Iranian Journal of Health, Safety & Environment, Vol.7, No.3, pp.

1523-1528

A Mini-Review for Causes, Effects and Preventive Measures of Choking Smog

Roheela Yasmeen*, Sahiba Zulfiqar Ali, Zunaira Baig, Uzma Rafi, Syeda Shazia Bokhari, Aisha
Waheed Qurashi

Department of Biology, Lahore Garrison University, Sector-C, Av-4, phase VI, DHA Lahore, Pakistan

Corresponding Author’s: raheelasattar44@gmail.com; roheelayasmeen@lgu.edu.pk

ABSTRACT
Air pollution and its increasing hazards are growing issues in Pakistan. The main reason is over population and efforts
to provide luxurious lifestyles to people. So, changes in economic growth result in ever-increasing fossil fuels
consumption, deforestation, industrialization, construction and urbanization. The activities are responsible for the
enhanced level of airborne particles and ozone-depleting substances in the atmosphere that is resulting in low air
quality especially in winter as compared to summer. Since the last few years, it was noticed in Lahore, Pakistan, that
the ambient environment condition of the city is rapidly changing, particularly in winter. The sun rays are blocked out
and result in smog. Smog is a combination of fog and smoke and an important secondary pollutant that reduces
visibility and enhances various health issues. It particularly affects children and older people causing high risk diseases
such as eye-watering, skin allergies and respiratory infections. Even though preventive measures are taken to control
the effect of smog every winter, there is still a need to focus on the causes to control the prevailing problem of winter
smog for betterment in the future. The present review will discuss smog’s history, sources, effects and preventive
measures in Pakistan along with other countries.
Keywords: Air pollution, Secondary pollutant, Winter, Visibility, Health issues

INTRODUCTION in various economic losses as well [6]. According to

Heavy fog in 1948 was reported in Donora, an estimate 400, 000 premature deaths per year have
Pennsylvania that cloaked airports slowed down been recorded in China due to air pollution [7]. In
traffic, caused people to suffer from respiratory major cities of China, smog is a result of particulate
ailments and led to the death of 20 Donora residents matter and various gaseous emissions [8-9]. There is
[1]. This was one of the first recorded incidents of also raising concern in Pakistan regarding air pollution
modern industrial smog. Perhaps the most well-known and resulting smog issues experienced in Lahore at the
incident in the history of smog was the Great Smog of start of winter season 2015. Smog is an increasingly
London in 1952. This incident has changed the dangerous problem in Pakistan responsible for the
concept of air pollution in terms of its impact on spread of a variety of viral problems [10-11]. To the
science, people’s perception and government policies. best of our knowledge, a few studies were reported on
A ‘perfect storm of conditions brought on a toxic smog prevailing issues of smog with reference to Pakistan
that engulfed the city and caused severe effects on and those studies are limited to sources and health
health with an associated high mortality rate (more impacts of smog. Hence, the main objective of this
than 4000) and a concomitant disease rate. Domestic study was to fill the gap in knowledge regarding
and industrial pollutants were found to be the main preventive measures. So, the present review study
causative agents of health problems and emphasized on adoption of such practices within and
environmental degradation in London [2]. The Great even in neighboring countries which can help to
Smog of London produced pronounced effects that improve air quality and to reduce the effects of this
had ramifications including more public health potent secondary pollutant.
insurance claims, increased hospital admission rates
for cardiac and respiratory problems, pneumonia cases MATERIALS AND METHODS
and influenza. All these problems were reported Eligibility criteria
higher in the winter of the Great Smog of London as For the present review study, 356 relevant studies were
compared to previous years. Moreover, a higher rate identified. However, 303 studies were excluded as 89
of health problems not only during the smog but even studies were showing duplication, 30 were books and
months after the smog was recorded [3-5]. 21 were citations. All those studies that were published
Severe smog episodes were also reported from prior to 1994 (117) and also not directly relating to the
different cities of China at the beginning of 2013. This topic (46) were also in excluding criteria. While 53
smog has not only affected people’s health but results studies were considered due to their relevance to the

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topic. The inclusion criteria in the study included These pollutants were produced in the atmosphere as
studies on smog’s history, sources, effects and a byproduct of fossil fuel burning, coal burning at
preventive measures. power plants, industries and vehicular emission and
Information source results in smog [11, 20]. Pb is used for lead-acid
To do this study, a literature review was conducted and batteries, alloys, as an anti-knock additive in petrol,
topics related to the title were selected by using an cables and chemicals. Leaded gasoline, with alkyl-
electronic database. For database Web Science, lead compounds, is also used as antiknock additives
Google Scholar, Google, and Science Direct were used [21] Pakistan is one of the developing countries that
and the benefits of relevant published studies were used leaded petrol in vehicles. It was also reported that
obtained. almost 391 metric tons of lead are released into the
Review Process atmosphere per year [22]. Similarly, in smog, the
In the first step of study selection, all the studies with amount of Pb has been recorded as 507.4 ng/m 3 in
irrelevant titles were excluded. In the second step, the PM10 concentrations [23]. According to an estimate,
full text of the studies was reviewed to include those the air pollutants that caused smog was entered an
papers matching the inclusion criteria. Reference insignificant amount in the air of Lahore from
management (Mendeley version 1.8) were applied for Industrial plants that was installed near the Pak border
arranging and assessing the titles and as well as for by our neighboring country (India) [24]. NASA
recognizing any duplicate entries. The study was reported that the burning of rice, on the border was a
conducted on the following basic steps: collecting data possible source of smog in Pakistan [25]. Various
regarding smog’s history and a brief overview of activities such as the burning of straw by farmers, or
smog’s episodes in various countries and their the use of firecrackers at functions produce a huge
deteriorating impact on the health of people and the amount of smoke and environmental pollution.
economy. Its major sources such as pollutants Excessive pollution in Lahore resulted in smog in the
produced via fossil fuel burning, coal burning at power last winter in 2016 as reported by Ashraf, [26]
plants, industries and vehicular emission were seen. (https://www.technologytimes.pk/smog-lahore-
Finally, different controlling measures regarding smog causes-solutions/). Industries and increasing number
were comprehended. of vehicles and cutting down of trees declared Lahore
is the second most polluted city in Pakistan [24,27-28].
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Along all the factors reported by Ali and Athar, and
For the present review study, 356 relevant studies were Riaz and Hamid, [27- 28] in their studies, the increase
identified. However, 303 studies were excluded and in the number of restaurants with different cooking
only 53 studies were considered due to their relevance styles, construction of more paved roads, a number of
to the topic. Detail about exclusion and inclusion brick kiln units in the vicinity of Lahore are also major
criteria is given in Table 1. components for the growing problem of smog.
Table 1: Detail about exclusion and inclusion criteria. Approximately 80 % of carbonyl compounds (C1-C3)
Sr. No Data about Studies Numbers are produced during cooking, an important source of
1. Total Relevant studies 356 photochemical smog. The compounds were produced
identified during varying cooking practices and may vary with
2. Duplicate studies 89
3. Books 30 different cooking oils and food materials [29].
4. Citations 21 Weather conditions were also critical in the formation
5. Published before 1994 117 of smog [20]. Stable weather conditions and coal
6. Not directly relevant to our 46 combustion might result in severe smog. However,
discussed topic
7. Relevant studies 53 traffic was not a significant source for severe smog
Causes of different air pollutants and smog episodes according to Mira-Salama et al. [30].
It was noticed that the increase in prosperity and Moreover, a controversial study that decreases in
population growth in developing countries have smog was also recorded in the early morning and with
resulted in excessive use of energy resources that low traffic areas by Campbell et al. [31].
deteriorate air quality [12]. As human populations Levels of ammonia gas in the ambient air were very
important and ammonia has shown a significant
increase, cities have rushed to keep up with different
contribution to the formation of smog [32]. Due to ever
industries increasing and roads overloaded with traffic
[11, 13-18]. The urban air was found enriched with increasing number of vehicles, industries,
harmful compounds like sulphur dioxide, nitrogen deforestation and rapid urbanization the level of
dioxide, carbon monoxide, volatile organic pollution in an urban area like Lahore were found
compounds, heavy metals, particulate matter and accelerating according to the regulation of the World
Health Organization (WHO) and the National
smog that act as health hazard pollutants [11, 19].

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Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) [27- 28, public environmental education and provide
33]. accessible environmental knowledge to residents.
Effects of air pollutants and smog Oxidative stress effected by pollutants and controlled
Elsom, [34] reported that the world's cities were by the addition of supplements and food which have
choked with pollution both from traffic and industry. anti-oxidant properties [47]. There should be some
Due to this ever increasing pollution, the health of 1.6 preventive measures for the betterment of people to
billion people is under threat, and urban air quality was help them when they have exposure to the outdoors.
realized as deteriorating day by day. The damaging During outdoor exposure, the mask should be worn.
effects of air pollutants were also noticed for plants There should be a primary limitation for low emission,
and animals along with humans, both at the organ and low carbon fuel that should be environment friendly as
cellular level [35-36]. Smog is one of the major natural gas instead of oil and coal [48-49]. There is
secondary pollutants that greatly affecting life and the also a need to enhanced local community awareness
environment. The smog results in a health issue that about public transport as compared to individual
includes some major and severe risks such as allergies, transport. Moreover, farmers should be aware of the
eye-watering, bronchial infections, heart problems, harms of burning crops leftover instead this uses the
including asthma and lung damage tissue [6, 37-39]. leftover as fertilizers. Brick kiln units are one of the
Photochemical smog was recorded as a serious important sources of black carbon, so shut down these
problem in many cities and it was more harmful to units before the arrival of winter would be a great
senior citizens, children, and people with heart and remedy. As it was also observed in winter 2018, the
lung conditions such as emphysema, bronchitis and action plan of the government (to close the brick kiln
asthma. It also affects vegetation and accelerates the units in and around the vicinity of Lahore) worked
deterioration of rubber, plastics, paints and dyes, well and less smog was noticed as compared to the
damage to metals, stone, concrete, clothing [40]. previous two years. Moreover, we need to implant
Bernstein et al. [41] had reported upper and lower smog-eating towers that suck up injurious and toxic
respiratory problems enhanced on exposure to chemicals and filtered the quality air before release.
pollutants and showed a statistically positive However, there is a need to use smog-free bikes and
association with air pollutants. Xing et al. and Sierra- smog sucking vacuum towers even though, all the
Vargas, [42-43] also reported that the most affected mentioned technologies were found expensive and
people by smog were old aged, kids and those that difficult to put into practice [50-52]. Smog can be
already suffered from respiratory and cardiac reduced 10% by planting more trees as these lowers
problems. Furthermore, the symptoms were more the air temperature [53].
pronounced in people who spent most of their time in
outdoor activities [43]. The air pollutants have also CONCLUSION
shown various chronic respiratory problems like It is concluded that due to an increase in population
chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD), and technology, developing countries have seen an
cardiovascular diseases (CVD), asthma, and cancer excessive use of energy resources that accumulate
[44]. Hazy smoke is not only able to cause bronchitis pollutants and in turn deteriorating air quality. There
but also decreased the UV radiation by which human are various sources for these pollutants such as
beings may suffer from Vitamin D deficiency, as a industries, transport, carbonyl compounds from food
result, people may have rickets disease [43]. and food products, ammonia, black carbon from brick
Smog also has impacts on the natural environment that kiln industries and deforestation etc. The noxious
became tough for animals to survive in such chemicals result in smog and produce various harmful
conditions. It prevents the growth of plants that can effects on vegetation, animals and human health.
lead to widespread damage to crops, trees and Moreover, there is a need to educate people on how to
vegetation. As we know smog is a combination of behave during smog and to take different strategic
smoke and fog, it imparts harmful effects not only on measures to cut down on smog-causing agents.
human beings and animals but also on the plants and
atmosphere. Smog which also contains ground level ETHICAL ISSUES
ozone retards the plant growth hormone and affects Ethical issues have been completely observed by the
their growth. It also damaged the seasonal crops and authors.
vegetables like wheat, rice, and cotton an essential part
of the human diet. It may also cause many diseases in
CONFLIT OF INTEREST
humans like skin and eye irritation [24, 45].
There is no conflict of interest to be declared.
Some mitigation measures for smog
According to Wang et al. [46] tackling smog pollution
has great importance and there is a need to enhance
AUTHOR’S CONTRIBUTIONS

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All authors equally contributed to write this review smog crisis in China. Journal of Cleaner Production.
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The project was supported financially by the authors. Environment. 2008; 42 (33): 7775-85.
[14] Stone E, Schauer J, Quraishi TA, Mahmood A.
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