Physical Science

Einstein’s Special and General Relativity

(Week 16)
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 What I Know (Pre-Test)

Multiple Choice. Select the letter of the best answer from among the given choices.

1. At what rate do the EM waves travel according to Maxwell's electromagnetic wave

theory?
A. 3.00 x 108ms-1 C. 3.00 x 10-8ms-1
B. 6.00 x 108 ms-1 D. 6.00 x 10-8 ms-1

2. Which among the following resolves the conflict between Newtonian mechanics and
Maxwell's electromagnetic theory?
A. Theory of general relativity C. Law of universal gravitation
B. Theory of special relativity D. Law of conservation of energy

3. Einstein's theory of special relativity corrected the laws of motion first proposed by:
A. Hertz C. Maxwell
B. Galileo D. Newton

4. One of two identical twins becomes an astronaut, while the other becomes a real estate
broker. The astronaut embarks on high-speed space travel and is gone for several years.
Upon the astronaut's return, the two twins are reunites and observe their physical
appearances. The result will be that
A. both have aged the same. C. the real estate broker has aged less.
B. the astronaut has aged less. D. None of the above

5. Clocks in a stationary reference frame, compared to identical Clocks in a moving reference

frame, appear to run
A. at the same rate. C. faster.
B. backward in time. D. slower.

6. An object that looks green in empty space is positioned near but not in a black hole. From
the black hole far from the observer, the object would appear
A. black. C. green.
B. blue. D. red.

7. The Principle of Equivalence in the General Theory of Relativity states that inertial and
gravitational masses are
A. identical. C. not significant.
B. increasing. D. varied.
8. Which of the following is not a consequence of General Theory of Relativity?
A. Black Hole C. Precession in the Orbit of Mercury
B. Gravitational Lensing Effect D. Time Dilation

9. The Einstein Cross is an evidence of

A. Black Hole C. Increased gravity
B. Gravitational Lensing Effect D. Shifting of orbit
 Lesson

1 SPECIAL RELATIVITY

What I Need to Know

Relativity is not new. Galileo explained that motion is a relative way back around the year
1600. Wherever you happen to be, it seems like you are at a fixed point, and that everything
moves with respect to you. Everyone else feels the same way. With respect to a fixed point
motion is always measured. This is what we called establishing a frame of reference. In the
discussion of relativity light is always involved for theories related to electromagnetism are
inconsistent with Galileo’s and Newton’s explanation of relativity. The true nature of light
was a hot topic of discussion and controversy in the late nineteenth century and it is now
explain how special relativity resolved the conflict between Newtonian mechanics and
Maxwell's electromagnetic theory.

Newtonian Mechanics is also called as classical mechanics containing concepts that do not
entirely agree with other known theories in Physics like electromagnetic theory of Maxwell
but when Einstein presented his theory of special relativity, the conflict between the two great
physicists was resolved.

Maxwell’s theory is in fact contradicts with Newtonian Mechanics, and in trying to find the
resolution to this conflict so, Einstein, lead to his theory of special relativity. Maxwell’s
equation withstood the conflict, but it was Newtonian mechanics that were corrected by
relativistic mechanics.

But how the theory of special relativity resolved the conflict between the two famous
physicists? What is Einstein’s theory of special relativity?

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 What’s New

Activity 8.1.1. Observing Light

What can you tell about the picture below? Which theory regarding light is correct the
Newtonian’s Theory or Maxwell Theory? Why?

https://doi.org/10.1119/1.4895355

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 What Is It

Newtonian mechanics discusses the everyday motion of the objects of normal size around us
including the force that causes these motions. The concepts under Newtonian mechanics are
mainly based on ideas of Newton about motion which correctly describes the state of motion
of an object whether at rest or moving in a straight path and the forces that maintain and can
cause changes in the body’s states of motion.

Furthermore, Newtonian mechanics is based on the assumption of absolute space and time.
This means that the distance between two points, and the time that passes between two events
don’t depend on the coordinate system you choose. Therefore, a coordinate transformation
must leave them unchanged.

Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory consists of four formulas from the different works of
Faraday and other physicists that unite all the concepts of electricity and magnetism that had
the findings that electric and magnetic fields spread as waves. In 1886, Hertz proved that
these waves really exist and the propagation speed of these waves can be calculated using the
formula:

https://www.facebook.com/notes/physical-science/91-theory-of-special-
relativity/3390893954260139/

Moreover, Maxwell observed that the value of the above expression is equivalent to the speed
of light c (3.0 x 108 m/s) which implies that speed of light c must also be constant in which
the conflict between Newtonian mechanics and Maxwell’s theory starts.

If we consider a moving object with the of speed 100 m/s and switched on the flashlight,
according to Newtonian mechanics the speed of the light from the flashlight would be 100
m/s + c and dispute what Maxwell’s theory stating that the speed of light is a constant value.
Which is true between these two concepts?
3
The theory of special relativity proposed by Einstein in 1905, is a theory in physics that
concern the relationship between space and time objects that are moving at a consistent speed
in a straight line. Simply placing an object approaching the speed of light, its mass becomes
infinite, and it is unable to go any faster than light travels. It is the generally accepted and
experimentally confirmed.

The two main postulates of special relativity are:

1. The laws of physics are the same in all reference frames that are moving at a
constant velocity (not accelerating).
2. The speed of light is the same in all of these reference frames, even if the source
of the light is moving.

The second postulate clearly tells that Maxwell’s theory is correct but does imply that
Newtonian mechanics is wrong. But not totally, the postulates of Einstein tell us that
Newtonian mechanics has limitations in terms of its application. Considering moving objects
with speed very small compared to the speed of light, Newtonian mechanics applies like the
speeds of a flying ball and running car but considering a speed that is near to the speed of
light, a new concept must be included to supply the limit of Newtonian mechanics and that is
the Lorentz transformation the counterpart of the Galilean transformation of the Newtonian
mechanics.

What’s More

Activity 8.1.2. Special Relativity Experiment

Do this activity with a partner. Mrs. Yap is standing in a ground while Mr. Yap is riding on a
truck that is moving with velocity v. Mr. Yap switched on the flashlight in the direction in
which he is moving.

https://aether.lbl.gov/www/classes/p139/exp/gedanken.html
Question: What happens? What was the observation of the Mrs. Einstein on the
light as it travels? How about to Mr. Einstein what was his observation to the light?
Do they have the same observation?

Answer:
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What I Have Learned

Activity 8.1.3. Test your Analysis

Make a Table showing the conflict between Newtonian Mechanics and Maxwell Theory on
the speed of light.

Newtonian Mechanics Maxwell Theory

5
 Explain on your own words how the theory of special relativity resolved the conflicts
between Newtonian mechanics and Maxwell theory?
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What I Can Do
Activity 8.1.4. Reflection Paper

Make a reflection paper on the special theory of relativity.

 Lesson CONSEQUENCES OF THE
POSTULATE OF SPECIAL
2 RELATIVITY

What’s In

In the year 1900, most of physics seemed to be comprised in two great theories of Newtonian
mechanics and theory of electromagnetism by Maxwell. Unfortunately, there were
inconsistencies between the two theories that seemed irreconcilable. The genius Einstein sees
that the conflicts were alarmed not merely with mechanics and electromagnetism, but with
most elementary ideas of space and time as many physicists struggled with the problem,
Einstein resolved these difficulties and profoundly altered our conception of the physical
universe using special theory of relativity.

What I Need to Know

POSTULATES OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY

The first Einstein’s Postulate states, "At any frame of reference, all laws of physics
are the similar.”

These physical laws help us to understand how and why our environment reacts the way it
does allowing us to predict events and their outcomes. As a result of this postulate, we can
formulate such laws and be sure that they are independent of our current state of motion.
Consider a yardstick and a box. If you measure the length on the box, you can get the same
result whether you are standing on the ground or riding a bus. Measure the time it takes a
pendulum to make 10 full swings from a height of 12 inches above its resting place. You will
again get the same results regardless whether you are standing on the ground or riding a bus,
assuming that the bus is not accelerating, but travels along at a constant velocity on a plane
road. If we take the same examples, but this time measure the box and time the pendulum
swings as they ride past us on the bus, this time we arrive at different results than our
previous results. The difference in the results of our experiments happens because it follows
the first postulate of special relativity.

The second Einstein’s Postulate states: "For all reference frames, the speed of light
(c) is the same no matter what their relative speed is."

In other words, the speed of light is ultimate constant of nature. Suppose I am in a car going
50 km/h, and I throw a baseball 10 km/h in the same direction the car is going. If you were
standing on the side of the road with a radar gun, you’d measure the baseball going 50 + 10 =
60 km/h. That’s how we classically deal with relative motion. Now suppose I am in the car
shining a flashlight. If you could measure the speed of the light coming out of it from the side
of the road, you’d get the same speed no matter fast the car was going, or what direction I
shined the light. That is what makes light special!

As you go along this lesson, you can find answers to the following questions:
• Can you catch up with light?
• What would happen if I rode a light beam?
• If you were moving at the speed of light and viewed in a mirror, can you see
your reflection?
• If you are travelling on the outer space, does the time the same in the Earth?

The questions above will give you an idea on the topics you may find more interested to
know and eager to learn more.

8
 What’s New

Activity 8.2.1. Guessing Time

Look at the picture below. Why the twin in a rocketship looks younger than the other twin
after 60 years? Does time on Earth differ on the time in the outer space? Why?

http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/cosmo/lectures/lec06.html
 What Is It

The consequences of the postulate of special relativity are relativity of simultaneity, time
dilation, length contraction, mass-energy equivalence, and cosmic speed limit.

LENGTH CONTRACTION

A moving object would be shorter in length.as observe by the observer at rest that is relative
to the moving object.

Here are two identical cars, car A and car D.

http://web2.uwindsor.ca/courses/physics/high_schools/2005/Special_relativity/LENGTHCON
TRACTION.html

Car A is stopped at a stop sign and car B is moving past at an appreciable fraction of the
speed of light. Measure the length of Car B while passing at Car A and measure the length of
car A. Does the length of Car A is the same as Car B?

It turns out that the length you measure will be smaller than the value you obtained for car A.
This is the principle of length contraction. Since car B has a relative velocity with respect to
you and car A does not, you obtain two different values for their lengths.

Note that car B will only be shorter in the direction it is traveling its width and height will not
be affected. In our lives, we never detect length contraction because we move at speeds that
are very small with respect to the speed of light.

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 TIME DILATION

An observer who is in relative motion with respect to that clock determined the “slowing
down” of a clock.

Consider a light clock.

http://web2.uwindsor.ca/courses/physics/high_schools/2005/Special_relativity/TIMEDILATI
ON.html

This clock measures the speed of light by sending out a beam of light to the top plate. Call
this event A. This beam is then reflected back to the clock. Event B is when the light reaches
the clock again.

For the stationary clock on the left, the measured time interval between events A and B is ten
seconds. The clock on the right is set in motion with a given speed. To an observer traveling
on the clock, the time interval between events A and B is still ten seconds. However, to an
observer watching the clock move, it now appears that the light beam travels further than
before.

Since velocity is distance/time and the speed of this beam must be a constant, the measured
time interval between events A and B must now be greater than ten seconds.

SIMULTANEITY

Whether two spatially separated events not absolute occur at the same time but depends on
the observer's reference frame.

Imagine that you and your friend Timmy are at opposite ends of your class when you notice
your professor turns on his light at the podium. You call Timmy and ask him if he saw the
professor turn on the light. Timmy answers that he did.

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.http://web2.uwindsor.ca/courses/physics/high_schools/2005/Special_relativity/SIMULTANE
ITY.html

The next day your professor decides demonstrate simultaneity by asking the class to go on
the special relativity bus, while he stands outside it. Once again you and Timmy are on the
opposite sides of the bus, where he is sitting in the front and you are sitting in the back.

The bus starts moving at 0.9c (where c is the speed of light, approximately 300 000 000 m/s)
the professor, who is standing in the middle turns on his flashlight. Write down the time at
which you see the light from the outside. Timmy, sitting on the front of the bus does the same
thing since both two have synchronized watches.

When the bus comes to a stop you and Timmy compare the times at which you saw the light.
Unfortunately they are different. Now that the bus was moving, its back was going into the
path of the light waves faster than the light waves were spreading out from the middle of the
bus. This enabled you to see the event sooner, whereas Timmy had to wait for the emitted
light waves to reach him.

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 MASS INCREASE

The rest energy and total energy of the body are equivalent to the rest mass (an invariant
quantity which is the same for all observers in all reference frames) and relativistic mass
(dependent on the velocity of the observer), respectively.

http://web2.uwindsor.ca/courses/physics/high_schools/2005/Special_relativity/MASSINCRE
ASE.html

Einstein cleverly suggested that when someone observes you in motion, if they measure your
mass, it would appear to increase as your speed increases.

So why does your mass seems to increase to an observer watching you if you are speeding
up? First, consider that Einstein determined that energy (E) and mass (m) are related. He
stated that the energy an object contains is simply its mass multiplied by the speed of light
squared. This is the famous equation we all know, E = mc2.

Through this equation, Einstein tells us that the energy of a body always equals mc2. We
stated earlier that when you are at rest, you have a given rest mass, and let’s call it m0. So
your energy in this case to someone observing you at rest would be m0c2. Your rest energy is
a sort of basic or minimum amount of energy you always have whether you are at rest or not

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 What’s More

Activity 8.2.2. Perform Me Correctly

Place an expanded balloon of air on a weighing scale outside your house early morning in the
morning. Assuming that the balloon stays on the scales and record changes in its weight
everyday. Does the mass of the balloon change from day 1 to day 5? Discuss the worries in
carrying out this experiment.

Day Weight

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 What I Have Learned

Activity 8.2.3. Explain briefly

Answer the questions briefly and concisely.

1. When you riding in a commercial airplane, it appears that the plane is at rest and the Earth
is moving underneath you. Is this point of view valid? Discuss briefly.
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2. How does the elapsed time for a process seem to be longer, an observer moving with the
process or observer moving relative to the process? Which observer measures proper
time? Explain your answer.
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3. How far could you travel into the future without aging significantly? Could this method
also applied to travel into the past?
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4. To whom does an object seem greater in length, observer moving relative to the object or
an observer moving with the object? Which observer measures the object’s proper length?
Why?
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5. Assuming no molecules escape or are added, what happens to the mass of water in a pot
when it cools? Is this observable in practice? Explain.
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 What I Can Do

Activity 8.2.4. Reaction Paper

Choose one of the consequences of the postulate of special relativity and make a reaction
paper for that topic.

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 Lesson CONSEQUENCES OF THE
POSTULATES OF GENERAL
3 RELATIVITY

What’s In

After the publication of the theory of special relativity in 1905, the following years, Einstein
worked on the details that acceleration produced the same effect as gravitation. The General
Theory of Relativity is a generalization of the Special Theory of Relativity. It is definitely the
most remarkable achievements of science to date. It was developed by Einstein with little or
no laboratory experiment but instead he was driven by mental analysis and philosophical
questions.

What I Need to Know

The General Theory of Relativity rests on the Principle of Equivalence which states that
inertial and gravitational masses are identical. This postulate will fail if one can find a
material for which the inertial and gravitational masses have different values. One might
think that this represents a defect of the theory, its Achilles heel – its weakness in spite of
overall strength. In one sense this is true since a single experiment has the potential of
demolishing the whole of the theory which may people have tried, but all experiments have
validated the principle of equivalence.Thus, the General Theory of Relativity is a gem.

The second fundamental principle of General Relativity is that the presence of curve matter
in space. In this opinion, gravity is not classified as force, as being described by Newton, but
a curvature in the fabric of space, and objects respond to gravity by following the curvature
of space in the vicinity of a massive object as illustrated in Figure 8.3.1.
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 Figure 8.3.1 The Curvature of Space caused by a Massive Object.

What’s New

Activity 8.3.1. Find A Partner

Pair the following terms according to their meaning:

Bend Precess Equivalent

Identical Deflect Shift

What Is It

The consequences of the postulates of General Relativity:

SHIFTS IN THE ORBIT OF MERCURY

In the study of the Solar System a long-standing problem was that the orbit of Mercury did
not behave as Newton’s equations says. Let me describe the way Mercury’s orbit looks to
understand what the problem is.

As Mercury orbits the Sun, it follows approximately an elliptical path. It was found that the
point of closest approach of Mercury to the sun changes as it slowly moves around the sun as
shown in Figure 8.3.2. This rotation of the orbit is a precession. The precession of the orbit
does not happen to Mercury only but to all the planetary orbits., The effect of being produced
by the pull of the planets on one another was predicted in Newton’s theory.

The precession of Mercury’s orbit is measured to be 5600 seconds of arc per century as seen
from Earth. Newton’s equations, considering all the effects from the other planets (as well as
a very slight deformation of the sun due to its rotation) and the fact that the inertial frame of
reference is not the Earth, the precession of 5557 seconds of arc per century where the
discrepancy is 43 seconds of arc per century is predicted. This discrepancy cannot be
accounted for using Newton’s formalism. Many ad-hoc fixes were devised (such as assuming
there was a certain amount of dust between the Sun and Mercury) but none were consistent
with other observations. Similarly, Einstein was able to predict that the orbit of Mercury
should precess by an extra 43 seconds of arc per century should the General Theory of
Relativity be correct.

Figure 8.3.2. Artist’s version of the precession of Mercury’s orbit. Most of the effect is due to the pull
from the other planets but there is a measurable effect due to the corrections to Newton’s theory
predicted by the General Theory of Relativity.
http://iontrap.umd.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/WudkaGR-7.pdf

GRAVITATIONAL BENDING OF LIGHT

A clear consequence of the equivalence principle is that bending of light by gravity. For two
times Einstein calculated the amount that light would be deflected passing by the sun, which
is the largest "nearby" mass. It was in his second calculation that Einstein was able to predict
that light from a distant star would be deflected by 1.75 arcseconds or less than 1/2000th of a
degree.
 19
The Solar Eclipse of 1919 was the first opportunity for Einstein to
test his calculations. British Astrophysicist Sir Arthur Eddington
observed the shift in position of the Hyades cluster stars behind the
occulted sun by mounting a pair of expeditions to West Africa and
Brazil to. Though not perfectly precise, Eddington's measurements
clearly showed a deflection and favored the larger value. This result
made Einstein world-famous.

An exhilarating and only very recently verified prediction of the

bending of light by gravity is the existence of gravitational lenses,
bending of light due to the change of the speed of light as it passes through a refractive
medium. Massive objects can act as lenses because gravity can bend light. This is done by
focusing and amplifying images of distant objects. Gravitational lenses differ from "normal"
lenses. It produce multiple images such as the Einstein Cross, a case of a distant quasar
imaged by a galaxy between us and the quasar, discovered by J. Huchra & colleagues as
shown in Figure 8.3.3.

Figure 8.3.3 The Einstein Cross: four images of a quasar GR2237+0305 (a very distant – 8
billion light-years– very bright object) appear around the central glow. The splitting of the
central image is due to the gravitational lensing effect produced by a nearby galaxy
https://casswww.ucsd.edu/archive/public/tutorial/images/EinsteinCross.jpg

BLACK HOLES

Light is pulled by gravity just like rocks. Rocks can be put in orbits, but how about light?
Indeed, light can be put in orbits but we need a very heavy object whose radius is very small,
for example, we need something as heavy as the sun but squashed to a radius of less than
about 3km.

Going farther and imagine an object so massive and compact that if we turn on a laser beam
on its surface gravity’s pull will bend it back towards the surface. This means that since no
light can leave this object it will appear perfectly black, this is a black hole. An object which
comes sufficiently close to a black hole will also disappear into it since nothing moves faster
than light if an object traps light it will also trap everything else.
The effect of a black holes, like all gravitational effects, decreases with distance. This means
that there will be a boundary surrounding the black hole that anything crossing it will not be
able to leave the region near the black hole; this boundary is called the black-hole horizon.

What’s More

Activity 8.3.2. I am Bent

Refer to the two pictures below, how does the beam of light behaves in both situations?

Situations Behavior of light

Upward-accelerating
elevator

Elevator maybe
accelerating upward or
maybe acted by gravity

What postulate supports this behavior of light?

https://openstax.org/books/college-physics/pages/34-4-dark-matter-and-closure

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 What I Have Learned

Activity 8.3.3. Expound Me

Describe the postulate and give a consequence.

Postulate 1.
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Postulate 2
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What I Can Do

Activity 8.3.4. Let’s React

Noting on the different consequences of General Relativity Theory, what is its great
contribution to science and humanity?
 Lesson SPEEDS AND DISTANCES OF FAR-
4 OFF OBJECTS

What I Need to Know

Speed and distance of objects moving in different directions have been discussed in
your previous grades. It can easily be measured using different mathematical equations
depending on the given variables or factors. But how about the objects very far from us
known as far-off objects? How do we measure its speed and distance? How do astronomers
make accurate determination of its distances and what is its unit of measure?

As you go on through this module, you will be able to explain how the speeds and
distances of far-off objects are estimated (e.g., doppler effect and cosmic distance ladder)

It was discussed during the discussion of planetary motion that astronomical unit AU
is a convenient unit of expressing distances in the solar system. It is the average distance
between the Earth and the Sun. One AU is 1.5 x 108 km (9.3 x 107 mi). Using astronomical
units, one can get a relative idea of planet distances from the Sun. For example, if a planet
was 5 AU from the Sun, then it would be five times as far from the Sun as is the Earth.

The ancient Greeks did some splendid measurements of the Earth and moon and they
tried to get the distance to the Sun. But even without an accurate value for the Sun-Earth
distance, later astronomers could still do some nice modeling of the solar system. In
fact Johannes Kepler found the the time it takes a planet to orbit the Sun was proportional to
its distance to the Sun (technically these orbits are ellipses). Using this, he determined the
distance from other planets to the Sun in terms of the Earth's distance and that is the distance
in AU. With the AU, it is much easier to measure distances in the solar system. For instance,
the distance from the Sun to Mars is about 1.52 AU and the distance to Pluto is around 40
AU.

To measure distances to the nearest solar system objects, scientists have developed
powerful radar to bounce signals of Venus, Mars, Mercury, and even the sun. For more
distant objects, astronomers use an aged-old technique called geometric parallax that was
first devised by the Greeks in 300 BCE

What’s New

Activity 8.4.1 Knowing Parallax

Look at the figure at the right, what have you
observed? Write your observation on the
spaces provided below.

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_____________________________________ Figure 8.4.1 Annual Parallax of a Nearby
Star

What Is It

Over the course of a year, a nearby star seems to move back and forth against a
background of more distant stars. This parallax effect is due to the viewer’s position changing
as the Earth moves around the Sun. The angle p, measured in arc seconds, represents the
annual parallax of the nearby star.

The distance coordinate is usually measured in astronomical unit, light-years,, or

parsecs. Remember that AU is the mean distance of the earth from the Sun (1.5 x 108 km, or
93 million mi). A light-year (ly) is the distance traveled by light in 1 year ( 9.5 x 1012 km, 6
trillon mi.). It is calculated by multiplying the speed of light (3.00 x 105 km/s) by the number
of seconds in a year (3.16 x 107 s/y). One parsec, (pc) is defined as the distance to a star when
the star exhibits a parallax of 1 second of arc, where 1 second of arc is defined to be 1/3600
of 10. A parsec is related to a light-year by the following;

1 pc = 3.26 ly
 The nearby star in Figure 4.1 as shown above, observed from two positions, appears
to move back and forth against the background of more distant stars. This apparent motion is
called parallax. The angle p measure the parallax in seconds of arc (arc seconds, or arcsec).
Defining a parsec this way provides an easy method for determining the distance to a celestial
object because taking the reciprocal of the angle p, measured in arc seconds, gives the
distance in parsecs.

1 where d is the distance in parsecs and p is the parallax angle in

d= parsecs.
p

Figure 8.4.1 shows the the diagram of the geometric parallax technique where, if any
two angles and a baseline are known, then the other sides of the triangle can be computed.
Because stellar distances are so great, this parallax technique is accurate only to distances of
about 325 ly.

The distances to stars can also be determined by knowing their absolute and apparent
magnitudes as shown in the figure below. This technique is not easy because the distance to
the star must be known to determine the absolute magnitude of the star. Fortunately, most
stars can be classified by their spectrum and placed on the H-R diagram, which can then be
used to determine absolute magnitudes. This technique is useful for measuring stellar
distances out to 35, 000 ly. Careful application of the scientific method, checking, and
rechecking of distances to the same star with different methods, significantly reduces errors.

Figure 8.4.2 Equinoxes and Solstices

25
 The technique of accurately measuring distances were limited to objects within the
Milky Way galaxy, that was before 1915. A breakthrough happened when Henrietta Leavitt,
an American astronomer discovered that a certain Cepheid variable stars - an unstable red
giant stars could be used to accurately measure distances.

Leavitt found that the periods of variability of the unstable stars were directly related
to their brightness; therefore, the distances to the stars could be determined. With this
important discovery, the distance to the nearest galaxies could be accurately determined. The
use of Cepheid variable stars (Figure 8.4.3) allows accurate measurements to 50 million light
years.

Figure 8.4.3 Cepheid Variable Stars. The period of variation in the brightness of a Cepeid variable star
is directly related to the brightness of the star, and the distance can be determined

How about the distances to more distant galaxies found? Astronomers in the 1970s
discovered the brighter spiral galaxies (those having more stars) rotate faster. Measuring
rotation via the Doppler shift of light allows one to determine the absolute brightness of
galaxy. Distances out to 600 million light years can be determined by comparing the absolute
and apparent brightness of these galaxies.

Supernovae are stars that explode and became incredibly bright objects, sometimes
entire galaxy of stars, although even brighter than an entire galaxy of stars, although only for
a short time. Specifically, certain types (Type I) of supernovae can be used to measure
distances.
 Many of these techniques use a general principle in Physics, the inverse-square law
of intensity . The inverse square law describes the intensity of light at different distances from
a light source. The intensity of light changes in the same way in every different light source.
There is an inverse proportion between the intensity of light to the square of the distance.
This implies that as the distance from a light source increases, the intensity of light is a value
multiplied by 1/d2.. The proportional symbol, , is used to show how these relate. The
formula for this is shown below. Visible light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, and the
inverse square law is true for any other waves or rays on that spectrum, such as, radio waves,
microwaves, infrared, ultraviolet light, x rays, and gamma rays. The intensity of visible light
is expressed in candela units, while the intensity of other waves is expressed in Watts per
meter squared (W/m2).

Proportional:

Where; I = light intensity (candela, W/m2)

means "is proportional to"
d = distance from a light source (m)

Intensity at different distances:

Where;
I1 = light intensity at distance 1
I2 = light intensity at distance 2
d1 = distance 1 from light source (m)
d2 = distance 2 from light source (m)

Example: 1) If a bright flashlight has a light intensity of 15.0 candela at a distance

1.00 m from the lens, what is the intensity of the flashlight 100.0 m from the lens?

Solution : The intensity at the farther distance can be found using the formula:

If d1 = 1.00 m from the lens, and d2 = 100.0 m from the lens, then I1 = 15.0 candela, and we
need to solve for I2. This requires rearranging the equation:
Now, substitute the values that are known in to the equation:

I2 = (0.0001)(15.0 candela)
I2 = 0.0015 candela

So, the intensity of the flashlight at a distance of 100.0 m is 0.0015 candela.

When astronomers use this principle to measure distances, they refer to the method as
standard candles. Because the brightness of the candle decreases as the square of the distance
increases, the distance to the candle is determined. The figure below shows the simple idea
for this technique.

Figure 8.4.4 The Standard Candle Technique. As the candle is moved farther away, the
brightness decreases. If the distance to the candles doubles, then the brightness of the candle decreases by a
factor of 4

The cosmic distance ladder or the extragalactic distance scale is the succession of
methods by which astronomers determine the distances to celestial objects. A
real direct distance measurement of an astronomical object is possible only for those objects
that are "close enough" (within about a thousand parsecs) to Earth. The techniques for
determining distances to more distant objects are all based on various measured correlations
between methods that work at close distances and methods that work at larger distances.
Several methods rely on a standard candle, which is an astronomical object that has a
known luminosity.

The ladder (See Figure 4.5) analogy arises because no single technique can measure
distances at all ranges encountered in astronomy. Instead, one method can be used to measure
nearby distances, a second can be used to measure nearby to intermediate distances, and so
on. Each rung of the ladder provides information that can be used to determine the distances
at the next higher rung.

Figure 8.4.5 The Cosmic Distance Ladder

• Light green boxes: Technique applicable to star-forming galaxies.

• Light blue boxes: Technique applicable to Population II galaxies.
• Light Purple boxes: Geometric distance technique.
• Light Red box: The planetary nebula luminosity function technique is applicable to all
populations of the Virgo Supercluster.
• Solid black lines: Well calibrated ladder step.
• Dashed black lines: Uncertain calibration ladder step.

The fundamental distance measurements is at the base of the ladder, in which

distances are determined directly, with no physical assumptions about the nature of the object
in question. As part of the discipline of astrometry, stellar positions is done with precision.

Finally, distances to the farthest known objects in the universe can be determined by
Hubble’s Law. The figure below shows that there is a linear relationships between the
velocity of a galaxy and its. Distance. The velocity of many distant galaxies are measured
with large telescopes by observing their spectra. The absorption lines in the spectra are
redshifted in direct relation to the overall-velocity of the galaxy ( the well-known Doppler
effect).

29
 Figure 8.4.6 The Doppler Effect

Remember that the Doppler effect is observed whenever the source of waves is moving
with respect to an observer. This effect is produced by a moving source of waves in which
there is an apparent upward shift in frequency for observers, towards which the source is
approaching. Thus an apparent downward shift in frequency for observers from whom the
source is receding.

Hubble’s law can be written in equation form as

Vr = H x d Where, Vr, is the recessional velocity,

H, is the Hubble’s constant (currently estimated to
be 71 km/s/MPc), and
d, is the distance to the galaxy.

Thus, if a galaxy’s velocity is measured to be 10, 000 km/s , then

d = Vr = 10,000 km/s = 141 Mpc ≈ 460 Mly

H 71 km /s/Mpc

Take note that to determine distances to the most distant objects in the universe, a
very good determination of the Hubble constant is needed. The Hubble space telescope does
that very Task.

What’s More

Activity 8.4.2. Show It To Me!

Solve the following and show your solution. Box your final answer.

1. The intensity of a radio signal is 0.120 W/m2 at a distance of 16.0 m from a small
transmitter. What is the intensit y of the signal 4.00 m from the transmitter?
30
2. Galaxy NGC 123 has a velocity away from us of 1,320 km/s and the Hubble Constant's
value is 70 km/s/Mpc. How far away is the galaxy according to Hubble's Law?

What I Have Learned

Activity 8.4. 3 Test Your Analysis

In the table below, write a summary on how to solve speeds and distances of far-off objects
(First column) and give your brief explanation in the second column.

Method/Technique in solving far-off Explanation/Equation

objects’ distances

Method/Technique in solving speed of Explanation/Equation

far-off objects

31
 What I Can Do

Activity 8.4.4. How Far? How Powerful?

Your teacher has just gone over a calculation showing that the intensity of light
decreases as you move away from the light source. It does this with a very specific
relationship with your distance from the light – as 1/r2. You are going to prove that
relationship!

Materials

• scissors
• tape measure
• tape
• single-hole hole punch
• dark orange or dark red paper (at least 7 by 7cm)
• flashlight
• graphing calculator or computer to perform a power regression
Procedure

1. Pick up the listed materials from your teacher.

2. Find a blank, flat wall to shine a light onto and a table or chair that can stabilize the
flashlight for this lab. If you have a blank wall near the end of a lab table, then put the
light on top of the table. You will need to be able to move the light (whether along the
table or by moving the chair) at least 1 meter closer to or away from the wall.

3. Use the hole punch to punch a hole in the center of the dark orange or red paper.

4. Tape the paper to the light end of the flashlight, making sure the hole is roughly
centered over the light.

5. Place the flashlight on the chair or table at least 10 cm from the wall. You can adjust
it with papers or books so that it is level (i.e., the light beam shines perpendicular on
the wall). Measure the distance from the wall to the hole on the front of the flashlight.
Record this distance in your data table.

6. Turn the flashlight on. You should see a distinct white circle projected on the wall.
The rest of the light emitted outside of this light should be a shade of the colored
paper taped to the flashlight.
 Illustration of the lab set-up. (Credit: NASA/Imagine the Unvierse)

7. Take 3 different measurements of the diameter of the circle of white light on the wall.
HINT: Remember, the diameter of a circle is the longest measured chord from one
edge of the circle to the other. Therefore, you know you've got the diameter when you
hold one end of the tape measure on one side (edge) of the circle and get the largest
measured value by moving the other end of the tape measure along the other side.

8. Record these values in the data chart. Calculate the mean and record it as well.

9. Move the chair with the flashlight (or move along the table) about 20 cm further away
from the wall. Measure the distance from the wall to the hole on the front of the
flashlight. Record this distance on your data table.

10. Repeat steps 6-8 at least two more times.

11. Calculate the radius from each mean diameter. Record each calculation in the data
table.

12. Calculate the area of the circle formed from each calculated radius. Record each
calculation in the data table. HINT: Area of a circle equals π r2.

33
 13. In your graphics calculator, enter the distance from the hole to the wall as one list and
the area of each calculated circle as another list.

14. Plot the data in the lists as a scatter plot. What kind of relationship do you see?

15. Calculate a Power Regression equation on the two lists. What is the equation?

Diameter of light circle (cm)

Distance Radius
Measurement
(cm) Trial Trial Trial (cm)
Average
1 2 3

34
 Lesson
THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE
5
What’s In

You have done learning on how to determine speeds and distances of the far-off
objects in the previous lesson. Using the knowledge that you have, this time, you try explain
how we know that we live in an expanding universe which is used to be hot and is
approximately 14 billion years old.

One of the branches of astronomy is cosmology which study the structure and
evolution of the universe. Cosmology is the branch of astronomy that deals with the study of
the structure and evolution of the universe. The electromagnetic waves that came from
galaxies (the “building blocks” of the universe) were detected and analyzed by the
astronomers in determining the structure of the universe. Astronomers determine the structure
of the universe by detecting and analyzing electromagnetic waves that come from the
galaxies, the “ building blocks” of the universe. From the data collected, they determine the
way in which these galaxies are distributed throughout the vast volume of the universe.
Astronomers estimate the tens of billions of galaxies are within range of the optical
telescopes. Even if they were inclined to do so, astronomers would not have the time to
observe the tremendous volume of the universe to obtain information about all the galaxies.
Instead, the astronomers’ model of the structure of the universe is based on the sampling of
different regions.

What I Need to Know

A team of astronomers enter the coordinates (DECs, RAs, and distances) into the
computer in 2003. They obtained an illustration showing the location and relative positions of
different galaxies. Closely every galaxy in the sample belongs to either a two-dimensional
“sheet” or a one-dimensional “thread” that is millions of light-years in length.

35
 The data also revealed large spaces, millions of light-years across, that contained very
few galaxies. That is, the two-dimensional sheets were separated by vast volumes of nearly
empty space. Such a structure is reminiscent of the structure of a bunch of soap bubbles
attached to one another. Think of the galaxies as being located o the surface of intersection of
the soap bubbles, with very few galaxies being inside a given bubble. Like the galaxies, dark
matter does not seem to be present to any significant extent in the voids. It seems that
galaxies are not evenly distributed in space.

What’s New

Activity 8.5.1. Think Pair-Share

With your partner, discuss the following and write your answer on the spaces provided
below.

1. Into what is the universe is expanding?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

2. Is universe expanding into something?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

What Is It

For a long time, astronomers wrestled with the basic questions about the size and age
of the universe. Does the universe go on endlessly, or does it have an edge somewhere? How
does it existed? In 1929, an astronomer at Caltech, Edwin Hubble made a critical discovery
that soon led to scientific answers for these questions. He discovered that the universe is
expanding.

It was difficult to imagine what an infinite universe might look like as the ancient
Greeks recognized. They also wondered that if the universe were finite, where would your
hand go if you stuck out your hand at the edge? These two problems of the Greeks with the
universe is represented by a paradox - the universe had to be either finite or infinite.

Another paradox began to puzzle astronomers after the rise of modern astronomy. In
the early 1800s, Heinrich Olbers, German astronomer, argued that the universe must be finite.
If the Universe were infinite and contained, if you looked in any particular direction, your
line-of-sight would eventually fall on the surface of a star. Though the apparent size of a star
in the sky becomes smaller as the distance to the star increases, the brightness of this smaller
surface remains a constant. Therefore, the whole surface of the night sky should be as bright
as a star if the Universe were infinite,. Apparently, there are dark areas in the sky, so the
universe must be finite.

However, when Isaac Newton found out about the law of gravity, he thought and
realized that gravity will always be attractive. All of the objects in the universe will be
attracted to another object. And so, if the universe turns out to be finite, the attractive force
which is the gravity may have caused the entire universe to collapse in itself. Throughout the
centuries, this has not happened which lead the astronomers with a living paradox.

As Einstein made his own theory of gravity which is included in his General Theory
of Relativity, he had the same results and problem as what Newton had. The equations he
formulated says that the universe must be expanding or collapsing, but he has a thought that
the universe might be static. This was due to the constant term in his original solution which
is called the cosmological constant. This constant cancels out the effects of gravity at very
high scales which will lead us to having a static universe. This cosmological constant soon
turned out to be Einstein’s great mistake when Hubble discovered that our universe was
expanding.

In those times, large telescopes were built that were able to measure the spectra with
higher accuracy. These new data gathered has been the key for the astronomers to understand
those nebulous formations that they were studying. In between the years 1912 to 1922, an
astronomer named Vesto Slipher in Arizona discovered that these spectra of lights from these
nebulous formations were shifted to longer wavelengths or in other terms, redshifted.
Sometime later, other astronomers define that these nebulous formations were called
galaxies.

Some physicist and mathematicians who worked on Einstein’s theory of gravity found
out that the equations had some formulas that described the expanding of the universe. In the
solutions, the light from a distant object would be shifted to longer wavelengths as it travels
through the expanding universe. The redshift will increase in proportion to the distance to the
object.
 In 1929 Edwin Hubble, worked at the Carnegie Observatories in
Pasadena, California, measured the redshifts of a number of distant
galaxies. He also measured their relative distances by measuring the
apparent brightness of a class of variable stars called Cepheids in each of
the galaxy. When he plotted redshift against relative distance, he found
out that the redshift of distant galaxies increased as a linear function of
their distance. The only explanation deduced for this observation is that
the universe was expanding.
Edwin Hubble

Once scientists understood that the universe was expanding, they immediately
realized that the universe would have been smaller in the past. At some point in the past, the
entire universe would have been a single point of entity. This point, later called the big bang,
was the beginning of the universe in its entirety as we understand it today.

The expanding universe is finite in terms of both time and space. The reason that the
universe did not collapse, as Newton's and Einstein's equations said it might be, is that it had
been expanding from the time it was created. The universe is in a constant state of change and
evolution. The expanding universe, which is the idea based on modern physics, put out the
paradoxes that troubled many astronomers from ancient times until the early 20th Century.

The expanding universe is somewhat related to the expanding dough in a loaf of a

raisin bread (See figure below). The raisins (galaxies)are carried along with the dough (space)
as it expands. The number shows that the farther the observer “raisin”, the faster the former is
moving.

Figure 5.1 Analogy of the Expanding Universe

Let us use the baking of a loaf of raisin bread (Figure 5.1). Imagine all of the raisins
represent the galaxies and the dough will be the space. When the loaf bakes and expands, the
raisin remains the same size but moves away from another raisin. No matter which raisin an
observer might be “riding”, the other raisins would move away. The greater the initial
distance of a specific raisin was from an observer’s raisin, the faster and farther the observed
raisin would move (study Fig. 5.1). Note that the raisins which represents the “galaxies” stay
the same size, but the expansion of the dough (space) carries them. Essentially, the raisins
behave according with Hubble’s law.

How Old Is the Universe?

Astronomers estimated that the Big Bang happened between 12 and 14 billion years
ago. To put this in a perspective, the Solar System is about 4.5 billion years old and humans
have only existed as a genus for only a few million years. Astronomers estimate the age of
our universe in two ways: 1) by looking and examining for the oldest stars; and 2) by
measuring the rate at which the universe expands and extrapolating back to the Big Bang; just
like those detectives which can trace the origin of a bullet from the holes in a wall.

The expansion or contraction of the universe will depend on the containments and the
events in the past. The expansion will slow or even become a contraction given with enough
matter. The Big Bang model was an outcome of Einstein's General Relativity which is
applied homogeneous universe. However, in 1917, the thought that the universe was
expanding was an absurd one, so Einstein invented this so called cosmological constant as a
term in his General Relativity theory which allows for a static universe.

In 1929, Edwin Hubble announced his study about

other galaxies which showed that they were moving away
from us with a speed proportional to their distance from us.
The more distant the galaxy, the faster it is to move away
from us. The universe was really expanding, just as
General Relativity originally predicted! Hubble observed
that the light from a given galaxy was shifted away toward
the red end of the light spectra the further that galaxy was
from our galaxy.The Hubble's expansion law is important
in specific form: the speed of recession is proportional to
distance. Hubble stated this idea in an equation -
distance/time per megaparsec. A megaparsec is a truly big
distance (3.26 million light-years). The expanding raisin
bread model at left shows why this proportion law is
important. If every part of the bread expands by the same
amount in a given interval of time, then the raisins would
recede from each other with exactly a Hubble type
expansion law. In a given time interval, a adjacent raisin
would move relatively slight, but a distant raisin would
move relatively farther which results in a same behavior
with the other raisin in the loaf. Thus, the Hubble law is just what one would expect for
a homogeneous expanding universe, as predicted by the Big Bang theory. Furthermore, no
raisin, or galaxy, occupies a special place in this universe - unless you get too close to the
edge of the loaf where the analogy breaks down. Besides, dark energy drives the universe
towards increasing rates of expansion. The Hubble Constant (in units of kilometers per
second per Megaparsec, or just per second) is the current rate of expansion.

Hubble found that the universe was not static, but rather was expanding!

Astronomers can use a simple technique in determining the age of the universe by
using Hubble’s law (See Fig. 5.4) The slope of the graph shows the assumed constant rate at
which the universe is expanding. Astronomers now, can calculate the rate at which the
universe is expanding, and the result of that calculation is the age of the universe.

39
 Figure 5.4 Hubble’s Law- This graph shows the relationship between how fast a
cluster of galaxies is moving away ( it’s recessional velocity) and its distance from the Milky
Way.

If the slope of the line is H (the Hubble constant), then the age of the universe is

Age of the universe (in years) = 9.78 x 1011

H
where;
H is the Hubble constant (currently estimated to be 71 km/second/Mpc)

The number 9.78 x 1011 is a conversion factor for the time and distance units used in
the problem. The best estimate of the constant H is about 71 km/s/Mpc ( 1 Mpc = 1 mega-
parsec, 1 million parsecs). This calculation gives abut 13.8 billion years for the age of the
universe.

Astronomers agreed that our universe is expanding. Does the universe expand
forever? Recent evidence strongly indicates that we live what we call a flat universe that
continues to expand with time. Contrary to those ideas that gravity will slow down the
expansion, recent findings have confirmed that the expansion of the universe is actually
accelerating. The acceleration is thought to be due to the repulsive effect of an enigmatic dark
energy that seems to make up 68% of the mass-energy of the universe (E=mc2). The
remaining mass energy is about 5% ordinary matter in 27% dark matter.

The Big Bang

If the galaxies are moving away from one another at the present time, the galaxies
must have been closer to one another in the past. That is, the universe must have been more
compressed. Carrying this idea to each logical conclusion, most astronomers think that the
universe began in a small, hot, dense state, the rapid expansion of which is called the Big
Bang.
 The Big Bang hypothesis was first proposed in 1927 by Georges Lemaitre, a Belgian
catholic priest and cosmologist. Since then, scientist have focused great efforts on
investigating the Big Bang model. Our knowledge of the structure of the universe and of
subatomic particles is able take us back to within 10-43 second of the Big Bang. Before that
time, the universe also compressed and opaque that our present understanding of the laws of
relativity and quantum mechanics is inadequate.

When the universe was 30 minutes old, it had cold so much that nuclear reaction
ceased; the matter in the universe consisted, by mass, of about 25 % helium nuclei and 75 %
hydrogen nuclei. By the time the universe was about 400, 000 years old, it was cool enough
for the helium and hydrogen nuclei to capture electrons and become neutral atoms. Photons
were now able to move freely through space, and matter was able to be influenced by gravity
and begin forming galaxies and stars.

What’s More

Activity 8.5.2. The Expanding Universe- Galaxies

Follow the step-by-step instructions.

1, take a round balloon and draw on it six more galaxies, each about 5 mm across. Make your
galaxies roughly evenly spaced around the balloon.

2. Choose any one of the galaxies, and mark it “ A” so that you remember which it is. Make a
mental note of the distances from this galaxy to its nearest neighbors.

3. The balloon represents Space itself. Blow up the balloon to represent the expansion of
space.
4. Again, check the distances from galaxy A you selected to its nearest neighbors.
5. Answer the following questions( in complete sentences):

a. Sketch the balloon with its galaxies before and after you blew it up. Observe and record
your observation.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

b. If people living somewhere in galaxy A. observe the motion of their neighbor galaxies,
what will they notice? Why might they think their own galaxy is the center of the universe?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

c. Would people in a different galaxy observe the same over all effect, or something
different?
 ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

d. As time goes by, the real universe behaves rather than like this balloon. What do you think
our astronomers must have observed about the motion of our neighboring galaxies?

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

What I Have Learned

Activity 8.5.3 Test Your Analysis- Calculating the age of the Universe

In a clean sheet of paper, calculate the age of the universe if the constant rate of expansion is
71 km/s/Mpc. Show your solution.

What I Can Do?

Activity 8.5.4. Sketch Me Up!

Using 1/8 sized illustration board, draw an expanding universe. Make it colorful and
presentable.

42
SUMMARY

1. Black Hole. A region of spacetime where gravity is so strong that nothing—no

particles or even electromagnetic radiation such as light—can escape from it.
2. First Postulate of special relativity. At any frame of reference, all laws of
physics are the similar.
3. Gravitational Lensing. The bending and focusing of light and especially the
formation of multiple images of a more distant object by a celestial object
acting as a gravitational lens.
4. Length of Contraction. A moving object would be shorter in length.as observe
by the observer at rest that is relative to the moving object.
5. Mass Increase. The rest energy and total energy of the body are equivalent to the
rest mass (an invariant quantity which is the same for all observers in all reference
frames) and relativistic mass (dependent on the velocity of the observer),
respectively.
6. Maxwell Theory. The light in a vacuum travel at a constant speed regardless of
the motion of source or the observer.
7. Newtonian Mechanics. The speed of light depends on the motion of the observer
and the light source.
8. Precession. The change in the orientation of the rotational axis of a rotating body.
9. Second Postulate special relativity. For all reference frames, the speed of light
(c) is the same no matter what their relative speed is.
10. Simultaneity. Whether two spatially separated events not absolute occur at the
same time but depends on the observer's reference frame.
11. Time Dilation. An observer who is in relative motion with respect to that clock
determined the “slowing down” of a clock.

43
 Assessment: (Post-Test)

Multiple Choice. Select the letter of the best answer from among the given choices.

1. Einstein theory of special relativity is based on what two postulates? Choose all that apply.
I. The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference moving with
constant velocity relative to one another.
II. The laws of physics application change based on the condition of the observer.
III. The speed of light is constant in all inertial frame of reference.
IV. The speed of light depends on the speed of the observer.
A. I only C. II and IV
B. I and II D. I and III

2. Which of the following describes the speed of light according to Newtonian mechanics?
A. The light speed depends on the speed of the observer.
B. The speed of light is constant.
C. The speed of light depends on its source.
D. The speed of light is infinite

3. Which of the following correctly describes the statement: The speed of light is constant?
A. The statement is sometimes true. C. The statement is never true.
B. The statement is always true D. The statement is sometimes false.

4. woman on the ground sees a rocket moving past her at 99% the speed of light. Compared
to when the rocket is at rest, the women measures the length as being:
A. longer C. the same length
B. shorter D. all of the above

5. Starship "Alpha" travels at 0.9c past an identical starship "Beta," which is at rest. Both a
cabin boy on the "Alpha" and a cook on the "Beta" measure the time required for the
other ship to pass by their respective windows. Who measures the longer time?
A. Both measure the same time.
B. The cabin boy
C. The cook
D. The measured times cannot be compared
6. Two identical clocks are made. One is placed in interstellar space, and the other is placed
on the surface of a massive planet. Which runs faster?
 A. Both clocks will run at the same rate.
B. The planet clock
C. The space clock
D. None of the above

7. Which of the following describes the first postulate of General Relativity Theory?
A. Inertial and gravitational masses have different values
B. Inertial and gravitational masses are identical
C. Inertial and gravitational masses are inversely proportional
D. Both inertial and gravitation masses are zero

8. Which of the following phenomena are consequences of the General Theory of Relativity?
A. Black hole
B. Precession of Mercury’s orbit
C. The existence of gravitational lenses
D. Weightlessness

9. Why is black hole black?

A. All colors are absorbed in that hole.
B. All colors are reflected from the hole
C. No light can leave this hole
D. No light is absorbed by the hole

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