Process Control and Instrumentation of Boilers
Process Control and Instrumentation of Boilers
Table of Contents
DECLARATION ......................................................................................................... 1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................. 2
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 7
OUR VALUES ........................................................................................................... 7
MY VIEWS: ........................................................................................................... 8
HISTORY .................................................................................................................. 8
BUSINESSESS ......................................................................................................... 11
RANKINE CYCLE ..................................................................................................... 16
CARNOT CYCLE: ..................................................................................................... 19
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RANKINE CYCLE AND CARNOT CYCLE ............................ 20
BOILER SECTION: ................................................................................................... 21
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT: ............................................................................ 21
HR DEPARTMENT: .............................................................................................. 22
FINANCE DEPARTMENT:..................................................................................... 23
ADMINISTRATION DEPARTMENT: ...................................................................... 24
ONGOING PROJECTS: ............................................................................................ 25
CUSTOMERS: ......................................................................................................... 25
ALSTOM IN INDIA .................................................................................................. 25
FACTS AND FIGURES.............................................................................................. 26
BOILERS ................................................................................................................. 27
CLASSIFICATION OF BOILERS: ............................................................................. 28
Fire tube boilers ..................................................................................... 28
Water tube boilers ................................................................................. 28
COMPONENTS OF BOILERS: ............................................................................... 29
Feedwater system.................................................................................. 30
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INTRODUCTION
Alstom is a French headquartered multinational company which holds
interests in the electricity generation and rail transport markets.
Alstom is a global leader in the world of power generation, power
transmission and rail infrastructure and sets the benchmark for innovative
and environmentally friendly technologies
It is also a major rail vehicle manufacturer, active in the fields of passenger
transportation, signalling and locomotives, with products including the AGV,
TGV, Eurostar, and Pendolino high speed trains, in addition to suburban,
regional and metro trains, and Citadis trams.
Alstom's headquarters are located in LEVALLOIS-PERRET, west of Paris. Its
current CEO is PATRICK KRON.
OUR VALUES
TRUST: It is built on the responsibility given to each decision maker and
the openness of each individual to his or her professional environment,
ensuring transparency, which is vital in the management of risk.
TEAM: Alstom’s business is based on delivering projects whilst working in a
team. This requires our collective discipline and efforts to execute them
successfully, and networking to ensure we take full advantage of all the
competencies available.
ACTION: Alstom commits to delivering products and services to its
customers which meet their expectations in terms of price, quality and
delivery schedules. To meet our commitments to our customers, action is a
priority for all of us. Action is built on strategic thinking, speed of execution
to differentiate us from our competitors and the ability to report ensuring
the achievement of our business objectives
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MY VIEWS:
TRUST: Every employee has faith on others and is committed to their work.
The work environment is quite good and the work is completed within the
specified time.
TEAM: Team work is an essential part of any organisation and is thoroughly
followed in Alstom. Every department works as a team and that helps in the
overall growth of the Organisation.
ACTION: Everyone is dedicated towards their work and action is given the
highest priority. The action is also strategically thought so as to minimize the
time and increase the efficiency and productivity of an individual so as to
prosper the overall growth of the organisation.
HISTORY
YEAR POINTS OF NOTE
1928 The beginning of Alsthom was from the merger of the French
heavy engineering interests of the Thomson-Houston Electric
Company (then General Electric), the Compagnie française pour
l'exploitation des procédés Thomson Houston, (or Compagnie
Française Thomson Houston, CFTH) and Société Alsacienne de
Constructions Mécaniques (SACM), with its first factory in
Belfort.
1969 Compagnie Générale d'Electricité (CGE) becomes majority
shareholder of Alsthom.
1977 Alsthom constructs the first 1300MW generator set for the
Paluel power station which set a world record with an output of
1500 MW.
1978 The first TGV is delivered to SNCF. The TGV went on to break
world rail speed records in 1981 (380 km/h) and 1990 (515.3
km/h), and achieved the world endurance record for high-speed
train lines in 2001, travelling from Calais to Marseille (1067.2 km)
in 3 hours and 29 mins.
1988-89 Alsthom acquires 100% of the rail transport equipment division
8
2007 Following a new Graphic Chart, the Group name is now written
"alstom", with the exception of the legal entities which are
written with Alstom in capitals, e.g., Alstom S.A.
April: on a test run in France, TGV Est set the world speed record
for rail vehicles of 574.8 km/h.
25 June: Acquired the Spanish wind turbine manufacturer
Ecotècnia, and was named Alstom Ecotècnia until April 2010,
when the Ecotécnia name was dropped. The new entity legal
name is Alstom Wind.
2009 Alstom acquired 25% +1 share of Russian Transmashholding.
2010 Alstom announces opening of a wind turbine assembly facility
in Amarillo, Texas.
Alstom re-acquires the Electric power transmission Division of
Areva SA, which had previously been sold to Areva in 2004. A
new division is created called Alstom Grid.
Alstom inaugurates new hydropower manufacturing facility in
China.
2011 Alstom and the Iraqi government sign a memorandum of
understanding regarding the construction of a new high-speed
rail line between Baghdad and Basra.
2012 Alstom begins construction of factories at:
1.Sorel-Tracy, Quebec, Canada (passenger rail vehicles)
2. Cherbourg (Turbine blades in association with LM Power, wind
turbine towers)
3. Ufa, Russia, joint venture with RusHydro.
2013 November Alstom announced it planned to raise €1 to €2 billion
through sale of some non-core assets, plus the possible sale of a
stake in Alstom Transport, and also cut 1300 jobs.
2014 1. (29 April) Reuters reports that the board of Alstom accepts a
€10billion ($13.82billion) bid from GE for its energy operations,
whilst remaining open to alternative unsolicited bids.
2. (5 May) General Electric posts offers to buy 1/4 of the shares
in Alstom's Indian power and distribution companies: Alstom
T&D India Ltd. and Alstom India Ltd. at 261.25 and 382.20 rupees
a share (value $278 million and $111 million respectively) subject
to its bid for Alstom SA being successful.
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BUSINESSESS
1. POWER:-
RENEWABLE POWER
Hydroelectric Power:
• #1 hydro motor generator installed base
• Leader of the pumped-storage equipment market
• Alstom’s technology equips the world’s 5 highest capacity hydro
installations in operation, amongst other record-breaking dams
• Leading R&D capabilities: a one-of-a-kind worldwide network of
Global Technologies Centers.
Wind Power:
• Supply and installation of onshore wind turbines: reaching new
heights of efficiency and reliability
• Supply and installation of offshore wind turbines: designed for the
industry’s most challenging environmental conditions
• Wind services: a full range of operation and maintenance services
• Technical assessment including wind farm design
• Project authorisation including permit applications
• Project financing
Solar Power:-
Alstom developed CSP (concentrated solar power), because of its
potential for large-scale, efficient power generation. Requiring clear
skies and strong sunlight, at least 1900kWh/m2/y, CSP is the ideal fit
for plants located on the Sun Belt. It is also ideal for centralized on
grid or industrial applications with adequate tariff structures. Thanks
to the option of storage capacity that it offers, CSP allows you to have
power long after sunset or on days with some cloud coverage.
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Geothermal Power:-
Alstom pioneered the commercial exploitation of geothermal power
in New Zealand in the 1950s. Today, we’re at the cutting edge of
geothermal innovation, with an extensive portfolio of proven
technologies, plus the ability to create custom-made solutions for the
most challenging geothermal applications.
Biomass Power:-
Alstom’s wide range of experience includes burning all types of fuels
in boilers, including biomass. We receive, handle, store and process
biomass materials, ready for direct injection into boilers. Alstom has
been retrofitting biomass co-firing systems for nearly two decades.
You’ll benefit from greatly reduced CO2 emissions with our biomass-
fired steam power plants.
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Gas Power:-
Alstom has been helping the operators of gas-fired power plants to
balance fluctuating fuel prices and availability with environmental
concerns for more than 75 years.
Gas power plants
Gas services
Gas turbines
HSRGs(Heat recovery steam generators)
Nuclear Power:-
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Alstom equips 30% of the world’s nuclear power plants with its
reliable turbine generator sets. Our equipment is currently in 40% of
today’s nuclear plants. Teams at Alstom work at maximizing the
power output delivered by all the reactors by increasing the efficiency
of the power conversion systems.
Turbine Islands
Steam Turbines
Services
Turbogenerators
2. TRANSPORT:-
Trains:-
Metro Metropolis
Tram way Citadis
Tram way Citadis compact
Tram trains Citadis Dualis and Regio Citadis
Regional train Coradia
Suburban train X’Trapolis
Locomotive prim a II
Very high speed train duplex
Very high speed AGV
Services:-
Maintenance
Modernization
Parts and repair
Support services
Systems:-
Infrastructures
Integrated Solutions
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Signaling:-
Urban control system
Atlas signaling solution
Iconis integrated control Centre
Smart lock interlocking
Passenger information and entertainment
Security
3. GRID:-
Smart solution:-
Smart grid
HVDC super grid
Facts
Renewable
Network management:-
Generation
Transmission
Distribution
Demand response
Telecommunication
Oil and gas
Consulting and system integration
High voltage products :-
Turnkey substation
Gas in capsulated substation
Air insulated switchgears
Power transformers
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RANKINE CYCLE
The Rankine cycle is the fundamental operating cycle of all power plants where an
operating fluid is continuously evaporated and condensed. The selection of
operating fluid depends mainly on the available temperature range. Figure 1
shows the idealized Rankine cycle.
1-2-3 Isobaric Heat Transfer. High pressure liquid enters the boiler from the
feed pump (1) and is heated to the saturation temperature (2). Further
addition of energy causes evaporation of the liquid until it is fully converted
to saturated steam (3).
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4-5 Isobaric Heat Rejection. The vapor-liquid mixture leaving the turbine (4)
is condensed at low pressure, usually in a surface condenser using cooling
water. In well designed and maintained condensers, the pressure of the
vapor is well below atmospheric pressure, approaching the saturation
pressure of the operating fluid at the cooling water temperature.
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CARNOT CYCLE:
The Carnot cycle is a theoretical thermodynamic cycle proposed by Nicolas
Léonard Sadi Carnot in 1824 and expanded by Benoit Paul Émile Clapeyron in the
1830s and 40s. It can be shown that it is the most efficient cycle for converting a
given amount of thermal energy into work, or conversely, creating a temperature
difference (e.g. refrigeration) by doing a given amount of work.
The Carnot cycle when acting as a heat engine consists of the following steps:
they neither gain nor lose heat. The gas continues to expand, working on the
surroundings. The gas expansion causes it to cool to the "cold" temperature, TC.
4. Isentropic compression of the gas (isentropic work input) Once again the piston
and cylinder are assumed to be thermally insulated. During this step, the
surroundings do work on the gas, compressing it and causing the temperature to
rise to TH. At this point the gas is in the same state as at the start of step 1.
The main difference between that Rankine Cycle and the Carnot Cycle is that heat
transfer across the system boundary of Carnot Cycle is isothermal (constant
temperature), and heat transfer across the system boundary in a Rankine cycle is
isobaric (constant pressure). The Rankine cycle is a better model for most real
systems because a constant pressure heat exchanger is a better approximation for
how heat transfer is accomplished in most real systems than heat transfer to/from
constant temperature "heat reservoirs."
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BOILER SECTION:
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT:
2. PRESSURE PART:
Various pressure parts like SH, RH, Valves and pipes are designed.
4. STRUCTURE:
Boiler specifications and structure are done in this section.
5. FIELD OPERATION:
The field support i.e. erection and commissioning is done in this section.
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Inventory Management
Distribution Management
Channel Management
Payment Management
Financial Management
Supplier Management
7. PROCESS/EQUIPMENT:
Under this section Boiler processes and Equipment like fan, pump and
APH are designed.
HR DEPARTMENT:
This department manages the company’s most valuable resource i.e. its
employees. It performs various functions like Recruitment, safety, employee
relations, training and development etc. Following are its some of the most
important functionalities:-
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FINANCE DEPARTMENT:
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ADMINISTRATION DEPARTMENT:
Organizing any deliveries or suppliers coming into the offices for the
day for any reason.
Arranging company extras such as company cars and any hotels for
business trips that may be needed.
Sending out any mail on behalf of the company. This could be for
different stakeholders, customers or even for staff.
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ONGOING PROJECTS
NTPC – Barh II – Supercritical Boilers – 2 x 660 MW - under execution*
• APGENCO – Krishnapatnam - Supercritical Boilers – 2 x 800 MW - under
execution*
• Jay Pee - Bara - Supercritical Boilers – 3 x 660 MW - under execution*
• NTPC – Mouda - Supercritical Boilers – 2 x 660 MW - under execution*
• NTPC – Nabinagar Supercritical Steam Turbine Islands and Boilers* – 3 X
660 MW - under execution
• BHEL – Gadarwara Super Thermal Power Plant* - 2 X 800 MW – under
execution
CUSTOMERS
National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC).
Neyveli Lignite Corporation Limited.
Rajasthan Rajya Vidyut Utpadan Nigam Ltd.
NSL Orissa Power and Infratech Private Ltd.
Bharat Heavy Electrical Limited.
ALSTOM IN INDIA
Alstom has been associated with India’s progress for a century and has a
long-standing reputation for providing highly innovative and sustainable
solutions for meeting the country’s energy and transport requirements.
Since its inception in the year 1911, the company has been at the forefront
of leading-edge technology at every level. The company works with a
number of strategic partners in India to offer a wide range of solutions for
every sector – Power, Transport & Grid.
ALSTOM India statistics:
Around 9,000 employees in India .Three R&D Centers in Bengaluru (Power
and Transport), Vadodara (Power) and Hosur (Grid). Two engineering
centers at Noida and Kolkata.
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BOILERS
A Boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The heated or
vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating
applications.
The boiler control system is the means by which the balance of energy & mass
into and out of the boiler are achieved. Inputs are fuel, combustion air,
atomizing air or steam &feed water. Of these, fuel is the major energy input.
Combustion air is the major mass input. Outputs are steam, flue gas, blow
down, radiation & soot blowing.
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CLASSIFICATION OF BOILERS:
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COMPONENTS OF BOILERS:
More broadly speaking, the boiler system comprises of a feedwater system, steam
system and fuels system. The feedwater system provides water to the boiler and
regulates it automatically to meet the steam demand. Various valves provide
access for maintenance and repair.
The stem system collects and controls the steam produced in the boiler. Steam is
directed through a piping system to the point of use. Throughout the system,
steam pressure is regulated using valves and checked with steam pressure gauges.
The fuel system includes all equipment used to provide fuel to generate the
necessary heat. The equipment required in the fuel system depends on the type of
fuel used in the system.
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Feedwater system
The water supplied to the boiler, which is converted into steam, is called
feedwater. The two sources of feedwater are condensate or condensed
steam returned from the process and makeup water (treated raw water)
which must come from outside the boiler room and plant processes.
1. Feedwater heater
Boiler efficiency is improved by the extraction of waste heat from spent
steam to preheat the boiler feedwater. Heaters are shell and tube heat
exchangers with the feedwater on the tube side (inside) and steam on the
shell side (outside). The heater closest to the boiler receives the hottest
steam. The condensed steam is recovered in the heater drains and pumped
forward to the heater immediately upstream, where its heat value is
combined with that of the steam for that heater. Ultimately the condensate
is returned to the condensate storage tank or condenser hot well.
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2. Deaerators
Feedwater often has oxygen dissolved in it at objectionable levels, which
comes from air in-leakage from the condenser, pump seals, or from the
condensate itself. The oxygen is mechanically removed in a deaerator.
Deaerators function on the principle that oxygen is decreasingly soluble as
the temperature is raised. This is done by passing a stream of steam through
the feedwater. Deaerators are generally a combination of spray and tray
type. One problem with the control of deaerators is ensuring sufficient
temperature difference between the incoming water temperature and the
stripping steam. If the temperature is too close, not enough steam will be
available to strip the oxygen from the make-up water.
3. Economisers
Economisers are the last stage of the feedwater system. They are designed
to extract heat value from exhaust gases to heat the steam still further and
improve the efficiency of the boiler. They are simple finned tube heat
exchangers. Not all boilers have economizers. Usually they are found only on
water tube boilers using fossil fuel as an energy conservation measure.
A feedwater economiser reduces steam boiler fuel requirements by
transferring heat from the flue gas to incoming feedwater. By recovering
waste heat, an economiser can often reduce fuel requirements by 5 per cent
to 10 per cent and pay for itself in less than two years.
A feedwater economiser is appropriate when insufficient heat transfer
surface exists within the boiler to remove combustion heat. Boilers that
exceed 100 boiler hp, operating at pressures exceeding 75 psi or above, and
those that are significantly loaded all year long are excellent candidates for
economiser retrofit.
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Steam system
1. Steam and mud drums
A boiler system consists of a steam drum and a mud drum. The steam drum
is the upper drum of a watertube boiler where the separation of water and
steam occurs. Feedwater enters the boiler steam drum from the
economizers or from the feedwater heater train if there is no economiser.
The colder feedwater helps create the circulation in the boiler.
The steam outlet line normally takes off from this drum to a lower drum by
a set of riser and downcomer tubes. The lower drum, called the mud drum,
is a tank at the bottom of the boiler that equalizes distribution of water to
the generating tubes and collects solids such as salts formed from hardness
and silica or corrosion products carried into the boiler.
In the circulation process, the colder water, which is outside the heat
transfer area, sinks and enters the mud drum. The water is heated in the
heat transfer tubes to form steam. The steam-water mixture is less dense
than water and rises in the riser tubes to the steam drum. The steam drum
contains internal elements for feedwater entry, chemical injection,
blowdown removal, level control, and steam-water separation. The steam
bubbles disengage from the boiler water in the riser tubes and steam flows
out from the top of the drum through steam separators.
2. Boiler tubes
Boiler tubes are usually fabricated from high-strength carbon steel. The
tubes are welded to form a continuous sheet or wall of tubes. Often more
than one bank of tubes is used, with the bank closest to the heat sources
providing the greatest share of heat transfer. They will also tend to be the
most susceptible to failure due to flow problems or corrosion/ deposition
problems.
3. Superheaters
The purpose of the superheater is to remove all moisture content from the
steam by raising the temperature of the steam above its saturation point.
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The steam leaving the boiler is saturated, that is, it is in equilibrium with
liquid water at the boiler pressure (temperature).
The superheater adds energy to the exit steam of the boiler. It can be a
single bank or multiple banks or tubes either in a horizontal or vertical
arrangement that is suspended in the convective or radiation zone of the
boiler. The added energy raises the temperature and heat content of the
steam above saturation point. In the case of turbines, excessive moisture in
the steam above saturation point. In the case of turbines, excessive
moisture in the steam can adversely affect the efficiency and integrity of the
turbine. Superheated steam has a larger specific volume as the amount of
superheat increases. This necessitates larger diameter pipelines to carry the
same amount of steam. Due to temperatures, higher alloy steel is used. It is
important that the steam is of high purity and low moisture content so that
non-volatile substances do not build up in the superheater.
4. Attemperators
Attemperation is the primary means for controlling the degree of superheat
in a superheated boiler. Attemperation is the process of partially de-
superheating steam by the controlled injection of water into the
superheated steam flow. The degree of superheat will depend on the steam
load and the heat available, given the design of the superheater. The degree
of superheat of the final exiting steam is generally not subject to wide
variation because of the design of the downstream processes. In order to
achieve the proper control of superheat temperature an attemperator is
used.
A direct contact attemperator injects a stream of high purity water into the
superheated steam. It is usually located at the exit of the superheater, but
may be placed in an intermediate position. Usually, boiler feedwater is sued
for attemperation. The water must be free of non-volatile solids to prevent
objectionable buildup of solids in the main steam tubes and on turbine
blades.
Since in attemperator water comes from the boiler feedwater, provision for
it has to be made in calculating flows. The calculation is based on heat
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balance. The total enthalpy (heat content) of the final superheat steam must
be the mass weighted sum of the enthalpies of the initial superheat steam
and the attemperation water.
5. Condensate systems
Although not a part of the boiler, condensate is usually returned to the
boiler as part of the feedwater. Accordingly, one must take into account the
amount and quality of the condensate when calculating boiler treatment
parameters. In a complex steam distribution system there will be several
components. These will include heat exchangers, process equipment, flash
tanks, and storage tanks.
Heat exchangers are the places in the system where steam is used to heat a
process or air by indirect contact. Shell and tube exchangers are the usual
design, with steam usually on the shell side. The steam enters as
superheated or saturated and may leave as superheated, saturated, or as
liquid water, depending on the initial steam conditions and the design load
of the exchanger.
Process equipment includes turbines whether used for HVAC equipment, air
compressors, or turbine pumps. Condensate tanks and pumps are major
points for oxygen to enter the condensate system and cause corrosion.
These points should be monitored closely for pH and oxygen ingress and
proper condensate treatment applied.
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Fuel system
Fuel feed systems play a critical role in the performance of boilers. Their
primary functions include transferring the fuel into the boiler and
distributing the fuel within the boiler to promote uniform and complete
combustion. The type of fuel influences the operational features of a fuel
system
The fuel feed system forms the most significant component of the boiler
system.
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liquid fuels can also be accomplished using a variety of control systems that
meter fuel flow.
such as CO, NOx, and PM that are released. Burners with these capabilities
re now used routinely in boilers that must comply with mandated emission
limitations.
The purpose of P&IDs is to provide an initial design basis for the boiler.
The P&IDs provides the engineering requirements to identify the
measurements and functions that are to be controlled. It may be used
to define the number of inputs, outputs and list of all the instruments
and functions.
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PROCESS LEGEND:
The process legend provides the information needed to interpret and
read the P&ID. Process legends are found at the front of the P&ID. The
legend includes information about piping, instrument and equipment
symbols, abbreviations, unit name, drawing number, revision number,
approvals, and company prefixes. Because symbol and diagram
standardization is not complete, many companies use their own
symbols in unit drawings. Unique and unusual equipment will also
requires a modified symbol value.
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BASICS
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ABBREVIATION TABLE:
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EQUIPMENT TABLE:
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Purpose
The power plant identification system is applied to clearly identify plants,
systems, parts and components to their purpose, type and location. The
contents are based on the “Identification Systems for Power Plant (KKS)”
published by VGB- Technical Association of Large Power Plant Operators.
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INSTRUMENTATION IN BOILERS:
A device, such as a photoelectric cell, that receives and responds to a signal or
stimulus. A device, usually electronic, which detects a variable quantity and
measures and converts the measurement into a signal to be recorded elsewhere.
A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal
which can be read by an observer or by an instrument. For example, a mercury
thermometer converts the measured temperature into expansion and contraction
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TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Attempts of standardized temperature measurement have been reported as early
as 170 AD by Claudius Galenus. The modern scientific field has its origins in the
works by Florentine scientists in the 17th century. Early devices to measure
temperature were called thermo scopes. The first sealed thermometer was
constructed in 1641 by the Grand Duke of Toscani, Ferdinand II. The development
of today's thermometers and temperature scales began in the early 18th century,
when Gabriel Fahrenheit adapted a thermometer using mercury and a scale both
developed by Ole Christensen Rømer. Fahrenheit's scale is still in use, alongside
the Celsius scale and the Kelvin scale.
Thermocouple
A thermocouple is a junction between two different metals that produces a
voltage related to a temperature difference. Thermocouples are a widely used
type of temperature sensor and can also be used to convert heat into electric
power.
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Thermistor:
A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies significantly with
temperature, more so than in standard resistors. The word is a portmanteau of
thermal and resistor. Thermistors are widely used as inrush current limiters,
temperature sensors, self-resetting overcurrent protectors, and self-regulating
heating elements.
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT:
Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and
vacuum. Instruments used to measure pressure are called pressure gauges or
vacuum gauges. Pressure gauge was discovered by Otto Von Guericke.
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The SI unit for pressure is the Pascal (Pa), equal to one newton per square meter
.This special name for the unit was added in 1971; before that, pressure in SI was
expressed in units such as N.m-2.
Bourdon tube most commonly used is the C-shaped metal tube that is sealed at
one end and open at the other.
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Diaphragm
Diaphragm valves are used on shut-off and throttling service for liquids,
slurries and vacuum/gas. The seal is achieved by a flexible membrane, usually
elastomer, and possibly reinforced with a metal part. The membrane is tensed
by the effect of a stem/compressor with lineal movement until contact is
made against the seal of the body. The operating parts of the diaphragm valve
are isolated from the flow. This makes this valve suitable for viscous flows and
also hazardous, abrasive and corrosive flows as its sealing system avoids any
contamination towards or from the environment. Diaphragm valves are
available in a wide variety of metals, solid plastics, plastic, rubber and glass
linings. They are well suited to the handling of multiple chemical applications
both clear fluids as well as slurries. The diaphragm valve has an extended use
for applications at low pressures and slurry fluid where most other kinds of
valves corrode or become obstructed. It is a quick opening valve.
• Weir: The Weir Diaphragm valve can be used for either off/on or throttling
services.
Bellows
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2.Round section bellow: The round section bellow are used for covering
heavily stressed and movable round machine parts such as shafts, spindles and
lead screws pistons.
3. Profile bellow: Profile bellow is lightweight, accurate and durable that can
be used in a wide range of electrical industries.
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4. Pipe joint bellow: The pipeline bellow is used in numerous industries that
require movement of water at high pressure in a controlled manner.
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FLOW MEASUREMENT
Turbine Meter
In a turbine, the basic concept is that a meter is manufactured with a known
cross sectional area. A rotor is then installed inside the meter with its blades
axial to the product flow. When the product passes the rotor blades, they
impart an angular velocity to the blades and therefore to the rotor. This
angular velocity is directly proportional to the total volumetric flow rate.
Turbine meters are best suited to large, sustained flows as they are susceptible
to start/stop errors as well as errors caused by unsteady flow states.
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Orifice Plate
An orifice plate is a plate with a hole through it, placed in the flow; it constricts
the flow and measuring the pressure differential across the constriction gives
the flow rate. It is basically a crude form of Venturi meter, but with higher
energy losses. There are three type of orifice: concentric, eccentric, and
segmental.
Venturi Meter
A Venturi meter constricts the flow in some fashion, and pressure sensors
measure the differential pressure before and within the constriction. This
method is widely used to measure flow rate in the transmission of gas through
pipelines, and has been used since Roman Empire times. The coefficient of
discharge of Venturi meter ranges from 0.93 to 0.97.
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Dall tube:
The Dall tube is a shortened version of a Venturi meter, with a lower pressure
drop than an orifice plate. As with these flow meters the flow rate in a Dall
tube is determined by measuring the pressure drop caused by restriction in
the conduit. The pressure differential is typically measured using diaphragm
pressure transducers with digital readout. Since these meters have
significantly lower permanent pressure losses than orifice meters, Dall tubes
are widely used for measuring the flow rate of large pipeworks.
Pitot tube:
A Pitot tube is a pressure measuring instrument used to measure fluid flow
velocity by determining the stagnation pressure. Bernoulli's equation is used to
calculate the dynamic pressure and hence fluid velocity. Also see Air flow
meter.
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LEVEL MEASUREMENT:
56
pressure impulse line is connected directly to the gas phase above the liquid
level, it is called a dry leg.
The boiler control system is the means by which the balance of energy & mass into
and out of the boiler are achieved. Inputs are fuel, combustion air, atomizing air or
steam &feed water. Of these, fuel is the major energy input. Combustion air is the
major mass input, outputs are steam, flue gas, blow down, radiation & soot
blowing.
Feedback Control
Feed forward Control
Feed forward-plus-Feedback Control
Ratio Control
Split Range Control
Cascade Control
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Feedback Control
One of the simplest process control schemes.
NOTE: This control scheme does not take into consideration any of the
other variables in the process.
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Feedforward Control
Feedforward loop is a control system that anticipates load disturbances
and controls them before they can impact the process variable.
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Feedforward-plus-Feedback Control
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Ratio Control
Ratio control is used to ensure that two or more flows are kept at the
same ratio even if the flows are changing
Application:
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Cascade Control
Cascade Control uses the output of the primary controller to manipulate the
set point of the secondary controller as if it were the final control element.
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INSTRUMENT LIST
It is theoretically possible to operate a boiler with manual control. Time is needed
for the boiler to respond to a correction and this lead to over correction with
further upset to the boiler. An automatic controller once properly tuned will make
the proper adjustment quickly to minimise upsets and will control the system
more accurately and reliably. Instrumentation systems are provided for the boiler
to achieve the following:
1. To measure the actual values of different parameters for which the boiler is
designed.
3. To monitor one or more variables at a time and provide input for automatic
control.
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PRESSURE TRANSMITTERS
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7. This list contains the various information of instruments i.e. Tag no., service,
type, set points, ranges, make, model no., scope etc. of all instruments.
8. An instrument is device/sensor which is used for measurement.
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INPUT-OUTPUT LIST
1. The input-output list of boiler contains the list of instruments and equipments
which are interfaced/ controlled from DCS.
4. Isolation valves are on-off valves and two command signals from DCS and two
feedback signals to DCS.
5. Control valves are analog valves and one command signal and one Position
feedback signal.
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PROJECT DETAILS
Student Details
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