PART IV –REFUSE DISPOSAL

WASTE: Waste are unwanted or unusable materials. Waste is any substance which is discarded after primary
use, or is worthless, defective and of no use. As defined under the Environment Protection Act 1993, Waste
means — Any discarded, rejected, abandoned, unwanted or surplus matter, whether or not intended for sale or
for recycling, reprocessing, recovery or purification by a separate operation from that which produced the
matter.
SOLID WASTE

 It is defined as non-liquid, non-soluble materials ranging from municipal garbage to industrial wastes
that contain complex & sometimes hazardous substances
 solid waste includes solid or semi-solid domestic waste, sanitary waste, commercial waste, institutional
waste, catering and market waste and other non-residential wastes, street sweepings etc. generated in
the area under the local authorities and other entities.
COMPOSITION OF SOLID WASTE
 The composition of solid waste means the different types of waste material that it consists of and their
characteristics.
 Composition of municipal solid waste in typical Indian cities are
 food and garden waste -50%
 paper-27%
 inert-15%
 textiles-65
 glass and ceramics-5%
 plastic and rubber-4%
 metal-3%
 from this total organic fraction -40%, combustible fraction-37%, inert - 15% and recyclable - 8%
 chemical composition found in the solid wastes showed high moisture content, high ash and inorganic
contents and comparatively low nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

 Solid Waste Management is defined as the discipline associated with control of generation, storage,
collection, transport or transfer, processing and disposal of solid waste materials.
 Solid waste management includes planning, administrative, financial, engineering and legal functions in
the process of solving problems arising from waste materials.
 The primary goal of solid waste management is reducing and eliminating adverse impacts of waste
materials on human health and environment to support economic development and superior quality of
life.
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF THE WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Functional Elements of Solid Waste Management System comprises of
six basic elements including:
1. Generation of the solid waste
2. On-site handling & storage
3. Collection
4. Transfer & transport
5. Processing and recovery
6. Disposal
1. SOLID WASTE GENERATION
 Those activities in which materials are identified as no longer being of value and are either thrown away
or gathered together for disposal.
 Solid wastes include all solid or semisolid material that has no longer considered of sufficient value to
be retained.
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  Knowledge of generation of solid waste is important in the planning, designing and operation of solid
waste management system.
 Generation has two aspects: One is the quality of solid waste and the other is the quantity of solid waste.
Quality includes the sources, types and typical composition of solid waste along with its properties
whereas the quantity represents the generation rates and total quantities and volumes of waste
generated.
THE TERM SOLID WASTES INCLUDE
• Garbage (food wastes).
• Rubbish (paper, plastics, wood, metal, glass etc.).
• Demolition products (bricks, masonry, pipes).
• Sewage treatment residues (sludge & solids from the coarse screening of domestic sewage).
• Dead animals, manure and other discarded materials.
DIFFERENT SOURCES OF SOLID WASTE:

Residential Food wastes, paper,

cardboard, plastics,
textiles, leather, yard
wastes, wood, glass,
metals, ashes, special
wastes.

Industrial Housekeeping wastes,

packaging, food wastes,
construction and
demolition materials,
hazardous wastes, ashes,
special wastes.

Commercial Paper, cardboard, plastics,

wood, food wastes, glass,
metals, special wastes,
hazardous wastes.

Institutional Same as commercial.

Construction and Wood, steel, concrete,

demolition dirt, etc.

Municipal services Street sweepings;

landscape and tree
trimmings; general wastes
from parks, beaches, and
other recreational areas;
sludge.

Process (manufacturing, Industrial process wastes,

etc.) scrap materials, off-
specification products,
slay, tailings.

Agriculture Spoiled food wastes,

agricultural wastes,
hazardous wastes (e.g.,
pesticides).

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2. ON-SITE HANDLING & STORAGE
 Those activities associated with the handling, storage and processing of solid waste wastes at or near
the point of generation.
 On-site handling: On-site handling refers to the activities associated with the handling of solid wastes
until they are placed in the containers used for their storage before collection. It may also be required
to move loaded containers to the collection point and to return the empty containers to the point where
they are stored between collections.
 The specific activities associated with handling waste materials at the source of generation will vary
depending on the types of waste materials that are separated for reuse and recycling and the extent to
which these materials are separated from the waste stream.
 On-site storage: The factors that mast be considered in the on-site storage of solid wastes include
 1- Type of containers.
 2- The container location.
 3- Public health and aesthetics.
 4- The collection method.
 Methods of storage
 Primary storage Most collection systems depend on some kind of set-out container.
 The choice of set-out container has an important effect on collection effectiveness. Containers like
baskets or paper bags allow waste to have contact with air, thus promoting decomposition while
discouraging the formation of anaerobic odours.
 This is usually a paper or plastic bag, or a metal or plastic garbage can, pots, cane or reed baskets
 In some places, waste is stored in a pit in front of the house while awaiting collection.
 In other places, any type of container can be used to store or organise waste.
 Storage containers are often insufficient and waste is simply piled up or heaped in the street or on the
ground to await collection.
 The containers may fall under either of the following two categories:
 (i) Stationary containers: These are used for contents to be transferred to collection
 vehicles at the site of storage.
 (ii) Hauled containers: These are used for contents to be directly transferred to a processing plant,
transfer station or disposal site for emptying before being returned to the storage site.
 The desirable characteristics of a well-designed container are low cost, size, weight, shape, resistance to
corrosion, water tightness, strength and durability.
 The galvanized steel dust bin with close fitting cover is a suitable receptacle for storing refuse. The
capacity of a bin will depend upon the number of users and frequency of collection.
 Public Bins - They are kept on a concrete platform raised 2 to 3 inches above ground level to prevent
flood water entering the bins. In bigger municipalities, the bins are handled and emptied mechanically
by lorries fitted with cranes.
 Use containers (buckets, plastic bins, metal bins, plastic bags) with or without lids
 Containers without lids can store the waste only for a day; not beyond
 Capacity 15 lit for a family of 5 members.
 Have two containers: one for biodegradable wastes and the other for recyclables
 Domestic haz. wastes should be dealt separately.
 In newer residential areas, containers are placed by the side or rear of the house.
 In old residential areas containers are placed in alleys. In high rise apartments storage containers are
located in a basement or ground-floor service area.
3. COLLECTION
 Those activities associated with the gathering of solid wastes and the hauling wastes after collection to
the location where the collection vehicle is emptied.
 collection of solid waste from its various sources or from communal storage facilities, and transportation
of this waste to the place of final disposal. It also considers all activities related to loading of waste into
collection vehicles, and unloading of waste from collection vehicles at communal collection points,
processing places, transfer stations and final disposal sites.

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 Primary Collection: collection of solid waste from the source of generation and transportation of waste
to the final disposal site, but more often it involves transportation to communal collection bins or points,
processing or transfer station
 Secondary Collection: collection of waste from communal bins, storage points or transfer station, and
transportation to the final disposal site
 Collections were made by:
 Municipal/ District Council
 Private firm under contract to municipal
 Private firm contract with private residents
 Basic Collection Scheme
 Based on the availability of service
1. Communal system: containers/collection points are located in a public place.
2. Block Collection: Waste generators are responsible for bringing their waste to collection vehicles
3. Kerbside/alley: Waste generators place the waste containers or bags (sacks) on the kerb or in the alley
on a specific day (or specific days) for collection by external actors.
4. Door to door collection: domestic users are required to leave their waste fractions directly outside
their houses in a place clearly visible and reachable by collection operators. This is more common in
industrialized countries
 Based on mode of operation
1. Hauled Container System: An empty storage container (known as a drop-off box) is hauled to
the storage site to replace the container that is full of waste, which is then hauled to the
processing point, transfer station or disposal site.
2. Stationary Container System: In this system, containers used for the storage of waste remain at
the point of collection. The collection vehicles generally stop alongside the storage containers,
and collection crews load the waste from the storage containers into the collection vehicles and
then transport the waste to the processing, transfer or disposal site.
4. TRANSFER & TRANSPORT
 Those activities associated with the transfer of wastes from the smaller collection vehicle to the larger
transport equipment and the subsequent transport of the wastes, usually over a long distance to the
disposal site.
 Primary collection vehicles
1. Wheelbarrow: Only suitable for taking waste from households to a communal collection point.
2. Hand-cart: The additional wheels mean that this is more stable than the wheelbarrow and it is
easier to move over longer distances.
3. Cycle cart: Can collect up to 3 m3 and transport the waste to a communal bin or transfer station.
4. Tractor: A tractor has much higher costs than the above options, but can transport up to 4 m3
of waste for distances up to around 20 km to disposal sites or transfer stations.
 Secondary collection vehicles
1. Truck fitted with bin lifter: A robust vehicle that can travel on rough roads. Suitable for
transferring or collecting communal bins from residential and commercial areas.
2. Enclosed light truck: A waste collection tipper box fitted to a conventional vehicle chassis. Useful
for emptying street-side litter and communal residential waste bins.
3. Flatbed crane truck: Useful for collecting skips from transfer stations, markets and industrial
areas. Fitted with its own crane for loading and unloading.
4. Compactor: The most expensive collection/transfer vehicle. Only suitable for collecting low-
density waste in large quantities where road conditions are good.
 A transfer station is an intermediate station between final disposal and collection point to increase the
efficiency of the system.
 Transfer stations are used to accomplish the transfer of solid wastes from collection and other small
vehicles to larger transport equipment.
 Depending on the method used to load the transport vehicles, transfer stations may be classified into
three general types;

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 1. Direct-Discharge: The wastes in the collection vehicles are emptied directly into the vehicle to
be used to transport them to a place of final disposal area. Used normally in the small
communities.
2. Storage- Discharge: The wastes are emptied into storage area from which they are loaded into
transport vehicles by auxiliary equipment. Then will be transfer to the final disposal sites. It is
useful for the large communities.
3. Combined of storage and direct Discharge: in some transfer station both methods are used to
serve a broad range of users. In addition, it houses a material salvage operation. Health, safety,
and environmental requirements are needed in the transportation of solid waste.
Collection vehicle routing
 Efficient routing and re-routing of solid waste collection vehicles can help decrease costs by reducing
the labour expended for collection
 minimizing the distance of transport • minimizing the time of transport • minimizing the pollution during
transportation • minimizing the traffic jams and other inconveniences.
5. PROCESSING AND RECOVERY

 Those techniques, equipment and facilities used both to improve the efficiency of the other functional
elements and to recover usable materials, conversion products or energy from solid wastes.
 Separation of solid waste could be at the source or at the final stage before disposal of the solid waste.
 Chemical and biological transformation processes are used to reduce the volume and weight of waste
requiring disposal.
 It is very important to separate the recyclable materials to reduce the volume of the waste disposal.
 Types of separation depend on the types of solid waste. Such as:
1. Density separation: air classification is the unit operation used to separate light materials such
as paper and plastic from the heavier materials such as ferrous metal, based on the weight
difference of the material in an air stream.
2. Magnetic separation: magnetic separation is a unit operation whereby ferrous metals are
separated from other waste materials by utilizing their magnetic properties.
 After source reduction, the recovery of materials for recycling and composting is the next important
component of integrated SWM program.
 Recycling include activities such as refilling bottles for reuse and remanufacturing products for resale to
consumers but it is better to use the term recycling only when materials are collected and used as raw
materials for new products.
 The process of recycling includes collecting recyclables, separating them by type, processing them into
new forms that are sold to manufacturers, and finally, purchasing and using goods made by reprocessed
materials.
6. DISPOSAL
 Those activities associated with ultimate disposal of solid wastes including those waste collected and
transported directly to the landfill site, semisolid waste from waste water treatment plants, incinerator
residue, compost or other substances from various solid waste processing plants that are of no further
use.
THE PRINCIPAL METHODS OF REFUSE DISPOSAL ARE: -
 Dumping
 Controlled tipping or sanitary land-fill
 Incineration
 Composting
 Manure pits
 Burial
 Pyrolysis
 Pulverisation

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 DUMPING
 Refuse is dumped in low lying areas partly as a method of reclamation of land but mainly as an easy
method of disposal of dry refuse.
 As a result of bacterial action, refuse decreases considerably in volume and is converted gradually into
humus.
 dumping is a most insanitary method that creates public health hazards, a nuisance, and severe pollution
of the environment". Dumping should be outlawed and replaced by sound procedures.
 CONTROLLED TIPPING
 In this process, the waste that cannot be reused or recycled are separated out and spread as a thin layer
in low-lying areas across a city. A layer of soil is added after each layer of garbage. However, once this
process is complete, the area is declared unfit for construction of buildings for the next 20 years. Instead,
it can only be used as a playground or a park.
 Controlled tipping or sanitary landfill is the most satisfactory method of refuse disposal where suitable
land is available. It differs from ordinary dumping in that the material is placed in a trench or other
prepared area, adequately compacted, and covered with earth at the end of the working day
 Each layer is sealed on its exposed surface with a mud cover at least 30 cm (12 inches) thick. Such sealing
prevents infestation by flies and rodents and suppresses the nuisance of smell and dust. This method
often has the disadvantage of requiring supplemental earth from outside sources.
 INCINERATION

 Incineration is the process of controlled combustion of garbage to reduce it to incombustible matter

such as ash and waste gas.
 The exhaust gasses from this process may be toxic, hence it is treated before being released into the
environment.
 This process reduced the volume of waste by 90 per cent and considered as one of the most hygienic
methods of waste disposal.
 The volume and weight of the waste are reduced to a fraction of its original size.
 Waste reduction is immediate, does not require long term residence.
 Waste can be incinerated on site without carted to a distant area.
 In some cases, the heat generated is used to produce electricity. However, some consider this process
not quite environmentally friendly due to the generation of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide
and carbon monoxide.
 It is the method of choice where suitable land is not available.
 Hospital refuse which is particularly dangerous is best disposed of by incineration.
 Incineration is not a popular method in India because the refuse contains a fair proportion of fine ash
which makes the burning difficult.
 Well trained personnel required • Energy consumption is high. • Equipment and operation costs are
high. The capital cost is high.
 Skilled operators are required. All materials are not incinerable.
 COMPOSTING
 It is a process of nature whereby organic matter breaks down under bacterial action resulting in the
formation of relatively stable humus-like material, called the compost which has considerable manurial
value for the soil.
 The principal by products are carbon dioxide, water and heat.
 The heat produced during composting - 60 deg C or higher, over a period of several days- destroys eggs
and larvae of flies, weed seeds and pathogenic agents.
 The end-product compost contains few or no disease producing organisms, and is a good soil builder
containing small amounts of the major plant nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates.
 The following methods of composting are now used:
1. Bangalore method (Anaerobic method)
2. Mechanical composting (Aerobic method)

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 MECHANICAL COMPOSTING
 Aerobic method/ Indore method
 Compost is manufactured on large scale.
 The refuse is first cleared of salvable materials such as rags, bones, metal glass, items which are
rendered to interfere in grinding.
 It is then pulverized in pulverizing equipment in order to reduce size of the particle to less than 2 inches.
 The pulverized refuse is then mixed with sewage, sludge or night soil in a rotating machine and
incubated.
 The entire process of composting is complete in 4-6 weeks.
 VERMICOMPOSTING
 Municipal solid waste is highly organic in nature, so vermicomposting has become an appropriate
alternative for the safe, hygienic and cost effective disposal of it.
 In this method earthworms feed on the organic matter present in the solid waste and convert into
casting (ejected matter) rich in plant nutrients.
 BIOGAS TECHNOLOGY
 Biodegradable waste, such as food items, animal waste or organic industrial waste from food packaging
industries are sent to bio-degradation plants. In bio-degradation plants, they are converted to biogas by
degradation with the help of bacteria, fungi, or other microbes. Here, the organic matter serves as food
for the micro-organisms. The degradation can happen aerobically (with oxygen) or anaerobically
(without oxygen). Biogas is generated as a result of this process, which is used as fuel, and the residue
is used as manure.
 Animal dung along with human wastes can be effectively used for biogas generation through on-site
biogas plant linked with toilet.
 MANURE PITS
 Manure pits is the best method of refuse disposal by individual house holders.
 The garbage, cattle dung, straw and leaves should be dumped into the manure pits. 58
 Two such pits will be needed, when one is closed, the other will be in use. In 5 to 6 months’ time, the
refuse is converted into manure which can be returned to the field. This method of refuse disposal is
effective and relatively simple in rural communities.
 BURIAL
 This method is suitable for small camps.
 A trench 1.5cm wide and 2 m deep is excavated and at end of each day the refuse is covered with 20 -
30 cm of earth
 PYROLYSIS
 This is method of solid waste management whereby solid wastes are chemically decomposed by heat
without presence of oxygen. This usually occurs under pressure and at temperatures of up to 430
degrees Celsius. The solid wastes are changed into gasses, solid residue and small quantities of liquid.
 Simple. Low cost technology. Capable of processing a wide variety of feedstock's producing gases, bio-
oil, biochemical & charcoal. Reduces greenhouse gas emissions and waste going to landfill.
 Low risk of water pollution. Low risk of odours. High recovery rate of resources. Minimal risk of health
consequences. Commercially proven technology.
 Technology is still evolving. Market are yet to be developed for char product and pyrolysis liquid.
 PULVERISATION
 Dry refuse is simply pulverised into powder form changing its chemical composition. The powder thus
formed may be used as a manure.it is uneconomical if there is no steady demand for such fertiliser.
 RECOVERY AND RECYCLING
 Recycling or recovery of resources is the process of taking useful but discarded items for next use.
Traditionally, these items are processed and cleaned before they are recycled. The process aims at
reducing energy loss, consumption of new material and reduction of landfills.

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  IMPORTANCE OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT:
 Unsanitary conditions due to accumulation of the Solid wastes
 Epidemic outbreaks
 Decomposition and putrefaction may occur
 Intolerable odours.
 Greatly reduces the risk of the spread of disease.
METHODS OF RECYCLING

 Recycling is the process of recovering material from waste and turning it into new products. The original
product is destroyed in this process, usually through a melting process, but it used to form new products.
 Recycling means treating the materials as valuable resources rather than as waste. It is evident waste
recycling is the key to the effective preservation of natural resources and energy.
 Recycling includes the collection, sorting, marketing, and processing, of materials removed from the
solid waste stream, and the transformation or remanufacture of those materials for use as feedstock
for new products and/or other productive uses.
 An important fact can be that recycling reduces the amount of waste which goes to landfills.
 Recycling includes the following four steps:
 Step 1: Collection. There are several methods for collecting recyclables, including: ...
 Step 2: Processing. ...
 Step 3: Manufacturing. ...
 Step 4: Purchasing Recycled-Content Products.
Waste recycling has some significant advantages.
1. It leads to less utilization of raw materials.
2. reduces environmental impacts arising from waste treatment and disposal.
3. makes the surroundings cleaner and healthier.
4. saves on landfill space.
5. saves money.
6. reduces the amount of energy required to manufacture new products.
7. In fact, recycling can prevent the creation of waste at the source.
Waste Paper and Cardboard

 The process of waste paper recycling most often involves mixing used/old paper with water and
chemicals to break it down. It is then chopped up and heated, which breaks it down further into strands
of cellulose, a type of organic plant material; this resulting mixture is called pulp, or slurry.
 It is strained through screens, which remove plastic (especially from plastic-coated paper) that may still
be in the mixture then cleaned, de-inked (ink is removed), bleached, and mixed with water.
 Then it can be made into new recycled paper.
Plastic Recycling
 Broadly, there are two major ways to recycle plastic:
 (1) mechanical recycling: where the plastic is washed, ground into powders and melted
 (2) chemical recycling, where the plastic is broken down into monomers.
 Before recycling, most plastics are sorted according to their resin type.
 By using various sorting systems to identify the resin, ranging from manual sorting and picking of plastic
materials to automated mechanical processes that involve shredding, sieving, separation by density, air,
liquid, or magnetic, some plastic products are also separated by color before they are recycled.
 After sorting, for mechanical recycling the plastic recyclables are then shredded.
 These shredded fragments then undergo processes to eliminate impurities like paper labels.
 This material is melted and often extruded into the form of pellets which are then used to manufacture
other products.
 The highest quality purification may be referred to as "regeneration".

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Metal Recycling

 All grades of non-ferrous and ferrous metal are recyclable for future use.
 Before the metals are recycled, metals get sorted in our materials recycling facility (MRF) where they
are separated into ferrous and non-ferrous types. Ferrous metal includes Iron and Steel; non-ferrous
includes aluminium, copper, stainless steel, brass etc.
 To allow further processing, metals are shredded. Shredding is done to promote the melting process as
small shredded metals have a large surface to volume ratio.
 Scrap metal is melted in a large furnace. Each metal is taken to a specific furnace designed to melt that
particular metal. A considerable amount of energy is used in this step.
 Purification is done to ensure the final product is of high quality and free of contaminants. One of the
most common methods used for purification is Electrolysis.
 After purification, melted metals are carried by the conveyor belt to cool and solidify the metals. In this
stage, scrap metals are formed into specific shapes such as bars that can be easily used for the
production of various metal products.
 Once the metals are cooled and solidified, they are ready to use. They are then transported to various
factories where they are used as raw material for the production of brand new products.
E-waste Recycling (Electronic Devices)
 WEEE recycling is for the waste of electrical and electronic equipment recycling, which is nearly
everything that is powered by a battery or plug such as computers, mobile phones and TVs.
 Recycling of electronic goods is a specialist part of the waste and recycling industry aiming to prevent
electrical items sent to landfill.
 Proper or formal e-waste recycling usually involves disassembling the electronics, separating and
categorizing the contents by material and cleaning them.
 Items are then shredded mechanically for further sorting with advanced separation technologies.
 E-waste recyclers use processes such as open incineration and acid-leeching.
Wood Recycling
 Wood is the ultimate renewable material because of its number of different uses. Wood can be reused
as a building material, recycled into mulch for landscaping and, even low-grade wood is useful because
it can be used for fuel to generate environmentally friendly energy.
 Recycling can recover all types of uncontaminated timber. Wood grades include such items as timber
pallets, timber boxes, floorboards, chipboard, fencing, plywood, furniture etc.
Glass Recycling

 Glass is 100% recyclable and never loses any purity or quality when it's recycledGlass should be as clean
and contaminant-free as possible for recycling. Grades include such items as bottles, jars, windows,
drinking glasses, computer screens etc.
 The glass is sorted by colour and washed to remove any impurities. The glass is then crushed and melted,
then moulded into new products
Clothing and Textile
 Rags are collected and sent to the wiping and flocking industry.
 Other materials will be sent for fibre reclamation and stuffing.
 Fibres from the old fabrics are reclaimed and are used for making new garments.
 Threads from the fabric is pulled out and used for re-weaving new garments or blankets.
Construction & Demolition Debris

 Bricks can also be cleaned and reused in another building or project.

 Alternatively, they can be crushed into brick chips for use as a landscape material.
 crushed to produce various grades of aggregates to be reused on construction sites.

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  Much of this waste is recoverable, and can be reclaimed, reused, or recycled. If collected mixed,
processing is required to separate the material components and render them suitable for marketing.
Materials can also be source separated on site, which reduces the need for processing, and facilitates
re-use and recycling.
Organic waste recycling
 Composting is the process of decomposition of organic material where the organic material is acted on
by soil organisms resulting in the recycling of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and other soil nutrients
into humus-rich components.
 Due to the negative impacts of landfilling and incineration, anaerobic digestion has been proposed due
to the cost-effective technology for renewable energy production and treatment of high moisture and
energy-rich material.
 Rendering is the process of conversion of waste animal tissues into stable and usable forms like feed
protein.
Batteries – This type of recycling can be very difficult; all batteries must be sorted into groups of similar kinds
and require. Older batteries contain cadmium and mercury, which are very harmful and must be handled very
carefully.
EFFECTIVE IMPLEMENTATION OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
 Waste Prevention: The best way of dealing
with waste, both economically and
environmentally, is to avoid creating it in the
first place. For effective waste management,
waste minimization, reuse, recycle and
energy recovery are more sustainable than
conventional landfill or dumpsite disposal
technique.
 Waste minimization: Waste minimization is
the process of reducing the amount of waste
produced by a person or a society. In many
cases, wastes cannot be outright eliminated from a variety of processes. However, numerous strategies
can be implemented to reduce or minimize waste generation.
 Reuse: Reuse means using an item more than once. This includes conventional reuse where the item is
used again for the same function and new-life reuse where it is used for a new function. For example,
concrete is a type of construction waste which can be recycled and used as a base for roads.
 Recycling: Recycling of waste involves reprocessing the particular waste materials, including e-waste, so
that it can be used as raw materials in another process. This is also known as material recovery. A well-
known process for recycling waste is composting, where biodegradable wastes are biologically
decomposed leading to the formation of nutrient-rich compost. Common recycled materials include
paper, plastics, glass, aluminum, steel, and wood. Additionally, many construction materials can be
reused, including concrete, asphalt materials, masonry, and reinforcing steel.
 Energy recovery: Energy recovery from waste is the conversion of non-recyclable waste materials into
useable heat, electricity, or fuel through a variety of processes, including combustion, gasification,
pyrolization, anaerobic digestion, and landfill gas (LFG) recovery. This process is often called waste-to-
energy (WTE). Converting non-recyclable waste materials into electricity and heat generates a
renewable energy source and reduces carbon emissions. After energy is recovered, approximately ten
percent of the volume remains as ash, which is generally sent to a landfill.
 Disposal: Prior to disposal, treatment can help reduce the volume and toxicity of waste. Treatments can
be physical (e.g., shredding), chemical (e.g., incineration), and biological (e.g., anaerobic digestor).
Landfills are the most common form of waste disposal and are an important component of an integrated
waste management system.

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  The four R’s • Reduce- Minimize waste generation. By reducing, consumer and industry can save natural
resources and reduce waste management costs/ • Reuse- Maximize the reuse of a product. Damaged
items can be repaired and reused. • Recovery- Energy or material can be recovered from waste that are
not reused or recycled. • Recycle- Maximize the recycling of a product. Turns materials into different
resources.
MAJOR ISSUES INVOLVED IN SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
 Production of too much waste
 Most of the waste is toxic.
 Landfills are a problem as well
 inadequate landfill disposal.
 Landfills pollute groundwater while incinerators cause air pollution
 Environment Surface water contamination.
 Rotten debris produces methane, which is a potentially explosive gas.
 groundwater pollution.
 Unscientific treatment
 improper collection of waste
 environmental degradation.
 Environmental problems are associated with human health disorder, due to the increase in greenhouse
gas emissions.
 inadequate service coverage: In other words, developing countries frequently suffer from the lack of
human resources with technical expertise necessary for solid waste management planning and
operation.
 operational inefficiencies of services,
 limited utilization of recycling activities
 inadequate management of non-industrial hazardous waste
 It is expensive. In many cities, waste disposal is the second largest expenditure after education.
 Aluminum cans and other metals when recycled could be a valuable resource. Throwing away these
resources thus cause the exploitation of more resources.
 Incinerators that burn plastics and other materials containing chlorine emit a dangerous class of
compounds called Dioxins that have been linked to cancer and weakens the immune system.
 Some of the technologies marked as “green” are not true in actual sense.
REFUSE

 Refuse refers to any disposable materials, which includes both recyclable and non-Recyclable Materials.
This term is often interchangeably with Waste, but refuse is a broad, overarching term that applies to
anything that is leftover after it is used, while waste only refers to leftovers that cannot be recycled.
 Liquid or Solid Household Waste. This can be called 'municipal waste' or 'black bag waste' and is the type
of general household rubbish
1. Hazardous Waste
2. Medical/Clinical Waste
3. Electrical Waste (E-Waste)
4. Recyclable Waste
5. Construction & Demolition Debris
6. Green Waste.

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IMPORTANCE OF SEGREGATING DRY AND WET GARBAGE
 waste segregation is the separation of wet waste and dry waste.
 Segregating waste into different categories makes it easier to realise its recycling potential. Dry waste
such as metal, aluminium foils, glass, fabric/textiles, Tetra Pak, and plastics, are non-biodegradable but
can be recycled to create new products. Organically compostable items such as stale food, fruits,
vegetable peels, flower waste, etc. fall under the wet waste category and can be converted into compost
or biogas when managed the right way.
 The generation of waste is unavoidable, and the materials carried in this waste impacts human and
environmental health.
 Naturally, waste management is something that must be carried out, and one way to do this meticulous
segregation of wet and dry waste, so that dry waste can be recycled and wet waste can be composted.
 When we segregate waste, there is reduction of waste that reaches landfills and occupies space. Air and
water pollution rates are considerably reduced, and makes it easier to apply different processes
composting, recycling and incineration can be applied to different kinds of waste.
 Waste management starts at the household level, and is not that difficult to achieve. Even a few minor
changes can go a long way.
 Firstly, have two garbage disposal bins at home, one for dry waste and one for wet waste.
 It is important to make sure that wet waste is thrown out of the house on a daily basis.
 Dry waste can be discarded twice or thrice a week.
 When you decide to invest in sustainable dry and wet waste management, you contribute to the
reduction of:
1. Harmful greenhouse gas emissions
2. Waste added to landfills
3. Air, water, soil pollution
4. Toxic gas explosions in landfills
5. Exploitation of workers and child-labourers
6. segregate the waste and source materials for recycling/composting.
7. create eco-friendly consumer products out of solid waste that serve as a great alternative to non-
biodegradable commodities or harmful fertilisers.
CONCEPT OF 3R’S REDUCE, REUSE, RECYCLE
The 3r’s of waste management means exercising measures that help reduce, reuse and recycle wastes.
Importance of the 3r’s of Waste Management
1. The importance of 3r’s of waste management elements is to help.
2. Cut down on the waste disposals.
3. Conserve natural resources, landfill spaces, and energy.
4. Save land and money that communities use to manage wastes.
5. Reduce air pollution and contribute to a healthier planet.
 Reduce means to cut back on the amount of trash we generate.
 Reuse means to find new ways to use things that otherwise would have been thrown out.
 Recycle means to turn something old and useless (like plastic milk jugs) into something new and useful
(like picnic benches, playground equipment and recycling bins).
 REDUCE
 In the first instance, reduction gives priority to preventing waste as a basic step.
 Reduced waste means less material to process, i.e. prepare it for reuse, recycling, recovery and disposal.
 Reduction/prevention may include;
a) Using less material in design and manufacture.
b) Consuming only what is needed, avoiding pointless purchases. Sharing rarely-used items.
c) Keeping products for longer.
d) Buying only products that can be reused.
e) Hire or lease items.
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 f) Buy products with no or minimal packaging.
g) Regular maintenance can extend the lifecycle of a product hence lower the need for new material.
 REUSE
 Checking cleaning, repairing, refurbishing, whether whole items or parts.
 Reusing items such as carrier bags, envelopes, newspaper, cardboard, bubble wrap, jars, pots, old
clothes, packaging, tyres, used wood and building materials and so on.
 Buying a wide range of products from clothes to building materials at specialist recycling centres.
 Reusing containers.
 Maintaining and repairing products as far as possible, eg, clothes, tyres, bricks, roof slates
 Regular maintenance.
 Reusing surplus material from other organisations.
Benefits of Reducing and Reusing
 Prevents pollution caused by reducing the need to harvest new raw materials
 Saves energy
 Reduces greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to global climate change
 Helps sustain the environment for future generations
 Saves money
 Reduces the amount of waste that will need to be recycled or sent to landfills and incinerators
 Allows products to be used to their fullest extent
 RECYCLE
 Recycling is the process of converting waste or old materials into new or fresh materials and objects.
Recycling can prevent or built the waste of potentially useful materials (or in simple language built new
one from older) and reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, thereby reducing: energy usage, air
pollution (from incineration), and water pollution (from land filling).
 The benefits include:
a) Reduced waste sent to landfill.
b) Conserves natural resources.
c) Less pollution from lower levels of extraction and manufacturing activities.
d) May create employment opportunities.
REFUSE CHUTE CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING
 Refuse chute is a mean of transporting waste Materials by chute, from the point of disposal in High rise
residential or office building to a diffuse Collection room at the base of the chute.
 Refuse chute transporting and collecting the refuse from flats at different heights.
 The refuse is received from the successive flats through the inlets located on the vertical system of pipes
that convey refuse through it and discharges into the collecting chamber from where the refuse is
cleared at suitable intervals.
 Components of garbage chute are, the inlet hopper (flap opening), the collection chamber (wheel
container is placed in a chamber for collection of waste for periodic removal) and vent at top.
 Main Components • Chute—A vertical pipe system passing from floor to floor provided with ventilation
and inlet openings, for receiving refuse from successive flats and ending at the ground floor on the top
of the collecting chamber. • Inlet Hopper—A receptacle fitting for receiving refuse from each flat and
dropping it into the chute. • Collection Chamber—A compartment situated at the lower end of the chute
for collecting and housing the refuse during the period between two successive clearings.
 CHUTES Number of Chutes— The number of chutes depends upon – the convenience to the user and –
the quantity of refuse to be handled between two subsequent clearings.
 Material of Construction— Chutes may be constructed out of – asbestos cement, – R.C.C. Pipe or –
Stainless steel with smooth inside finish.
 Diameter of the Pipe— Chutes shall be of a minimum internal diameter of 380mm Finish— The inside
surface of the chute-should be finished as smoothly as possible so as not to allow any sticking of refuse
particle that may cause choking eventually.

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 Location – The chute may be carried through service shafts meant for carrying drainage pipes. – The
location shall be mostly determined by the position of inlet hopper and the collecting chamber that is
most convenient for the user. – It should also be considered to locate the chute away from living rooms
in order to avoid noise and smell nuisance.
 Construction— The chute pipes should be assembled vertically, and-properly clamped to the wall. –
The joints should be of cement mortar arid the chute may be squarely embedded into the surrounding
walls.
 Ventilation— Natural ventilation should be adequate to prevent any possible odour nuisance. – The
upper end of the chute, that is, beyond the uppermost floor should be provided with a ventilation pipe
to the full bore which should rise 2 to 2.5 m above the roof or terrace of the building.
 Design and Construction— Hopper shall be constructed such that there should be minimum escape of
odour or any other vapour when the hopper door is kept open – The hopper flap shall not open inside
the chute pipe which might obstruct refuse coming from the top. – The door and the frame should be
fire- resistant. – Size of the Mouth and Throat—The mouth shall have a maximum size of 25 cm height
and 36 cm width. The throat should not be less than the size of the mouth. The diagonal of the mouth
should not be larger than the chute size. – Height of the Hopper—The hopper should be constructed at
a height of 75 cm measured from the floor level to the lower edge of the inlet opening. – Inner Surface—
The interior of the hopper should slope towards the main chute at an angle not less than 45° to 60 ° to
the horizontal for better performance. The inside finish should be as smooth as possible.
 COLLECTION CHAMBER
 Location— • The collection chamber shall be situated at ground level.
 Capacity— • If the refuse is discharged directly on the floor of the collection chamber, the capacity is
designed on the quantity of refuse expected from the chute between two consecutive clearings. • It may
be recommended to provide a minimum capacity of 0.054 m3/family or apartment per day.

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HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT

Hazardous waste is waste that has substantial or potential threats to public health or the environment.

Any product which is labelled WARNING, CAUTION, POISONOUS, TOXIC, FLAMMABLE, CORROSIVE, REACTIVE or
EXPLOSIVE should be considered hazardous. You can't treat hazardous wastes like other kinds of garbage. For
example, buried wastes can filter down through the soil and contaminate groundwater.

Hazardous-waste management, the collection, treatment, and disposal of waste material that, when improperly
handled, can cause substantial harm to human health and safety or to the environment.

Hazardous wastes can take the form of solids, liquids, sludges, or contained gases, and they are generated
primarily by chemical production, manufacturing, and other industrial activities.

They may cause damage during inadequate storage, transportation, treatment, or disposal operations. Improper
hazardous-waste storage or disposal frequently contaminates surface water and groundwater supplies as
harmful water pollution and can also be a source of dangerous land pollution.

Examples include drain cleaners, oil paint, motor oil, antifreeze, fuel, poisons, pesticides, herbicides and
rodenticides, fluorescent lamps, lamp ballasts, smoke detectors, medical waste, some types of cleaning
chemicals, and consumer electronics (such as televisions, computers, and cell phones).

HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT DEFINITION: Any residues or combination of residues other than
radioactive waste which by reason of its chemical reactivity or toxic, explosive, corrosive or other characteristics
causes potential hazard to human or environment, either alone or when in contact with other wastes and which
therefore cannot be handled, store, transported, treated or disposed of without special precautions.

SOURCES: • Inorganic &organic chemicals • Petroleum refineries • Iron & steel • Nonferrous metals • Leather
tanning • Metal finishing.

HAZARDOUS WASTE CLASSIFICATION: 1. IGNITABILITY -IGNITABLE WASTES 2. CORROSIVITY -CORROSIVE WASTE

3. REACTIVITY -REACTIVE WASTE 4. TOXICITY -TOXIC WASTE

TRANSPORTATION & STORAGE OF HW: The CRADLE TO GRAVE concept HW generated at source requires
movement by trucks to further. Requires serious care & attention while moving HW to be properly packed &
labelled for transport to ensure safe handling Storage facilities are used to store waste temporarily before
treatment & disposal.

HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT STRATEGY:

OBJECTIVES: 1. Waste minimization 2. Detoxification & neutralization of waste by treatments 3. Destruction of

combustible waste by incineration 4. Solidification of sludge & ash from steps from 2 & 3 5. Disposal of residues
in landfills.

1. Waste minimization: helps in resource conservation, economic efficiency & environmental protection. The
strategies include— source reduction, recycling and waste exchange

2. TREATMENT METHODS: Physical Chemical and biological treatment

Physical treatment: • Involves variety of separation techniques • Whenever a waste containing liquid & solid
must be treated. • Physical processes are • Screening, sedimentation, centrifugation, flotation, adsorption,
stripping and RO.

Chemical treatment: To make the complete breakdown of HW into nontoxic form and To reduce the hazard
of a particular waste Chemical methods are: Neutralization, precipitation, oxidation and reduction.

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Neutralization: carried out when the waste contains excessive amount of acid or alkali. • Chemical oxidation:
used to destroy toxic cyanide molecule with oxidising agents • Reduction: used in the conversion of hexa valent
chromium into trivalent chromium before it can be precipitated. • Anodic electrolysis: used for the destruction
of cyanide in spent stripping & plating solutions.

Biological treatment: Different types of microorganisms are used for degradation of specific compounds of HW
Some microbes found in soil & sewage sludge have been tested in the degradation of organic chemicals Tests
have been conducted to degrade PCBs using pseudomonas & flavour bacterium. Pseudomonas bacteria –
benzene, phenol, cresol.

INCINERATION: able to achieve 99.99% destruction & removal efficiency of hazardous components in waste.
Primary products are CO2, vapour & ash Sulphur bearing wastes gives off SO2, CO2, H2O when incinerated.
By products of incomplete combustion are sometimes more harmful. Two types of incinerators: liquid
injection system, rotary kilns.

Solidification or Stabilization: Convert the waste into an insoluble, rock hard material. Additive materials used
to reduce the mobility of pollutants in the waste. Certain materials like nickel cannot be destroyed or detoxified
by above methods. The residues that are left out are solidified to reduce the leachability.

DISPOSAL METHODS: The options for disposal include land disposal, underground disposal & deep well
injection. The choice of disposal method should be based on evaluation of economics & potential pollution
risks. To prevent environmental pollution from landfills, it is essential that site c/s are taken into account.

Hazardous Waste Control Measures 1. Source Reduction a) Technological Efficiency b) Material Substitute c)
Good Management Practice 2. Waste Avoidance 3. Waste Minimization 4. Water Recycling a) Direct Reuse b)
Reclamation 5. Waste Treatment 6. Waste Disposal

Hazardous Waste Treatment Methods

1. Physical Methods: a) Drying b) Screening c) Grinding d) Evaporation e) Sedimentation f) Filtration g) Fixation

2. Chemical Methods: a) Oxidation b) Reduction c) Neutralization d) Hydrolysis

3. Biological Methods a) Composting b) Aerobic and Anaerobic Decomposition c) Activated Sludge d) Enzyme
treatment 4. Thermal Methods a) Incineration b) Boiling c) Autoclaving d) UV Treatment e) Microwave Use

Hazardous Waste Disposal Methods

1. Land Farming: Treated waste can be used as a fertilizer or soil conditioner

2. Deep well Injection:

3. Surface Impediment: Encapsulation, Fixation, or containment of the waste. This method involves arresting or
demobilizing the movement or migration of waste by containing it in a hard core: clay soil, thermos plastic
polymers, non-corrosive metallic containers etc.

4. Ocean Dumping

METHODS OF CARRYING REFUSE

Following are the two methods which are employed for collection and disposal of refuse of a locality

 Conservancy system
 Water carriage system

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 Conservancy system Water carriage system
1. This system is referred to as a dry system 1. Water is used as a medium to convey the sewage.
2. Different types of refuse collected separately, and 2. Garbage is collected and conveyed as in case of
conservancy system. Storm water collected
then each type is carried and suitably disposed off.
separately or allowed to flow with sewage.
3. It does not permit compact design of structure 3. It permits compact design of structure
4. Lavatories are to be constructed separately from 4. Lavatories can be accommodated in any part of the
building.
the building.
5. It is laid below ground, hence it is not visible, but
5. It is laid above ground, hence it is visible, but non- hygienic.
hygienic. 6. Consumption of water is more
7. There is no chance putrefaction
6. Consumption of water is less
8. Come up basically as an urban system
7. There exists putrefaction 9. Only few laborers required
8. Considered as system for rural conditions 10. There is absence of segregation
9. Labour force required is much more 11. Initial cost is more
12. Maintenance cost is less
10. There is presence of segregation. 13. Require the help of skilled or technical personnel.
11. Initial cost is less 14. The area of land require for treatment plant and
12. Maintenance cost is more sewage disposal is smaller
15. Outbreak of epidemic is greatly reduced
13. Does not require the help of skilled or technical
16. Possibilities of underground water pollution is less
personnel. 17. Revenue from manure is less
14. The area of land require for disposal is more 18. City appears neat and clean
19. Transportation through closed conduits.
15. Outbreak of epidemic is possible
20. Universal technique of collection and transport of
16. Possibilities of underground water pollution is domestic or sanitary waste of community
more
17. Revenue from manure is more
18. City remains dirty and foul smelling
19. Transportation through trenches and trollies
20. Out of date at present for modern cities

SUBJECT PAGE NUMBER

TRAPS PAGE NUMBER 468
PIPES USD IN HOUSE DRAINAGE PAGE NUMBER 473
EARTHING PAGE NUMBER 82
PIPES USED IN CONVEYANCE OF WATER PAGE NUMBER 272
BIB COCK PAGE NUMBER 310
STOP COCK PAGE NUMBER 315
INDIAN AND EUROPEAN WATER CLOSET PAGE NUMBER 481
SEPTIC TANK PAGE NUMBER 655
GARBAGE DISPOSAL PAGE NUMBER 670
PRINCIPLES OF HOUSE DRAINAGE PAGE NUMBER 467
PRINCIPLES OF SANITATION PAGE NUMBER 341
SOME DEFITIONS( REFUSE) PAGE NUMBER 347
METHODS OF SLUDGE DISPOSAL PAGE NUMBER 622
SANITARY FITTINGS PAGE NUMBER 475
CESSPOOLS PAGE NUMBER 647

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