CH4026

SPECIALITY POLYMERS
 Course Plan
Topics Hours
High temperature and fire resistant polymers, 12
Polymers with electrical and electronic properties, Polymers in
telecommunications and power transmission 14
Hydrophilic polymers, Polymer concrete-polymer impregnated
concrete, ultra high modulus fibres, polymers for biomedical
applications 13
TOTAL 39

Evaluation Scheme
Weightage
Component Duration Date & Time
(%)
Test 1 1 Hour 20 According to Academic Calendar
Test 2 1 Hour 20 According to Academic Calendar
Assignments -- 20 -
Journal Writeup -- 10 -
End semester exam 2 Hour 30 According to Academic Calendar

Grading: Absolute grading 2

 Course outcomes:
• CO1. Identify high temperature and fire resistant polymers
based on their chemical structure.
• CO2. Describe the methods to improve the fire resistance of
polymers
• CO3. Explain the conducting, photo conducting mechanisms of
polymers
• CO4. Choose polymers for biomedical and polymer concrete
applications
• CO5. Describe the properties of high modulus fibers and
polymeric binders
• CO6. Explain the construction of sheathing materials used in
telecommunication and optical cables.
Reference

• Mark, H.F. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Polymer Science &

Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1989.
• Martin T Goosey, Plastics for Electronics, Elsevier
Applied Science Publishers, 1985.
• Dyson, R.W. (Ed.), Specialty Polymers, Springer US,
1987.
Specialty polymers
• Specialty polymers are polymers having properties and
characteristics specially engineered for specific purposes.
They are ranged from mono-functional to multifunctional
polymers. Specialty polymers are specifically designed to
serve a specific purpose.
• They are made by keeping in mind where they are to be
used, which chemical and mechanical properties are to be
needed and how they to be shaped are. Every intricate
detail is taken into consideration and their development is
very sensitive if we talk about high end specialty polymers.
They can be as cheap as commodity polymers to extremely
expensive ones depending upon their area of application.
• Conducting Polymers, Liquid Crystal Polymers,
Biodegradable Polymers, Biomedical Polymers, Polymer
Composites, Electroluminescent Polymers and more
 Special Type Plastics

• Polytetra Fluroethylene (PTFE)

• Thermoplastic Polyurethanes(TPU)
• Polyether Etherketone (PEEK)
• Liquid Crystal Polymer (LCP) etc.
Limiting Oxygen Index
(LOI)
• LOI expresses the minimum percentage (by volume) of oxygen
necessary for a material to undergo flammable combustion
• Atmospheric air is about 21% oxygen
• A material’s LOI increasing beyond 21 is an indication of increasing
resistance to fire
• Some polymers have a high LOI and thus are considered
inherently flame retardant
• This performance is often reflected in higher pricing
• Exceptions include some halogen containing polymers
 Continuous Use Temperature

• The continuous use temperature is used to indicate the

maximum temperature at which a material may be exposed to
for a given long period of time leading to a property loss of
50%
• Property is usually tensile strength or impact (Tensile Herein)
• Run for 500-20,000 hrs – Not indefinitely
• All polymers are organic and thus will break down eventually
• Key design parameter for demanding applications such as underhood
automotive, aerospace, and other industries
• As continuous use temperature increases so does the cost of the resin
 Heat Distortion Temperature

• Heat Distortion Temperature indicates the temperature at

which a material deflects a certain distance under a specified
load
• Generally run at 66 psi and 264 psi
• Used as a design parameter to determine if a part will deform during
use or post molding operations that entail elevated temperatures
• Higher HDT materials generally command a premium price
Hydrocarbon polymers
• High molecular weight polyphenylene is a highly
intractable material, so despite its superb high
temperature resistance to oxidation, it is not
commercially useful.
• Low molecular weight branched polymers with mixed
isomeric linking (H-resin TM) have been used as soluble,
flexible precursor polymers for fabrication of high
temperature resistant composites with glass fibre, or
asbestos, which form cross-linked networks on curing
at high temperatures (up to 250 °C).
• Maximum use temperature in air is 215 °C(continuous)
or 350 °C for short times. Typical of highly aromatic
polymers, they have low flammability, with a limiting
oxygen index of 55.
19
Hydrocarbon polymers (Contd..)
• Linking the benzene rings through aliphatic
methylene (-CHz-) groups is one way of introducing
chain flexibility and hence improving processibility.
• However, the presence of aliphatic groups reduces
resistance to thermal oxidation.
• Simplest such polymer has not been synthesized,
• But the commercial Xylok ™ resins of typical
structure

20
Hydrocarbon polymers (Contd..)
• low molecular weight prepolymers which may be cured to
thermoset products by heating with hexamine or epoxy
compounds
• Products are intermediate in structure between a novolak
phenolic resin and a p-phenylene, so have properties
expected of a high temperature resistant phenolic resin
• For example, strength retention at elevated temperatures
(e.g. 250°C) is eight times as long as for an epoxy cured
novolak. In addition the product has low flammability and
low smoke production on burning.
• poly-p-xylylenes, are also commercial products (Paralene
NTM) which are useful as electrically insulating coatings

21
Hydrocarbon polymers (Contd..)
• They are produced by the vacuum pyrolysis of the
cyclic dimer of p-xylene, the volatile pyrolysis
products of which spontaneously polymerize on the
cool surface to be coated.
• The polymer has a T m of about 400 °C and a Tg of
80°C, but is susceptible to oxidation above 100 0c.
A chlorinated version (Paralene C™) has better
oxidation resistance

22
Polyethers
• Ether links provide a very good choice of flexibilizing group since the -C-
O-C- link is itself very flexible and is also highly resistant to thermal
oxidation.
• Polymer has a Tg of about 90°C, and commercial polyphenylene oxide
(PPO) is based on the 2,6-dimethyl substituted polymer with a Tg of
208°C.
• It does not crystallize from the melt.
• The long established commercial products (NoryITM) are blends with
polystyrene, high impact polystyrene or ABS.
• Although the blends have higher softening points (heat distortion
temperatures up to 150°C) than commodity polymers, they are not high
enough for the materials to be considered as high temperature resistant
polymers.
• Ether links are also employed in some aromatic copolymers, such as
polyethersulphones and polyetherketones, to introduce flexibility into
otherwise rather intractable homopolymers.

23
Polyphenylene sulphide
• (PPS) has been available commercially (Ryton TM) for many years
• It is normally crystalline (Tm 285 °C, Tg about 200 °C) and shows such
good thermal and thermo-oxidative stability that it may be used in air at
temperatures above 200 °C for long periods.
• When heat treated in air, the polymer chain extends and cross-links,
improving mechanical behaviour and producing a highly insoluble and
chemically resistant material.
• Its limiting oxygen index is 44, so it has low flammability.
• Injection moulded products include electrical connectors, high
temperature lamp holders and reflectors, pump parts, valves and,
especially when filled for example with PTFE or graphite, as bearings.
• Processing temperatures are 300-350 °C with mould temperatures of up
to 200 °C.
• It is also a useful high temperature surface coating material and is used
for encapsulation of electronic components.

24
Polysulphones
• Poly-p-phenylene sulphone itself has too high a
softening point (Tm about 520°C) to be melt
processable.
• commercial aromatic polysulphone copolymers, which
contain other flexibilizing groups, are available
• Depending on the nature and amount of these groups,
the different commercial products have different Tg
values
• It has a Tg of about 190°C.
• Show outstanding good creep resistance, especially at
somewhat elevated temperatures and are indeed
regarded as superior engineering polymer

25
26
Polysulphones (Contd..)
• The polysulphones have found widespread use as
injection moulding materials where good dimensional
stability at elevated temperatures is required: e.g.
electrical components, including circuit boards,
connectors, coil bobbins, and relays; appliances
operating at high temperatures, e.g. fan heaters, hair
driers, microwave ovens; and pumps, valves and lamp
housings and bases.
• The materials are transparent (being amorphous),
though often slightly yellow and susceptible to
environmental stress cracking in certain fluids.
• They have low flammability (limiting oxygen index
typically 38), and burn with little smoke production.

27
Polyesters
• The partially aromatic polyesters,
polyethyleneterephthalate and polybutyleneterephthalate,
are well established as plastics and fibre forming materials.
• However, they have limited heat resistance. The earliest
commercial wholly aromatic polyester was Ekonol
• (polyhydroxybenzoic acid) which is crystalline and softens
only above 500 °C, so must be processed by metallurgical
techniques such as sintering and hammering.
• It may be used at temperatures up to 320 C and has found
use as a bearing material. More tractable and melt
processable copolymers, containing ester units from
terephthalic or isophthalic acid and aromatic diols (EkceI™),
are also marketed and may be injection moulded.
28
Polyesters (contd..)
• Marketed aromatic polyesters described as polyarylates
(ArylefTM, Ardel™, Arylon TM).
• Noncrystallizing copolymers of mixed phthalic acids
with a bisphenol, so have repeat units of the type
• They are melt processable with Tg (and heat distortion
temperatures) in the range 150-200 °C, and have
similar mechanical properties to polyethersulphones
and polycarbonate.
• The polymers are useful for electrical and mechanical
components requiring good heat resistance, as well as
for lighting fixtures and consumer goods operating at
elevated temperatures such as hair driers and
microwave ovens.

29
Polyesters (contd..)
• A new approach to improving the balance of
process ability and high softening point appears to
have been successful in another recently
introduced type of aromatic co-polyester, so-called
liquid crystalline polymers (LCPs) (Vectra TM) in
which the retention of liquid crystalline order in the
melt gives lower melt viscosities than would
otherwise be achieved.
• Heat distortion temperatures are in the range of
180-240 °C LCPs thus perhaps herald a new era of
very readily moulded engineering and electrical
parts for high temperature use.
30
Polyamides
• Aliphatic polyamides (the nylons) have amongst the highest softening
points for wholly aliphatic polymers, owing to their high melting points,
generally above 200 C.
• These high values arise from the complete hydrogen bonding of the
amide groups in the crystalline regions.
• However, even the highest melting polymer, nylon 66 (Tm 264 0c) has a
maximum continuous use temperature of only about 120°C even when
glass filled.
• Higher melting nylon 46 (Stany TM) with a Tm of 295°C, has become
available
• The polymer has a claimed maximum working temperature of above
150°C, and a heat distortion temperature of above 150 °C when unfilled
and of 295°C when 30% glass filled.
• polymer may be a competitor with polysulphones as a reasonably high
temperature resistant material in electrical and automotive
applications.

31
Polyamides (Contd..)
• wholly aromatic polyamides (also known as aramids) have such high melting
points that they are not melt processable, so are not usable as plastics moulding
materials.
• The meta-linked polymer, poly-mphenylene isophthalamide, Nomex TM has
been available since 1972
• It has a Tm of above 400°C and is processed into fibres by wet spinning from
solution or to a film by casting from solution
• A maximum use temperature of 370°C is claimed but, as a fibre, Nomex™ is
mostly used for its fire resistance in fire resistance textiles, for example for
racing drivers' and astronauts' suits
• As a film, Nomex ™ paper, due to its exceptional stiffness, is also useful as a
honeycomb layer in high performance composite laminates, especially when
bonded to carbon fibre reinforced plastic outer layers, in aircraft and
performance speed boats
• Para-linked aromatic polyamides have even higher crystallinities, stiffnesses and
melting points owing to the greater symmetry of the structure.
• Exceptionally high stiffness fibres have been available since 1970 (Kevlar™)
which are based on poly-p-phenylene terephthalamide

32
Polyamides (Contd..)
• Kevlar™ fibres are produced by wet spinning from
solution.
• Crystallinity in the fibres is enhanced by the liquid
crystalline nature of their solutions
• The original incentive for the development of
Kevlar™ was their use a tyre cord reinforcement.
• Whilst currently some fibre is used in high
performance tyres, the material is better known as
a high modulus reinforcing fibre in plastic
composites.
33
Polyamides (Contd..)
• At the other extreme, wholly aromatic polyamides (also known as
aramids) have such high melting points that they are not melt
processable, so are not usable as plastics moulding materials.
However, two long established products are significant
commercial polymers.
• The meta-linked polymer, poly-mphenylene isophthalamide,
Nomex, has been available since 1972
• It has a Tm of above 400°C and is processed into fibres by wet
spinning from solution or to a film by casting from solution.
• A maximum use temperature of 370°C is claimed but, as a fibre,
Nomex™ is mostly used for its fire resistance in fire resistance
textiles, for example for racing drivers' and astronauts' suits. As a
film, Nomex ™ paper, due to its exceptional stiffness, is also
useful as a honeycomb layer in high performance composite
laminates, especially when bonded to carbon fibre reinforced
plastic outer layers, in aircraft and performance speed boats.

34
Polyamides (Contd..)
• Para-linked aromatic polyamides have even higher
crystallinities, stiffnesses and melting points owing to the
greater symmetry of the structure.
• Exceptionally high stiffness fibres have been available since
1970 (Kevlar™) which are based on poly-p-phenylene
terephthalamide
• Kevlar™ fibres are produced by wet spinning from solution.
Crystallinity in the fibres is enhanced by the liquid crystalline
nature of their solutions.
• The original incentive for the development of Kevlar™ was
their use a tyre cord reinforcement.
• fibres are therefore not so liable to fracture even at large
strains. This property is also useful in the construction of
bullet-proofclothing for military use.

35
Polyamides (Contd..)
• Melt processable aromatic, or partially aromatic,
polyamides are produced as random copolymers, which
do not crystallize (and are therefore transparent) but
are still capable of high temperature use since they
have high Tg values.
• Trogamid TTM contains repeat units of

• and of the 2,4, 4-dimethyl isomer, and has a Tg of about

150 °C

36
Polyamides (Contd..)
• A crystalline, partially aromatic polyamide, poly-m-
xylylene-adipamide is also available as a heat resistant
engineering plastic, generally similar in properties to
nylon 66, having a Tm of 243°C but with reduced water
absorption and somewhat greater stiffness
• Although its heat distortion temperature is only 96°C
(its Tg is at about 90°C), when 30% glass filled this is
increased to about 270°C
• Copolymers containing amide and imide units, the
polyamide-imides, are discussed in a later section on
polyimides
37
Polyketones
• Aromatic polyketones are the most recently developed type of
aromatic polymer and probably offer the best high temperature
resistance of any melt processable thermoplastic material.
• Victrex PEEK™ (polyetherether ketone) has been available since
1978 and has the structure
• The Tg is 143°C but the polymer crystallizes with a Tm of 334°C
• These values give the unreinforced material a heat distortion
temperature of 160°C, but this increases to 315 °C for 30% glass
fibre reinforced grades.
• Being wholly aromatic the polymer also has excellent thermal
oxidation resistance, so overall the maximum continuous working
temperature is 250°C.
• Its chemical and, especially, its hot water resistance (no effect
after thousands of hours at 250°C) are exceptional.

38
Polyketones (Contd..)
• Flammability behaviour is also good with a limiting oxygen
index of 40 and very low smoke and toxic gas production,
characteristic of many wholly aromatic polymers.
• Applications include electrical products such as high
temperature connectors, film wrapping for cables, wire and
cable insulation for fire resistant uses such as warships and
oil wells, hot water pumps, valves and engine components.
• Composite prepregs with carbon fibres have been
developed for structural aircraft components
• These polymers have even higher Tg values and heat
distortion temperatures (up to 340°C for glass filled grades).

39
Heterocyclic polymers
Polyimides
• Dupont offered the first commercial polyimide in
the early 1960s, made by condensation between
pyromellitic dianhydride and 4,4-diamino diphenyl
ether:

40
Polyimides(Contd..)
• The polymer has an exceptionally high heat distortion temperature
(357°C) and thermo-oxidative resistance
• Indeed until lately there has been no other commercial organic polymer
which can achieve such good resistance to high temperatures, giving it a
continuous use temperature of about 270 °C
• high heat resistance is at the expense of mouldability.
• polymer must be shaped as the tractable polyamic acid precursor
polymer, which is then converted to the final polyimide structure by
further heating.
• The varnish and film are mostly used for exceptionally high temperature
electrical insulation applications
• solid resin products are also available in glass and graphite filled grades,
and are used for seals, bearings, gaskets and piston rings, e.g. in aero
engines and other high temperature engineering applications

41
Polyimides(Contd..)
• Skybond-700TM of structure
• which is supplied as a solution of the monomer
reactants, which cure to the polyimide structure
• It is used particularly in prepreg form.
• However, several such products were short-lived
and none has been as successful as the original
Dupont materials.
• In order to obtain more tractable, and sometimes
melt processable, polyimides, various copolymers
have been introduced commercially

42
Polyimides(Contd..)
• Torlon TM, a polyamide-imide of structure
• an Injection moulding material giving products with a
continuous use temperature of up to 260°C.
• The material also has exceptional stiffness and creep
resistance.
• It is moulded at about 353 °C with mould temperatures
of about 230°C
• Mouldings do require extensive annealing at high
temperatures to develop the best mechanical
performance.
• Products include electrical parts, valves, pumps, gears
and (when filled with a lubricant such as graphite or
PTFE) bearings.
43
Polyimides(Contd..)
• A different type of polyimide, produced by an
addition rather than a condensation reaction, is the
polybismaleimide (Rhone-Poulenc) of structural
type with unsaturated end groups which cross-link
the chains giving thermoset products on moulding
• The Kerimid™ material is a laminating and filament
winding resin for use with glass and carbon fibres.
• Kinel™ is a thermosetting moulding material,
containing a reinforcing or lubricating filler, for such
products as friction pads, gears, cams, bearings and
seals

44
Polyimides(Contd..)
• somewhat lower performance, but more readily melt
processable, copolymer is the polyether-imide Ultem
• The material has a heat distortion temperature of 200 C
with a continuous use temperature of 170 C and is of
low flammability (limiting oxygen index 47%). It is
mostly used as an injection moulding material needing
melt temperatures of about 360 C and mould
temperatures of 70-150 C.
• Application areas include under-the-bonnet
automotive and electrical products such as microwave
ovens, circuit boards and connectors.
45
Other polymers
• Many other heterocyclic structures offer excellent
thermal and thermooxidative stability.
• Among the many linear polymers,
polybenzimidazoles (PBI) were developed early and
are the only materials to show any real commercial
promise, but they have had nothing like the success
the polyimides have achieved, despite their
comparable high temperature resistance.
• polymerdeveloped commercially is poly-(2, 2' -m-
phenylene-5, 5' -bibenzimidazole)

46
polybenzimidazoles (PBI)
• It has been used as a laminating resin and as an adhesive, as
a reasonably tractable low molecular weight precursor
polymer.
• The cured product has a Tg above 400 dc. Although short-
term strength at very high temperatures is better than for
polyimides, long-term strengths deteriorate more rapidly.
• Such factors, together with the high cost and toxicity of the
aromatic tetramine monomers used, has limited
commercial development.
• There is some interest in solution spun fibres for use as low
flammability textiles, since the fabric limiting oxygen index is
very high at 48, compared to other organic fabrics, and it
has very low smoke and toxic gas generation.
47
• In principle, even higher temperature resistance
may be obtained with fused ring chain polymers
(double strand or ladder polymers) of schematic
structure or of heterocyclic analogues
• Compared to single strand analogues, not only
would such polymers have exceedingly rigid chains,
and hence high softening points, but any chain
scission through oxidation would require cleavage
to occur twice in the same ring structure (e.g. at
points a and b in the above structure), which is
statistically very unlikely until massive oxidation has
occurred.
48
• no such polymers have been commercialized
• One of the main problems lies in the difficulty of
achieving complete cyclization, and hence ladder
formation, during the synthesis of the polymer.
• It is perhaps appropriate to end this discussion of
high temperature resistant polymers with these
highly aromatic ladder polymers since they seem to
offer almost the ultimate that is attainable with
organic polymers, with possible use temperatures
approaching 500 C.

49
FLAME RETARDANCY
• Inorganic Flame Retardants
• Phosphorus-Based Flame Retardants
• Inorganic Phosphorus Compounds
• Additive Organic Phosphorus Flame Retardants
• Oxides
• Borates
• Other Inorganics
• Molybdates.
• Stannates.
• Halogenated Flame Retardants
• Chlorine-Containing Flame Retardants
• Brominated Flame Retardants
• Nitrogen-Based Flame Retardants
Oxides:- Alumina Trihydrate
(Aluminum Hydroxide, Aluminum
Trihydroxide, ATH)
• [21645-51-2]:-various surface-treated versionsbwhere
the treatment (such as silanation) improves the
miscibility or the mechanical properties of the final
composition.
• The mode of action is believed to be attributable
mainly to endothermic dehydration at about 230◦C
with 34.5% weight loss of water by 350◦C, consuming
1190 J/g of heat. This water loss acts to withdraw heat,
which would otherwise serve to pyrolyze the polymer,
and the resultant emission of water vapor also dilutes
and cools combustible volatile fragments emitted from
breakdown of the polymer. The residual anhydrous
alumina also serves as a thermal barrier.
Antimony Oxides
• The synergism with halogen results from thermal
formation of SbCl3 or SbBr3, which inhibit flame by
scavenging hydrogen atoms and other radicals.
• In acid-sensitive thermoplastic polyesters such as
PET, PBT, or PC, sodium antimonate is
advantageous since it avoids some undesired
catalytic action of the oxide itself.
Borates
• Boric Acid:- serves to prevent smoldering combustion of
cotton batting. Boric acid probably works by melting and
coating the cellulose, although some vapor action.
• Sodium Borates:- hydrated salts can act as endothermic
heat sinks and moreover the salt fuses to a nonflammable
glassy barrier layer. Sodium borates, in particular borax
(sodium tetraborate decahydrate [1303-96-4]), are used in
disposable paper and nonwoven cellulosic products, and as
wood flame retardants where their water solubility can be
tolerated.
• Zinc Borates:-hydrated salts have an endothermic action
and also, at the elevated temperature of burning, they can
flux with or sinter with other minerals such as alumina to
form nonflammable barriers
Molybdates
• Calcium molybdates and zinc molybdates used in
PVC as smoke suppressants
• Ammonium octamolybdate a slightly water-soluble
crystalline salt, is a smoke suppressant for PVC. It is
used in wire and cable, mass transit vehicle
interiors, and carpet backing. It is believed to work
by forming a barrier and by modifying the
decomposition of the PVC.
Stannates
• Zinc stannate & zinc hydroxystannate white water-
insoluble powders useful as smoke suppressants in
PVC partly replace antimony oxide as flame-
retardant synergists in halogen-containing flame-
retardant formulations, with reduced smoke
Layered Clays (“Nanoclays”) and
Other Finely Divided Inorganic
Additives.
• Layered clays such as montmorillonite or hectorite,
when treated with substances which can penetrate
between the layers, such as quaternary ammonium
compounds, can be made to separate (exfoliate)
into individual layers with nanometer thicknesses
some other finely divided minerals such as
attapulgite, kaolinite, talc, or silica can have this
beneficial effect, which may be related to heat-
transferor mass-transfer-barrier formation or
barrier strengthening in cooperation with char
formation.
Expandable Graphite Flake
• made by treating graphite flake with nitric and
sulfuric acid, which intercalate between the
graphite layers.
• When heated by fire exposure to above about
160◦C, gases generated by the action of the
oxidizing acids on the graphite cause the flakes to
swell up greatly to form elongated twisted
“wormlike” fibrils. This expanded material is an
excellent heat insulator
Halogenated Flame Retardants
• The mode of action of halogenated flame
retardants is often described as proceeding with
the production of hydrogen halide (or, in the
presence of antimony oxide, antimony trihalide),
which enters the flame zone and serves as a flame
inhibitor. Part of this flame inhibition is generally
believed to result from the scavenging of free
hydrogen atoms, which are responsible for the rate-
controlling chain branching steps in flame
chemistry; however another part of the mode of
action appears to be physical dilution, heat
capacity, and endothermicity
Chlorine-Containing Flame
Retardants
• Chloroparaffins:- range from pourable liquids to
waxes to rather high melting solids, depending on
the chain length of the paraffin and the level of
chlorination
• At or above 70% chlorine content, the materials are
solids with softening temperatures from 103 to
160◦C. These are useful as flame-retardant
additives particularly for polyolefins, rubber, paints
and adhesives.
Brominated Flame Retardants
• Hexabromocyclododecane:- The main application is in
expanded polystyrene foam.
• It is generally used without antimony oxide, and allows
for the melt-flow mode of extinguishment in addition
to quenching the flame by evolved hydrogen bromide.
• Brominated Epoxy Oligomers:- The reaction of
tetrabromobisphenol A with epichlorohydrin can be
conducted in a ratio to make either diglycidyl ether or
to make oligomers of reduced epoxy functionality, or
end capped with tribromophenol to avoid functionality.
Reactive Bromine Compounds
• Tetrabromophthalic Anhydride:- It can be reacted
with diols and, generally, maleic anhydride to make
polyesters, which are then diluted with styrene to
produce flame-retardant unsaturated polyester
resins suitable for panels and bulkheads in buildings
and public transport.
Phosphorus-Based Flame
Retardants
• Inorganic Phosphorus Compounds
• polymeric form of phosphorus is relatively nontoxic, not
spontaneously flammable, and stable up to ∼450◦C.
Nitrogen-Based Flame Retardants
• Melamine :- It is occasionally used by itself as a
flame retardant but more often used as a blowing
agent and flame-retardant adjuvant in intumescent
coatings, elastomers, and plastic formulations (138)
as well as in flexible polyurethane foam