l children
3, Lack of eduoatiOnaJ mstltutiODS ID
the rural areas ,'
£. L1vmg 111 macooss1ble areas and lack
of proper oommuruoatlons.
IS, Laok of adequate oduoattonal a1ds
m the form ()f froo·sh1ps, sobolarsh1ps
, and monetary grants for the purchase
of books and clothing
6. Lack of rosJdential hostel famht1es
m places whore educatiOnal mst1tn·
ttons are sttuated
7. Un&!nploymont among tbo educated
actmg as a damper on tbe destre of
some of tbe oommunittos to eduoate
thetr ohtldren
 Summary of Conc!'US'Iom and Recommend<tttons-'-contd
.
1 2 3 4
I
I

8 Defaot1ve educatmnal system wbwh

does not tram students for appropr•ate I
I
oooupatmns and social profeastona

The general progrtlSS of hteracy m lmha

1s slow and hteracy among the back-
ward classes !Bappalhngly low Introduc-
tmn of free and compulsory elementary
educatiOn IS unperat1ve' to Wipe off I

llhteracy from among the backward

classes In rocommendmg unme<hate m· I
I I

troduct10n of free and compulsory I

educatmn for the age group 6-14 we

are not advocatmg the extensiOn of the
present orthodox syskm of educatiOn
We are m favour of nnmedw.te conver-
e1on of the ex1stmg f lementary scboola I

mto basic sohool.s and the estabhsbment

of only baste schools wherever th~
are no schools I

The teachers for the basiC schools should

be drawn from the artiSan and occupa- I

tiona! commlllllties m the rural areas

They must be tramed m general educa-
t10n and then posted as teachers The
establishment of basw schools should
be on a planned basiS sud central villages
should be selected for the locat•on of
eowor baste schools so that they could
serve all the feeder villages Withm a
radius of five mtl, s Each Panchkosh1
area should have a small Board or Com-
mtttoo whose responstbthty It would
be to see that no chtld m that area wont I

Without basw educatiOn

Non-communal hostels should be estab- 1

I
I

ltshed and the cost of board and lodgmg

for tho poorer sectiOns of tho backward
classes should bo borne by the Govern-
mont Students of all commumttes and
all rehgtous denommat1ons should be
encouraged to lrve together and to lead
______ .....
I
 Summary of Conclmtons and Recommendatwns-contd

1 I 3 4.

a commoD bfe. It !!hould be pol!Btble for

ruth tooch&ra and students to ltve to-
I
gether, work together, lll•d atudy '
1
together. r I

SpeCJal type of .A.aluam schools (Sll'II\CIIa ' '

tish.rama) where ttachers With theit '"

fanuhes lrve With th<1 students should
be astabhshed One such Ashram school I
m each one of the 300 and odd districts '
i
111to whwh, India, l8 dmdeil should be
llbtabhllhed Thel!B Ashrams should btl ' '
run byspecml tmmeil teachers who have
l ~ ..
equal respect for all rebglO!llltlnd who
r&gard aU commtUut1es as belongmg to
one hiUilan famtly , ' ' '
'
The Panchkosht schools as also Somal<~ ' '
Ashrams w1ll nllt1ll'lllly culmlllllto mto
JUial uruversttwsofthe bt1s1c type r I
'
I '
In order to make bastOreducatJOn popular
I
' . I
I
With the masses and to carry COilVICtlOil
With them, 1t I& nooe&aary that Govern· '
ment should categortClllly declare that
m aolectmg Cllndldates for GoV'orolltent '
s~rv,ce, ~poo111lly of the up}lllr gr&le&,,
student& tramod m bas1o educa~1on wJ!l
be glVIlllfl deJJded preference.
Pll!-basro o~ pre-school oduc&tlon 1s neoes·
~mry to oV'oroome tho m1ttal &OCI&I hand1·
cap undor wh1ob thu bnokward olasies
chtldrenare suffermg ,
' I

Th~ secondary stago of eduoatwn ta v1tal

from th pomt of v1ew of the oduoa·
t1onll.l advo.ncement of the backward
oln8sos UntJl suJtable sePior bas1c
schools are established, thero JS need to
start secondary schools Ill rll.'tl!>l areal!' ·
liostela should be attached to the
eecondary schools on non-communal
lmes. But 1t JB necessary that a
 .
200
Summary of Conclu.stons and Ree6mmendatt~ontd

1 2 s 4
-
lllliJOrity of the places m thoso hostels
should be reserved for the boys bolongmg '
to backward classes The 111m should
be to lllllke the hQ3tels trammg grounds
for developmg that oommon soe~al out-
look wh1ch JB so necessory for the futlllll
well·bemg of the country

UN1VERSITY EDUCATION
'
smce the BasiC Rural UntversJtles would VI ' 119-120 231-233
gradually take the1r place, the present-
dny UmvorsltJes should confine them·
selves to techmcaleducatJOnand research,
cortem pe rcentago of seats bemg reserved
for qualified students of the backward
classes and hboral scholarah1ps bemg
granted to pooror amongst thom,

p OST-GRADUATE COURSES
AND
RESEARCH CENTRES IN INDIA '
AND ABROAD
Adequate provmwn should be made both
by the State and the Centra.! Govern·
' .. 120 234
mente for trammg students of all
backward clasaeo m post-graduate '
courses and m resoarch cont1'8S both m
Indm and abroad '

ADULT EDUCATION
In the mterestsof tho backward olasaeo, the
scheme of SOCial edueat10n should be
.. ,, 121 238
ex:pandod to covor tho whole country,
pr1or1ty bemg fvon to those ar01111 whore
tho standard o hteraoy 1slow.
RURAL READING ROOMS
LIBRARIES AND '

' '
Reaclmg roomBilnd hbrarulll m rural are11s I
239
should bo estabhshod and a Jud1010us
,j 121
selechon of books bo lllllde for stookmg
rural bbrar1oa Important pormd!Ca)s '
should bo rood out m tho rural roodmg '
 201

Summary of Conelu.nom and Recommendat10m'--<:ontd

1 2 3

xoomM to keep the people in touch WJth

the day-to-day happenmgs m the
country. Also semmal books should be
read out before ser1ous adults and
explamed '
ALL INDIA INSTITUTIONS FOR
HIGHER LEARNING
In order to ach1eve speody educat1onal VI 121-122 240
advsnuement of the backward classes
and t<. ol'(lllte new conditiOn& to root ·'
out caste1sm and regional and lmguist1o
tendencies, spemal res1dentml mst1tu•
t10ns cf the uruvers1ty grade should
bo sot up m var10us States to mouloote
an All India outlook among the students
These ms~1tut10ns should be n1auned
by pro!eJsors and lecturers of learnmg
and patr10t1sm The courses of stud1es
should be swtably deVJJ!ed The medium
of mstruct10n should be Hmd1 but one
or two reg10nal languages must also be
taught Professors and students drawn
from all parts of the country and from all
oorrmun1t1ea should hve, study and work
together
Government should spend all money on
bas1o education and only where bas1c
schools oonrot be sta1ted for want of
teachers money may be spent on ortho-
dox eduoat1on. ,
FACILITIES FOR ADVANCED STUD·
IES ABROAD , 123 246
Govermrent of Ind1~ sl:.o11ld n1ake adequate
provision for award of var10us ooholar-
shlps to br.okward olass student&,
SCHEME OF SCHOLARSHIPS IN
STATES 123 247
(n) Sohemos for trte.!lnpsand scholarsh1ps
should be mtroduced mall the States for
the benefit of students bolongmg to
 202
Summary of Conc!u.nons and Recommendations-<:ontd

1 2 4
- - - - - - -----+---1---·1---
Othox Backward Cla6%B Th$ State ' I

GuvelJl]llents should make adequate pto-

VII!ton m theu: budgets for the purpose

(b) In awardmg scholarshtpa the clauns of 1M

all commwuttea among the backward
da.S%B should be tak:Jln mto conatders·
tmn and the allotment m the .first
lll6tsnce should be on the basts of popn·
latton of various commumttfS m a
State, preference bemg gtven always to
those who are extremely backward, 'IIIZ.,
starred commwuttt&, m the hsts prepared
by the CclllJIUSSton

c) Small commttte&s cona!Btmg of repre-

8<\ntsttves of v&rJona oommumttes be
conatJtuted for vartous grades of scholar·
shtpa m each State to ass!Bt the eduoa tiOn-
a! autltorJtJes to select deservmg canru·
dates from among the vanous commwu·
ttes for J1u.rposes of award

d) General mcome of the par611ts of

a student applymg for a scholarship
should not exceed Rs 1,800 per annum
to enable htm to get a scholarship up to
the secondary courll6 ,

(e) In all c~ses of educattO!l abro&d, mcome

of t.h11 parents of a stud611t should not
exceed Rs 3,600 per annum for gettmg
a scholarshtp

RESERVATION OF SEATS IN SClENCE VI 125

MEDICINE, ENGINEERING, AGRI·'
CULTURE, VETERINARY AND
OTHER TECHNICAL AND TECHNO-
LOGICAL INSTITUTIONS OF
HIGHER LEARNING. • ,

(a) In all SCJenco, Engtnll6rmg, Mocbome, ' 249

Agrttulture, Votermary and other techm·
cal and technologtcal IIIBtttuttons, 11 re-
------___:L..._---.!._ ___,1_ --·-
 203

Summary of Conc!uswns ~nd Recommendatt~ontd

- - 1- - 1 - 2 - 1 - 3 - 1 1 4

servat1on of 70 per cent of seats should

be made for quahfied students of back·
I
ward classes till such t1me e.s accon roo-
dation IS ptoVlded for all the students
ehg1ble for ad.nuss1on. The rerruunmg
30 percent as also all seats una\aJ!ed of
by backward classes should go to 1ilie
rest of the students
(b) In makmg selectiOn to the reserved
quota of se.ats, quahfied cand1dates from
extremely backward classes should be
taken mto cons1derat1on firs~, and m
me.kmg dll!tnbutwn, the prmc1ple of
favm,rmg the lower of the two claunants
among the candrd!!.tes from the v1mous
commurnttes should be followed
(c) A SelectiOn Comnuttee cons1stmg of
some of the representatives of all Commu-
mt!Os (not necessarily, of the bac1.ward
r.loLo) should be set up to ass1st the
educa.t1onal r.uthor1t1es m the selectiOn
of doservmg candidates
li. REPRESENTATION OF O.B Cs IN
, GOVERNMENT SERVICE-CENT·
, RAL AND STATES
139-142 289-299
I•) Prost1ge, power and mHuence, scales of
pay, secur1ty of employment and scope
to d1stnbute patronage-all these have
made Government servwe attractiVe So
long as It contmues to be so, clallllS
of 0 B Cs for adequate representation
m the servwe should be recogmsed by
prov1dmg reservatiOn of dofinito quota
ofv&ca.noJoB m each class
1•0 To lessen tht keen des1re for Govern·
rnent lltlrviCes on the part of tho 0 B Cs
one wey 1s to render thomas unattrac·
live t>.S possible by roducmg the rmolu·
menta attached to them So01al
'-------------------~---------------
 204

Sum:rMry of Concl1LS'IOII8 011d RecommendattOn$-Contd

1 2 3

JUstwe and communal harmony both

demand that the present alarmmg diS·
parity between the scalee of pay
of the !oweet and the highest appomfi.
menta should be reduood Asanllllir&-
dmte step, the rat1e between the
emoluments of the lowest and those
of the h1ghest pa1d pesons may be re·
duced to I • 20. But tlus ratio may be
ultunately brougbt down to 1.10

(m) Keepmg m v1ew the necessity for

mamtammg h1gh admuustrattve ef!i-
cier.cy m conjunctton With social just100
to all secttons of the population, best
candtdates should, as a rule, be reOI'Uited
by means of a compet1t1ve emmma•
t10n Without any regard to caste
CODSideratlODS.

(w) Even m tl e sector of reservation, the

best amongst the quahlied backward
cla8868 should be recruited. The method
of reci'Ultment to thiB sector could be
either by pereonal mterv1ew and nomma-
tiOn or by open eompetJtiOn In the
latter case the selectiOn should be con·
fined to the best among those sat1sfymg
the reqUil'ed standard mthe exammat1on
despite the1rlower ranks m the general
llBt

(11) Whatever the procedure ofrecru1tment,

whether tJ.rough selectiOn after personal
mtemew or by !muted competition
amongst the candidates of backward
communities, the reservation spec1fiod
must be secured m favour of candidates
of thf 0 B C group Stnct adherence to
rules of recrUitment, With 11 severe
penalty for any breach thereof, would
be the best remedy,
 2oa
Summary of Concluswm and Recommendattons--wntd . -
1 2 3 4:
.
(m) The mterest of the State, the effio1encv
and the runnmg of the adtn.uwltmt1v~
.. ..
macbmery and the mere~~amg role of
Wlllfa.re wh11lh the adtn.uwltmttve Bllmces
hllve to play m rl>latlon to 11198868 of the
country-all these demand that l'llSer-
vat1on should, where edaoatJon JS 81J.ffi-
·~llently htgh. among the commnrutzes,
be m proportion to the populatton of the -'
commun.1t1~s of the- Othe1 Backward
.Classes. Talang all the&e Calltors mto con·
.tnderatu>n the conclUllion :reach~d by a .
.lllAJOtity of the membel.'s of the <Aim·
.lll138ton IS that m all Govel'lllllent and
:La~al Body Servtces, tlle !llinixnlllll baills
-of :representation of 0. B Cs should be
as follows·- '

Class I 25 per cent ofvaoano•es

Class II 3&·1/3 peroontof vacanCies
Class III
}4,0 per cent o{ vacanctea •
Clasa IV
'ThiS IM~teentage would b& ov&t and above
that wh1ch bas alroady been conceded
by Government in the case of Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tnb( ~.
(t>l.l) At the 1111d of 10 yoors the adequacy .. ..
of repre8ontat!On of 0. B C• should be
rev1ewed m the light of the statJstJCS
then av&Jiable as a result of the 1961 o~
earlier census whtch llliiY oontam aU
.
oommumtt6S hsted by tb.& CommiSsion
m the 0 B. Cs group. '
lliti) Fot purposes of dtstrtbutt<.Jn of the .. ..
f&llervod quota of posts among aU the
oornmu.ntttes oompr1smg the 0 B Cs
no bsrd and f3st rulo need bo followed
']!he <l!Iolllllstlmo61l and the sooml oondt·
ttons provadmg m the country lle<l(S
attate grooter crmstdcrstiOn for t.he
 206

Summary of Concl1.181o11S a.nd Recommenda.twns-contd

1 2 3 4

most backward and unropreaented com· '

mumtles m the group Some system
of rotl\tion worked out m the condltmns '
prevailing m the respective State Ill c~Ued I
for Cou.mwuttes should be convem- '
ently grouped accordmg to the degtoo
of advancement m each State a'ld re·
presentatiOn m the reserved quota be
granted begmnmg With the most unre-
'
presented groups ThiS method ntll!d
not be adhered to for aU tune Aiter a
penod of 15 yoars the positiOn should be
reVtewed

(iz) W1nle recogrusmg the desnbihty of

selectmg the b.!st qnahfied oandtdstes
' .
I
.. ..
m tecbrucal services, the 0 B Cs., sh~uld
be mcreasmgly given facthttes m educe.-
ttonal and more tll!pEmaUy m technma\
mstitutmns It should be the defimte
policy for many years to come that, .
qnaWlcatiOns bemg fallly equal, prefer-
ence should be gtven to a oandtdste from ''
'
among the backward classes, -
(~) Where trammg ts needed to tmprove
efficiency among the candtdates belong-
.. ..
I
' ••
mg to backward classes alter selection
to vari0\1.8 posts, they should be gtven ' ' -
tramtn g for a. year or two du.rmg the I
pertod of probatton
''
(~1) Wh1le 1n the selection of mem\J(Irs for
Pubhc ServiCe Comnusstons appotnt- .. '
.. ..
' '

ment~ from among the members of baok-

ward classes should contmue on as hberal I
a scale as possible, Caste or commumty
cons1deratton shou!fl. have no place
whatsoever m makmg tho selection
Mertt should be tho sole crtterton ' '

(21u) A Board OOnsiStmg of a small body of

tmmed and experJenced admtmstrutors
.. ' ' .. '' ••
and soe~al workers should be set up With '

-
 ~207

Summary of CcmclUS'Ion:t and Recomm~datlons-contd

1 2 3 1 4
·-----------11--~- ----]· -~-~ ·-
.
suffi.ctOnt powers to enforce full and ."
proper unplementatmn of the pohcy for
:recrwtment to Govunment semoe and
also to cormder any complamtsfrom non·
backward clal!81's m the Ulll'686l'Ved sector
of employment under Government ser-
VIce The premse powers and functions·
of the Board sbould be carefully worked
out by Government
. '
MINISTRYFORTHE ADVANCEKENT
II
OF BACKWARD CLASSES
(1) Anew Mllllstry should be created both VII B3-144
at the Centre and m the States s1Ulllar
to the Muustry of RehabilitatiOn to ''
handle m an effective manner the
problems for the advancem1111t of back·
ward classes and also to prevent antt·
somal elements from fostermg dtsrupt1ve
tendenmes among tho backward classes
by explo1tmg dlliCOntentm111lt among
them.

(n) Th1s MJ.IUStry should have suffi.otent

powers to co·ordmate ameboratiVO
measures and welfare work done through' ·
different ageno1es m the various States
In partiCular, the followmg should be it&
special fw1ctrons -
(a) All educatJoilal problem•·
(b) Rural housmg schemes
(c) RepresentatiOn m serVIces under
Govt and Local Boibes ''
(d) AdmUllBtratlon of grants for welfare
measures
(e) ProVIsion offull employment m ~1
areas
(f) Drawmgupschemesfol theadvanoo·
1 1
- ment of backward oJasses. '
(g) Provu!lon of adequa to fi.nancos forim·
1
plomentat10n of sehemee '
 208

Summary of ConcltUIOIII and Recommenda~ntd

-
1 2 s •
(ttl) A department consl4tmg of dJJtmct
sect1ons each adm.nustormg aepanr.tely
theaffiunofSchllduled Castes, Schedulod .. .
Tribes and Other Backward Clall8tl8
should be placed under the new Muuatry
&nctJonmg of lllhtmes, allotment of
funds, co~rdmat1on of work, trammg of
persounel41to would be the mam funo-
tions of the Departn,.ent Funds should
be sepanr.tely earmarked for each of the
three categones of the backward ola~~Ses,
namely Schoduled Castes, Schedulod Tr~o
be& and Other Backward Cla88e8 and the
expend1tnre shollid a.lao be sepanr.tely
deb1ted.

(til) 00MitltdW11 of an .dd!.uory Board.

(a) An adVISory Board both at the <Amtra VII . }#-)"' (>.-I

and m each State to wJJt the now
Muuetry m the admm1Btnr.t1on of welfare
meaenres should a1eo be set np.

(b) MaJor quest1on of pohcy and spec1fic

schemes for uplift shollld be placod
.. ..
before thiB Board for ehmtmg opuuon.
(c) The powers and functions of the Board
should be worked out m detail by the
.. ..
Government of lndJ& •• •
'
I
GRANTS
A statement contammg a 8ll.llllllary of the Vill 146-163 1-1
recpmmendatlons m respect of financllll
gt'l!onto requ•red to g1ve effect to vanoue
amehorat1ve ID&asures will be found at . .
the end of Chapter VIII of tho Report.
REVISION OF I,.ISTS OF SCHEDULED
CASTES AND SCHEDULED TIUBEB
.
(1) General-Members of Scheduled Caatos rx I~
lM·lM
and Bchedllied Tnbee when they go £tom
one State to another ahould reco•ve the I .
'
-
I
 209
Summary of COIICluStons and Recommendat1ons-eontd

amount of thetr help that is gtven to

Other Backward ClaSSEs m the State
whor~ they ha.vQ gone to 1:1l8tde

[ii) Tb.e whole Stat., should be one umt for

purpos~s of holp to Schednled Tttbes and
..
the help offered to tnbal pooplc should
b0 gt\"en to them tmlspectn•e of theu-
ahtftmg from one e.ree. to e.nother m the
Stau
[111) Stheduled Tabes
.. 165 G
t!tam-An 0xh&.\llltlve mvesttgatton of the IX
trtbes and thetr condtttons m Assam
ehou!d be lll8dll VariOII8 agenctes hke
Tribal Researoh Institutton und~r the
Government of India or nndor Uruverst-
tltS mny profitably be I!Uide use of for
tb1s pv_rpO$ Govmunent may oo·
ordmnte the work done by these ageno1es
to collect more relsable data of Vat!ous
trtbes of Assam. All the trtbes should
he hsted by theu: own pl\rttcular nsmes 1n
the billy areAS ol A881llll and Marupnr.

1Ua, Pradesh-Trtbes found m Uttar 105 8

Pmdesh should be mcluded m ~ hat
of Seh'lduled Tribes.

lliS 17
rlllllaehal Ptadesn-Gaddls 11nd Gujars m
B11nao~al Prad6!!h who l•&d a. tl:!ballll~
should bo gJVIlll holp not only to 1m·
pro\e tne breed of tholf cattle b•tt &!so
amemt1ea apd rest ho11888 both for m~n
and cattle on the wv.y when they go to
plams durmg wmter montba

IISB 18
!la;o$lllf,n-NomadJo trlb~s who are breed·
era of cattle m Ra]sstltan should b0
gwen nec08611ry asssstance.
 Acknowledgement
We take tlus opportmllty of thanking all the officers-and officials
of the Comnuss10n (names gJ.ven below) who worked so loyally and
unstmtmgly, oftentimes fill very late m the evenujlg. It 1s their w1ll·
mg and enthusiastic co-operation wh1ch has enabled us to get the
Report ready m time Each one has helped m Ius own way towards
the smooth and efficient workmg of the office.
LISt of Officers and Staff of the Commwswn

Sena\ No.me of o:f6.oo.rt1 Des1gnatton Per10d of 80rnoe 10 thO

No
. .. office of the Comm18•
BIOD
1 2 3 4
- 1 Shn A1'1ll!Mlgohu Do Mom bor Seoretery . 8-2-53 Todate
2 Dr N Datta !tr&jumdor Jt Seorotery 28-12 53 to 168M
3 ShnN L Nagar . Ollioor on SpecJAI Duty 16-9 54 Todate
'
4 Shn A V Rama.n Deputy S.orotery
"
' .' 19-2-53 to U-1-M
6 Shr• Y. 0. Dave . Ollioer on Special Duty . J6·11·64 to 17255
6 Shr• G D Gupte . Exeaqt•v• Ollioer '
Seotton ollioer
.. 1-3-53 to
·• 2-12
I
1·12 53
53 to Todato
7 Shr1 N C aa...., Soct10n Officer . ' t-3-53 to JS.2 611
8 Shn B K l!urthy I ' 10 3 53 to
PS to Ch&ll'DlAD 18 255
9 Shn V L Saatrl
Sect1on Oftioer
Ol!lcor on Spool&! Duty . l!lJI!-511
20653 to
Todate
254M
10 ShnP C Smghl R.,...rohOftloer 12 8 ~3 Todate
.11 ShnS K Kaul Research Officer ,, 23-~-53 Todate
12 Shr1!Wuuvarma Resear6h Ollioor ' 26 2 54 Todato
' '

13 Shn Btkram Roy B&rman Research Ollioer 19 6-54 to Si 12-M

14 Shn 8 C BnYMI&Va . Part hme R.,..roh Offioor IS 9114 to 17 8-55
Ill ShnAjliRam . Asa18tent . '
7353t>o 2~3M
'
16 Shr1 M R Karanthkar Asalatent . " ., . , 13 B-58 Todato
17 Ml88 !tf&ya Do Bakohl AaB18Iont . '
d
' 10 2 63 to
'
31 )56
18 Shn V18hwa M1tter Clork I 16·2•68 to SJ-11-68
A,.18t&nt
19 Bhn M J !tf&lllllkbonl Ats18t&nt .. 1-12-1)8
0-3 68 to
ToJnk>•
31 703
20 Shn Ramohar&n D... . A,.lst.nt . . 16 3 DB to 31-1 '6
21 Sbrl Kowal Naram '
Aae11t&n~ . ' IS o'as ' Todate
22 Shn &rcharan Smgh AB111stD.nt

210
I

.'
'
'
10·12-53 to 20 12 iW
-
 2U

LISt of'"OfJicers and Staff of the'Comml8ston-contd.

1
- 23
2
Sbr1 s R Kr1Sbna8Wa.my
- I
.Asaultant
3
. 27 3 64
4

Todoto
-

24 Shn R P, Tandon ASIIlStant.CUill Caahlnr 7 3-113 to 25 3-64

25 Sbr1 M M Kuona Do 12-4-64 Todate
'
26 Shr1 H R Nagar Clerk 7-3-53 to 31-1-55
AsSJStant 1-2-55 Todate
27 Shn S R KadashcWI,ndra Stenographer 16-2-03 to 31-1-05
28 Shr1 Yogtndor Dove Stenographer . 18-3-53 Todote
~9 ShrJR C Jam Clerk /
7-3-63 to 30-9-03
Stono typiSt 1-10 53 to 10-ll 64
30 Shr1 Madan :llohan . Stenographer
St<lnographor .. 11-11-54
31553to
Todate
Hl-6-63

31
32
Shr1RamLa!
Shr1 Ved Prakash
. St<lnogrspher'
Stonogrsphnr
-.. . 7-7-53 to
27·11 64
1-8-54
Todote

33 Shn T Srunvasan Stonographor .. . 1-11-54 Todoi<>

34 Shr1G N Sm~
35 Shr1 Natwar Thaksr
Stonogrsphor
Clerk . -.. 1-12-64 to
17-2 53 to
10 3-00
10-3 00

36 Shr1 A.shun Kuinar

- Clerk .. . l
7·3 53 to 12·2-64

Clerk . .. 16-3 53 to 13 4-54

37
38
-
Shr~J
-
K Jam
Shn R P Sen Gupta
- Clerk .. --
. --
8-4-53 to 2-9-54

.. .. ll853to 2-9 54:

....
39 Shr1 S M Pandya Clerk

40 Shfl VoaDov Clerk .. . 19-1 54 to 28-1-00

41 Shr1 R N Bundeha . Clerk .. 18-2 54 to 1-2-55

. .. 1-12 53 to 28-l 00
.
42
43
Shr1 S Ramarathmam
MIS• Ela Dov1
Clerk
Clork ' . '
23·2 54 to 31-12-54

ShriAaaNond Clerk . 21-4-54 to 1-7-54

44

45 Shr1 Mangat Ram Clerk . 26754to 25 2·5S

26 7 54 Todota
Clerk
46 !lhr1 Prem Knmor
., Shr1 Manohar La! '
Clork . .. 23954to 26-1-156

48 Shr1 Fot.>h Cbond Olork '

. 26 9 54 Todota
27-1-66 Todata
Slm P I Goorgo Clork
40 Todata
20-1 66
(Jlerk
~0

lSI
Shn Shyam La! Joill
Shn Gtan Chand
Clerk . 2265 Todal<l
18165 Todate
Shrl Dbaram Singh Clerk
~2 Todota
7 363
Doflry
63 Shrl Hart Do•
 212

List of Officers and Staff of the Comm'ISS'Ion-concld

.
1 2 3 4
-
M $hn Ragbupa t Smgh . Daftry . 7-3 53 Todate
55 ShnOhetRam . Jamadar . .. 27.3.53 Todate
56 ShnBaeluRam . Peon .. .. 7.3.53 to 3·2·54
57 Shr• Panna La! . Peon . 7-3 53 Todate
58 Shn Amar Nath .. Peon . .. .. 43-53 Todate
59 ilhn Mohan Swgb .. Peon .. 17·2-53 Todate
60 ShnNonuRam . Peon . . (1.3-53 To date
61 Shn Bhawam Datt . Peon . . 17-3-53 to 31-12./it-
62 Shr•KahRam . Peon
. .. . 17-3-53 Todate
63 Shr1 Ohet Smgh.
. . .
Peon .. !j).:J-53 to 10-2-55
64 Shn Tnlol< Smgb Peon . . 9-12-53 to 31·12-34-
55 Shr•ModRam . Peon
.. . . 10-3 53 Todate
66 Shr• Prom S!Dgh .. Peon .. . 7-1-55 Todato
67 Shn Sukhd..- Smgh Peon . .. . 12'-1-;'l;i Todate
68 ShnJaglnLal Peon ., 14-2-65 • Todate
 213

APPENDIX I
Statement showing the detad,s of the tour of the Comml&rlon and Reprl!l-
sentatzons etc received by tt.

Name ot the State

(m chronologJell!
order)

I
Pmod
.,.,,
of

2
P,_,vinlod

3
Mileage
oove!Od

'
No. of
!Opluo
lo
........
... -·od
quootlon
~

6
No. of
11.....
ronda

$
-No of
mter-
....m
7 '

I llyoore 30 11-63 I Jlangalore 2,316 62 260 1'~

lol 2 H.....,
13-7./13 3 Chattaldroog
and 4. Tumkur
l-4-M 6.llytQre.
lo 6. Kolar
MoM 7 S!wuop.
(19 days) 8. Cluckaino,glllf
9 lllllldyo.

!.Hydl!robod 1'-7113 1 Seonnderabad 2,394 20 128 1ST

lo 2 w""""3'L
27 7./13 3. Bhongu
(1, days) 4. Pomb&rtbl.
IS. A.ohoknagv
6. Kbamn:uu.u
7 T"""" I
8. Sunpe~
9 li~nda.
10 Gu berp.
II AIAod.
12. Btdar
13. Aur&npbad

3 llimacl>aiPndeoh 2'-9./13 I Nllban 1,039 7 112 li!Jo

lo !.R.nb.
13 10-113 &Saharan.
(20 dap) 4. &mla.
IS. Narkanch.
11. Tlwlodar
7 &mpur
8, il&gL
0 M.ollana.
.
10 .llandL
II Jogmdertaapr
12 Bcrulche~
13. Challlbo.
3,098 29 113 83$
4..U. ... 7 ll-113 I Ganh1&1
lo 2 Slulloug
29 11-113 3. Dtphu.
(23 doya) 4 Jodmt.
IS. Dahrugarb.
6. Marghmlo.
7 T(lsr;
S.&lc
9.
10
"J{'L
olualc.
II Nowgoog
. 12
13.
14.
()oalpara.
Golagh•~
Tit.bar
JIS.
16.
17
K&thgloo.
FWrgtlull.
Dotlllll.
•
18. R&mph&' Bill
19 B'ltugr.oo.
20 Kokr&Jhar
21 Barpot..
 214
.-

.. •
I 2 3
ll.llalupur .' 22-11-63 I lk!:l,
~u
116
ft

3
6
I'
- 7

!ill
"'
2(..11 63
(3 dayt)
3. Chutclaodpur
4.llao.
6 Sakm&L
1!.\V~-
a Tnpura . . . I .!gartal& . 00 3
•
6 I
? Swoablra . 26-12-63 I Ra)kot 22
"'
28-12..'13
(3 dayt)
2.
3.
4.
Verant
Junagadh.
Porbe.odor
006 2
'
..e. Kut.b . . 28-12-63 I Bhnj
2. l!andn,
1163 . 2 2S
"'
29-!2-63
(2 dayt)
3 AnJar
4. Kaildla Pori.
6 Rato.ol.
1!. Ad!pur
7 G&lldbJdh&m
11 Bombay • .. 30 111-63 I Bombay
2. Poona.
3,8G6 109 !(J 710
"'
9 1-M
(II doyo)
3. Sa.to.n..
4. Koblapur,
6 Ratnag>ri.
e rw...;
7 Nutk '
8. Dhnb&,
0 Jalgaon
10~
.
II t;'Sfo'
12. Slll'ai.
13. llAtot.cb.
14. Baroda.
15 Godhra.
16 Ahrrec-ln.bad.
17 Pain t
18. :O.Iganm. I
19 Dh&rw"
20 HnbiL
21 Karwar
22.0~
I ' '
'

23 :O.g
24, BIJilpur -
26 Sbolapllt
10. W01t Bengal 22·1 M IH<>wrab 2,328 M 6'1 268
"'
30-1./16
2 llolpur
3 B1hguri.
(D d•ya)
:~guri.
e Kul'II!JOilg
7 DuJoolmg.
8 Banktl.nl.
9 Khltra.
10 Onda
11 !l&lhonL
12 Mldnopom.
13 Lodb.Uo!L
14, Kh.r.gpur
aL:on.. .. .. ., 1·2-M I Bbuvn..-wiLl
2 Purl 1,133 II 38 )01
7.2-M 3 Co ~tack.
•ud 4. &luore
• 6-S.M
to
6·S.M
6 &m balpur
6 Bchn.mporo.
7 P1pll
0 W.ya) 8 K•thagadl.
0 Angul
to J&Jpor
II Baripada,
12 Golapur
-
 215

; '
I I 3
• ~~ _____.. 7

u. VIDd.bya l'radooh • 7MI

.
12.2.M
IS.tna
2.R.n.
.l.G&ncllupnl.
4. Amubntalr.
1,444 I 26 83

(8 d&ya)
6. G<>vmdpth. '
8. Sadlu.
7 Chanph&l.
8. Beohall.
9 J..wgbNapr
10 ShAhdoL
IL hml..
12.~.
1.!..Kbo'"' ""'
14. N01<gong.
15. Nap!.
'
~ l 2 D
II. &opel .. lii-U' I llbopol
to 2. a.n,hl.
17-3-lf.C
(5 d&ya)
'

If. M.db,y& :BbMU

.
IQ.i.MI Rallom
2.1ndoro.
1.~ 2$ 83 G3

13 3.$4 3. DJJ"""
(fd&ya) .. ldaoda.
,~
6. Job&>.
. I

7 Db"'
8. Alar&JJMil'
D !JaBh.
10 l!orw>Ol. I :
lJ katpllt
l2. Newab.
l.!.lloh..-
'
14. Gwabor
IJS..Bblba.
l6.M~
'
17 5JJJ'J'url.
18. u.-
lP T.OO..
~ Jul\1'&ruya.
21 Xb>lgh>l.
22. Dbuiitt<>d.
•
161 i!Ot
II!. Trat..omo-Ooohbl UN
IM'"
. I Tttoh11>
2. K""'k""clml7
3. Nadatbat>.
4,143 88

(II d&yal 4.V'""'=

II.Em• .....
8. KotloywPL
7 Chao~A<>hen1
8. Kunc
0 Kot....-.
JO Qudon.
ll Tnve.ndtum.
12. No~f'((ld
13 C.po Oomorilt.

I JO
I
l6Cr""1J .. .. Do. 1 :Moreo.ra
2. l'oiltbeU4.
S. Ponol'lmpet.
78

4. At: urno.d. .
 216

17 l'lmJ•b
I

. ..
t

3.7-151. I Pamp&t
to 2. Kania~
0.7 M 3 Ambala.
(7daj'11) .. Ch••dlg•rb
3

&. Hoo!uarpor
8. Gun!upor
'
(mcludmg
PEPSU
800
G

"
8

. r:
7 Amntw
8. Fei:r'
9 X..t
10 !fl.ll~l
II Fatehabad.
12. s.....
13. Hwar
Jf. ll<>btak.

Ill. P.EPSll . MM
to
J PaUalo
2. Bhatmda.
II u a..
9.7 M II. Rompnr Phul.
(7doyo) .. Kapnrtbala.
6 S.ngmr..
6.. Dbun
7 l'hagnra.
8. Fandkot.
19 Ajmor 18-7.151. I Ajmer Seo
to
177.151.
(Uap)
RAJ...
than.
' 20 I~

20 RaJ&IIhan 18-7.151. J J•lpnr 1,631 8D 166 !If

to 2 U<hlpnr
22-7-M a &lumber
(6 doj'll) .. J....,.AIId.
D Jodbpnr
0 Pall.
7 B"'-r
S.Burul!.
Q Kot.b.
10 Bharatpor
II Alwar
21 Delhi .. 28.7-M I Dolhl
to 2. New DeihL
100 211 26 m
:\0.7-111. 3 S.U..d..
(3doyo) 4. NaJt.lll"rb.
6. Mohnbll.
22. Andhn, 2-3-M I KIUIIOOI 2,600 112 t04 101
to 2 V>jayawllda.
9.3-lll. 3. RaJhAmundzy
(8 doyo) 4. Vll4khapatnam.
0 Vb:llllla8f0m,
8. Anantapnr
7. llladaoApaUJ.
8 Cluttoor
9 Gudnr
10 N•lloro.
IIT...U.
23. lladhj'III'Jocleoh 10.8-M I Ralpur 2,616
lo 2. Kanluor 78 ICI IU.t
178-M a. J:s.lpnr
(8doyt) t. :B1 ur.
6 J•bar
.
6. Kat
7 lte.nL
8. Nagpur
9 ChandA.
10 Wamba.
11 Am"'vatL
12. Chiluoldo.
 217

G 6 ~
I I 3
'
ll4. llodlu . !.44 L Maopl.,.
to !. Ud.IpL
. 2,~ 102 au 171

11+6« 3. o.-UIId.
ln<J•d.I•'4.~
lOIIi.~ pat tl G. c.ma..nore..
olll_ywoto e. Tolhobon;J'.
and 'J'ra.. ~ Calwut..
ftl'lOOie
8.~
•lid a.. t.K
obaln 10 lbd.....
St.lttl IL 1fclur
aod 12.J!qan.ofl>l.
2II.U4 P"""'
to lit 'l'lruolJ,.poll1
Jl.u4 lf. TanJorD.
aod Ill. '!'lruDeJ..t,r.
IU-64 U!. Tnt.""""
to 17 Coombotore. .
liO-
~ 18. &/oDL
(illldop) 19. y~

:Ill. llllor Pradeoh 2?-8-M I Al!lhabod

!. lllrr.apllt
.. 3,040 lOG 681 720
to
711-64 itllnbortlpn~
(12dop) 4llan&IU.
~~..::'
i~
t~
10 Atmo..._
IIN"""W.
12. Lockn....
li!.Jl:r.•
14. ..,.
!II.N--
16. J&lllDIII"·W'V·
1'1 lJijDOl
18. lto..U\>tltl.
IP Mogbol ~jon~.
liO~
21 th'Ur&.
22. ,l.hprll.
23. Faual>tatl.
!4. Gbuu.W
2l!. J.<am!JIIh.
26.N•J•~
:7. ll.au.

:20 lltlaar "

S.IU4 I D..•IM<I
2 Jr.mobodJ>V
.. 2,1100 611 131 :138

to .
)J.IU4 i!.I.Waohl.
(Gda:p) '-raw.
.
1!. lluulf&lf'Or
1!. Jlot/naglt
1 Thora .....
II. Bett.olL
ll. IJNvi.
10 Bbaplpnt

Tntol
-'4''" 1184 11.514 6,11;!1
 APPENDIXU

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

BACKWARD CLASSES COMMISSION

QUESTIONNAIRE

0~ of the
BACKWARD CLASSES COMMISSION
2, KANSINGH ROAD, NEW DELHI 2
Teleplone ; 43890
Telegrams : "UPEKSHIT"

15th ~ 1953
218
 ii
TERMS OF REFERENCE
The Backward Classes Comm.ission shall-
(a) determine the criteria to be adopted in considering whether
MY sectiOns of the people in the territory of India (in addi-
tion to. the. Sch~duled Castes and Scheduled Tribes specified
by notlficalions 1ssued under Articles 341 and 342 of the
Constitution) should be . treated as socially and educationallY
backward classes; !md, m acco~dance with such criteria, pre-
pare a list of such classes setting out also their approximate
numbers and their territorial distribution;
(b) investigate the conditions of all such socially and educationally
backward classes !md the difficulties under which they labour;
and make reconunendations--
(i) as to the steps that should be taken by the Unlon or any
State to remove such difficulties or to improve their condi-
tion, and
(ii) as to the gr!Ults that should be made for the ·purpose by the
Union or any State and the conditions subject to which such
grants should be made;
(c) investigate such other matters as the President may hereafter
refer to them; and
(d) present to the President a report setting out the facts as found
by them and making such recommendations as they think
proper.
The Conunission may-
(a) obtain such information as they may consider necessary or rele-
vant for their purpose in such form and such manner as they
may think appropriate, from the Central Government, the
State Governments and such other authorities, organisations
or individuals as may, in the opinion of the Commission, be of
assistance to them;
(b) hold their sittings or the sittings of such sub-committees as
they may appoint from amongst their own members at such
times and such places as may be determined by, or under the
authority of the Chairman; and
(c) visit or depute a sub-committee of theirs to visit such parts of
the territory of India as they consider necessary or convenient.
During the Conunission's visits to a!IY State and .durin!! any sittings
held by the Commission or any of thell' Sub-Comm1ttees m any State
the Conunission may co-opt two persons, who belong to that State anb
who are members of backward classes, to be additional Members of. the
Commission or the Sub-Committee, as the case may be, durmg such VISits
or such sittings, provided that at least one of such co-opted Members shall
be a woman.
The Commission shall endeavour $0 present. their report to the
President not later than the 31st January 1954.

219
L/B:UMofHA
 iii
PREFACE

t' The whole. questionnaire is based on the nation's solemn determi·

fhe 1~:!ldr:~c~1 s~~f:1 ~ ~. !Uldtithat aldso within one generation,
. . sCl'll1llJla on an a sense of high and low
whi ch IS a direct negation of democracy. '
The nation is d~te~ned ~o do away with all 'social segregation
and c.ompartmenta.hsm m . s~Clety. Our society was for generations
orgaruse_d on a .bas1s of religious hierarchy. Each profession and even
each phllosop~1cal difference was standardised into so many castes,
gtnl~s and tnbes. Not even the philosophy of Vedanta was able to
ebrad1c~te t~ese social evils. Many of them were rendered permanent
Y the1r bemg supported by religious sanctions.
We have thus to overcome remnants of racialism communalism
and caste .segregatio~. This policy was unanimously a~cepted by the
whole nat1on when 1t drafted and gave to itself the Constitution.
~he acceptance of the adult franchise was an act of faith and a
Silent revolution which has made it unnecessary to resort to a
number of minor revolutions. Adult franchise has given all power
to the masses. ·
Much progress has been made during the past 30 years as part
of our struggle for independence. Mahatma Gandhi insisted that
S waraj would be an impossibility if the social evils were not
eradicated betimes.
Another task which the nation has set before itself is the
establishment of a secular State. This is essential in a country which
~as given shelter to all the religions of the world. The painful fact
Is that even religions that came to India with the avowed object of
fighting our social evils have themselves succumbed to the atmos-
phere and are now humbly seeking assistance to eradicate, from
amongst themselves, the very evils they came to destroy. Indian
people, therefore, of all persuasions, castes and provinces, have to
put up a united struggle against the evils that have kept Indian
humanity down. The- Questionnaire has tried to find out the effects
of these evils in all their ramifications and has concentrated on the
weakest spots. It must not, however, be concluded that becau~e the
Questionnaire is so very drastic, no progress has been made m the
matter of social reform. A questionnaire drafted by the Backward
Classes Commission cannot indulge in any self-complacency. It
indicates the determination of the nation to com~ up within one
generation to the high ideals it has placed before 1tself.
At the same time, we have to keep in mind our terms of reference.
The question of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tnbes has ~een
before the nation and the national Govern~ent for a long time.
Remedies for the amelioration of their cond1!Jon have been applied
already. The Scheduled Areas also ha~e been _marked out. We have
only to suggest if any modifications m the _hst of the Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes are necessary m order to make them
elehaustive and up-to-date.. To this extent we shall have to consider
I 220
 iv
the conditions to these two categories. But our main concern is to
prepare a list of the third category, viz., backward classes other than
the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes and suggest ways
and means for the amelioration of their condition.
But we are also asked to suggest criteria for determining the
backwardness of any class or community and this requires that we
should study the condition of all the three categories of the back-
ward people.
We have also to remember that according to the Constitution
"the President may at any time and shall, at the expiration of ten
years after .commencement of this Constitution, by order appoint a
Commission to report on the administration of Scheduled Areas and
the welfare of Scheduled Tribes in the States specified in part A
and part B of the First Schedule". We cannot take upon ourselves
the task of that Commission. The information we are seeking is only
in connection with our duty of determining the criteria.
In any case, the three categories form one unit and considera·
tion of any one cannot be complete without some consideration of
the other two. We would request, therefore, that answers to questions
may be given only to the extent of our enquiry. Too much extraneous
material would not help us in our work.
We invite answers to these questions in the same constructive
spirit in which they are framed.
 v

CONTENTS

I. Criteria 1-2
II. Rov1sion. of Liata z-a
lll. Population a
IV. Oooup~itioM, Tra.dos o.nd Profession• 4-5
V. Politico! 5-6
VI. Eoonomio 6
Y!I. Sooial 6-7
VIII. Eduoationol .. 7-9
IX. Servicoo 9-11
X. Labour II
XI. Agriculture ll-12
XII. Houoing, H.. tth and Sanitation 12-13
'XIII. llulturo, .Aria and Crafta 13
XIV. Mannoro and Onotomo •• 13-14
XV. Prohibition
XVI. Social DI8Abllitioa
.. H-15
14

XVII, Exploitation , , 111-16

:xvm. Wolfore 16-17
XIX . .Agonoioa oorving bookward ola.,., 17-18
18
XX. Community Projootl
·xxr. Ex.Orimin•l Triboa .. 18-19
19-20
XXII. Sohodulod .Arolt and Sohodulod Triboa ••
·:xxur. Sohodulod CMtoa 20
2()
XXIV, ".Advanced" 01•"01
 vi
NOTE
1. It is requested that the replies to this Questionnaire be precise
and as brief as possible.
2. So far as possible, replies may kindly be sent in English or Hindi.
Those unable to do so may send their replies in any language
convenient to them.
3. Every question bears a serial number. While replying, it is
enough to quote only this serial number.
4. The replies should be written .legibly or should preferably be
typed in double-spacing on one side of the paper.
5. If anyone wants to write to the Commission on any aspect of
the problem that is not covered in this Questionnaire, a separate
note or memorandum may be sent.
6. If it is intended that any documents sent to the Commission
should be returned, such documents should be sent in duplicates
so that the originals could be returned when done with. If any
documents are to be treated as confidential, mention of this fact
should be made on those papers.
7. It is expected that replies to the Questionnaire should reach the
· office of the Commission (Backward Classes Commission, 2,
Mansingh Road, New Delhi 2) before the 15th July 1953.
8. Those desirous of giving oral evidence before . the Commission
may kindly intimate their desire to do so.
9. A copy of this Questionnaire will be sent to any one asking for
it. (Copies are available in English, Hindi and Urdu; efforts are
being made through State Governments to get the Questionnaire
translated in other languages).
N.B.-Please note that in this Questionnaire, wherever the expression
"backward classes" appears, the main enquiry is about backward classes
other than the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes; but these
two special categories are also included in a limited sense. as is explained
in the Questionnaire at proper places.
The Questionnaire is addressed to (a) Governments, (b) Institutions
serving backward classes, (c) Organisations of the backward classes them·
selves, and (d) all those individuals who are interested in the batterment
of the backward people.
It is not necessary that attempt should be made 1by every one to
answer all the questions. Governments, both Union and State, are how·
ever requested to supply complete information.
In the case of particular communities, their leaders or secretaries of
their organizations should send detailed informations about their parti·
cular community, together with statistics as accurate as possible. A
short history, traditional occupation, present-day condition and the
reasons of its backwardness should be given briefly but without omitting
essentials.
If the same community is known by different names in different
localities, that information should also be given,

223
 QUESTIONNAIBB
I. CRITERIA
I It is necessary t~ fix some criteria for determining whether a parti-
r.ular class. caste, tnbe, group or community can be regarded as back-
ward for the purpose of removing their difficulties and for, providing
governmental help or preference .
. _In the matt~r ?f Scheduled Castes, the criterion is clear. Untouch-
ablhty IS the cntenon and it being peculiar to the Hindus,• those Hindu
cast~s that were regarded as untouchable by society are included jn that
particular Schedule. Non-Hindus cannot be included in it.
The Scheduled Tribes can also be generally ascertained by the fact
that they live apart in hills, and even where they live on the plains, they
lea~ a separate excluded existence and are not fully assimilated in the
mTham body of the people. Scheduled Tribes may belong to any religion.
ey are listed as Scheduled Tribes because of the kind of life led by
them.
In the matter of other backward classes the criteria have to be very
ca.reful!y determined. These "other backward classes" are said to belong
al1ke to Hindu, Muslim, Christian and other denominations. They are
to be found both in the rural and urban areas. They follow a variety of
Professions. Their backwardness, therefore, is due to a variety of causes.
1. Would you recognize the following as the criteria for backward·
ness? rs•the list exhaustive or would you suggest any additions or, modi-
fications:-
(a) Their place of habitation being too poor or barren, and being
far removed from centres of civilisation; and inaccessible
owing to there being no good all-weather roads, or there being
no good markets or educational institutions near-by.
Cb) Ownership of land. houses and other property bei.ng denied to
them or being quite beyond their means to acqUire.
(c) Their profession, trade or occupation being such that they get
very poor return for the amount of e!l~rgy spent1 or on. account
of the social structure being preJudiCial to thell' getting ade-
quate return for their labour.
(d) Their finding it difficult to estabUsh co!ltacts. with advanced
communities owing to prejudices e1ther m the1r o_wn mmds or
in the minds of those who are more favourably s1tuated.
Cel Their being subjected to some social stigma or inferiority, by
which they find it difficult !o. get access to places of cultural
or artistic training or of religiOUS and secular educatiOn.
(f) By the mere fact of their being segregated f~om J!!Ore fortll!late
sections of society on account of ~~boos agams~ 1;11ter-mamage,
inter-dining and similar opportunities of associatiOn.
(g) Owing to age-old social customs preventin_g_ members of su~h
, communities from enjoying certain amm;!1es or status In
society.
J . •For purposes of this Questionnaire, the word 'Hindus' includes Sikhs,
ams, etc.
224
 2

(h) The percentage of literacy and general education among them

being too poor even as compared to the general low level of
literacy in the country.
(i) There being very few persons in their community who have
received education adequate enough for leadership or, even
if available, their not being recognized or encouraged.
(j) The bulk of the community being unable or too slow to pick up
training for business or industries or public services.
(k) Backwardness could also be determined by a very poor con-
ception of sanitation, by a primitive way of worship, or an
indifferent regard for law and order, or unwillingness to resort
to a settled life, or by very poor and extremely primitive methods
followed in agriculture, or by inability to understand the func·
tion of money and monetary transactions or suicidal addiction
to certain vices and social customs.
2. What additional criteria, if any, would you adopt for ascertaining
what classes or communities are backward among the Christians,
Muslims and other non-Hindu denominations in your State?
NOTE-Care must be taken to distinguish between all these character-
istics being found in a community in general as against a few unfortu-
nate individuals or families being found to conform to these criteria.
it is not intended to dub or recognize mere individuals, whatever their
number, as backward. It is only when a known and distinguishable class
OT 6ection is found to conform to these criteria that they could be recog-
nised as backward. .
II. REVISION OF LISTS
3. Do you think that the Lists of (a) Scheduled Castes and (b) Sche-
duled Tribes issued under the President's Orders need any revision?
4. If so what castes or communities do you suggest for inclusion in
or exclusion from the above-mentioned two lists? Please state reasons.
5. Has any representation been received by your Government from
individuals, groups, organisations or associations for modification of these
lists?
6. Have your State Government recommended the inclusion in or
exclusion from the existing lists of any tribe, caste or community?
7. Do you consider the advisability of including any "Vimochit Jati"
(Ex-Criminal Tribes) in any of the two Lists issued under the President's
Orders? If so, please name .them and state reasons.
8. Besides the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes who have been
already listed under the President's Orders, has your State prepared a
provisional list of other backward classes? If so, please furnish a copy of
that list.
9. Are such provisional lists of the other backward classes being
modified from time to time? If so, please furnish details of such modifica-
tions with reasons. ·
10. What are the communities amongst Muslims, Christians and other
non-Hindu denominations that are included in the provisional list of
backward classes by your State?
11. The stigma of untouchability being essentially psychological
could be removed at any time. The segregation and seclusion of Schedul·
ed Tribes could be overcome by mutual understanding and by mutual
220
 III. POPULATION
12. What is the total population of your State according to the
~ensuses of 1931, 1941 and 1951, as detailed below:-
Urban Rural
Census of Male Female Male Female
1931
1941
1951
t 13..What is the number and percentage of population of all the three
·cca egones of Backward Classes in your State, namely, (a) Scheduled
· astes, (b) Scheduled Tribes and (c) other backward classes?
Please furnish details as in question 12 above.
th 14. What is the percentage of the population of backward classes to
e total population in your State?
Pi 15. What communities are regarded as backward in your State?
ease give the number of persons comprising each community.
16. Are all these backward communities in your State scattered more
·or less evenly in different areas or are any of them concentrated in
certain pockets? If so, please name these pockets and the number of
.persons of various communities residing in them.
17. How many among the backward classes are-
(i) artisans,
(ii) agricultural labourers.
(iii) industrial workers,
(iv) other labourers, and
(v) paupers?
18. (a) Do you think that the abolition of the mention of caste or
·sub-caste in the census of 1951 has been useful or otherwise for deter-
1mining the condition of the backward classes?
(b) What procedure would you recommend for adoption in the
future censuses?
19. (a) Is there any community in your State, which is dwindling in
:numbers?
. (b) If so, please illustrate by fi~ure~ of successive censuses, as to
1how each such community has been dwmdhng.
20. What are the causes of this decrease in numbers?
(i) Is it merely because the classification bas changed?
(ii) Is it due to any physical causes?
(iii) Is it due to migration?
(iv)· Is it due to conversion?
(v) Is it due to defect in enumeration? or
(vi) Is it due to any other causes?

226
 4

IV. OCCUPATIONS, TRADES AND PROFESSIONS

It is observed that some communities that were thriving as artisans:
in the past have folllld their trades gone and they had to join the ranks
of unskilled labour and thus became a backward community. We should
like, therefore, to know the original trades which these communities had
been following, whether they were skilled or unskilled, whether social
status changed for better or for worse with the change of trade. We
should like answers to be given to the following questions in the light of
the situation mentioned above.
21. What were the original occupations, trades and professions largely
followed by each community among the backward classes in your State
and what are their present occupations, trades and professions? Kindly
give your replies in the following tabular form:-
(i) Name of community.
(ii) Number of persons.
(iii) Original occupation.
(iv) Reasons for giving it up.
(v) New occupations generally adopted.
(vi) Change for better or worse in social and economic status as'
a result of such diversion of occupation.
(vii) Number of persons diverted from the original occupation.
(viii~ (a) The handicrafts that have been abandoned and there-
fore, are already dead or dying; and '
(b) reason why they could not survive or be revived.
Please if possible give information decade by decade.
22. With a change in social ideas and standards some professions
which were originally regarded as low have become respectable and
therefore, persons following those professions carry with them no social
stigma or inferiority now. Ca:1 you give the names of such communities
which could now be safely removed from the" list of backward classes?
23. What are the com~unities and .the number of persons of the-
backwar~ classes engaged m the followmg occupations, trades and pro-
cessions m your State?
Males Females
(i) Land-owning.
(ii) Tenant-farming,
(iii) Agricultural labour.
(iv) Vegetable. cultivation.
(v) Gardening and horticulture.
Cvi) Sheep rearing.
(vii) Cattle rearing.
(viii) Cotton weaving.
Cix) Carding.
(x) Wool weaving.
(xi) Silk weaving.
(xii) Mat weaving.
(xiii) Basket weaving.
(xiv) Oil crushing.
(xv) Carpentry.
227
 5
(xvi) Smithy,
(xvii) Tanning.
lxviii)r Leather works.
(xi:x) Rope making.
(XX) Pottery.
(xxi) Utensil making.
(xxii) Piggery.
(xxiii) Fishery.
(xxiv) Cloth washing.
(xxv) Barber's profession.
(xxvi) Scavenging.
(xxvii) Nursing.
(xxviii); Mid-wifery.
(xxix) Butchery.
(xxx) Other handicrafts and professions .
. . 24. What is the percentage of backward class population by commw-
Dllles wh1ch depend upon the following:-
(a) Agriculture:
(b) Cottage industries;
(c) Commerce and trade;
(d) Arts and Crafts; and
(e) Other professions.
. 25. In your State, are there any wandering communities like the
g1ps1es and fortune-tellers and those who exercise ghosts or indulge in
l>elty thieving etc.'l What are the names and numbers of 'such communi-
ties?
26. Have any measures been taken by Government and other agencies
to resuscitate any of the occupations, trades and professions of the back-
ward classes that are dying out?
27. What other handicrafts and small-scale industries can be profit-
ably introduced in the villages and towns of your State for the benefit
of the backward people?
28. Will co-operative societies be more useful in this regard for the
elimination of the middlemen to whom the bulk of the profits usually
goes?
29. In the context of ameliorating the economic condition of all the
backward classes should the State pay more attention to the develop-
ment of- •
(i) cottage and ~all-scale industries; or
(ii) large-scale industries?
30. Consistently with the provisions contained in Article 19(vil of the .
Constitution, what remedies would you suggest for the protection of the
handicrafts followed by the backward classes?
V. POLITICAL
31. What are the organisations that are working for bringin~ about
political consciousness among the b~ckwa.rd da_,sses of your State. What
is the nature and the result of their activibes.
228
 6

32 Some special privileges and concessions have been provided in

-the law for the benefit of particular sections of the Scheduled <:;astes and
Scheduled Tribes. How far have these been given effect to m actual
practice in your State?
33. Has there been anY manipulation in recent years i~ order to
curtail or take away political concessions that have been given to the
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes?
34. What is the number of seats that members of the backward classes
(Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other backward class~s) were
.able to secure in the last election in-
(i) the two Houses of Parliament;
(ii) the State Legislatures;
(iii) the Local Bodies; and
(iv) the Gram Panchayats?
35. What are the "outside agencies" if any, that are trying to politi-
-cally influence the inhabitants of the Scheduled and Tribal ar~as in your
:State?
VI. ECONOMIC
36. Please give an outline of the general economic condition of each
-of the various communities of the backward classes in your State.
37. What are the steps taken by Government to bring about an
improvement of the economic condition of the backward classes in your
State or area?
38. In this connection, please give a description of the schemes
initiated by your State Government in recent years.
39. How far does the joint family system obtain among the various
~ommunities of the backward cla::ses in your State?
40. Has there been a tendency for joint families to split into separate
units during recent years? If so, with what economic results?
41. What long-term and short-term schemes do you suggest for im-
proving the economic condition of the backward classes in your State?
42. Are there any enactments in your State to afford relief to the
backward classes from indebtedness? Is there any agency to help them to
take advantage of legislations like the Debt Redemption Act. To what
extent do they benefit from such facilities?

Vll. SOCIAL
4~. What are the social condition and status of each of the backward
·corpmunities in your area or State? .
44. What are the status and position of women in each of these com·
munities?
45. What measures do you suggest to eliminate the hierarchy of castes
that obtams even among backward classes?
46. (a) In what ways, do you think the caste system is responsible
for keeping some people permanently backward?
(b) Do you think that it would suffice to relax the rigidity of th~
caste system or should the caste system be done away with as an unmiti·.
gated evil?
220
 7

47. (a) Is it a fact that the caste system although not recognised!
formally persists openly or covertly amongst Christians Muslims and
other denominations also? '
(b) Are any efforts being made by the leaders of those communi-
ties to eradicate the evil of caste system prevailing in their communities?
48. What are your suggestions for creating better understanding.
between one community and another?
VIII. EDUCATIONAL
49. What is the percentage of general literacy in your State?
50. What is the number of literate persons· in your State among the-
(i1 Scheduled Castes:
(ii) Scheduled Tribes;
(iii) Ex-Criminal Tribes; and
(iv) Other Backward Classes?
Please furnlsh information in detail as below:-
RURAL URBAN
According to the census of Male Female Male Female
1931
. 1941
1951
51. What is the percentage of literacy of the four categories of the
backward classes? Please furnish information in detail as in 50 above.
52. What is the percentage of literacy of each of the communities of
non-backward classes in your State? Please furnish information in detail
as in 50 above.
53. Among the backward classes of the above four categories in your
State, what is the number of persons- .
(i) who have passed the primary standard,
(ii) who have passed the middle standard,
(iii) who have passed the matriculation or higher secondary
standard,
(iv) who are graduates.
(v) who are post-graduates,
(vi) who are holders of tec~nical or. industri~l. diplomas, and
(vii~ who are experts in thetr trade m a tradt!lonal way?
54 What special measures have been adopted in your ~tate for !be-
d an' ement of the education of the backward classes to brmg them up·
fo ~he Cleve! of the advanced communities? [Vide Art. 15 (4) of the Consti,-
tution.]
St t are there any primary, middle, high and/ or higher-
55d· In yo~r aeitablished specially for the various categories of back-
secodn airy sc? 0 °f15'so please furnish the following information:
war c asses. 1 cb h J·
(i) their location and number of students in ea sc oo •
(ii) the number n! these ~chools run by (a) Government and (b) non-
official 0 rgamsatlons, and . . .
(iii) the number of non-official orgarusallons a1ded by Govern-
ment.
230
 s
56. (~) Has primary education been made fnle and compulsory in
,;'Our State? If so, in what parts and with what response?
(b) What steps have been taken to popularise the same among
:the backward classes in your State? And,
(c) What is the number of students of the backward classes bene-
:fiting under such schemes?
57. Do you think it necessary to offer a free mid-day. meal to school·
going children?
58. (a) In view of the fact that the bulk of the village students belong
to the agricultural or artisan classes do you think that the present system
.of education prevailing in "the country is suitable for the boys and girls
of the backward classes?
(b) If your answer is in the negative, what changes in the present
~stem of education would you suggest, particularly for the backward
classes?
59. It ·is recognized that basic education develops all the faculties of
'the student and thus equips him/her for the struggle of life in a far better
.manner than is done by the present-day routine system of education.
(a) Has your State Government introduced basic education through-
•OUt the State? Or, in any part? What has been the experience S!> far?
(b) If the State is not able to secure sufficient number of "basic"
·teachers or if paucity of funds prevents it from providing the benefits of
.basic education to all the people in the State, will your State Govern-
·ment accept the policy of providing basic education at least to the back-
ward classes so that they might get the benefit of the all-round basic
.education, and thus be enabled to overcome their backwardness with the
least amount of delay?
(c) Will your State Government take adequate steps to train "basic"
'teachers specially suited to the conditions of the backward people and
.also provide that teachers and students who have got the benefit of basic
education shall be given special preference in service, promotion and in
.all other ways?
60. (a) What special facilities are given in your State for the admis-
·sion of students of the backward classes into high schools and colleges
·(including professional and technical colleges)? Are there any difficulties
·experienced by the students in obtaining such facilities?
(b) Do you subscribe to the view that there should be reservation
•Of seats for the backward classes for such admissions?
If so, what should be the percentage of such reservation?
61. What, in your opinion, are the causes of general illiteracy or low
11ercentage of literacy among the backward classes of your area besides
poverty and apathy?
6~. What st~ps have so far been taken in your State for improving
'the bteracy of the backward classes?
63. How many scholarships and free or half-free concessions are
reserved for the students of various categories of the backward classes
in your State? Please mention-
(i) the amount of scholarship and
(ii) the number of scholarship holders, and free and half-free
studentships of each community in schools and colleges
separately.
231
 9

64. What amounts have been spent annually by the Government in

your State for the backward classes during the last five years in the
1;hape of scholarship or free studentship?
65. What concessions in regard to the following have been granted to
.students of the backward classes in your S1ate :-
(i) tuition fee,.
(ii) examination fee,
(iii) board and lodging,
(iv) free supply of books and stationery, and
(v) any other concessions?
Please furnish figures for schools and colleges separately.
66. (a) In your State are there separate hostels for the students of
the backward classes or are they freely admitted into • the general
hostels?
(b) If separate hostels are proVided for the students of backward
dasses, please give the number of such hostels with accommodation and
location separately for schools and colleges and the number of students
categorywise in each hostel.
(c) What are the communities among the backward classes that
have separate hostel facilities?
67. (a) What special facilities are being given to students of the
backward classes for studies and training in foreign countries? How
many students of the backward classes (including Scheduled caJtes and
.Scheduled tribes) have so far been granteq foreign scholarships during
the last five years?
(b) Do you think it feasible to have any reservation in this regard?
68. Do you consider that it is high time for the State to provide free
1!ducation up to the higher secondary standard or a full basic course to
all students without any distinction?
69 After finishing the full course of basic education, should students
of the' backward classes be encouraged to specialise in technical training
in preference to the so-called learned professiODS?.
IX. SERVICES
70 What are the number knd percentage of persons belonging to the
different communities of backward classes in the various cadres of service
in all the departments of Gllvernment in your State (both gazetted and
non-gazetted). Please give separate figures .for all the three categones,
namely, the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tr1bes and Other Backward
·Classes.
71 Are there any instances of young men of the Vi~ochit.Jati (ex·
Crimi·na1 Tribes) being. trained enough to secure a place m Government
service in any capacJtY.1
72 What are the number and percentage. of l?ersons belonging to the
b k · d 1 e5 who have been newlY recru1ted m the var1ous categor1es
. ac war c ass ts of Government service in your State (both gaze!·
, in dall ~e departn;~nd) since 15th August 1947? Please give separate
fi~ur!~ fo~onS~~~~u~d Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward
Classes. 232
 OI
73. (a) Do you consider that, so far as Government service is con-
cerned, the system of recruitment to the services from the backward
classes is carried on satisfactorily in your State? Have you any sugges-
tions to make for improving it?
(b) What steps do you suggest for the representation of Scheduled
Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes in such cadres of
services where there is no direct recruitment?
74. Do you consider that some special concessions should be given
to backward-class employees who are already in Government service
even in the matter of giving promotions?
75. Article .15(4) of the Constitution of India, has made it clear that
the making of any special provision for the advancement of any socially
and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes will not be ultra vires of the Fundamental
Rights conferred by the Constitution.
In view 'bf this, have the Central or State Governments provided
any preferential facilities in the services so far as the backward classes
are concerned?
76. What are the number and percentage of persons of the backward
classes of the different categories employed in your State under semi-
Government institutions, local bodies, and industrial concerns?
77. (a) Whenever there have been any reservations of vacancies in
Government departments for backward classes during the last three years
have all of them been filled by candidates belonging to the communities
for which the reservations were made?
(b) If not, please state the reasons for not doing so.
78. Do you think that, in regard to age limit for appointment to Gov-
ernment service, it is necessary to give the same relaxation to Other
Backward Classes, as is given to the Scheduled Castes and the. Scheduled
Tribes?
79. Do you think that, in regard to examination fees for candidates
appearing in examinations held for entry into Government service, it is
necessary to give the same concession to Other Backward Classes as is
given to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes?
80. Have the semi-Governmental and local bodies in your area or
State been advised by Government to adopt the State policy in the
matter of giving concessions and privileges to the backward classes? If
so, with what results?
81. Do you think that in regard to services, any reservations should
be made for the Other Backward Classes as has already been done for
the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes?
82. To what categories of Government service would you like this
reservation for the backward classes to be applied? What categories ot
Government service would you leave outside the scope of such reserva·
tion?
83. (a) What is the number of persons belonging to the different com•
munities of the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes 'and Other Backward
Classes in your State in the subordinate judiciary services in various
cadres? How many posts are there in eacli cadre, both gazetted and non·
gazetted?
(b) Do you consider that so far as the subordinate judiciary
services are concerned, the scheme as it Is in vogue in your State needs a
233
 11

thorough change so ~s to ensure a fair representation of the Scheduled

Castes •. Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes, without detriment
to ment and efficiency?
84. (a) Hc;>w many of the. posts in the Indian Embassies, Legations
and Commtsswns abroad (barrmg Ambassadors and High Commissioners)
are held by persons belongmg to the Scheduled Castes Scheduled Tribe;
and Other Backward Classes? '
·. (b) What mac)linery Is being ad?pted to give wide publicity r.;_
gardmg recrUitment m the foreign sei'VIces of the Union Government?
(c) Could you suggest a scheme by which the backward class
people could be suitably represented in the Indian Embassies abroad?
. 85. How many persons belonging to the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled
Tr1bes and Other Backward Classes are employed in the Central Secre-
tariat? What is their percentage? . ·
8~. (a) Is the:e any order in operation. in your State regarding the
selecllon of candidates to Government sei'VIce? If so, please give details
of the same.
(b) Are the "Other Backward Classes" also included in the regula-
tions issued by the Government for the guidance of the Public Service
Commissions in the matter of recruitment?
X. LABOUR
In view of the fact that the backward classes form a substantial
portion of labour in industries as well as in agriculture, this Commission
would be 'interested to know the conditions pertaining to industrial and
al(ricultural labour in general. Any information in this connection will,
therefore be welcome. Ordinarily no distinction is seen in industrial
labour where it is properly organized between backward communities
and others and therefore the situation causes no anxiety .. Yet it would be
profitable if some information is collected as to the conditiOn of the back·
ward people employed as lab~ur. because it may be that owing to their
own lack of equipment or preJU,d!ces .th~Y maY. not be able to profit ade-
quately by the conditions prevallmg m mdustrial areas.
87. (a) Do· persons belonging to the backward classes suffer from
· :any special disabilities? If so, what are they?
· (b) Is it a fact that certain castes of backw~rd ~lasses ~re not
permitted to work in certain departments? How far IS th1s true 1n your
State?
88 Do women labourers belonging ,to the backward classes suffer
from ~ny special disabilities?
XI. AGRICULTURE
h been a marked improvement in the
89. It is said that t here as d 5mall agriculturists as a result of the
financial condition of farmers an wars It is also said that there has
conditions created by the last .two he indebtedness of 'the agricultural
been a considera~le reduct~·~· m :f agriculturists in this respect in your
population. What IS the con 1 ton
-~ . · : lk of the backward people m . rural areas
90. Is it a fact that the f bf ndless labour and therafore do not reap
come under the categorY 0 ~ a
the benefits mentioned above.
23.
L/HI~MofHA
 91. Can you suggest ways and means by which the benefits from the
abolition of zamindari and tenancy anli similar legislation may actually
reach the backward classes? · ·
92. In what way can the Bhoomi-dan movement help agricultural
labour among the backward classes?
XII. HOUSING, HEALTH AND SANITATION
93. (a) Which of the backward communities are forced to have their
habitations segregated or built outside the precincts of the· villlUle or
town? ·
(b) Does this fact deprive them of amenities like water, lighting,
sanitation and police protection, which are normally available to the
other communities?
(c) Are any of the backward classes in your area permitted tc>
live mixed up with the rest of the population?
94. (a) Are the houses in which the backward classes live really fit
for human habitation from the point of view of health, sanitation and
privacy?
(b) Is it a fact that in most places the land on which the huts or
hovels of the backward class people stand do not belong to them and they
are subjected to various indignities by the landlord and the local bodies?
95. What steps are being taken to r;~ive occupancy rights of house-
sites, or provide approach roads, water facilities, drainage etc., for the
backward class localities?
96. The insanitary condition of Indian villages is proverbial. The
places where the backward classes live must be worse so. Can you tell
us what is being done by Government or public bodies, or by the
backward people themselves to improve the sanitary condition of places
where they live? · ·
97. What are the most common diseases prevailing in the villages
or hamlets of the backward classes?
98. Are there any insanitary habits peculiar to the backward classes
in regard to bathing, clothing, eating etc.? ·
99, Are there any special facilities or concessions given to the back-
ward classes in order to enable them to rebuild their houses and re-model
their localities? ·
100. (a) What steps are being taken by Government to remodel the
villages and improve the houses of the backward classes?
(b) Please give details' of help extended to each of the commu-
nities of the backward _classes for these purposes, in the shape of free
land or land at concess10nal rates, money. material or. technical advice,
etc.
101. What steps are being ta)<en by Government to provide adequate
supply of water for drinking and other purposes to the villages and
hamlets of the backward classes, by way of digging of wells, erection of
tube-wells, digging of tanks and canals and construction of bunds,
drainage etc.'!
102. (a) What steps have been taken so far by Government or by
any non-official organization to settle the nomadic. powlation. of the
backward classes?
23~
 13

(b) In what manner do the nomadic people respond to these

efforts?
(c) What is the measure of success that has been achieved in
this direction?
xm. CULTURE, ARTS AND CRAFTS
The Commission is interested in studying the cultural and the artistic
life of the classes known as Scheduled Tribes as also of Other Backward
Classes. It is not possible to elicit information about these matters in a
compact form through a questionnaire.
We would request, therefore, that States' officers and the leaders of
the various communities help the Commission by exhibitions and
demonstrations of these when the Commission visits their territories,
information of this being given to the Commission beforehand so that
adequate time may be set apart. It is requested that only outstanding
features may be taken notice of. The Commission would not have much
time to make a detailed study; neither is it within the purview of the
Commission's work to make such a detailed study. The Commission would
also like to have a Note on the cultural back-ground of particular com-
munities and peculiar traits exhibited in festivals, folk-songs, music,
dance and other forms of recreation or religious observances. It would be
useful for our purpose if friends could improvise museums of local art
as t·xpressed in various forms of culture and in various types of imple-,
ments and hunting or fighting paraphernalia.
Persons who have specialised in the study of cultural and artistic-
side of the backward people are particularly requested to help the Com-
mission by writing special small memoranda.
103. (a) Are there any dances and music peculiar to the various
communities of the backward classes?
(b) Are they still being maintained or are they dying out?
(c) Is this dying out due to social neglect or due to the reformers'
zeal or due to bther causes? ·
104. Do the backward class people distinguish between dances wh!ch
are expressive of the artistic sens~ of. th~ community and dances which
are obscene and which lead to diSSipation.
105. Have any of· the backward communities specialised in certain
characteristic handicrafts?
106 Are local or communal specialities reflected in the peculiar styles
of the products of art in your area or State?
107. (a) What are the cottage crafts still surviving amongst the back-
ward classes? . •
(b) What are the chances of their survival m the future . .
S ould the people engaged in such crafts be encouraged w1th
. (he) lp~ If 80 in what manner and to what extent? .
6 nanc1a 1 e . ,
XIV. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
. f th communities of the backward classes
108. Please state wh!C~tlo d a:d which are on the border line.
are nomadic, which are se e t the backward com·
109. Are there anY formst ~~ ~':;[;fgs~:,o£!: instance, marriage by
munities which are repugnan
force or by elopement etc.?
286
 14
110. A:re there any unwholesome practices that are peculiar to the
communities or castes or social groups amongst the backward classes
which form one of the reasons for keeping them removed from other
people? II so, please give a brief description.
111. Is there any special peculiarity in the manner . of clothin~ or
living among the communities of the backward classes wh1ch distmgUishes
them from other people?
· 112. (a) A:re there any primitive dialects spoken by any of the cate-
gol"ies of backward classes? II so, please name them.
(b) Can any of these dialects be integrated with the prevalent
principal regional languages of your State?
113. (a) In which communities and to what extent is polyandry or
·polygamy prevalent in your area or State?
(b) What is the effect of either of these practices on the economic
and social life of the people?
114. Is it a fact that the backward classes are sometimes forced to
spend beyond their means on certain occasions like marriage, death and
other functions either by force of custom or by interested parties playing
on the superstition of these peopie?
XV. PROmBITION
115. (a) What communities of the backward classes are addicted to
drink and to what extent?
(b) How far is their backwardness due to this habit?
116. What percentage of family income on an average is spent on
liquor and narcotic drugs e.g., tobacco, charas, bhang, opium, etc.?
117. (a) Is there any scheme of prohibition in your area or State?
(b) How far has 1l succeeded in raising the moral, social and
economic standards of the backward classes'!
(c) How far has it been appreciated by them?
118. (a) Has any positive recreational activity been provided for the
backward classes in your area or State in order to wean them from the
drink habit?
(b) II not, what do you suggest should be done in this direction?
XVI. SOCIAL DISABILITIES
· 119. (a) What are the social, religious and civic disabilities to which
any of the backv:ard classes in your area or State are subjected?
(b) In what way are these disabilities enforced?
(c) Which of them can be stopped or removed by law?
120. Is there any social stigma other than that of untouchability
attached to particular communities of the backward classes in your area
or State? ·
121. Are there any social customs or prejudices or taboos prevailing
among the backward classes themselves which contribute to their back·
wardness?
122. (a) What has the State Government done so . far to eradicate
these stigmas or prejudices? .
(b) What remedies do you suggest for speedy eradication of
these?
237
 15

123. Are there any social restrictions against the members of the
backward classes adopting or following any particular profession, trade
or calling?
124. In your State is forced laboilr still exacted in actual practice
from members of the backward classes by feudal lords, lambardars -and
others having power over them like Government servants or by any one
else even though it is forbidden by law?
125. Are the customary rights of the members of the backward
classes which are based on duty duly performed by them properly safe-
guarcied?
126. Notwithstanding the provisions made :~ the law, is the use of
public wells, schools and temples etc. actually cenied to members of the
Scheduled Castes in your area or State?
127. (a) Notwithstanding the categorical prohibition of untouchability
in the Constitution, is it prevalent in any form in your area or State?
(b) Has any law been enacted by (:1~ State Government for its
abolition? ·
128. (a) To what extent do Christians, M;.:slims and other non-Hindu
denominations in your State obse~ve untouchability within their own
community?
(b) Do the old pre-conversion caste distinctions and disabilities
continue to stick to the untouchables and other backward people even
after their conversion?
129. Which of the backward classes in your State experie~ce any
difficulty in securing the services of brahmins, barbers and dhoblil?
130. What, in your opinion, are the best reme~ies. t~~t would sec':'l'e
the speedy removal of these and other social d1sab1hties from wh1eh
the backward classe'l. are still suffering?
131 It is represented by some leaders of the Christian community
that 70. to 75 per cent of the Christians are actually backward.
(a) Do Christians continue to call a person backward merely
because he was born in a particular caste or class?
Cb) If not, how would you single. ~ut the backward class.es .~and
not merely backward individuals or families) among the Chr!stlarn:
XVII. EXPLOITATION
132 (a) What are the different forms of exploita.tion to. whi~ any
of the 'backward classes in your area or State are bemg subJecte .
(b) What steps have the Government taken to put an end to
such practices? have they been successful? What are the
(c) In what measure
difficulties in their way? d h t 'fie
k d I ses are concerne ' w a spec!
133. (a) So far as the bac war 0c ~~ ulate money-lending, transfer
measures have Governrn•:r t~ker 0} asrfcultural indebtedness, fishery
of land, all~tment o f afn • ~e ~~upes tank products like .~ngharas,
rights, farmmg out .0 . ores h r matiers•
makhanas etc. and Slmllar ot he b en· made to r;rcvent victimi~ation?
(b) What enactments ave e b h
. th loitation of individuals Y t e
134. How would you restram d e ex~f communities who sometimes
Caste Panchayats. or .by .the hea -maWies on the poor, ignorant and
unjustlv and arb1trar11Y 1mpose pen 'ty•
sup~rstitious members of the commum .
238
 16
135. Do you think that a law punishing social leaders of a community
for imposing social boycott of in'dividuals of the community similar to
the one enacted in the former Baroda State should be promulgated and
enforced for the whole country?
(In Baroda and Gujerat, communities are socially organised and the
recognised leaders of communities enjoy the right to punish individuals
with fine or social boycott if they go against the wishes of the commumty.
This leads to social tyranny, The Government of Baroda, therefore, took
away from the communal organisations and leaders this power of impos-
ing punishments on individuals belonging to the community).
XVIII. WELFARE
136. (a) What is the Governmental machinery for rendering welfare
service in your area or State?
(b) What are the sections that are being benefited by this
service?
137. (a) Is there any separate department in your State for looking
after the welfare of the backward classes as a whole?
Or (b) Are there separate departments for looking after the wel-
fare of each of the four categories of backward classes?
Or (c) Is this work allotted to officers along with th·~ir other
normal administrative duties? -
138. (a) Is particular attention being paid to the welfare of women
and children of the backward classes?
(b) Have women representatives among social workers been
particularly associated with this activity?
139. How long have these departments been working and what is the
progress of their work?
140. (a) Has any Board been constituted to advise Government re-
garding the welfare of the backward classes?
(b) What is the composition of such a Board?
(c) How long has it been working?
(d) What are the major suggestions made by this Board from
time to time?
(e) How many of these suggestions have been accepted and given
effect to by Government?
(f) What were the main reasons for the non-acceptance of other
schemes?
141. (a) Have any plans or schemes been recently drawn up specially
for the uplift of the backward classes in your State? Please furnish
details.
(b) What funds have been sanctioned for these schemes?
142. What steps are being taken to improve the agricultural and
occupational activities of the backward classes?
143. (a) What benefits have the various communities of the backward
classes derived from these welfare schemes?
. (b) Do the benefits offered to the backward classes reach the
helpless .masses among them? Or, do only the few influential among
•hem actually gain? ·
239
 17

\C) Can you suggest means to ensure that all are equally bene-
fited from these measures?
144. Will it be preferable to distribute small benefits to a large
number of people or to give substantial benefits to a comparatively smaller
number of people?
145. (a) Has any scheme for adult education been launched in your
area or State for the backward classes?
lb) If so, how much increase in literacy has been achieved
thereby?
(c) How ·many centres of adult education are being run in your
S tate and how many people have benefited so far from them?
(d) What amounts have been spent on running these centres?
(e) HaVI! any steps been taken to popular!se adult education in
ihe backward areas through films and magic lantern slides etc.?
If so, what are the results?
146. Has any legislation been enacted in your State under Article
46 of the Constitution of India so as to promote with special care the
-educational and economic in'terests of the backward classes and to protect
them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation?
. 147. (a) Has your State set up till now any Committees or Commis-
SIOns or Boards of Inquiry for investigating the conditions of backward
classes?
(b) If so, when were they set up and what were their terms of
reference?
(c) What recommendations were made by them and what action
was taken by Government to give effect to them? Please furnish copies
of relevant papers.
148. Has your Government undertaken any other activity beneficial
to th~ backward classes which has not been suggested in any part at
this questionnaire?
149. To. what extent does your State Government consider the pro-
gramme of welfare of the backward ,people as one of the important items
·of expenditure of the State Government? How much has till now been
contributed from the State Revenues for this purpose over and above the
<ontribution made by the Central Government?
XIX. AGENCIES SERVING BACKWARD CLASSES
150. What arc the agencies working ~or the uplift of the backward
<lasses in your area or State? Please classify them as follows:
(a) Official agencies, together with the amount spent by them so
far.
(b) Non-official agencies, together with . their financial condi-
tions:- .
. (i) If aided by Government, the amount of annual a1d;
(ii) If not aided by Government, what are the sources of
their income;
(iii) If partly aide~ ~Y the Government, what are the other
sources of their mcome.
151. (a) Has the State Government created any departmen.t for loo~ing
after the welfare of the backward classes? If so, when :vas 1t set up.
(b) What are the activities and functions of this department?
2~0
 18

152. What, in your view, is the best way of serving the backward
classes? Should it be through official agency? If so, should it be through
a separate department directly under the Central Government? . Or,
should this work be done by a separate department under the var1ous
State Governments? Or, will you Prefer that this work is done by the
various general departments of the Government along with their other
normal work? Or, will it be better to utilise the non-official agencies
of social workers for this purpose? Or, would you prefer that the work
should be done by collaboration between official and non-official agencies?
If so, what should be its composition and the respective duties of the
official and non-official sections? Would you subscribe to the view that
women social workers should be put at the head of such agencies or at
least should be encouraged to be associated with such activities?
153. As a matter of national· pQiicy, how far is it advisable to leave
this work of serving the backward classes to foreign agencies especially
those that are working with proselytization as one of their motives?
154. (a) Is there any truth in the statements commonly heard that
foreign or proselytizing agencies sometimes consciously or unconsciously
foster anti-national or separatist tendencies?
(b) What is the situation in this regard in your State since the
attainment of independence?
155. (a) Which religious Missions have been working in your State
and since when?
(b) Please give a brief description of the various types of work
that these agencies have been doing in your State.
XX. COMMUNITY PROJECTS
156. What areas have been selected in your State for Community
Projects? ·
157. To what extent are the backward clas£es likely to be benefited
from such projects in your State? ·
158. (a) How much money has been set apart for the development of
the projects in your State?
(b) How much has been actually spent up to this time?
159. Is there any other particularly backward area which should be
included in the project schemes for the special benefit of the backward
classes of your State? .
160. Is full use being made of the voluntary labour which the back-
ward classes are in a position to give in abundance?
XXI. EX-CRIMINAL TRIBES (Vimochit-jati)
NoTE.-Ex-Criminal Tribes mean the Tribes that have been denotified
as no longer belonging to the Criminal Tribes.
161. What are the elc-Criminal Tribes in your area or State? Please
give the name and number of each class together with its habitat.
162. Please mention to which of the three categories each of these
could now be attached viz. to Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes or
other Backward Classes, so that the erstwhile stigma of criminality may
be entirely forgotten.
163. (a) What are the social origins of the various communities of the
ex-Criminal Tribes in your area or State?
(b) What are the beliefs, omens and taboos peculiar to them?
241
 19

164. Is it better to allow these people to live together in one segre-

gated locahty or sh!Juld they be dispersed and distributed as widely as.
poss1ble so that their old habits and beliefs may be forgotten and they
may be gradually assimilated in the general population?
165. (a) What special efforts are being made by Government to settle
fam1hes of these people after the repeal of the Criminal Tribes Act?
(b) Are these steps adequate?
(c) Please give the number of famili~s of these people settled so.
far. Please state the amount of Government grant so far given for this
purpose. -
XXII. SCHEDULED AREAS AND SCHEDULED TRIBES
. NOTE.-The questions drawn under this section are intended to secure
information. sn that the Commission could recommend whether any
particular communities have to be added to or subtracted from the lists·
published under the President's orders.
Much more information will have to be secured before the Commis-
sion could definitely recommend such changes. But this could be collected
better when the Commission goes round to the various States and Areas
and observes conditions as they obtain at the present time.
There is a ll!eneral complaint that in certain parts great injustice is.
done to the Scheduled Tribes and inhabitants of Scheduled Areas because
of the irregular interpretation of rules applying to the list of communities
known as Scheduled Tribes. It is necessary, therefore, to make som~ en•
quiries about the actual conditions, before revision of rules etc. could be
usefully suflflested.
166. What. in your opinion, are the various approaches for the solu-
tion of the tribal problem in your State? Which, in your opinion. is the
most feasible?
167. (a) Can you l(ive the extent of Scheduled Areas of your State?
Please supply a map.
(b) Is there any proposal to chanl(e these boundaries?
(c) Would you suggest any change?
168 (a) Is habitation in a Scheduled Area a necessary condition for·
fixinl! the status of a tribe as Scheduled Tribe?
(b) In case a person or a group belonging to the Scheduled Tribes
leaves the Scheduled Area and settles in a non-Scheduled _;.rea, does the
person or the group cease to belong to a Scheduled Tr1be;
(c) What measures do you suggest to remedy th1s anomaly?
169 Wh t are the amounts of grants-in-aid that have been received
b · St ~e Government from the Centre for the betterment of the
cKnaftY6n of the Scheduled Tribes from year to year uptil now?
170 ( ) H and on what schemes have these grants been spent and
to wha't :xte~;' have the Scheduled Tribes people benefited from these
schemes? d' f ·ts owll'
(b) What· amount has your State been spen mg rom I
h s h d 1 d Areas over and above the normal
funds annually, m t e c e u e . · ' d what ro ortion does this
expe'!ditJ.!re on the ~~~r~ra~ a~U:~n;h~a:;~~h!f it recei:es from tlie Centre?
contnbut10n of your a e ea . Stat .,..
171. What are the main occupations of the tribal people m your e.
172 Wh t would be the approximate percentage of the tribal people.
who ar'e wo':.king as landless labour in your State?
24~
 20
173. Are the tribal people in your State gradually overcoming their
,segregated existence?
XXIII. SCHEDULED CASTES
174. The main characteristic of Scheduled Castes is the social dis-
.ability of untouchability. Is this untouchability recognized in any form
even amonJt the Non-Hindus? ·
175. If untouchability is peculiar to the Hindu commu!lity and if th.e
.other communities do not recMnize it, should the concess1ons and faclh-
ties that are specially reserved for the Scheduled Castes be made avail-
able to them even after their ceasing to be Hindus? Of course, such a
person can claim concessions etc. that are meant for the Backward Classes.
176. Untouchability being abolished by the Constitution and its prac-
·tice in any form forbidden. what programme would you suggest for the
,gradual elimination of special concessions given to the Scheduled Castes
as a result of the fulfilment of the objective, namely complete eradication
•Of untouchability?
177. What are the specific remedia·l measures by wb!c:1 traces of
untouchability that still persist could be removed speedily?
178. What are the tests to determine whether untouchability bas
been eradicated in fact?
179. In your State, bas any of the Scheduled Castes progressed to
such an extent that it bas ceased to be untouchable as a caste and it is
cno longer necessary to keep its name in the list of Scheduled Castes?
XXIV. "ADVANCED" CLASSES
NOTE-In determining the cr!teria of backwardness, we shall have
.necessarily to compare the social and educational standards of communi-
ties with those of other communoties who are not backward and, there-
fore, it is necessary to have some information about the "advanced" com-
munities especially because the whole of India itself is so very backward
·.that backwardness of certain communities can be assessed only in com-
.Parison with communities which are less backward. We have, therefore,
.asked for information about the standard of progress obtaining amongst
·the so-called "advanced" communities.
Another reason why we have asked for information about the
""advanced" communities is that there are certain communities amongst
the so-called "advanced" communities that are really backward both
educationally and socially and they feel that they are victimized because
·~f the traditional classification of castes. They must be given an oppor-
·tunity to ventilate their grievances so that justice, where it is essential.
may be accorded to all really backward communities.
180. What criteria would you suggest for definitely labelling a com-
·munity as "advanced"?
181. According to your criteria, what communities in your State can
'be termed as "advanced"?
182. Are there any communities amongst the so-called "advanced"
classes in your State which are actually so backward socially, educa·
tionally or otherwise that they deserve special consideration from the
Government for the amelioration of their condition?
If so, please name such communities, giving particulars and reasons
·regarding each.
243
 21

The Commission
Members
•
1. Shri Kakasaheb Kalelkar, M.P., Chairman.
2. Shri Narayan Sadoba Kajrolkar, M.P.
3. Shri Bheekha Bhai, M.P.
4. Shri Shivdayal Singh Chaurasia.
5. Shri Rajeshwar Patel, M.P.
6. Shri Abdul Qaiyum Ansari, M.L.A. (Bihar).
'/. Shri T. Mariappa, M.L.A. (Mysore).
8. Lala Jagannath.
9. Shri Atma Singh Namdhari, M.P.
10. Shri N, R. M. Swamy, M.P.
11. Shri Arunangshu De, Member-Secretary,

Office
Shri A. V. Raman, Deputy Secretary.
:Shri N. C. Sareen, Section Officer.
:Shri G. D. Gupta, Executive Officer.

244
 APPENDIX ill
Statistical data TegaTding economic condition of BackwaTd Classes
• family covered during the second
Information regarding caste of every
stage of the Agricultural Labour Enquiry, viz., the General Family Survey
was collected. Each family in the 812 sample villages were classified, in.
consultation with the State Government and in accordance with the Noti-
fications on the subject issued by the Ministry of Home Affairs, into the
following castes :-
(a) Brahmans;
(b) Kshatriyas;
(c) Vaishyas;
(d) Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes;
(e) Tribal and aboriginal communities;
(f) Backward classes;
(g) Others.
The schedules were thereafter coded so as to make them fit for
tabulation.
2. For sorting out the Intensive Family Schedules of agricultural
labour families belonging to backward classes, the General Family
Schedules of Agricultural Labour Families belonging to those castes were
sorted out first. Each General Family Schedule contains the family number
and after having sorted out 50 General Family Schedules of agricultural
labour families belonging to backward classes, the corresponding Intensive
Family Schedules having the same family number were sorted out from
those of the agricultural labour families covered by the Intensive Family
Survey.
In all about 1,400 agricultural labour families were intensively sur-
veyed in the Madras State excluding the two Andhra Zones, during the
Agricultural Labour Enquiry of which the backward classes may be esti·
mated to about 230. Out of these about 50 families were selected
arbitrarily, i.e., in the order in which they were spotted out from the huge
bundle of schedules. Although they were not strictly at random they were
taken proportionately from the different zones in the State so that they
cover the whole State. A similar procedure was adopted in the selection
of 50 backward class agricultural labour families out of an estimated total
of 400 such families intensively surveyed in the Agricultural Labour
Enquiry.
3. The Intensive Family Schedules contain, among others, information
relating to annual income of the family according to various sources, the
annual expenditure according to different consumption groups, indebted·
ness according to sources of loan and purposes of debt etc. In the enclosed
statements all these details have been tabulated. ·
4. As regards literacy, the General Family Schedules of the agri-
cultural labour families contained information regarding the language
which any member of the family could read or write or both read and
write. It will be seen from the enclosed statement that very few members
of the agricultural labour families belonging to backward classes were
literate.
5. The information tabulated shows that in Madras the average annual
Income per family was Rs. 305 for the 50 backward class agricultural
labour families for which data were compiled as against the State average
of Rs. 365 taking all classes of agricultural labour families together. Again,
the percentage of family income accruing from agricultural wages was
24~
77.6 as against the State figure of 61.9. Similarly, the average annual con-
sumption expenditure per family was Rs. 370 for the State as a whole as
against Rs. 334 for backward classes families. The average percentage
expenditure on food for the State as a whole was 82.3, the corresponding
figure in the case of backward class agricultural labour families being
82.4. •
6. In the case of Bihar, the position was as follows. The average annual
income of the 50 backward class agricultural labour families for which
(Jata were compiled was Rs. 394 as against the State average of Rs. 534
taking all classes of agricultural labour families. The percentage of income
accruing from agricultural wages in the case of the former was 80 as
against 64 in the case of the latter. The average annual expenditure of the
50 backward class families was Rs. 472 as against Rs. 574 for all agricul-
tural labour families. Again, the percentage expenditure on food in the
case of the former was 93 as against 90 for all agricultural labour families.
(DR.) B. RAMAMURTHI

&a! 2

246
 -'

Average annual income (Rs.) by sources tncome, expenditure, indebtedness and literacy of Agricultural Labour families in Madras belonging to backward ciasses INDEBT~DNESS (i!s.)

Clothing
-·-·
- .Source of borrowing ' PurpoaeofLoan
Oooupa- and
Agrl. Caltlva- Wagea Non-Agrl. tiona other Other Tolal footwoa.r,_ Fuel& House-rent Services -
I a boar Oasta tion of from Agrl. labou.r than Co-opont.·
10111'... lnoome ll'ood bedding lighting and repa.jz & Misoel- Ceremonies Total Total ll!onoy Shop- Employ- tive sooi&- Pro due-- Co..-omp- Social&
fandR land labour famUug and Janeous lenders keepers era Othera tiBS tion tion Otbera LITERACY
lioa. ' bOlli!Ollold
I
- requioite
'
(1) (2) (3) (4) (6) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) "(15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (22) (23) (24) (26)
- (21)
'
1 SottiBallja .. .. •• 63 46 .. .. 108 300 11 4 .. 28 .. 343 163 .. •• 36
•

117 .. .. 163 .. No Liooraoy.

2 Yadhava .. .. 33
(68·3)
364
(41·7)
-l1 86 .. (100·0)
493
(ON)
429
(3•2)
2'
(1•2)
3 .. (8-1)
40 75
(100·0)
571 330 ..
.

•• .. 330 .. .. 330 .. .
3 Yadhava .. .. (6·7)
••
(71·8)
260 ..
(8·3)
ll
•
\18·2)
118 ••
(100·0)
368
c1oo·oa
(76•2)
260
(4-2)
8
(0·6)
3 .. (7-0)
48
(13-1)
6
(100·0)
325 400 .. ; . .. 400 .. • .. 400 .. .
' Botti Balija •• .. .. (67·9)
63
(61•8)
89
(82·1)
.. .. 10
(80·0)
104
(2-0l (0·9)
2 .. (14-8)
8
(1·8)
..
(100·0)
120 15 .. .. •• 15 .. .. 15 •• .
6 Mara.var •• •• .. 216
(38•2)
.. 153 ••
(100•0)
368
(86•7J
31
(5·0)
••
(1·7)
3 ..
(6·6)
46 ..
(100·0)
358 150 .. .. ..
'

160 .. .. 160 .. .
6 Mara.var •• .. ••
(58•4)
446 27 ..
(41·6)'
.. (100•0)
<172
116•6)
409 61
(0·8)
3 • ..
(12·6)
74 120
(100·0)
733 230 • • ..,.
'
.. 230 .. .. 230 .. .
7 Set.tl Ballja .. .. 25
(94·3)
90
(6-7)
39 .. .. (100·0)
164
(64•0)
330
(9-1)
19
(0•4)
3 ..
(10·1)
23
(16·4)
.. (100 ·0)
375 182 172 .. 10 .. .. .. 182 ..
.
8 Mar&var .. .. .. •
)
(16•2) (58•5)
219
(26•8)
48 .. .. (100•0)
267
(88·0)
243
(5-l)
7
(0·8)
8 ..
(6·1)
18 ..
(100·0)
271 50 .. . '
~:
.. 50 .. .. 50 •

.
g S.t~i B&llja •• •• .. (82-0)
M
(18•0)
.. .. .. (100·0)
M
(89•7)
46
(2·6)
6
(1-1)
2 .. (6•6)
10 .. (100·0)
64 33 26 8 .. ..
'

..
'
.. '
33 ••
.
10 Yadba.va ..
- .. 32
(100·0)
1159 <14 .. .. (100·0)
436
('11·9)
393
(9·4)
28
(8-1)
3 ..(5· 8) (10·6)
28 36
(100·0)
487 160 .. • .. 160 ~ ~ ...; . -
-
-.. .. 160 ..
.
-· .. ..
•
(7-') (82·5) (1o-l) (100·0) (80•7) (5•7) (0·6) (7· 2) (100·0)
21 361 26 .. .. 410 337 11 3 .. 45 4 .. .. 2110
.-~ 360
11
12
YMb•va ••
.. .. (80•1)
.. (88•1)
216
(6•8)
.. '
103 .. (100•0)
319
(84•3)
282
(2-ll)
..
(0·8)
3 ..
(11•1)
33
(1·0)
80
400
. (IOO·OJ
37
260
!11 ..
• '

..
- ~-

. - ll1
..
.
••
•
.. 51 80 . '

Mar&var
.. .. .. (67•7)
127 ' .. (32•8)
.. .. (100•0)
127
(74•6)
145 .. (0•8)
2 .. (8•7)
17
(15•9)
75
• (100·0J
23 63 ..
•
.. .. 63 .. •
.. 63 .. .
13
u
Nedar
.. .. .. (100•0)
120 .. 22 .. (100•0)
142
(60•7)
124 .. (0•8J
.. (7•1)
19
(31•4)
.. (100·0)
14G .. ..
•
.. .. ..' .. .. .. .
Mar&var
.. (100•0) (86·5~ (1•6J (13•1) (100•0) •

.. .. .. .. .
.. (16-6)
.. ..
'
(84•5)
.. ..
•

.. 29 429 39 5 35 .. 436 .. ....

378 22
.
'
15 M'Aravar . • .
(1•2) (0•7) (8•0) (100·0)
.. ..
16 Gonnder .. .. .. (88•1)
166
(5•1)
7
(6•8)
.. .. (100•0)
173
(90'1)
200 6 3
(1•3)
.. 24
(10•3)
.. 233
(100·0)
49 ..
-
• <' .. 49
....
..
.. ..
49
.. ,,
17 Ambal&kr&n •• .. .. (96•0)
103
(-l·O)
.. .. .. (100•0)
. 103
(85•8)
99
(2-6)
.. 3
(2•9)
.. 3
(2•9)
•

.. 106
(100•0)
.. .. .1
I .
.. ..
• •

.. .. .
18 Alnh&Ja.krao. •• .. 93
(100•01
51 .. ..
' 10
(100•0)
314
(IOO•O)
(94·:1
(78•1)
34
(5•1)
3
(0•6)
..
9
(1•4)
86
(13•0)
13
(1•9)
.. (100·0)
663 114 ..
.. ' ·/
.. ' - 114

..
'
..
..
'

..
•
•
ll4
..
.. .. (15· 2)
127
(83•2)
336 20 47
(1•6)
.. 630 <185 66 6 81 588
(100•0)
8 8 .. 8
..
•
..
19 Gonnder
.. (74'0) (11• 2) (1·0)
..
(13-8)
.. ..
20 1Jppan. .. .. ..
(24•0) (63•4)
307
(3•8)
67
(8'8)
.. (100•0)
364 367 16
c•·r~
2
(0•5) (7•1)
iljj

..
404
(100•0)
47 ..
.. .
2
..
20 .
26 ..
.. .. " .. ..
21 Gonnder .. .. .. (84•3)
167
(!6•7J
28 ..
(100•0)
197
(88;:J
(1•7)
4 6
(2'2)
20
(8•8) (100•0)
228 37
..
22 16
..
37
.. ..
22 Ambalakaran .. 130
(3<1•7)
(94•8)
246
(86•3)
(1•0)
.. ..
(14'2)
.. (100•0)
375
(100•0)
(79'4)
300
(78-6)
(7•9)
20
(6•2)
3
(O•S)
7
(1•8)
42
(H·O)
10
(2•6)
382
(IOO•O)
126 .. .. 126 .. 128

·--
..
247
'
L/R!m,flU
•
 --~---------------.--~.---,,------,------,------,------~----·~·~~9--~--~~~o--~~~~~--~~~~~2~~~--~~3~~--~~:4--~~~:5~~~--;,16~~--~~~7--~~~~s~· j 10 20 21 22 23 u.
~-:-=-=2::----------J---,-;;;-Ir---;-;,;- I -~::-~--~~~----;-'--- -~:-:-1·-·--:-::--1----,-----·--
I 25
3 4 6 G 7 1 S - - ,_ -----,:-l---1---=- -·----I----II·----:-::-;-I----;------
:------ ------'------ ---- 256 341 19 3 .- .. 23 .. 386 1u 134 . . • . .. .. .. 124 .. No liooraoy.
-,-3 Setti Ballja •• •• 69 187 •• ·· ·· (10()·0) (88·3) (4·0) (0·8) (6·0) (100·0) ·

2i Amh&l&k&r&n ..
(27·0)
94
(78·0)
478 •• ·· "
572
(100·0)
405
(82·5)
36
(6·0)
8
(0·5)
10
(I ·7)
30
(6·5)
17
(2·8)
670
(100·0)
116 ·-
.. .. 116 .. .. 116 ..
25 Ambe.labran -. (16·4)
264
(88·6}
-- -· ..•.
2M
(100·0)
318
(99·1)
.. 3
(0·9)
•. .. •. • 321
(100·0)
57 .. .. .. 57 .. .. 57 .. ..
26 Am balakaran -. (100·0}
50 369
.
•• .. ••
419
(100·0)
252
(58·2)
37
(8·6) (0·0)
. 13
(3·0)
87
(20·2)
38
(8·8)
431
(100·0)
29 .. .. .. 29 .. .. 29 .. "
• 27 Amba,labran ••
(11·9)
77
' (88·1)
153 -· .• --
230
(100•0)
209
(82·6)
15
(1·2}
8 9
(3·6)
14
(5·5}
3
(1-2)
253
(100·0)
59
... .. .. •
59 .. .. 59 ..
• • "
-. .- (33·5)
--
•
(66·5)
354
••.. -·
354
(100·0}
239
(81·0}
15
(5·1) (1·4}
4 •• 37
(12·5)
-- 295
(100·0)
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
29 Kurumh& -. •• -- (IOO·O)
121
•• .- •.
121
(100·0)
100
(82·6)
9
(6·4) (1·7)
2 .. 10
(8·3)
.• 121
( 100·0)
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
"
.
30 Irnl&r -- •• - .- (100·0}
344
-· ·- .. .
34i
(100·0)
298
(96·5}
••
(0·6)
2 -- 9
(2·9)
.. 309
(100·0)
.. .. •
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. "
31 Yadlnva ·- -.
.-
.- (IOO·O)
(100~1J ·· ·· ·· 671
(IOO·OJ
605
(85·5)
48
(6·8) (0-8)
6 10
(l-4)
39
(5·5J
-. 708
(100-0J
10 .. ..
•
.. 10 .. .. 10 .. •

.
32 Gounder •• ·- (90·;~ (9·3·) ·- ·-
. 43
(100·0)
51
(87·9}
3
(5·2)
.. -- 4
(6•9)
•• 58
(100·0)
14 .. 14 .. .. .. .. • 14 .. .
38 V"JSWaka.rma •• •• ••
( 100-~ •• •.
.
..
84
(lOO·Q)
112
(91·1)
.•
.
2
(1·6)
•- 9
(7·3)
•. 123
(100•0)
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. •
.. ··No. of persOns in the
U Vaniar •• .- •• 330
(77·6} -·
95
(22-4} ·-.
425
(100·0}
372
84·1}
37
(8·4)
7
(l-6}
•. 26
(5·9)
•• 442
(100·0)
.. .. .. .. ..
•
.. ..
.. .. family--6.
The head of the f&mi·
ly is literate. He can

-.
85 Gonndor •• •• •• 287
(100·0) •• •• ••
287
(100·0)
301
(96·5)
.. 7
(2·2)
•• 4
(1·3)
•• 812
(100·0) 6 .. 6 .. .. .. 6
" ..
read and writo Tamil;
No literacy.
~.. Gounder
..
•• •• 270
(13-l} (56~) •• •• ••
626
(UIO·O)
665
(90·9) (2·7)
17 7
(1·1)
•• 33
(5•3)
•• 662
(100·0) 440 .. .. .. 440 .. .. •
440 .. No. 2 persona in tthe
family : 7 Only
37 Gonnder - .. ..
one person knon
•• • •
. \'A-Q}
'198 255 .
(62·'1)
31
(6·4)
•• 484
- (100·:a
420
(88·6)
18
(3·8) (0·6}
3 33
(7·0) .
474 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Tamil.
. . No literacy.
38 Go •der ••
-· •• •
62 •
\~·Q\ .
••
. (10·1}
7
-
• •
' (100·0)
84
(98·8)
.. .. .. .• 1
'(1·2)
.. (100·0)
85 1 .. .. .. 1 .. .. .. I .. .. Do.
39 Gonnder (100·0) •
•• •• • • 263 - -;-- IG •• 278 - 271 .. 2
.. .. 4 .. 277 .. .. ..
•
.. .. .. ..
•• ••
(94·6) •. (6·4) - .•
so-.~-
(100·0)
_385
(97 ·8) (0· 7) (1-5} (100·0) .. .. .. Do.
•• 305
(79·2) (20-ii} - - •• •• . (100·0)
310
(84·2)
14
(3·8)
7
(1·9) .• (1-6)
6 15
(4·1)
16 868 7 .. 7 ... .. .. .. 7 .. Do.
il P&d&yachi •• •• 30
(13·9)
126 60 •• . •. 216 . 169 '9 I .. 10
(4·4}
3
(100·0)
192 .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
• •
12 PadayN'b; •• • 76
(58·3)
145
(27·8)
127
(100·0)
. 348
(88·8)
221
(4·7) (0·5) . (6·27) (1·6) (100•0) .. .. •
Do
13 P&d&yachi
•
(21·8)
85
(41·7) (26·6)
••
•
••
(100·0) 64•8)
21
(6·2) (0·6)
2 7
(2·0)
63
(18•6)
27
(7-9}
341 .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. Do.
•• •• 157 114 356 213 u 2 .. (100·0) • •
(23•9)
29
(44·1)
184
(32·0)
••
(100·0) . (78•9) (8·9) (0·7)
23
(8·6)
8
(3·0)
270 .. .. .. •• .. . .. • • .. .. Do.
•• • • •• •• 213 143 19 I .. (100·0)
.. .. .. .. ..
• • •

(13·6) 28
..
•
• (36·4} (100·0) (74·5) (9·9) (0·6) (14•6)
1
(0·6)
. 192
'(100·0)
.. •• .. •
No. of persona in the
44 Pad•cba.yachi •• •• 88 168 • family. 3. Tho ho.C
•• •• •• 266 170 20 1
•• ••
(34-6)
28
(36·6)
161
(100·0) . (77·3) (9•1) (0·4)
3
(1-4)
21
(9-5)
5 220 .. .. .. .. .. • ••• .. ..
.. .. •
of tho family it
is literate and knoWI
(14·8JI
• •• •• •• . 189 164 14 2 .. (2-SJ (100·0)
.. .. .. Tamil.
,.• (36·2) (100·0) (82·0) (7•0) (1•0)
18
(9·0) (1-0)
200
(100·0)
.. •
..
•
.. .. •
.. .. •
No. of persona fn th~
family. 4. Tho boac
II • •
of the famUy II
4:7 P•d•oyachi .• •• 90"
(47·6)!
109 •• •• .. 208 179 li 2 .. •
literate and knoWI
Tamil.
48 Yeitha.... •• 67
(62•4)
271 •• 39
(100· 0)
377
. (81·7) (5·0) (0·9)
22
(10·1)
6
(2·3}
219 .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. No literacy.
(17-08)) (71·9)
• • 395 20 5 .. .. (100·0)
.. ..
,. ..11
(10·3) (100·0) (86·4) (4-4) (1-1)
37
(8·1)
467
(100•0)
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. No. of penona in th'
family. 4. Tho boa•
49 Yadhua •• •• 92, • au •• .. •• 436 877 21
of tho family
literato and know
1

GO V!!rier •• ••
(21-l)
••
(78·9)"
128j .. .. 31
(100·0) (86·6) (4·8)
4
(0·9)
10
(2-3)
34
(6-6)
.. 436 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Tamil.
Nolitoraoy.
159
•
(80·6) 110 8 1 .. .. (100·0}
.. .. .. .. ..
(18-8) (100•0} (86·6} (6•2) (0•8)
10
(7·7}
129
(100·0)
.. .. .. .. Do.
JOOihOte Fignr<~~~ ill bn.obla an -las• 1o lol&l,
SOurce-Al!IDdl& Agrioult-.1 Labour ll:nqnhy, 1950-61.
346 •
•
 i
6 6 7 8 !g 10 II 12 13 14 16 16 17 • 18 19 20 21 22 28 25

•• • • ••
(91~ (8·~~ (2·0~ (100~ ~~\ (3·~ (H~ (O'll •• .. .. ..
-• • .. .. .. (I007gl
•• ••
(93~~~ (7·~ .• .. (100~~~ I /96 .~
7
(I·~~ (0·8~ .. .. (1·9J (IOOegJ
•• .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
•• •• 41
(7-0) 476 28 .. (6 49o (I0"5S03) ( 9 ,~766) (l.l) (0· 86)
12 .~ .• (H) (100·0)
47 .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
J6 Joleha •• •• ••
(81·6J
455 (4·5J
16 · 1 ·47• •
580 35 4
•• 18 637
.. .. ..
•

.. .. ... .. .. .. ..
96 8 (3 2 ) .• .. (100·0) (91·1) (5·5) (0·6) .. (2-8) (IOO•O)
(66 -~
( 1· )
(33·~ (loo;~l
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. •

9
•• •• •• . 278 313 2 3 ·• •• I 319 ••
·· ·· (IOO·OJ (98·1) (0·6J (I·Ol (0· 3l
•• •• ••
(91~~ (9·~ .• ..
391
(1•0·0)
381
(93·2)
10
(2·4) (1·0)
4
..
•. 14
(3·4)
~
(100·0)
.. •• .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
!8 Jaleh • • • • 68
(10·7) (79~ (7·~~ (2·~~ ..
633
(100·0)
584
(94·2)
18
(2·9) (0·6)
4
.•
..
(2-8)
u 620
(100·0)
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
30 .lbir
•• •• 96
(16·8)
476
(83·2) .. .. ..
572
(100·0)
619
(94·7)
23
(4·2) (0·5)
3
..
•. 3
(0·6)
648
(100·0)
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Sl Abjr •
• • •• .. 159 159 212 2 ·· •• 2U 642 .. .. 642 .. .. 642 .. .. ..
•• •• .. (100·0)
253
..
20
..
10
•.
..
(100·0)
284
(99·1)
287
..
3
(0·9)
4
.•
.. •. 2
(100·0)
296
•
122 .. .. 122 .. liS 9 .. .. ..
(89·4) (7·1) (3·5) (100·0) (97·0) (1·0) (1·3) (0·7) (100·0)
•• • • 32
(8-3)
291
(75·6) ..
62
(16·1) ..
385
(100·0)
366
(94·9)
10
(2·7) (1·1)
4 .. .. 6
(1·8)
376
(100•0)
.. .. .. .. .. .. ••
•
.. .. ..
S5
•• •• ••

..
459
(96·6)
16
(3·4) •• ••
476
(100·0)
601
(95·2)
12
(2·3) (4J·2)
I .• .. 12
(2·3)
626
(100·0)
39 88 6 .. .. .. 89 .. .. ..
J[enu • • ••

..
490
(100·0) .. •• . ..
490
(100·0)
690
(93•2)
29
(4-6) (0·1)
I .• •. 13
(2-1)
833
(100·0)
76 76 .. .. .. .. 76 .. .. ..
37 Toli
•• ••
424
(1!'0·0) .. .• ..
424
(100·0)
411
(93·2)
17
(3·6) (0·2)
9 •. ..
(3·0)
u 473
(100·0)
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
18 Mel•b·
•• ••
(7·7)
150
601
(92-3) .. .. •.
651
100·()
565
(92·3)
20
(8-3) (1·1)
I 8
(1·3)
..
(3·0)
18 812
(100·0)
.. .. .. .. •• .. .. .. •• ..
•• •• 34
(8-S) 874
(91·7) .. .. •.
408
(100·0)
467
(96·4)
..
(0·2)
I .• .•
(3·4)
16 474
(100·0) 48 .. .. .. .. 48 .. .. ..
•• • • 143
(38-4)
8
m
(61-6) .. •. ..
m
(100·0)
481
(92·2)
25
(4·8)
.. .. .. 16
(..'1-0)
m
(100·0) 16 .. .. .. .. 16 .. .. ..
•• ••
(2-0) 402
(98·0) •. .. ..
410
(100·0)
467
(98·1)
.. .. .. ••
(1·9)
9 466
(100·0) 86 .. .. 86 .. .. 86 .. .. ..
•••

••
••

••
(23·9)
72
81
258
(76·1)
.•
.•
•. 339
(100·0)
608
(94·9)
11
(2·1)
•• •• •.
(3·0)
16 630
(100·0)
82 82 .. .. .. .. 82 •• ..
•
..
(18·0) 328 .. .. •. 40" 494 .• .. .. .. 12 608 78 78 .. .. .. .. 78 • •• • ••
•• •• 237
(4H)
(82·0)
297
(65·0)
.. .. ..
(100·0)
634
(100•0)
(97·6)
707
(98·1)
.. .. .. ••
(2·4)
(1·9)
14
(100·0)
721
(100·0)
48 40 6 .. .. .. 48 .. .. Out of 7 persona in
tho C.ml~ I pllr80D
•• ••
(6-6)
27
388
(93·6)
.. .• .. 413
(100·0)
609
(97-1)
.. .. .. •. 16
(2·9)
624
(100·0) 82 .. .. .. .. 82 .. .. Jmowe Bmdi,
..
••

••
•

••
•
(8-6)
7
36
236
(56·4)
81
(19·4)
.• 65
(16·6)
417
(100·0)
476
(93·7)
6
(1·0)
6
(1·2)
.• 6
(1·0)
16
(3-1)
607
(100·0) .. .. 89 16 .. 104 .. .. ..
• •
(1-4) 419
(82·0~
29
(6·7)
56
(10·9)
•• 511
(100·0)
470
(94·0)
4
(0·8)
4
(0·8)
.. ..
.
22
(4·4)
600
(100·0) .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ,
••
.. ..
• •

•• •• ..
430
(81•4)
.. 98
(1~·6)
•• 528
(100·0)
487
(90·3)
14
(2·6)
3
(0·6)
.. •• 36
(6·6)
539
(100·0) .. •• .. .. .. .. .. ..
522
(90·6)
29
(5·0)
20
(3·5) (0·9)
6 576
(100·0)
561
(89·8)
17
(2·7)
• 4
(0·6)
25
(4·0)
.. 18
(2·9)
626
(100·0) 9 .. 9 .. .. .. 9 .. ..
..
• • •• ••

..
295
(73·9)
29
(7·3)
42
(10·6)
33
(8·3)
399
(100·0)
480 .
(94·1)
6
(1·2)
3
(0·6)
•• .. 20
(1·1)
489
(100·0) .. .. .. •• .. .. .. .. ..
.. .. ..
•• ••
j37
(93·8)
29
(6•2)
.. .. 466
(100·0)
497
(92·4)
6
(1·1)
'
(0·7)
.. .• 31
(5·8)
638
(100·0) .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
•
--·~~-~~~~•=y,v,~.~~~~~m~b~.~~t'-~~d~&W~t~e~~~~~~nu~g~M=--~~t~h.~ro~u"I.---------~------~------~----~----~~----~------~----~------·------------~----~.~-----.~----~--~.-L------L-----~--~.---.----~
&wee AU-India Agricu.lto.ral Labour Enqulry 1900.1)1, .. --~~.~.-.-.~----~..
250
• •
 APPENDIX IV
. Statement showing literacy percentage in various states during the years-
1931, 1941 and 1951

Litoracy percentage,
Name of the State
1951 19.1 1931
1. Uttar Pradesh .. .. .. .. .. 10•8 8·, 4•7
2. Bihar .. .. .. .. .. 12·2 9·3 4·3
3. on... .. .. .. .. .. 15•8 8·5 5·2
4. W08\ Bsngal .. .. .. .. .. 24•5 19•9 li·S
5. Chandernagore .. .. .. .. 42'3 .. ..
6. Assam .. .. .. .. .. 18•1 11-4 6·8·

7. Manipnr .. .. .. .. .. 11•4 .. 3·lt

8. Tripura .. .. .. .. .. 15'5 .. I-1
9. Sikkim .. .. .. .. .. 7•3 .. 3·1)-

10. Madras .. .. .. .. .. 19•3 14-4 9•lt

11. l!y.ore .. .. .. .. .. 20·3 .. 9·1

12. Tnovancore-Cochin .. .. .. .. 4N .. 24·7'

13. Coorg .. .. .. .. .. 27'2 .. 15•5-

14. Bombay .. .. .. .. .. 24•6 18•9 8·&.

15. Sanmshtra .. .. .. .. .. 18'5 .. !\.A.

16. Kutch .. .. .. .. .. 17·1 .. N.A.

17. Madhya Pradesh .. .. .. .. 13-5 9·9 5·r

18. Madhya Bharat .. .. .. .. 10•8 .. 5•1

10. Hyderahad .. .. .. .. .. 9•2 .. 4•1

20. Bhopal .. .. .. .. .. 8-2 .. 3-1

21. Vindhya Pradooh .. .. .. .. 6·1 .. 3·5·

22. Raja'!than .. .. .. .. .. 8•4 .. 3·&.

23. Punjab .. .. .. .. .. 16·1 12•0 5·!

2,. PEPSU .. .. .. .. .. 12•0 .. 4•9

2G. Ajmer .. .. .. .. .. 20•1 .. 10·6

26. Delhi .. .. .. .. .. 3N .. 14 I

S'l. Bilaopur and Himachal Pradesh .. .. .. 1'7 .. 3'5

2$. Andaman and Nlcohar blando .. .. .. 25'8 .. K.!.

:I,;I
 APPENDIX V
'Statement showing total number of students belonging to scheduled castes
and other backward classes in Primary, Middle and High Schools and
in Arts and Science Colleges during the year 1952-53

TotaIN umbor 0 fStudentaln-

State '
Prilllllry Middle High Art & Soione
Schools Schools Schools CoUegoa
1 2 3 4 6

1. Aasam .. .. .. 2,21,224 26,534 19,1i86 ..

"2. Bihar .. .. .. 7,19,680 1,46,905 92,184 6,547
11. Bombay .. .. .. 6,61,586 6,752 22,921 1,269
4. Madhya Prad~h• .. .. 1,74,584 26,522 7,595 531
.5. }ladrao .. .. .. 22,73,379 30,629 2,84,126 12,951
.a. Ori.saa .. .. .. 1,17,974 6,392 3,556 130
'·Punjab .. .. .. 53,076 16,015 17,235 'i8o
8. Uttar Pradesh .. .. 7,07,678 72,448 49,013 ..
9. West Bong&l .. .. 3,44,385 28,324 38,132 2,185
10. Hyderabad .. .. .. 71,843 5,476 6,379 177
11. Madhya Bh.,., .. .. 24,432 5,279 529 28
12.Myaore .. .. .. 70,556 9,519 6,039 355
13. PEPSU .. .. .. 6,476 3,052 8,452 139
14, Raja.stban* .. .. .. .. .. .. 140
15. Saurashtra .. .. .. 50,476 2,169 2,133 104
16. Travancore-Cochin .. " 1,33,011 28,035 16,046 ..
17. Ajmer .. .. .. 13,475 655 725 54
18, Andaman & Nicobar *!•lando •. 1,048 " 897 ..
19. Bhopal .. .. .. 1,458 962 229 30
20.Coorg .. .. .. 3,177 4,0\il 909 43
21. Delhi .. .. .. 8,054 972 1,599 93
22. Himachal Pradesh* (including 2,577 1,274 829 4
BiiMpur). ..
23. Kuteh .. .. .. 724 19 7 ..
24, Manipnr .. .. ..
.
37,307
..
4,838 "

..
8,758 355
26. Tripura .. .. .. 8,31i0 1,001 855 29
26. Vindhya Prad.,h .. .. 12,499 4,101 366 29
lNot• .. 57,19,009
I
4,27,981 5,69,099 25,973

*Figtll'OI relat.e to 1951-52,

252
 APPENDIX VI
MINISTRY OF HOME AFFAIRS
Resolution
New Delhi, the 13th September 1950
No. 42/21/49-NGS-The policy of the Government of India in regard
~o communal representation in the Services immediately before the coming
mto force of the new Constitution was that in appointments made by open
competitiOn 12! per cent of the vacancies filled by direct recruitment were
reserved for candidates belonging to the Scheduled Castes while in regard
to posts and services for which recruitment was made otherwise than by
competition the principal communities in the country were given appoint-
ments in proportion to th~ir population. Certain reservations were also
made. f?r Anglo-Indians, in services \vith which they had special. past
associations.
2. The Government of India have now reviewed their policy in this
regard in the light of the provisions of the Constitution of India which
lay down inter alia that with certain exceptions no discrimination shall be
made in the matter of appointments to the services under the State on
grounds of race, religion, caste. etc. The exceptions are that special provi-
sion shall be made for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in all
services and for Anglo-Indians in those services in which they had special
reservations on the 14th August 1947. Pending the determination of the
figures of population at the Census of 1951 the Government of India have
decided to make the following reservations in recruitment to posts and
services under them:-
(a) Scheduled Castes-The existing reservation of 12! per cent of
vacancies filled by direct recruitment in favour of the Scheduled
Castes will continue in the case of recruitment to posts and
services made, on an all-India basis, by open competition, i.e.,
through the Union Public Service Commission or b:y means of
open ocmpetitive tests held .bY any other authonty, . Where
recruitment is made othe!'Wlse than by open competition the
reservation for Scheduled Castes will be 16-2/3 per cent as at
present.
(b) Scheduled Tribes-Both in recruitment by open com~t!tion and
in recruitment made otherwise than by open competition ~ere
will be a reservation in fa~our of memb~rs of Sche?uled Tribes
of 5 per cent of the vacancies filled by d1rect recrwtment.
(c) Anglo-Indians-The reservations which were in force in favour
of Anglo-Indians in the Railway Services, the Posts and TeJe-
ra hs Department and the Customs Department on .t~e 14th
~u~st 1947, will be ~nt~nued subject to the proVIstons of
Article 336 of the Constitution.

3.Thefresen:~~~ ~=d~r~':~:amn~fi~~~i~.Pu~%af~e~~n:R~~~~
t he case o recrut bl f ·deration for appointment to posts
C f
all citize!ls of India ahre 1igi G~v~~~ent irrespective of their domic.Ue
and sel'VIces under t e en ra recruitment to any Central Sel'VIce
or plac~ of birth an: the~e ~aut~: l~habitants of any specified area. I.n
f
whtch 1s confined Y e toto Class I and Class n Services and posts IS
practice however recrui men
likely to attract candidates fr~m ·tII
o;~la~ m
I d' and will be on a truly all
services and posts which
India basis, whU~ for the :aJorh ~:rlon Public Service Commission only
are filled otherwtse than rou g rty in which the office is located are
those residing in the area or 1oca 1
;6$
likelv to apply. In the latter class of cases the percentages of reservations
for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes will be fixed by Government
taking into account the population of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes in that area.
4. (1) The orders regarding reservation of vacancies in favour of the
various communities will not apply to recruitment by promotion which
will continue to be made as heretofore irrespective of communal considera-
tions and on the basis of seniority and/ or merit as the case may be.
(2) In all cases a minimum standard of qualifications will be pres-
cribed and the reservations will be subject to the over-all condition that
~andidates of the requisite communities possessing the prescribed qualifica·
tions and suitable in all respects for the appointment in question, are
forthcoming in sufficient numbers for the vacancies reserved for them.
(3) The maximum age limits prescribed for appointment to a service
or post will be increased by three years (later increased to 5 years) in case
of candidates belonging to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
and the fees prescribed for admission to any examination or selection will
be reduced to one-fourth in their case.
(4) For the purposes of these orders, a person shall be held to be a
member of the Scheduled Castes or the Scheduled Tribe~. as the case may
be, if he belongs to a caste or a tribe which under the Constitution
(Scheduled Castes) Order, 1950, or under the Constitution (Scheduled
Tribes) Order, 1950, has been declared to be Scheduled Caste or a
Scheduled Tribe for the area in which he and/or his family ordinarly
reside(s). Separate instructions will issue declaring the castes and tribes
which should be considered as Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes for
the purpose of these orders in Part C States and Part D territories.
(5) These orders are applicable to all services under the control of the
Government of India including posts and services in States in Part C of
the First Schedule to the Constitution and will be deemed to have come
into effect on the 26th January 1950.
5. The orders contained in the Ministry of Home Affairs Resolution
No. 16/10/47-Estt.. dated the 21st August 1947, Office Memorandum No. 31/
93/47-Estt., dated the 22nd August 1947 and other orders issued on the
basis of those orders are hereby cancelled.

Order-Ordered that a copy of the Resolution be communicated to all

Ministries of the Government of India, all Chief Commissioners, the Cabinet
Secretariat, the Prime Minister's Secretariat, the Partition Secretariat,
Directorate General of Resettlement and Employment, Principal, I.A.S.
Training School, Director, Secretariat Training School, Commandant,
Police Training College, Mount Abu, Director, Intelligence Bureau, and
the Union Public Service Commission, for information and guidance; and
Supreme Court of India, the Comptroller and Auditor General and all
State Governments, for information; and also that the Resolution be
published in the Gazette of India.

S. B. BAPAT
Joint Secret4riJ
 APPENDIX VII
SUMMARY t-Statement showing the number of Gazetted appointment held by' different communities in severat grades
in the Myrore State Services on 31st Ma,.ch 1952.

Ro. 16(} to Rs. 300 Rs. 300 to Rs. 500 Rs. 500 to Rs. 800 · I
Rs. 800 and above Total

Community Number Per cent. Numb~r Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent
No.

3 5 6 7 8 9 IO II 12
1 2
"'
6·2 I20 8·3
1 ¥okkaligan .. .. 56 10·0 49 7·9 10 6·4 6
I72
2 Lingayets .. .. 77 13·9 69 ll·I
..
I7
..
10·3 9 9·3
29
11·9
3 Kuru bars .. .. 23 4·I 5 0·8
.. .. ..
1
..
I·O 2·0
4 lkdars .. .. 4 0·7 1 O·I 5 0·3
6 Brahmins .. .. 207 36·9
..
236
..
37·8
..
86
..
52·1
..
40 4I·2
..
369 39·4
6 Gangal..-u1as .. .. 2 0·4
.. ..
2· 0·1
1 Yada~as .. .. 2 0·4 2 0·3 1 0·6 5 0•3 .
8 Bnna)iaas .. .. 11 I·9 7 1·1
..
2
..
1·I
..
I
..
1·0 21 I·5
.. .. 3 0·5 3 0'5 6 0·4 .
9
10
Yif>w&ksrmas
Lppara-~> .. .. 2 0·4 .. .. ..
.... ..
..
.. .. 2 0•1
II Kunchitigas .. .. 6 0·9
..
5 0·8
.. 4·0 .. 4·8 ..
3
..
3·1 13 0·9
..
12
13
14
Agasa.s
K~hatriyaa . ..
Other Caste Htndua
..
..
..
I
16
81
0·2
2·8
14·5
2o
114 I8·3
8
2I I2·7
4
15
. i·I
I5·5
1
53
23I
0·1
3·7
16·(1
€including Sadars).
15 Dcprt$.&ed Classes 12 2·I ll I·9 2 1·2 .. .. 25 I·7
16 Chri,tiana, Anglo India~ 23 4·1 37 5·9 11 6·6 9 9·3 80 5·5
und Europeans
17 Muslims .. .. 81 5·5 41 6·6 6 3·6 7" 7·2 85 5·9
18 Othf!"r Communities .. 4 0·7 IS 2·9 I 0·6 3 3·I 26 1·9
(J&ins~ Panec~>, Bhuddist8;
etc.)

Total .. 660 IOO·O 623 100·0 166 100·0 97 100·0 1,445 IOO·fl

255
 APPENDIX VII-con.td.
SUMMARY II-statement showing the number and percentage of No,...gazetted appointments in superior sennce·
held by diffll1"ent communities in several grades in the Mysore State Services on 31st March 1952.

Hlnlatorial
.
Soria!
No.
Community ::sJ:•ate Senioo
Sub- Division or I Class
or I Grado
II Division or II
Olaas or II Grade
III Division or III
01... or III Grade
Total

Number Per oent Number Per oent Number Peroent Number Peroont Number Per cent
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1
2
Brahmins
Vokkaligara
.. .. .. 223
16
66·9
4·0
1,000
186
44.·9
6·11
2,318
459
Sl·B
7·1
469
146
36·2
10·8
4,100
785
88·8
7·4
s Lingayeta . . . 12 8·0 191 7·8 646 9·2 124 9·1 993 9·4
4 Kuru bars . II 1·5 27 1·1 153 2·2 47 3·5 238 2·2
II
6
Bedars
Ga.ngalculao .. ... .. 1
..0·5
0·2 15 0·6 45 0·11 11 0·'1 7; 0·7

...
~ 9 0·8 2S 0·4 10 0·7 52 0·4
7
8
9
Yadavas
Ks!mtriyas
Banajigae,
.. 2
8 Z•O
15
53
0·6
1·9
53
19!1
0·7
2·7
16
30
1·3
2·3
86
292
0·9
2·8
3·2
10
ll
Viswakarmoa
Upprao . .
.
.. 8
1
1
2·0
0·2
0·2
M
34
11
3·4
1·3
0·4
207
130
19
3·1
2·1
0·3
34
26
4
2·6
1·9
0·3
338
191
35
1·7
0·3
12 Kunohitigaa . . . 0·8 1·1 0·4
•
82 0·7

-
3 27 4'1 0·6 6
13 Agasaa 1 0·2 6 0·2 31 0·3 11 0·8 49 0·4
14 Other C&ate Hindus (inolod. 62 13·2 360 14·9 855 18·3 157 11·7 1,424 13·2
ingSadars)
15
16
Dep.....,.J Clao8eo
Muslims
. .. ll
20
0·8
5·0 162
68 l!·7
6·9 620
'1·6
7·9
86
us
6·6
8·7
621
815
5·7
7·5
17 Indian Christiana. Anglo 22 5·5 86 1·11 126 4·7 37 2·7 480 4•4
Indians & Europeona.
18 Ot-her Communities (Jain& 1 0·2 26 1·1 M 0·7 7 0·7 88 0·8
Pareis, Buddhists. Jewa,
Sikhs, Tribes and Others)

Total . 400 100·0 2,443 100·0 6,558 100·0 1,33.2 100·0 10,731 100·0
 APPENDIX VII-contd.
SUMMARY ill-statement .showing number and pe~centage of N011>-gazetted appointmentsin superiM service held by
different communities in seve~al Myso~e State Seroices on 31st March 1952.

.I. Exeoutive
Serial Community Upper ~bordlnate I Division or I C1a.u II Division or II III Division 01" III Total
No. servtoea orl Grado C1&88 or II Grade Class or III Grado.
Number Percent Number Peroont Number Peroont Number Per cent Number Per cent

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
..
... ...
1 Brahmms 489 43·4 1,-957 44·6 3,022 28·6 . 5,152 24·5 10,620 28·7
2 Vokkaligaro 85 7·8 308 6·8 1,047 9·6 2,437 Il·4 3,877 10·4
3 Lingo.yew .. 116 10·0 319 7·1 1,338 12·6 3,220 15·3 4,992 13·4
4
6
Kuru bars
Bedms
. .. .
11
1
0·8
0·1
63
17
1·2
0·5
109
89
1·9
0·9 . 388
311
1·9
hl
651
418
1·8
1·4
6
7
Gangakula.s
Yadava.a
. . .. 4
10
0·3
0·8
18
16
0·6
0·3
67
47
0·7
0·4
161
98
0·7
0·4
250
171
0·7
0·4
8 Ksh.a.triyaa 87 3·2 151 3·4 277 2·7 223 1·9 688 1·9
9
10
:Ba.najigas
Visawa.karmaa
.
. .. 12
3
1·0
0·3
ll6
21
2·6
0·6
257
764
2·4·
1·5
408 1·8
2·4
792
652
2·1
464 1·7
11
12
Uppara.s
Kunchitigaa
.. 1
10
0·1
0·9 31
8 0·2
0·7
31
114
0·3
1·4
85
130
0·4
0·6
125
285
0·4
0·8
13 Agaoas • • • 4 0·3 12 0·3 43 0·4 172 0·6 231 0·6
14 Other Caste- Hindus (inolud- 179 15·6 585 12·3 1,366 12•9 2,320 11·0 4,429 Il·9.
. ing Sadars)
15 Depressed Claasea: 33 2·7 79 1·8 518 4·9 1,521 7·4 2,151 5·7
16 Muslims . 83 7·2 384 8·7 1,107 10·4 2,668 12·6 4.242 ll·4
17 Indian.Cb.ristiana, Anglo· 83 5·4 310 7·2 823 7·8 1,()84 6·2 2,280
. lndia1111 & European
6·1
18 Other Communities. (J~ 8 0·6 49 1·2 83 0·8 ll9 0·5 269 0·6
Parais. Jews~ Buddhists,
Sikhs, Tribes and others) ..
T_. . . 1,148 1000 4,413 100·0 10,501 100·0 20,961 100·0 37,113 100·0
 APPENDIX VII-contd.
SuMMARY IV-Statcment showing the number and percentage of non-aazetted appointments in superior service
held O!J different communities in severn! g>·ades in the Musore State Services on 31st March 1952.

&rial t'\mnn\lnitit'~
U~pe! Snboniina.t.a
rvtoo
I Dlvi:tdon or I ClaaR
or I Gmdo
I
II Divio!on o(II
Class or II Grado
III Divl•lon or III
Cl&ss or Ul Grado
~ Total
No.
~

Numbor Por cent Number Por oont Number Per cent NumOOr Per cent I Numbor Per cent

--I 2 3 4 6 6 1 8 9 10
!
11
- 12

1 Bruhmit\8 .. . 712 46·0 3,047 44·4 5,340 31·6 6,621 25·6 14,720 80·8
:1
3
VHkkAI.igaH
LinJitayeh'
.
.
. . 101
147
6·6
10·0
HS
510
6·9
7·4
1,506
1,984 11·7
9•7 2,582
3,344
436
ll·7
16·8
4,662
6,986
9·8
12·6
'6 -.....
a
Kuruba.n

G~\ng3k.UI.M
. .
..
17
2
4
1·1
0·1
0·3
80
32
27
1·2
0·6
0·4
352
134
100
0·7
0·6
2·2
322
171
1·9
1•4
0·7
884
490
302
1·9
1·0 .
0·6
7
8
YndAV&8
Ktthatriyaa
.
.
. .. 13
45
0·8
2·9
81
209
0·5
3·0
100
.,3
0·5
2·7
114
253
0·6
1·1
267
980
0•6
2·1
9 Banaji.gaa . . 20 1·2 109 2•8 464 2·7 442 1•9 1,126 2·3
2•
10 Viswnkanua8 0·8 5G 0·8 204 1·7 490 2·1 843 1·7
11 Upparao 0·1 19 0·8 110 0·3 89 0·4 10 0·4
12 Kunchitig:lS .. •. 13 0·8 68 0·9 161 0·9 136 0·6 367 0·7
lS A.,._ . • . '6 o·s 18 0·3 74 0·4 188
2,477
0·8
ll·4
280
6,853
0·6
14 Other Caste Hindue(inolud~ 231 14·6 926 13·4 2,220 12·9 12·4
lng Sad&ra)
15 Depressed Classes . 86
103
2·3
6·8
143
546
2·4
7·9
982
1,627
5•6
9·6
1,607
2,781
7·1
12·0
2,772
6,057
5·7
10·6
16 Mualints
17 Indian-Christia~s. ~lo~ 85 6·4 406 6·9 1,148 6·6 1,121 5·0 2,760 5·7
Indians, Europeaa1 eto.
138 126 347 0·7

~
18 Otbor CommunU.iee (Ja.lns, 9 0·6 74 1·0 0•5 I
Pareie. Buddhist&, JeWll!,
Sicb~ Tribe& and Others)
I
Total . 1,548 100·0 1 6,856 100·0 17,147 22,293 100·0 1 47,844- 100·0

258
 I OF AZITTI APPOI T E TS
HELD BY DIFFERENT COMMUNITIES IN THE STATE SERVICE (MY SOREl IN
- RELATION TO
PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION
AS ON 1ST. JULY 1946

- - - - - - - - - - - PEIICDUGE Of ~AZmEO OPPOIMlliDTS a PEICUTAGE OF POPULATION AS PER CENSUS OF 111111 - - - - - - - ,

•; • '
•
• •

" •
•
•

..
.. •

..
" •
•

..
..
•

..
..
•
.-
~

•
12

•
I
•

• ----c---.---~--------
••
" -
0 IIIW.&U. .II 11"1&1 IIIUITIUI UPUIIll IIIILIU nut
Cl ,.... ,. ..
CUll II

COMMUNITIES
..... - •- ..,_,., ., ••1.1 •=• u• ,...,
HIII1D I I ' - CM' 1• -"" ""llUt·
 I . PI Cl 'A I OF I ~ • AZITT D A POl T TS
HELD BY DIFFERENT COMMUNITIES IN 11 E STATE SERVICE (MYSORE ), EXECUTIVE & MINISTERIAL
j

IN RELATIO~ :·o PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION

' •
• 0 N ln. J U LY I 946

!
I
EMTAGE
r--------- nCJ •
PERCEMTAGE OF POPULATION .S PER CEMSUS 18~1 - - - - - - - - -
•

.. r--

'
•

•
•

- -

"1-- •

:
" ~~-------------------------------~-----
• •

• UliiUII •UULIUU LI.UYUI

•
•• •••
IUIUUU i
UIIUI IAUUIJI.U Ulnd IIUTJIYU UI.I,.IIUI ¥11WAU.ItNd IIPPlll IMICIATIIAI
!ll.lloorlll
•
COMMUNITIES
 \...
3. Boft'll:Y<

4. Himachal Prad~
1.::>~
5. Hyderabad
2. Shrima'\~~ - - - ...__
1. Shrimati La:-tSh.tnibai. .
6. Kutch 2. Dr. V aghjib:lai Solanki
.
7. Madras
1. Miss T. M. Anantana::aki
Anlmal.
2. Shri Swaya:npraka.<am. M.LA.
8. Mysore 1. Shri A. Bbe;mappa Nillt. ~.:.....:\

2. Shrimati ln.fitamma
9. Orissa 1. Shri Umach.rran Das.
10. Saurashtra -1 Shri Maldeiji'Jhai M. Ocieci.ra.
ML.A.
11. Uttar Pradesh 1. Shri R K. Ma~·a.

12. Vindhya Pradesh 1. Shri Sbambhu Nath Kahn.

13. Tripura 1. Shri Shibcharan Tantl.
2. Kumari Rani Singh.

~I