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Number 7
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Technical TheStructuralEngineer 41
CBDC series July 2014

Concrete
This series is authored
by the Concrete Bridge
Development Group (CBDG).

The group aims to

promote excellence in the

Bridge design, construction and

management of concrete
bridges. With a membership
that includes owners,
designers, academics,

Design and
contractors and suppliers, it
provides a focus for the use
of best practice, innovation,
training initiatives and
research and development.

Construction
Further information on the
CBDG can be found at:
www.cbdg.org.uk

series
No. 7: Concrete bridge
construction methods
— precast
Introduction
This month’s article from the CBDG’s Technical Committee examines
the precast construction methods for a bridge. It should be read in
conjunction with the previous article1, which described the various in
situ techniques. There are six basic types of precast concrete bridge:

• Standard precast inverted T/Y, I or U beams

• Bespoke precast T, I or U beams
• Precast segmental box girders with short segments  Figure 1
Standard precast SY beam

• Whole span precast box girders

• Incrementally launched box girders
• Modular precast system with short shell segments pre-tensioned, and are generally straight. Span to depth ratios for
highway bridges are typically 15-18, as the spans are often simply
These options are all used on projects where speed of supported. The spans can also be made continuous after erection, in
construction is crucial, or where the capital investment needed which case the ratio is closer to 20. This type of bridge represents a
for precasting is justified by a shorter programme or an easier very flexible solution that is good for any site, though it is best suited
construction process. Comparisons between in situ and precast to low-lying sites with good access.
methods were described in the first article in the series2. Precast Various types of standard precast beams have been discussed in
bridges are commonly produced at a rate of 20-25m/week, which is previous articles, along with details of how they are joined together
about twice the rate that can be achieved with most in situ solutions. to form either solid slabs, or beams and slabs4,5. For the beam and
Once there is sufficient length of bridge to justify further capital slab decks, the preferred arrangement in the UK is with Y, SY or U
investment, this rate can be increased to 50-100m/week. CBDG beams, spaced 1-2m apart with a top slab that is approx. 160mm
Technical Guide No. 5 gives general guidance on many of these thick (this thickness increases to 175-225mm for SY beams (Figure
production issues3. 1)). To maximise efficiency of the prestressing, beams should be
made as deep as possible and spaced far apart. Typical spans
Standard precast beam bridges for these beam and slab decks vary from 15-40m. Many other
These bridges utilise standard precast sections, which are cast countries have their own set of very similar precast beams.
in factories off site and then erected by cranes. They are ideal for The beams are produced in steel moulds with minimum
small to medium spans, ranging from 5-40m. The precast beams are web thicknesses of 160-200mm. De-bonding of some of the

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prestressing strands is often used at the

ends of the beams, so as not to either N Figure 2
Kingsway Canal
Bridge, UK: standard
overstress the bottom fibre or put tension precast beams
into the top fibre. Alternatively, further
strands or reinforcement can be added to
the top of the beam to control these effects.
The prestress and self-weight loads are
carried on the precast beam alone and all
E Figure 3
Two bespoke
precast beam types
other loads (finishes and traffic) are carried
on the composite section, i.e. including the
top slab. Beams weigh 5-60t and can be is good access for crane erection.
readily transported by low-loader.
Beams are erected as simple spans Bespoke precast beam bridges
(Figure 2), but are often then made These bridges utilise bespoke precast sections, which are cast
continuous to avoid the need for expansion either on or off site, and then erected by crane or gantry. They are
joints. In this case, an in situ stitch is formed ideal for medium spans, ranging from 30-60m. The precast beams
between the ends of the beams, making can be either pre-tensioned or post-tensioned, but either way, they
the structure monolithic. The hogging are generally straight. Span to depth ratios are also typically 15-18
moment tensions from the finishes and when the spans are simple, and closer to 20 with continuity. This
traffic loads are then carried in the top slab type of bridge represents a good solution for bigger spans, and with
reinforcement. Some bottom reinforcement crane erection, it is best suited to low-lying sites with good access.
is also required at the piers, as the creep Once gantries are used on the larger sites though, it suits any
of the prestressing secondary moment will location. With fewer webs, the sections are more efficient and have a
induce a sagging effect. This continuity is better aesthetic than standard precast beams.
often provided by lapping of the projecting These beam and slab decks use U, I or T beams, spaced 2-4m
lengths of prestressing strand, though apart with a top slab that is at least 200mm thick (Figure 3). With
reinforcement could also be used6. The post-tensioned beams, a significant shear relief is obtained from the
CBDG’s Technical Guide No. 137 provides inclined cables, allowing thinner webs to be used. Beams can be
a set of integral bridge calculations to 2-4m deep and weigh 60-200t. If cast on site, further facilities will
Eurocode 2. be required such as a casting shed and lifting equipment to move
The precasting of beams in a well- the beams to the storage area and to the bridge. The beams can be
controlled factory environment, and the erected as simple spans, in the same way as standard beams, with
simple casting of the deck slab, make this an in situ reinforced concrete stitch formed, if required, between
solution very effective. Construction can the ends of the beams to make them continuous. They can also
also be started at several locations at the be erected in balanced cantilever, with an in situ, post-tensioned
same time if needed, to further reduce the concrete stitch formed between the beam ends. Cranes can
programme. Overall, bridges of this nature accommodate beams to approx. 150t, but in the 100-200t range,
have low construction costs, provided there gantries would normally be required (Figure 4). However, gantries

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W Figure 4
Egea Bridge, Spain:
gantry-erected bespoke
beams

S Figure 5
Segments in storage:
A13 Viaduct, UK

can normally only be justified once the deck area is more than about
10 000m2. Such gantries need to lift the beams either from the
ground, or from the already completed deck, in order to lower them
into their correct position. These gantries would be supported on
the previously built deck and the existing piers. The in situ deck slab
is cast in the same way as with standard beams, or using temporary
formwork or precast concrete slabs as permanent, participating
shuttering.
The precasting of these bespoke beams and the simple casting of
the deck slab, also make this solution very effective, and the deck is
more economical than standard beams in terms of materials. Overall,
bridges of this nature have low construction costs, depending on the
degree of access and the amount of temporary works needed.

Precast segmental bridges

These bridges use short box sections, which are cast in a factory
on site and are erected either by crane or gantry. They are ideal new segment is cast between a fixed bulkhead and the previously
for medium to long spans, from 30-200m. The segments are post- cast segment, with the alignment being incorporated by small
tensioned and can accommodate any alignment or variation in depth. angular changes between these two segments. The casting process
Span to depth ratios for highway bridges are typically 16-22. For takes the form of a production line, with many activities taken off
variable depth schemes (spans over 60m), these ratios become 12-18 the critical path so as to guarantee the daily cycle. Reinforcement
at the piers and 25-40 at midspan. This type of bridge represents is fixed in a jig and the cage (including all prestressing ducts and
an excellent solution for large schemes, with deck areas more than anchorages) is then lifted into the mould as a single piece. Segments
10 000m2, where the investment in casting areas and erection are stored before being transported to the bridge, with the amount
equipment is justified. The aesthetics are very good, especially with of storage being dependent on the relative rates of casting and
variable depth girders and inclined webs. With crane erection, the erecting (Figure 5).
method is best suited to low-lying sites with good access, but once The erection methods depend on the available access to the site.
gantries are used, it suits any large site. Two main types of construction are widely used — span by span and
The sizing of the box has been described previously1, though the balanced cantilever. Span by span is used for 25-60m spans, with
minimum web thickness is now 300mm, as there is more control segments positioned on a gantry, while balanced cantilever is used
of concreting in the precast factory. Each 2-5m long segment is for 30-200m spans, with segments erected by crane, shear legs or
poured in one operation, typically on a daily cycle. Production rates gantry. If ground conditions permit, the simplest solution is to erect
can be very high, with cranes able to erect 2-4 segments per day all the segments using cranes (Figure 6). Sophisticated gantries
and gantries at least 4-6 segments per day. Overall, the typical then become economic for larger structures, with a total deck area
production rates are 30-50m/week, which is very fast and one of the of over 20 000m2. Gantries are supported on the previously built
major benefits of the method8,9. deck and the next pier location, and launch themselves forward
Segments are poured in steel moulds, each able to cast 200-300 to the next position. Construction concludes with any continuity
segments. Segment lengths vary, though around 3m is usual, and stitches, end span units and final prestressing. Creep occurs in any
widths can be tailored to suit the site. Typical weights are 25-75t configuration where the as-built moments are not the same as the
for segments closer to the piers, or with those having large blisters/ monolithic moments1. As there is no reinforcement across the joints,
deviators, being around 100-150t. Segments are match-cast against they are always designed as fully compressed under all SLS load
each other in the same sequence that they will be erected and thus combinations. In the UK currently, precast segmental schemes must
the geometry of the bridge is determined at the time of casting. Each use external cables10.

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The main advantage of precast segmental construction is the

use of segments that have been produced in controlled, factory
conditions, which are then quickly erected. The deck is very
economical in terms of materials, due to the excellent eccentric load
distribution and section efficiency of the box. At large sites therefore,
precast segmental schemes should deliver the most competitive
construction costs.

Whole span precast bridges

These bridges use precast whole span boxes, cast in a factory on
site, and erected by gantry or marine shear legs. They are ideal for
medium spans, typically from 30-60m, and are effectively a special
form of precast segmental construction. As they are commonly
simply-supported, span to depth ratios for highway bridges are
typically 16-18. This system is an excellent solution for the very
longest schemes, with deck areas more than 50-100,000m2, i.e.
bridges at least 5km long. They are best suited to either new railway
lines or marine causeways, where the scale of the project can justify
the huge investments required and where the very fastest production
rates are needed.
Most of the casting, transportation and erection issues noted
for the precast segmental method, also apply to whole span units;  Figure 6
Crane-erected pier segment: A13 Viaduct, UK
except that typical units weigh 600-2000t, not 50-100t! Steel
moulds are used to cast the whole span, generally in a single pour.
Alternatively, the bottom slab and webs can be cast first, followed Incrementally launched bridges
by the top slab. Either way, a whole span can usually be cast every These box bridges are generally cast on site behind one of the
two days. Though post-tensioning is the most common technique, abutments, and are then pushed or pulled out into their final position.
it is also possible to pre-tension the unit in the factory and to then They are ideal for constant depth, medium spans, typically 30-80m,
apply further post-tensioning once the unit has been put into storage which are straight or have a constant curvature, in both plan and
or erected. Gantries in the casting area are used to take the units elevation. Span to depth ratios for highway bridges are typically 15-
into storage. The units are then usually taken along the completed 18. Bridges should be at least 200m long with deck areas of at least
bridge deck on wheeled bogies or rail systems. Erection of the whole 3000m2, though maximum lengths of over 1000m are possible. The
span is then carried out by an overhead gantry or marine shear legs. aesthetics are good, especially when inclined webs are also used,
Typically, a span is erected every 1-2 days, giving production rates of and these bridges are best suited to any linear site where the cost of
at least 100m/week, which is the fastest achievable by any method. traditional falsework would be prohibitive.
The use of whole span precast units, which have been produced in The sizing of the box is as described previously, but the web
controlled, factory conditions, and which are then erected extremely thickness is kept to at least 400mm, as every section will experience
quickly, should deliver the most competitive construction costs for high shears during the launch. Webs should be positioned directly
the very longest bridge sites. above the temporary bearing locations, to ensure there are no
moments in the section during the launch9,11. The typical span for
launching is 40-50m, with maximum spans of about 80m, though
S Figure 7
Launching nose: Clackmannanshire Bridge, UK such spans will need temporary props during launch. The main
series of spans should, wherever possible, be of equal length. The
length of each unit to be cast is chosen to suit the particular span.
Typically, each 15-30m long unit is poured on a weekly cycle, though
it is possible to cast whole 40-50m spans on a two-weekly cycle. In
either case, the typical production rates are about 25m/week.
Plywood formwork could be used for smaller decks, but for larger
decks (over about 5000m2) steel moulds should be used. Generally,
the bottom slab and webs are cast first, followed by the top slab.
The typical weekly cycle begins on a Monday with the launching of
the unit, followed by the concrete pours during the week. The unit is
then cured over the weekend ready for stressing again the following
Monday. The foundations for the casting area would generally be
piled, as they need to be rigid enough to show virtually no movement
during casting. This alignment control is vital because once the unit
is cast, its shape cannot be changed. The casting process is also run
as a production line, with most activities taken off the critical path to
guarantee the weekly cycle. Reinforcement and prestressing is pre-
assembled in jigs, and then lifted into the mould in a series of large
pieces.
In order to limit the moments in the deck during the launch, a nose
is attached to the front of the bridge, with an approx. length 70%
that of a typical span (Figure 7). The bridge slides over temporary

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 Figure 8
Clackmannanshire Bridge,
UK: pushing jacks

launching bearings at every pier and the

total weight being launched can be 4000-
40 000t, which will require longitudinal
forces of 200 – 2000t, depending on the
deck gradients. The deck can be pulled
forward using prestressing strands or
pushed forward with long-stroke jacks
(Figure 8). As each section of the deck
passes over every location, there are full
moment reversals almost everywhere in
the bridge, and the launching prestress
is thus installed as a central force, having
only an axial stress. This launching
prestress is generally kept in place for the
long-term, but is augmented by further
 Figure 9a
Modular precast
section
continuity prestress once the launch is
completed. The classic post-tensioning
solution is to use small internal prestress
for the launching cables and larger
internal (or external) prestress for the
continuity cables. Alternatively, external
cables could be used throughout, allowing
the use of partial prestressing. This
option offers significant savings in the
prestressing tonnage, while only increasing
the reinforcement tonnage by a modest
amount. Effectively, the passive longitudinal
reinforcement in the deck becomes active
and is used structurally.
Incrementally launched bridges, using
E Figure 9b
Modular precast
shell unit

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S Figure 10 References and further reading

Modular precast bridge

1) Concrete Bridge Development Group (2014) ‘Concrete Bridge

Design and Construction series No.6: Concrete bridge construction
methods – in situ’, The Structural Engineer, 92 (6), pp. 40-44

2) Concrete Bridge Development Group (2014) ‘Concrete Bridge

Design and Construction series No.1: Introduction to concrete
bridges’, The Structural Engineer, 92 (1), pp. 41-46

3) Concrete Bridge Development Group (2005) Technical Guide

No. 5: Fast Construction of Concrete Bridges, Camberley, UK:
CBDG and The Concrete Society

units that have been produced on a regular cycle in controlled, 4) Concrete Bridge Development Group (2014) ‘Concrete Bridge
factory-like conditions, are slid into place with no traditional Design and Construction series No.3: Prestressing for concrete
falsework. The deck is economical in terms of materials, and thus at bridges’, The Structural Engineer, 92 (3), pp. 48-52
sites with a suitable alignment, launched bridges should deliver very
competitive construction costs. 5) Concrete Bridge Development Group (2014) ‘Concrete Bridge
Design and Construction series No.4: Types of concrete bridge,
Modular precast bridges The Structural Engineer, 92 (4), pp. 45-50
Modular precast bridges were developed by Benaim for the CBDG in
order to create a solution that could be used at any site with 15-50m 6) Concrete Bridge Development Group (2013) Current Practice
spans. They are an in situ twin rib deck1 cast inside precast shells, Sheet No. 4: Prestressed Concrete Bridge Beams, Camberley, UK:
with span to depth ratios of 14-18, which can be erected using several CBDG
techniques. This system takes the best features of in situ and precast
segmental construction, without using box sections or needing to 7) Concrete Bridge Development Group (2010) Technical Guide No.
make considerable investments in casting and erection equipment. 13: Integral Concrete Bridges to Eurocode 2, Camberley, UK: CBDG
The actual investments would be amortised over several projects, and The Concrete Society
thus making the solution viable for any bridge9,12.
The solution was developed into a modular system from the use 8) Concrete Bridge Development Group (2013) Current Practice
of similar precast shells on two recent bridges. The system consists Sheet No. 15: Precast Segmental Concrete Bridges, Camberley, UK:
of 2-3m long precast shells, cast in factories off site, that are 4-6m CBDG
wide and 1-3m deep, allowing a whole range of spans, widths and
alignments to be accommodated (Figure 9a and b). Post-tensioning 9) Concrete Bridge Development Group (2005) Technical Paper
is then placed inside the shells and an in situ concrete core is cast to No. 9: Fast Construction – Segmental and Launched Bridges,
complete the rib (Figure 10). The system was initially developed using Camberley, UK: CBDG
match-cast units, but it can also be used with non-match-cast units,
which are easier to cast in a less complex mould. Steel moulds are 10) The Concrete Society (2010) Technical Report 72: Durable
used to form the precast shells, which weigh 10-20t and are easily Post-tensioned Concrete Structures, Camberley, UK: The Concrete
transported to site. The construction methods can be varied to suit Society
specific bridges, but suggested methods include erection on scaffold/
beams or gantries, or the launching, or lifting of whole ribs using 11) Concrete Bridge Development Group (2013) Current Practice
cranes; all of which produce typical production rates of 15-20m/week. Sheet No. 13: Incrementally Launched Concrete Bridges, Camberley,
A railway version is also available, which for the typical spans seen in UK: CBDG
most situations (10-15m weighing 100-200t) can be slid or lifted into
place with cranes or transporters. 12) Concrete Bridge Development Group (2008) Technical Guide
This system provides an elegant solution using precast shells No. 11: Modular Precast Concrete Bridges, Camberley, UK: CBDG
cast in a factory environment. The simple section of the deck makes and The Concrete Society
concreting easy. Once a good erection method is selected, modular
bridges should have low construction costs at any site, depending on Further reading
the degree of access and temporary works. Benaim R. (2008) The Design of Prestressed Concrete Bridges,
Concepts and Principles, Abingdon, UK: Taylor & Francis
Conclusions
Various methods for the precast construction of concrete bridges Concrete Bridge Development Group (2014) Technical Guide
have been described, which allow both the smallest slab bridges, No. 14: Best construction methods for concrete bridge decks,
and some of the longest beam bridges in the world, to be built. A Camberley, UK: CBDG (publication in 2014)
forthcoming CBDG Technical Guide (TG 14) is due to be published
this year that will contain further information about the detailed American Association of State Highway and Transportation
programming and costing of 15 different bridge types (including all Officials (1999) Guide Specifications for Design and Construction of
the ones described here) allowing teams to select the best bridge Segmental Concrete Bridges (2nd Ed.), Washington, USA: AASHTO
solution at an early stage.

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