7

Piled waterfront Structures

7.1 INTRODUCTION installation applied to offshore structures

are given in Heavy Construction News
As discussed elsewhere in this text, the (May, 1983), in paper by Shrivastava and
design of a dock structure is influenced by Youdale (1986), Gerwick (1986), and in
many factors; primarily those such as prop- many other publications.
erties of the founding soils at the project In general, piled structures are less sen-
site, required depth of water at the wharf sitive to local scour than other types of
face, intensity of surface loads resulting bottom-fixed waterfront structures. Rela-
from cargo handling and hauling equip- tively flexible and light piled structures are
ment, cargo storage requirements, and mis- suitable for construction in seismically ac-
cellaneous environmentalloads. tive areas where construction of a massive
Where the load on the quay apron is very gravity-type structure cannot be feasible
heavy (e.g., load created by storage of iron due to substantial ground motion. In order
ore or steel products), the foundation soil is to absorb the ground motion in seismically
weak, and the depth of water at the wharfs active areas, modern piled structures are
face is substantial, the light piled struc- usually designed in the form of ductile mo-
tures of miscellaneous designs can present ment-resistant frames with no batter piles
a viable and economica! solution to dock included. Although these structures are
construction. In this type of construction, more expensive than conventional ones,
the load transferred to the piles through they are able to survive earthquakes of sub-
various structural components is carried out stantial magnitude due to their ability to
by piles directly to a lower firm strata. It absorb seismically induced energy by sub-
must be pointed out that piled-type struc- stantial elastic deformation (Fotinos, 1986;
tures have also been successfully con- Cooper, 1991). Additionally, the potential
structed on a bedrock foundation, where the for soilliquefaction during earthquakes also
piles were socketed into the bedrock. Exam- favors the use of piled wharf structures
ples and technical details of this type of pile over gravity-type installations or sheet-pile

695

G. P. Tsinker, Handbook of Port and Harbor Engineering

© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 1997
696 Piled Waterfront Structures

bulkheads. In general, construction of a tion) in combination with a concrete super-

piled structure can reduce the potential for structure. Both vertical and batter piles are
liquefaction because of densification of normally used to resist the design forces
granular soils due to dynamic effects of and loads. Sometimes, where appropriate
pile-driving. Also, overall wharf structure and economically justified, regular timber
stability (the underdeck slope included) is piles and sheet piles are also employed.
improved due to the so-called "dowel effect" In some instances, depending on the pur-
(for details, consult Chapters 3 and 6). The pose as well as on the design conditions, the
latter effect is due to shear strength of pil- piled structure comprises just vertical piles
ing driven through critica! failure circles. able to resist lateral forces of a miscella-
The open piled structures are usually fa- neous nature. Conversely, batter piles are
vored for construction at locations exposed normally used where the structure must be
to heavy waves because they enable practi- prevented from significant lateral displace-
cally free passage of waves. Normally, con- ments. The batter piles are installed in such
ventional open piled structures are not a manner that the structure is not dis-
feasible in heavily-ice-infested waters. For placed appreciably under the effects of the
details on this subject, the reader is re- lateralloads. In this case, both vertical and
ferred to Tsinker (1995). batter piles will not be subjected to sub-
In the past, the piled waterfront struc- stantial bending stresses. In structural
tures have been constructed where the analysis, it is usually assumed that piles
depth of water varies between 10 and 15 m. behave as elastic springs in both vertical
However, the growing trend in the use of and horizontal directions. As regular piles
large and very large vessels for transport- are relatively flexible, their buckling stabil-
ing bulk cargo, as well as liquid and nonliq- ity is of paramount importance. The latter
uid commodities, requires the construction necessitates a limitation of the transmis-
of deep water terminals providing for drafts sion oflarge bending moments to these piles.
of 15 m to more than 30 m. The most recent As stated earlier, this is achieved either by
example of a deep water piled waterfront installation of the batter piles or by increas-
structure, built at Port-of-Rotterdam (water ing the number of vertical piles.
depth 24.5 m) is given by De Gijt et al. The dock superstructure placed on piles
(1993). Earlier, a similar structure was is typically constructed in the form of a
constructed for the Westshore Terminal, relatively thing and, therefore, flexible slab,
British Columbia, Canada to accommodate or in the form of the L-shaped (cantilever or
super bulk carriers with a minimum draft counterfort) wall sitting on piles. The con-
of 29.0 m (Anonymous, PCI Journal, crete superstructure is either cast in place,
N ovember jDecember 1989). erected from prefabricated components, or
Sometimes the cost of piled structures constructed as a combination of both tech-
can be clase to the cost of other types of niques. Where timber piles or sheet piles
waterfront structures. Hence, normal eco- are employed in wharf construction, the
nomic considerations may be decisive in se- deck structure should be placed at least 0.5
lecting the desired type of waterfront con- m below the mean water level to prevent
struction. In most practica! cases, pile- them from decay.
founded waterfront structures comprise It should be pointed out that piled water-
steel or reinforced concrete sheet piles in front structures, particularly those of open-
combination with steel or reinforced con- type construction, are very sensitive to un-
crete regular piles (relieving platforms), or derwater impact by ships with bulbous
just regular steel or concrete piles of miscel- bows. If one or several piles get damaged,
laneous cross sections (open pile construc- then the deck's strength may be affected
 Piled W aterfront Structures 697

immediately; a consequence may be deck the case of the relieving platforms, an effi-
damage over a length longer than just the ciently designed fender system can guaran-
impact area. Damage to the structure can tee the structure safe operation. The
range from collapse of the front pile(s) and latter is also true for the open type of
subsequent failure of the quay-side crane construction.
track, to piercing holes through the front It must be realized, however, that too
sheeting. The latter may result in a loss of large an overhang of the deck over piles can
back:fill material. Consequently, the broken result in a heavy, cost-prohibitive deck
piles have to be replaced, and the hole in structure. Too large an overhang may also
the front sheeting piling must be properly necessitate moving the heavy cargo han-
sealed to prevent the back:fill material (usu- dling equipment further away from the
ally sand) from flowing away. Naturally, berthing line at the expense of equipment
the lost back:fill material must be replaced outreach. The most economica} solution is
with a new material. In all instances of usually found in a compromise among the
wharf damage, the underwater repair may selection of an appropriate type of fender
take a long period of time and may be very system, the projection of the deck structure
difficult and expensive. beyond the front row of piles, and the posi-
Usually, damage to piled structures may tioning of cargo handling equipment.
occur where the ship approaches the berth In general, the structure must be de-
at an angle in excess of8-10 degrees andjor signed in a way that damage to one or
where the dock superstructure is not ex- several piles will not lead to complete de-
tended far enough to prevent the contact struction of the dock structure in a chain
between the ship's bow and piles. Ideally, reaction. The designer must also be aware
the harbor mastersjpilots should know the of the risk of sheet-pile damage and conse-
critica} approach angle for all ships calling quence of the outflow of back:fill material in
at port and prevent them in one way or the the event the sheet piling get pierced by a
other from approaching the berth at both ship's bulbous bow.
unacceptable angle and approach speed.
This is normally achieved by better control
of ship movements while approaching the 7.2 General
dock andjor by using tugs to assist ship
berthing maneuvers. As discussed in Chap-
ter 2, better control of ship berthing maneu-
vers can be achieved by the installation of a 7.2.1 Structural Schemes and
sonar system for measurements of the ship Structural components
distance from the dock and her approach
speed and angle. Normally, this type of Basic structural schemes of piled water-
equipment should be standard on quays that front structures are illustrated in Figure
are designed to accommodate large vessels 7-1. These structures can be broadly classi-
with bulbous bows. The economy of installa- fied as the open pile construction with sus-
tion ofthis equipment is based on risk anal- pended deck (Figs. 7-la-7-ld, 7-lf, and
ysis of potential damages that may be in- 7 -lh) relieving platforms of miscellaneous
flicted on the dock by a ship. construction (Figs. 7-le and 7-lg). The for-
In the case of an open structure type, the mer type of structure can be further subdi-
ideal solution to the problem would be pro- vided into those constructed in the form of
jection of the deck (platform) far enough to piled piers, dolphins, and others (Figs. 7-la
prevent the ship's bow from making contact and 7-lb), and those constructed as an ex-
with the front row of supporting piles; in tension of the terminal apron where the
698 Piled Waterfront Structures

{a) {b) {c)

,, l ,"

{g)

_5_ _ 3

Figure 7-1. Basic types ofpiled waterfront structures: (a) pier on vertical piles; (b) pier on
vertical piles with batter piles included to resist lateralloads; (c) marginal piled wharf on
vertical piles only; (d) marginal wharf on vertical piles with a soil-retaining structure placed on
the land side ofthe deck; (e) relieving platform; (O marginal wharfwith a sheet-piling located on
the land side; (g) anchored relieving platform on vertical piles only; (h) piled platform on vertical
piles with anchor slab (Scandinavian type); (i) piled platform resting on closely located bedrock;
(j) anchored piled platform placed on closely located bedrock with land-side located sheeting; (k)
anchored relieving platform placed on closely located bedrock. 1-platform (deck); 2-relieving
platform (superstructure); 3-vertical pile; 4-batter pile; 5-sheet-piling; 6, 7-anchor sys-
tems;· 8-original seafloor; 9-protected slope; 10-bedrock; 11-protection of seafloor from
erosion in front sheet-piling.
 Piled Waterfront Structures 699

(i)

. ..
'• ',,
.· :: 1, ::

~ 12

{k )

6
6
5

1
12

Figure 7-1. Continued.

structure is typically founded on a pro- Some soil pressure, however, is trans-

tected sloping bank (Figs. 7- le, 7- ld, 7-lf, ferred to these structures where the sheet-
and 7-lh). In most practical cases, piled pile wall is incorporated into the pile foun-
structures with a suspended deck carries dation on the back of the structure (Fig.
little, if any, earth pressure and are de- 7-lf). This type of construction can be con-
signed to resist vertical loading and hori- sidered as a transition from the piled struc-
zontal berthing and mooring forces only. ture with suspended deck to the relieving
700 Piled Waterfront Structures

platform. This arrangement as well as those typically includes vertical, andjor batter
depicted in Figures 7-1d and 7-1h allow piles and concrete superstructure. The lat-
the width of the suspended deck construc- ter transmits all kinds of loads (e.g., dead
tion to be reduced. The latter, however, is and live loads, soil pressures, mooring
dependent on dock loading, foundation soil, forces, and others) to the pile foundation.
seismic conditions, as well as on hydraulic Structurally relieving platforms are clas-
conditions (e.g., range of tide and wave cli- sified as those with high-level deck struc-
mate). Under certain wave conditions, the ture and these with a deep-level relieving
presence of a vertical wall of any construc- structure (platform). The former are nor-
tion at the deck land side may result in mally used for overwater construction. The
increased water agitation and diminished latter can be built where a substantial tidal
stability of the underdeck slope armor stone range permits construction of the relieving
stability. The aforementioned conditions can platform at low water level, or where the
affect type, number, and size of piles to be whole structure can be constructed in dry
used; for example, just vertical piles or ver- conditions. The advantage of the deep-level
tical in combination with batter piles, driven relieving structures is that size of sheet
or drilled piles, regular precast concrete or piles can be greatly reduced; therefore,
prestressed piles, regular steel piles such as lighter sheet piling can be used. This is
H-piles or pipe piles, or large-diameter possible due to reduced lateral soil pressure
cylindrical concrete or steel piles, and so on the sheeting. The basic purpose of the
forth. platform is to distribute the vertical and
It should be noted that in general, driven horizontal loads among piles included in
piles are less expensive than drilled ones; the wall's pile foundation and to reduce the
the latter is usually used only in the cases earth pressure on the structure by reducing
where foundation conditions make pile- the soil pressure on the sheet piling. The
driving impractical. Where the depth of latter is basically attributed to the shield
pile-driving is limited by the close location effect provided by the superstructure. Fur-
of the bedrock stratum, then piles can be thermore, piles included in the relieving
socketed into the bedrock. Alternatively, the platform walls can reduce lateral soil pres-
number of piles, both bearing and in ten- sure acting on the sheeting. Details on this
sion, can be increased, or the structure can phenomenon are provided in Chapter 4 and
be anchored by conventional means. The illustrated in Figure 4-21.
relevant structural schemes are illustrated Results of model tests reported by Streck
in Figures 7-1i-7-1k. (1950) and discussed in Grundban-
Tidal range and wave climate are very Taschenbuch (1955), and by Tschebotarioff
important factors in dock design because of (1962) indicated that when the ratio dja =
their effects on the underdeck slope stabil- 0.5, where d is the pile diameter and a is
ity and potential erosion around piles. Also, the center-to-center pile spacing, the
the above factors may have a pronounced screening effect can be almost complete so
effect on the value and direction of the that the entire outside pressure could be
mooring forces applied to the structure. taken up by this row of piles. In such cases,
Relieving platforms are usually used as a granular soil confined between the row of
an alternative to the anchored bulkheads, piles and the sheeting would tend to act as
or where sheet-pile bulkheads cannot be if it were inside a silo.
constructed economically. Relieving plat- In some cases, the fill beneath the reliev-
forms are typically comprised of the follow- ing platform is finished to a slope to further
ing basic structural components: waterside reduce soil pressure. Much of the credit for
located sheet-piling, pile foundation that the early development of this type of struc-
 Piled Waterfront Structures 701

ture goes to Danish engineers and contrac- nents. These structures are used more
tors who used them often, beginning in the often.
early 1920's. Since then, this type of wharf It should be noted that in countries where
construction has been used extensively cheap labor is readily available, it is more
worldwide. The advantage of this type of economica! to use cast-in-place concrete to
wall is that it can be constructed on weak construct the deck.
soils and carry very heavy loads resulting Advantages of prefabrication are as
from cargo handling and hauling equip- follows:
ment or from superimposed loadings such
as iron ore, packaged steel products, and • Reduction of construction time over water
others. • Usually good quality of deck components
due to efficient quality control at the cast-
As a final note, relieving platforms are
ing yard
also used where piles must be protected • Minimizing the costly formwork and cast-
from impact by large ice floes and from in-place concrete
erosion by moving sediments. • Less dependency on weather conditions
• Structure assembled from standard ele-
ments that are cast in many times reusable
customized formwork
7.2.2 Prefabrication • Deck units typically precast in a controlled
environment at yards with established
quality control procedures
In modern marine engineering practice,
prefabrication is commonplace worldwide.
The disadvantages of prefabrication are
It is commonly used for the construction of
listed below:
most of port related marine structures. Ex-
amples of structures built from precast
• Requirements of suitable heavy lift equip-
components are found elsewhere in this text. ment
Prefabrication is used as an effective mea- • Requirements of a good pile-driving guid-
sure for reducing both the cost and time of ing system to achieve the required align-
port construction. The choice to use precast ment
components in deck structure is based • Small tolerances required for fabrication
mainly on economica} considerations. His- and installation of the precast compo-
torically, piles and sheet piles were the first nents.
precast elements used in marine construc-
tion. Subsequently, with increased avail-
ability of heavy lift equipment and a means 7.3 OPEN PILE STRUCTURES
of transportation of heavy prefabricated WITH SUSPENDED DECKS
blocks, use of prefabricated components for
dock construction is commonplace in mod- As pointed out earlier, this type of structure
ern marine construction practices. can be designed as offshore piers or
In many practica! cases, structures are marginal wharves adjacent to natural banks
assembled from precast components and the or shores, or can be constructed on a man-
cast-in-situ concrete is used only to join made slope. Structurally, they vary widely
these components together. The deck struc- and are distinguished from each other basi-
tures of composite construction also are cally by type and materials used to con-
commonplace. These structures are typi- struct the pile and deck structure and by
cally comprised of cast-in-place pile capping the arrangement of the land side of the
beams and the prefabricated deck compo- structure (e.g., presence of the sheet-piling,
702 Piled Waterfront Structures

conventional retaining wall, or just a Despite the heavy weight of concrete piles
riprap-type transition from platform to at this wharf, their cost was less than the
land). supply price of equivalent steel pipe piles,
Depending on the site's geological and even though larger equipment was required
hydraulic conditions, the size of vessels to to handle, pitch, and drive the heavier con-
be handled at the dock, the type of crete piles. A secondary benefit of concrete
cargo handling and hauling equipment, the piles is found in the reduction of mainte-
availability of some inexpensive, locally nance cost.
available construction materials, as well as The piles for this wharf were manufac-
serviceability requirements (e.g., is the tured with a high level of prestress (8.3
structure designed for short-term or long- MPa) so that a zero-tension condition is
term operation, and other conditions), the maintained when moments are introduced
structure can be constructed from compo- by lateral loads from mooring force, ship
nents made from wood, steel, conventional, impact, wave forces, or earthquakes. ·Fur-
or prestressed concrete. Often structures are thermore, this design feature was beneficia}
built from components made from different for pile durability in the highly corrosive
materials, for example, timber sheet piles, marine environment. Because high stresses
concrete, steel or both vertical andjor bat- are known to develop in long concrete piles
ter piles, and concrete deck structure; other during their driving through soft soils, there
combinations are also used. Some typical were concems that these stresses can cause
pile cracking beyond acceptable values.
examples are depicted in Figures 7-2
Therefore, a dynamic stress testing pro-
through 7-34.
gram was implemented to monitor the
stresses in the pile shaft during driving;
measured dynamic tensile stresses were
7.3.1 Open Piled Offshore Piers suitably below (""' 7 MPa) the design pre-
stress level.
The lateral stability of the loading pier
Examples of these structures are depicted
and the access trestie was ensured by the
in Figures 7-2 through 7-8. The recent installation of batter piles. The deck struc-
example of this type of construction was ture of both pier and the access trestie was
completed in 1983 and is illustrated in Fig- constructed from precast prestressed con-
ure 7-2. This deep water offshore pier was crete structural units; box girders and dou-
constructed at Roberts Bank Delta in ble tee beams were used to span between
British Columbia, Canada (Anonymous, the pile bents. Pile capping beams were cast
1986). It was designed to accommodate very in place and constructed in two stages: Dur-
large bulk carriers. To provide the required ing the first stage, the actual seat for pre-
depth of water and to avoid the extensive fabricated deck components was cast and
dredging, this offshore pier was constructed cured; during the second stage, the concrete
approximately 0.5 km from the shoreline. was poured to fill the space between the
The wharf included the offshore pier (30.5 installed precast beams. This helped elimi-
m high, 335.5 m long, and 35.2 m wide) and nate costly forms for the cast-in-place deck
the approach trestie. Both structures are structure, thereby minimizing time and cost
comprised of the deck structure assembled of over-water construction.
from precast prestressed components in- The box girders used in the access trestie
stalled on high-strength precast prestressed are supported on neoprene bearing pads
concrete cylindrical piles 915 mm in diame- designed to resist the beam's dead load.
ter, each weighing 41 tonnes. This arrangement allowed rotation at the
 Piled Waterfront Structures 703

(a)

18.25Cfc CraneRails (b)

Box Glrder

Neop.-
Bearing

(c) (d)

o
,....
N
,....

o
(O

Preeast Panel
Post TensQ!ing
Anchorage

Figure 7-2. Deep water dry bulk loading tenninal at Roberts Bank Delta, British Columbia,
Canada: (a) typical cross section through pier; (b) approach trestie; typical cross section through
pile capping beam; (c) typical detail of fender system; (d) typical cross section through crane
beam.

beam ends until the secondary stage of the upper part of the pile cap (Fig. 7-2b). This
pile cap had been poured. The load transfer provided an efficient connection while using
from the deck structure to piles is accom- the precast girder as a side form for the
plished through the reinforcement extend- second stage of the pile capping beam. The
ing from the first-stage pile capping into the deck components were designed for use with
704 Piled Waterfront Structures

an asphalt cover only, thus eliminating the Bank Delta terminal structure described
need for a costly concrete overlay. The pier above, was completed in 1982 at Hadera,
deck structure is a combination of cast-in- Israel (Figs. 7-4 through 7-6) (Yaron et al.,
place crane girders, pile capping beams, and 1982). This offshore coal unloading facility
precast double tee beams; the latter were included a 300 X 24-m pier structure, 1700-
designed as simply supported units while m-long and 12-m-wide access trestie, and a
under dead load only (construction phase), system of mooring and breasting dolphins
and to perform as a continuous beam for installed on both sides of the pier. An addi-
service loading. This has included loads tional mooring dolphin was installed off-
generated by the 25-tonne-capacity mobile shore, 50 m from the pier head. The pier
cranes and surcharge load. At their ends, structure was placed in a water depth that
the double tees had a diaphragm to transfer varied from 20 to 24 m. It was designed to
shear force to the pile capping beams. accommodate 140,000 DWT bulk carriers
The complete deck structure is ade- with a provision to serve 170,000 DWT ves-
quately stiff to effectively redistribute sels in the future.
between adjoining pile bents the greatest The pier consists of a structural system
design lateral load; that is, ship berthirig comprised of a precast, prestressed concrete
impact. Precast concrete panels with incor- deck structure placed on large-diameter
porated posttensioning ducts were installed steel piles. A typical cross section through
at the pier berthing face to accommodate the pier is depicted in Figure 7-4. Bearing
large buckling-type rubber fenders (Fig. in mind the open-sea conditions, the pier
7-2c). The precast fender panels were lifted deck was elevated to 14.0 m above the mean
into place and posttensioned onto the un- sea level. The pier deck was basically corn-
derside of the front crane track beam. The posed from the precast prestressed un-
joint between the panel and beam was sub- loader tract girders and precast prestressed
sequently grouted. Posttensioning of the deck tee units placed on precast pile cap-
fender panels was eccentric so that under ping beams, monolithically joined with
maximum design load a zero-tension condi- large-diameter steel pipe piles through
tion is maintained across the joint; thus, cast-in-situ joints. The deck components
the resulting shear force is transferred by were monolithically connected with each
friction as well as through shear keys. other, thus forming a continuous space
It should be pointed out that adequate frame structure. The piles used for pier con-
strength is required for the pile capping struction were open-ended steel pipe piles
beam as well as that reliable connections 1525 mm in diameter. The pile bents were
between the piles and the deck structure 20 m center to center. Piles were driven
are crucial for reliable performance of the through a layer of fine sand approximately
pier. For better connection with deck struc- 4-5m thick that overlays a relatively soft
ture, the concrete piles are provided with clay approximately 4-6 m thick, overlaying
an adequate number of embedded dowels, a uniform sand with layers of calcareous
and in the case of steel piles, the dowels are sandstone. The design capacity of the pile
welded to the pile head. For batter transfer (ultimate), 1800 tonnes, was expected tobe
of the bending moments, as well as to pre- achieved at about 30-35 mm penetration
vent the dowels from potential exposure to into the foundation soil. However, a pile
effects of the marine environments, the pile test carried out at the site has indicated
head must be adequately embedded into the that at 31 m penetration depth, the pile's
capping structure. An example is illustrated capacity is equal to approximately 1100
in Figure 7-3. tonnes. It was also found that the soil plug
An offshore pier, similar to the Robert did not form inside the pile. Furthermore, it
 Piled Waterfront Structures 705

Figure 7-3. Cast-in-place beam: 1- steel pipe pile; 2-dowel; 3-capping beam reinforcing
steel; 4- form.

was found that the desired pile bearing ca- this pier was provided by batter piles, as
pacity could be achieved only if the piles are depicted in Figures 7-4 and 7-5.
were driven to the depth equal to approxi- The pier structure was designed to resist
mately 70 m. This was basically attributed all relevant dead and live loads, environ-
to the fact that the pile has cut through the mental, seismic, and construction related
sand and calcareous layers with insufficient loads, and load combinations. The design
resistance. Further investigation has indi- was based on the Israeli National Building
cated that the design bearing capacity at a Code, as well as on the relevant interna-
penetration depth of approximately 35 m tional standards.
can be achieved through installation inside The pier was protected from ship impact
the pile of the cast-in-place concrete plug, by fiexible dolphins made from steel pipe
approximately 12 m long or a special inter- piles, 2600 and 2800 mm in diameter with
na! steel annulus ring welded to the pile 15 wall thicknesses ranging from 34 to 70 mm.
m from the pile open end. The latter solu- The dolphins were placed on both sides of
tion was finally adopted for pier construc- the pier and were provided with cylindrical
tion; it was far less expensive than driving rubber fenders, 2.6 m outside diameter, 1.5
piles to the approximately 70 m penetration m inside diameter, and 4 m long. Dolphins
otherwise needed to develop the desired located on opposite sides of the pier have
bearing capacity. been connected with each other by steel
Transverse and longitudinal stability of pipe struts. Thus, the combined capacity of
706 Piled Waterfront Structures

Figure 7-4. Hadera, Israel-Offshore coal unloading terminal. Typical cross section through
pier: !-vertical steel pipe piles 1525 mm in diameter; 2-battered steel pipe piles 1525 mm in
diameter; 3-flexible dolphin (steel pipe piles 2600 and 2800 mm in diameter); 4, 5-precast
components of deck structure; 6-precast reinforced concrete pile capping beam; 7-mooring
accessories; 8-fender system; 9-catwalk; !O-design ship super bulk carrier 170,000 DWT.
(Courtesy ofYaron, Shimoni and Partners Consulting Engineers, Ltd., Tel Aviv, Israel)

120 IJNT 60 IJNT

GENERAL LAYOUT OF PIER LEGEND'

MD. - tviOCI'lN3 [JQPHIN
B O. - ER:ASTii'G OOLPHIN
WCK RELEASE HOOKS
QRH. •
B. - BOLLARD
ALL I»-ENSS()olS ARE METRIC.

ELEVATION

Figure 7-5. Hadera, Israel-Offshore coal unloading terminal. Pier general layout and
elevation. (Courtesy of Yaron, Shimoni and Partners Consulting Engineers, Ltd., Tel Aviv,
Israel.)
 Piled Waterfront Structures 707

Figure 7-6. Hadera, Israel-Offshore coal unloading terminal. Access trestie during construc-
tion. (Courtesy ofYaron, Shimoni and Partners Consulting Engineers, Ltd., Tel Aviv, Israel.)

both dolphins was adequate to absorb picted in Figure 7-7. Here the pier's lateral
berthing energy of the 170,000 DWT ship and longitudinal stability is provided by
approaching the berth at a maximum dock- conventional 350-mm square prestressed
ing speed 20 cmjs. batter piles, whereas the vertical loads are
The 12-m-wide access trestie was con- transferred to the prestressed concrete
structed of approximately 200-m-long sec- piles with enlargements. The deck struc-
tions. It was designed to accommodate a ture in this pier is of cast-in-place type
4.5-m-wide roadway and the two 1500-mm construction.
conveyor belts. The deck structure of the Practical examples of pile arrangements
access trestie was of composite construction used for construction of the open-type off-
that included precast concrete slabs on steel shore piers are illustrated in Figure 7- 8. In
plate girders, supported on pile bents placed case (a), the pier deck is founded on just
at every 40 m. The typical pile bent has two vertical steel pipe piles; whereas in cases
large-diameter steel batter piles providing
(b) and (c), the pile foundation consists of
the trestie transverse stability; the longitu-
vertical and batter prestressed concrete
dinal stability was provided by the struc-
[case (b)] and steel [case (c)] piles. As it is
tural system that included four batter piles
located in the middle of each typical section seen from these and the earlier discussed
200 m long. Some details of the access tres- examples, as well as from many other ex-
tie are seen in Figure 7- 6. amples of the offshore pier constructions,
Where required, the capacity of both the piling and deck systems of these struc-
bearing and tension piles included in any tures, as well as methods of protection from
pier structure can be enhanced by providing ship impact, vary from project to project
the piles with enlargements of miscella- and, to a great extent, are site-specific. This
neous shapes and sizes. An example of an is best illustrated by the recent construc-
offshore pier founded on such piles is de- tion of two piers built for the U.S. Navy.
708 Piled Waterfront Structures

(a)
(b)

Figure 7-7. Offshore pier: 1-prestressed concrete piles 350 X 350 mm with blisters;
2-concrete pier to support fender system; 3-battered (3 : 1) concrete piles 350 X 350
mm; 4-cast-in-place concrete deck; 5-wooden fender pile; 6-timber fender system;
7-pier outline. [From Gorunov (1984).)

One of these piers was built off Treasure end. Beneath the silt are soils with rela-
Island, located approximately 9.3 km east tively high strength and low compressibil-
of the Golden Gate Bridge on the west coast ity. It was concluded that under existing
of the United States, the other was con- site conditions, a pile system comprised of
structed at the new Strategic Homeport prestressed 670-mm octagonal vertical and
Naval Station on NewYork's Staten Island batter piles is the most functional, con-
(Lo and Beckwith, 1987; Buslov et al. 1988; structible, and cost-effective. To ease han-
Post, 1989). The former pier, 284 m long dling and driving of raked piles, the batter
and 37 m wide, was constructed in 11.6 m used was 1 : 6. Although requiring more
of water. The critica! deck loads of this piles, this system is more effective than
structure were calculated based on the use that where large-diameter prestressed con-
of the 82-tonne mobile crane. Other loads crete cylindrical piles would be used.
included ship impact, mooring forces, and The local contractor found that the fabri-
severe earthquake-induced loads. Founda- cation cost of large cylindrical piles would
tion soils are represented by loose to have been about twice as much as for 610-
medium dense sand underlain by dark gray mm octagonal piles. Besides, this contractor
claylike silt. The lower material reaches a also concluded that the large and heavy
depth of about 33 m near the midpoint of cylindrical piles would have created han-
the pier, tapering to 17 m at the end of the dling problems and construction delays and
structure, and to about 24 m at its land would have required the use of special han-
 Piled Waterfront Structures 709

(a) (b )

(c )

Figure 7-8. Typical pile foundation for offshore piers: (a) Japan- Construction of offshore pier
comprised of large-diam.e ter vertical steel pipe piles; (b) offshore pier for container terminal in
China; pile foundation comprised of concrete vertical and barrier piles; (c) construction of
offshore pier in Japan; pile foundation comprised of vertical and batter steel pipe piles.

dling and driving equipment. These prob- ter depth to serve the battleship Iowa and
lems and cost considerations were taken its accompanying ships. The subsoil condi-
into account for selecting the pier piling tions at pier site are as follows: close to
system. shore, there was compact fill underlined by
In the second case, the 430-m-long, 27.4- glacial outwash sitting on weathered rock;
m-wide pier was constructed in 13.7 m wa- beginning at the middle third of the pier,
710 Piled Waterfront Structures

piles were driven through organic clay into 1989). However, in this case, the concrete
weathered rock. To resist horizontal and pier deck was founded on steel pipe piles
vertical design loads, the original pier de- 1067 mm in diameter. Again, no batter piles
sign called for an array of vertical and bat- were used.
ter piles. The piling system included 610-
mm square prestressed concrete piles and
915-mm-diameter cylindrical prestressed
piles with the batter piles installed parallel 7.3.2 Piling
and transverse to the pier.
The contractor, who had access to a 310- It should be pointed out that the choice
tonne-capacity fioating crane, proposed and between steel and concrete piles for marine
eventually constructed the new piling sys- application is always a controversial issue
tem that included just vertical prestressed and, as it is seen from the preceeding exam-
concrete cylindrical piles 1372 mm in diam- ples, the solution to the problem is usually
eter. Some details of this structure are il- site-specific.
lustrated in Figures 7-32 and 7-47. Concrete piles, and particularly pre-
The new pile system offered adequate stressed concrete piles, are usually consid-
resistance to the design loads without bat- ered as being relatively maintenance-free in
ter piles. The pier was designed as a frame severe marine environment. However, con-
with its columns performing within an elas- crete piles, and particularly large-sized-pipe
tic foundation. The spring constants re- piles, are heavy to handle. Furthermore,
quired for the frame analysis were deduced long concrete piles can develop high tension
from pile tests carried out at the site. From stresses if driven into soft soil where ten-
these tests it was concluded that shorter sion waves bounce back up. It has also found
piles at the pier's land portion were stiff, that large-diameter cylindrical piles in-
fiexing essentially as a short rigid column; stalled by a vibrator can be exposed to the
however, long piles driven to about 30-35 considerable interna! hydrodynamic stress
m below the dredge line went through coun- (up to 2-3 MPa) developing within the pile
terfiexure to develop complete fixity at their during the driving process. If the pile is not
embedded part. The piles in the pier middle properly reinforced, the latter phenomena
section behaved somewhat between the two may ·result in severe pile cracking (Savinov
extremes. and Lavrinovich, 1969; Buslov, 1974). Natu-
Due to the fact that the bending strength rally, if concrete cracks, the surface will
ofthe proposed 1372-mm-diameter piles was spall after freezejthaw cycles, oras a result
four times that of the originally designed of the reinforcement corrosion. Prestressing
915-mm-diameter piles and eight times that helps greatly to overcome the pile-cracking
of the 610-mm square piles, the number of problem. Long concrete piles are usually
required piles was cut almost in half, also precast in sections which could be conve-
eliminating the need for batter piles. U se of niently spliced during the installation pro-
just yertical piles simplified the pile cap cess. Splicing enables use of the shorter
geometry, opening the way for extensive and, thereby, lighter pile sections and re-
use of precast deck components. In total, duces the danger of cracking due to exces-
the new structure was more cost-efficient sive handling. The most typical splices are
than originally proposed and was effectively welded and bolted; mechanical splices of
executed. miscellaneous designs are also used.
Similar experience has been gained on Sometimes the use of a steel pile in a
the construction of another pier built for saltwater environment is rejected .because
the U.S. Navy in New York harbor (Green, of concerns about corrosion. Rusting and
 Piled Waterfront Structures 711

corrosion of steel in salt seawater is in- life. In some cases, the sacrificial material
evitable and can be a serious problem un- can be added to the dock components in a
less continuously protected by cathodic pro- zone of maximum corrosion only. In such
tection, coatings of miscellaneous nature, or zones, special protection can also be pro-
a combination of both. Cathodic protection vided locally (e.g., concrete jacketing, plas-
along or in combination with a protective tic facing, etc.). For more details on corro-
coating can be effective where the steel pile sion protection of steel components of the
is in the soil or in the submerged zone. It is dock in severe marine environment, the
only partly effective in the tidal zone and is reader is referred to Tsinker (1995).
ineffective in the splash or atmospheric Despite the need of protection from cor-
zones. In these zones, the use of concrete rosion, in some form, the advantage of steel
jackets around piles or the use of a coating piles and, particularly, large-diameter pipe
of coal-tar epoxy are the most frequently piles is that they provide the contractor
used methods for pile protection. In recent with flexibility in choosing the driving
years, polyethylene coats developed by sev- equipment, allowing relatively easy pile in-
eral Japanese steel makers has been intro- stallations, both vertical and batter, and
duced and successfully used as protection of allowing for the relatively simple field ad-
steel piles from corrosion (Tominaga and justments to pile length. Furthermore, steel
Heidengren, 1988). is less susceptible to damage in storage and
The economy of use of a certain type of during shipping and installation. In some
steel protection from corrosion should be cases the aforementioned advantages of the
compared with an allowance for corrosion large-diameter steel pipe piles, as compared
added to the thickness of dock steel compo- with alternatives such as concrete cylindri-
nents, such as piles and braces, as well as cal piles, makes the use of steel piles more
deck components, used with no protection cost-effective, faster, and safer in construc-
at all. In the absence of specific data on tion. Thus, to summarize, selection of the
rates of corrosion in particular areas, the most attractive structural solution, that is
corrosion rate on the order of 0.075-0.1 mm always site-specific, must be made on the
per year of service is often considered. hasis of alternative designs. More informa-
Hence, a steel thickness increase by about 5 tion on pile structures and pile design is
mm for 50 years of service is commonly provided in Section 7.5.
considered. Another approach used is to de-
sign the steel components of the pier based
on the mild steel properties but, adopting
the high yield steel in practice. This method, 7.3.3 suspended Deck
however, proved to be too uncertain and too structures for Marginal
inefficient to cope with potential problems. Wharves
Sometimes some increase in stress value
due to corrosion has been accepted, pro- Suspended deck construction for marginal
vided that the highest stresses were not in wharves have been used worldwide. They
the zone of maximum corrosion. are typically constructed .in harbors pro-
Initial pile protection by coal-tar epoxy, tected from heavy waves and where there is
or by other methods, may well protect the no substantial ice movements. In some in-
structure for some time (typically for 5-10 stances, where ice movements can damage
and more years). Therefore, it may be possi- piles, the front row of piles is designed to be
ble to combine the initial steel protection strong enough to absorb impact from drift-
from corrosion with a further addition of ing ice features such as ice floes, ridges, and
sacrificial steel for the rest ofthe structure's so forth. For details, consult Tsinker (1995).
712 Piled Waterfront Structures

Essentially, suspended deck structures are Where the open piled structure is built
indispensable where poor soil conditions or exposed to waves and current locations,
substantial depth of water prevent con- the underdeck slope would require heavy
struction of structures such as sheet-pile armor protection from errosion. This usu-
bulkheads, gravity-type quay walls, and ally adds considerable cost to dock construc-
others. tion. Despite this, open pile structures can
These structures are built to cover the stiH be cost-effective at exposed locations
width of a sloping bank which is usually and can be more economica! than other
protected from scour effects and wave ac- structures suitable for construction on soils
tion. Typically, the structure itself carries that permit pile-driving (e.g., sheet-pile
little, if any, lateral earth pressure load and bulkheads, steel sheet-pile cells, and
is designed to resist verticalloading in com- others).
bination with berthing or mooring forces
only. In some cases, it supports sheeting at
the back, which retains fill. Sheet-piling or
the other types of constructions on the land 7.3.4 Basic Design Principles
side of the platform (e.g., conventional re-
taining wall), are normally used to reduce Depending on the intended use of the dock
the width of the deck structure. As pointed structures (e.g., for long-term or short-term
out earlier, depending on foundation soil service, type of cargo andjor cargo han-
and loading conditions, the deck can be dling and hauling equipment, soil condition,
founded on just vertical piles or a combina- availability of certain structural materials
tion of vertical and batter piles. or prefabricated components, and site hy-
At locations with substantial seasonal draulic conditions), the structure can be
water fiuctuations, or with high tides, the constructed from components roade from
pile's effective freestanding length can be timber, steel, concrete, or combinations of
reduced by means of bracing. Substantial all of these materials. Severa! characteristic
water fiuctuations at the dock site can ag- examples are illustrated in Figures 7-9
grevate the uriderdeck slope stability prob- through 7-15.
lems. It may also create problems with dock The structure that is depicted in Figure
fendering; use of a special fender system for 7-9a is the simplest form of the open-type
protection of the dock and, in particular, its construction roade from wood. It was de-
piled foundation from ship impact is nor- signed to serve small ships, mostly river
mally required in large tidal range areas. In barges up to 600 DWT. To resist ship im-
some instances, the latter can increase the pact and mooring forces, it is braced at
cost of construction considerably. three levels. The structure's deck is de-
Also, where the tidal range is substantial signed to support loads from mobile cranes
and the bottom of the water edge (fascia) up to a 5-tonne lifting capacity. Clusters of
components such as craneway beam or con- piles are driven in front of the structure to
tinuous fender panel are submerged deep protect it from impact from ships and ice
under the water level, air, pressure en- fioes. These piles are integrated into the
trapped under the deck at the high tide can structure and also serve as a mooring de-
produce uplift load on the deck. Alterna- vice. This type of construction could be ef-
tively, it may lead to pavement erosion just ficient for construction at remote sites on
behind the land end of the deck (Leitass, inland waterways where wood is available
1979). This can be prevented by the instal- locally at low cost and a local labor force is
lation of vent pipes, either at the fascia readily available. In the other example de-
member or in the deck structure. picted in Figure 7-9b, the structure was
 Piled Waterfront Structures 713

(a)

(b)

Figure 7-9. Braced marginal wharf: (a) constructed in Russia

from wooden components; (b) founded on screw piles 127 mm in
diameter (screw 1220 mm in diameter), Sumatra, Indonesia.

constructed on weak soils using steel com- The structure's longitudinal and trans-
ponents. In this case, the steel frame made verse stability is ensured by steel braces,
up from steel pipes 127 mm in diameter some of which were installed underwater;
and braced by steel pipes 44.5 mm in diam- the middle level of horizontal braces was
eter is founded on screw piles 127 mm in installed just above the minimum water
diameter with screws 1220 mm in diameter. level. The deck was built from timber planks
For protection from corrosion, the piles were capable of handling light mobile cranes and
wound around by steel wires and then cov- trucks.
ered by a layer of cement mortar 4-5 cm Screw piles derive their support from the
thick. large area of the screw and are usually
714 Piled Waterfront Structures

economica! where poor foundation soil is with the addition of special reinforcement;
present. These piles have been successfuliy this created a continuous moment-resisting
used in the past. However, at present, due frame. The ductility of this structure was
to considerable improvements made in achieved through the ability of ali struc-
equipment for pile-driving andjor installa- tural components of the frame to deform
tion of boring piles, in most practica! cases elasticaliy; that is, through the frame's abil-
it is more economica! to use conventional ity to translate a certain distance under the
but longer piles, instead of shorter screw lateralload that mobilizes elastic resistance
piles. while retaining structural integrity. This
In modem marine engineering practice, was achieved by the addition of ductile rein-
conventional and large-diameter cylindrical forcing steel to the frame component and by
concrete piles, and steel piles of miscella- the use of heavy, closely spaced stirrups
neous cross sections, are normaliy used for andj or spiral reinforcement in prestressed
construction of open pile structures. De- concrete piles, and adding confinement steel
pending on load conditions, the pile system in the concrete deck in areas of high bend-
may include vertical piles only, or be con- ing moment.
structed with vertical and batter piles. In Several studies (Sheppard, 1983; Park
seismic-active zones, the ali-vertical pile, a and Falconer, 1983; and others) have
ductile moment-resisting space frame sys- pointed out the importance of correct detail-
tem with no batter piling, was recently ing of prestressed pile reinforcement, par-
most often used. Structures of this type ticularly the provision of heavy closely
have been constructed in Oakland and Los
spaced spiral reinforcement in regions near
Angeles, California and for the Squamish
the pile-deck (pile cap) connection and in
Terminals, British Columbia, Canada,
the soil where the pile achieves fixity. Natu-
where a concrete deck was cast in place
raliy, longer piles are more flexible than
on vertical prestressed octagonal piles
shorter piles of identica! cross section.
(Shrivastava and Hunt, 1989; Birdy et al,
Therefore, under certain design conditions
1989; Cooper, 1991), in Boston Harbor,
where the deck was placed on steel pipe by isolating the structure from the shore by
piles 610 mm in diameter (Ericson et al., adding the transitional structure (Fig.
1993), and at many other locations. An ex- 7 -lOc), the designer is able to achieve an
ample of the ductile space frame, construc- optimum balance between longer, and
tion with deck structure composed from therefore more flexible, piles offshore and
prefabricated prestressed concrete compo- the shorter, stiffer piles near the land. This
nents is shown in Figure 7-lOa. Here the may help to avoid overstressing the shorter
structure width, as dictated by the rela- piles under lateral loads. The land-based
tively narrow crane gauge, was reduced by abutment for the transitional structure may
means of blockwork retaining wali placed be constructed in a variety of ways. Depend-
on the land side of the deck. An ali-vertical ing on site geology and hydraulic condi-
pile system was designed to resist lateral tions, it may be designed as a gravity-type
loads on the wharf, including ship berthing wali, piled abutment, or freestanding or an-
forces, mooring forces, forces from wind on chored sheet-pile wall. The transition span
cranes and trains, as weli as seismic forces. should bear on the wharf structure on a
Prefabricated pile caps provided support for low-friction bearing which serves to isolate
the concrete deck assembled from the pre- the more flexible piled structure from the
cast concrete slabs. All prefabricated com- stiffer land-based abutment structure. Also,
ponents were joined by welding together as pointed out by Weidler et al. (1987) and
dowels projected from these components Dailey et al. (1987) under a certain con-
 Piled Waterfront Structures 715

(a)

(b)

Figure 7-10. Open piled marginal wharf. Typical cross sections. (a)
The deck structure comprised from precast concrete component is
placed·on prestressed concrete piles, surmounted by precast concrete
caps; (b) the deck is cast in situ on prestressed concrete piles; (c)
structure with transitional deck section at land side. 1-prestressed
concrete piles 400 X 400 mm; 2-precast pile cap; 3-concrete deck
comprised of prefabricated elements; 4-rebars and dowels extended
from deck components and pile; 5-concrete filter; 9-backfill;
10-octagonal prestressed piles 460 mm in diameter;
11-460 X 460-mm prestressed piles; 12-quarry muck; 13-rock
armor; 14-cast-in-place concrete deck; 15-ballast material;
16- 230-mm-thick paving; 17-blockwork wall; 18-crane track;
19- land-based abutment; 20-steel pipe piles; 21-prefabricated
transition concrete deck.
716 Piled Waterfront Structures

(c)

Figure 7-10. Continued.

struction conditioning the pile fatigue must 9.0

be taken into consideration.
For safe portal crane operation during
heavy dynamic loads imposed on the dock
structure and during a seismic event or
heavy ship impact, both the waterside and
land-side crane niils must be provided with
a reliable support. For example, in the cases
illustrated in Figures 7-lOa and 7-lOb, this
has been achieved by the installation of two
closely spaced piles andjor by installation
of batter piles. Other altematives (e.g., 91600 l=9mm

large-diameter piles, pile clusters, etc.) are

also used to support crane rails. Essen-
tially, ali piles in the ductile frame should
be stronger than if they had to support
gravity loads only. The underdeck riprap
prism helps to anchor the structural frame
effectively. Naturally, it must be seismically
stable. Also, rocks included into the prism Figure 7-11. Marginal wharf of open-type construc-
must be heavy enough to resist effects of tion with retaining wall comprised of prefabricated
waves and natural andjor ship-propeller- counterfort sections constructed in Japan.
induced currents.
The ductile space frame with only two of the deck was shortened by the installa-
vertical piles per bent (Fig. 7-11) was built tion of the prefabricated concrete counter-
in Japan (Fucute et al. 1990). In this case, fort retaining wall on the land side of the
the cast-in-place concrete deck has been structure; the space between both struc-
constructed on a pile system consisting of tures was covered by prefabricated concrete
steel piles 600 mm in diameter. The width slabs that could slide at the platform end
 Piled Waterfront Structures 717

when it translates the effects of lateral ture and the underdeck slope) are almost
loads. identica!.
As previously stated, the wall's trans- The deck is typically constructed in a
verse displacement can be limited by either form of a rather thin (0.45-0.5 m) cast-in-
the increased number of vertical piles or by situ flat slab overlaid by the granular bal-
the introduction of batter piles. The latter last approximately 1.0 m thick. A granular
solution is illustrated in Figure 7-10b. Be- ballast is normally used to distribute the
fore the 1980s, this type of construction was concentrated loads on larger areas of a deck.
widespread along the west coast of the It is also used for damping the dynamic
United States. The structure depicted in loads generated during the operation
Figure 7-10b was constructed in the early of some cargo handling and hauling
1980s in Port-of-Los Angeles for the con- machinery.
tainer wharf. The cast-in-situ flat concrete The practice, however, has indicated that
deck of this structure was supported on ballast placed on a concrete deck often does
457 -mm square and octagonal concrete piles not have any practica! merits. Quite con-
with lateral forces resisted by a system of trary, it increases the dead load on piles,
batter piles. Similar structures were con- traps moisture, and prevents visual inspec-
structed at a great many ports in N orth tion ofthe deck upper surface. Hence, where
America and elsewhere in the world. Recent not justified by practica! requirements, the
observations of a number of dock structures use of the ballast should be avoided. In
some instances, a ballast of sufficient depth
in Oakland, California damaged by earth-
could be useful to accommodate services
quakes has indicated that structures with
piping and electrica! conduits placed above
batter piles included in pile arrangement
the structural deck. Also, in some cases, a
were more susceptible to damages by sud-
ballast could be effective in insulating the
den earth movements than those founded
deck structure from direct exposure of the
on vertical piles only.
sun and for maintaining its temperature
In the former structures, the batter and
level close to the water temperature.
some vertical piles and their connections to A very important component of the
the deck have been severely damaged dur- marginal open pile structure is its under-
ing earthquake shocks (Cooper, 1991). Pile deck slope. In the aforementioned case
damage basically resulted from the low duc- histories, the underdeck slope was approxi-
tility of the relatively stiff batter piles. The mately 2.5 : 1 seismically stable. It was pro-
latter resulted in higher dynamic loadings tected with a riprap having the exposed to
during earthquakes than might have oc- water slope 1.5 : 1.0 (horizontal to vertical).
curred in the total vertical pile system. In one specific case, piles were installed
During retrofitting of the damaged by a standard hammer. The pile installa-
wharves, ali the batter piles were removed tion was assisted by a water jet. These piles
from the structures and replaced with verti- have been installed after the slope had been
cal piles, essentially a ductile moment- dredged and prior to placement of the rock
resisting system. It should be pointed out prism. Subsequent installation of the rock
that in the wake of the experience gained prism displaced the pile heads laterally by
during several recent high-intensity earth- about 180-380 mm with about 40 mm of
quakes that hit California, several struc- this movement occurring after the fiii mate-
tures in the are a were constructed on verti- rial was placed behind the newly con-
cal piles only (Wittkop, 1986). With the structed wharf. The cause of prism move-
exception of the piling system, however, ali ment was not apparent. Tentatively, it was
other dock components (e.g., the deck struc- assumed to be the result of a prism sliding
718 Piled Waterfront Structures

due to insuf:ficient support at the toe, incor-

rect sequence of riprap placement, settle-
ment, or combination of all the above. In
another case, the prism was placed :first and
then piles were driven through the riprap.
This has resulted in substantial pile dis-
placements. As pointed out by Wittkop
(1986), pile-driving through riprap resulted
in settlement of the rock:fill during the pile
installation process.

7.3.5 suspended Deck

Structures Founded
on Large-Diameter
Cylindrical Piles
The chief advantage of this type of con-
struction is the simpli:fication of the piling
system due to a substantial reduction in the
number of piles. This piling system allows
for the relatively easy use of prefabricated
components, and, in particular, precast con-
crete capping beams, for deck construction.
Four characteristic examples of these
structures are illustrated in Figures 7-12
and 7-13. In all four examples, the concrete
deck, assembled from precast concrete com-
ponents, is founded on prestressed, vertical,
large-diameter, concrete cylindrical piles. In
each representative case, the number of
piles per bent, the pile diameter, as well as
the space between adjacent bents were se-
lected on the hasis of alternative designs
related to the particular site conditions. In
the case illustrated in Figure 7-12a, the Figure 7-12. Open-type structure with deck assem-
wharfs deck is founded on concrete piles 1.0 bled from prefabricated components founded on large-
m in diameter. In this particular case, the diameter concrete tubular piles: (a) typical structure
width of the deck is reduced by the use of for construction on competent foundation soils (water
precast sections of a counterfort retaining depth from 10 to 15 m); (b) Port-of-Kaliningrad, Rus-
sia; Wharf constructed on dense sand overlaid by weak
wall installed at the land side of the deck. soils. 1-prestressed concrete tubular piles 1.0 m in
The wall sections, each 5 m long, were ăiameter; 2-precast prestressed deck components;
placed behind the deck on previously in- 3-precast pile cap; 4-concrete paving; 5-pre- ·
stalled rock:fill slope protection. The piles' stressed concrete tubular piles 1.2 m in diameter; 6-
strength and their penetration into medium portal crane track; 7-train track; 8-slope protection
(riprap); 9-granular material as substitution for local
dense sand were sufficient to support verti- weak soil; 10-sand; 11-precast prestressed pile cap-
cal loads produced by portal cranes with a ping beam; 12-prefabricated concrete retaining wall;
lifting capacity of 30 tonnes, and by two 13-slit with pit layers; 14-sand clay; 15-loam.
 Piled Waterfront Structures 719

(a)

·. 1:· :. : .... : : .. :· . ·.

. . . """'=.L............ n:.. H}~r~\/•······-·····.·.·

(b)

Figure 7-13. Open-type structure with deck assembled from prefabricated

components founded on large-diameter cylindrical concrete piles: (a) typical
structure for construction on competent foundation soil for a water depth of
10-15 m; (b) wide pier at Port-of-Novorosiysk, Russia. 1-prestressed
concrete tubular piles 1.6 m in diameter; 2-prefabricated prestressed
T-shaped concrete beam; 3-cast-in-aitu prestressed continuous concrete
beam; 4-concrete retaining wall assembled from precast sections; 5-cast-
in-place concrete cope; 6-sand; 7-riprap; 8-granular filter; 9-portal
crane track; 10-train track; 11-precast prestressed components of deck
structure; 12-rock amor; 13-precast prestressed concrete pile capping
beam; 14-concrete cover plate; 15-concrete plug; 16-concrete socket;
17 -clay; 18-marl; 19-dense clay with inclusion of gravei and small
cobbles; 20-concrete topping.
720 Piled Waterfront Structures

trains sitting on the deck. Piles were also as the use of a limited number of a stand-
designed to resist lateral forces imposed on ard precast components.
the dock by ship impact and by mooring Alternatively, the deck structure can be
loads. constructed as a combination of precast pile
The deck structure was comprised of pre- capping beams with a precast :flat one-way
cast prestressed pile capping beams and slab as illustrated in Figure 7-13b. In this
precast T -shaped girders used to span the case the prestressed concrete piles 1.6 m in
space between pile bents. The weight of diameter were fabricated by the centrifugal
prefabricated blocks varied between 50 and method in 8 m long pieces then welded
100 tonnes. The advantage of this deck sys- together to form piles 24 m long. Piles were
tem is that the webs ofT-girders were used driven by a powerful vibrator to bedrock
as supports for crane and railway tracks. A and socketed into it. Extremely accurate
further advantage was that the :flat bottom pile alignment in ali directions was achieved
of the deck did not trap moisture and, through the use of a special :floating tem-
therefore, was less susceptible to long-term plate that allowed for pile installation in
deterioration. two adjacent bents while remaining at-
Another advantage is that this deck sys- tached to the previously installed piles. The
tem is accessible for inspection and mainte- pile tips were protected by steel shoes. The
nance. A similar structure has been con- space between bents was 12 m and the
structed for a general cargo berth in length of the typical wharf section was equal
Visakhapatnam Port in India (Ansari and to 36 m. After the erection of the pile cap-
Kumar, 1986). There the wharfwas built in ping beams were completed, and they were
water 16.5 m deep. The wharfs deck of a secured in place by reinforced concrete
composite construction was founded on con- plugs, the one-way prestressed concrete
crete cylindrical piles 1.22 m in diameter, slabs, 0.7 m thick, were installed to form
four piles per bent, at 6 m center to center. the deck structure. To allow for lateral
The precast capping beams were placed on movements due to temperature effects, the
piles, thus forming stiff bents at 7.4 m cen- 12-m-long deck sections, comprised of typi-
ter to center; the secondary T-beams and cal one-way slabs were placed between two
special facial beams were installed on cap- adjacent wharf sections.
ping beams and used as the formwork for In the case depicted in Figure 7-13a, the
the cast-in-place deck slab. In this case, structure was designed to support a very
however, the T-beams were reversed to pro- heavy crane load as well as two railway
vide a smooth working surface for placing tra.cks. Longitudinal prestressed concrete
the concrete overtop. girders were designed as cast-in-place con-
The structure illustrated in Figure 7-12b tinuous beams with the standard span 16 m
was constructed on relatively weak founda- long and the end span at both sides of the
tion soils that overlay a deep stratum of beam equal to 8 m; precast prestressed con-
dense sand. Four tubular piles per bent crete beams installed between the longitu-
were required there to resist design vertical dinal girders were designed to support two
and lateralloads. Precast concrete pile caps railway tracks and the surcharge load 40
2 X 2 m were installed on each pile head kN jm2 • A precast prestressed L-shaped face
after which the 5.25 X 5.25 X 0.6-m precast beam was designed to accommodate the
prestressed concrete slabs were installed wharfs services, as well as to provide sup-
and joined together and with piles via a port for dock fender system. The deck is
reinforced concrete plug. The chief advan- overlain by a layer of cast-in-situ concrete
tage of this system is its simplicity as well 10 cm thick.
 Piled Waterfront Structures 721

The advantage of this type of construc- comprised of tubular steel piles surmounted
tion is its ability to accommodate very heavy by a concrete deck constructed from prefab-
cargo handling equipment, such as portal ricated components. The design lateralloads
cranes, bulk loaders, unloaders, and so are resisted by piles and an anchor slab,
forth, and large surcharge loads. Its disad- placed on the rear beam of the deck, and by
vantage is the use of the T -beams that are the so-called friction slab. According to
not very suitable for inspection and mainte- Eriksson and Klinbenberg this system is
nance. This can lead to corrosion of rein- often used in N orwegian designs.
forcement and, thus, deterioration of struc- AII deck components on this N orwegian
ture. The latter can be mitigated by the use site, such as the pile capping beams, front
of although less economica! however, more and rear beams, deck slabs, and the compo-
practica! from maintenance view point the nents included in the anchor system, were
flat concrete slabs. The advantage of deck prefabricated in a yard and transported on
structures illustrated in Figures 7-12 and a barge to the construction site. After their
7-13b is that they are almost totally com- erection, the deck components were joined
prised from prefabricated components; pre- together by cast-in-situ concrete. Prefabri-
fabrication of these structures reaches cation helped to reduce the construction
70%-80%. time of the wharf considerably.
Two unconventional structures have been The structure's anchor system that in-
recently built in Scandinavia (Eriksson and cludes the prefabricated anchor and friction
Klinbenberg, 1986). The structure depicted slabs is capable to resist lateralloads acting
in Figure 7-14 was built near Stavanger, toward the land (e.g., ship impact), as well
on the southwestern coast of Norway. It is as toward the water side (e.g., mooring

r+A
t 2000 J• 5300 11700 3500

r
3500 ~
1
1

Pcecast transverse beams

Section A-A

Figure 7-14. Wharf constructed from precast concrete components at

Stavanger, Norway. [From Eriksson and Klingenberg (1986).]
722 Piled Waterfront Structures

force). In the latter case, a reliable articu- ated with the underwater pile-driving pro-
lated connection between the anchor and cedure-the need for the diver assistance
friction slabs, and between the anchor slab for installation of prefabricated pillars and
and the deck structure is required. Further- holding them in place before concrete grout
more, the friction slab must be placed on a can gain the adequate strength to resist the
dense foundation base with low consolida- construction loads.
tion (settlement) rate. Additional interesting case histories are
The second structure (Figure 7-15) was found in recent publications by PIANC and
constructed at Lulea, Sweden for an iron-ore proceedings of specialty conferences such as
exporting wharf. In this case, the prefabri- ASCE PORTS, Ports and Harbors under
cated concrete components also have been Arctic Conditions (POAC) and others.
used extensively. The deck structure was
supported on precast tubular pillars (three
per bent), each installed on a group of four
concrete piles. Mter installation on piles, 7.3.6 Protection from Ship
the expanded footing of the pillar was filled Impact
with concrete. The structure lateral stabil-
ity was provided by two batter piles per Open pile structures are vulnerable to ship
bent. The land-based footing was also sup- impact and, therefore, must be designed in
ported on a concrete pile that was an inte- a way to keep the front row of piles out of
gral part of the bent. The deck structure the reach of the ship's bow. These struc-
consisted of prefabricated transverse and tures are usually protected by utilizing mis-
longitudinal beams and slabs overlaid by a cellaneous fender systems which are also
cast-in-situ concrete slab. The front row of used to dissipate the energy of a berthing
the pillars had a conical cap which enables ship and to reduce the ship's impact load.
them to reduce ice loads that act on the Besides the size of the vessel and the
structure. vessel's berthing maneuver, the fendering
The advantage of structure constructed of open pile structures with suspended decks
at Lulea is its ability to carry heavy deck is influenced to a great extent by the tidal
loads and to resist substantial horizontal range that usually is a major factor in fender
loads, such as ice, mooring loads, and ship system design.
impact. Its obvious disadvantage is the Typically, at sites with no substantial
complicated construction procedure associ- variation in water level, the conventional

Figure 7-15. Wharf for export of iron ore, constructed at Lulea,

Sweden. [From Eriksson and Klingenberg (1986).]
 Piled Waterfront Structures 723

fender systems such as commercially avail- type of fender pile is not quite new; they
able rubber fender units of miscellaneous have been used in the late fifties at com-
designs are used to absorb berthing energy mercial wharves in Singapore and Kuwait.
and to protect both the ship and the struc- With the cost of creosoted wood piles in-
ture from damage. These fenders are nor- creasing, as well as concerns over health
mally attached to the deck face beam above aspects of the creosote becoming apparent,
the water level. Where the tidal range is the prestressed concrete fender piles are
substantial fendering of the dock may be being given renewed interest in the United
required at more than one level within the States. One of the first applications of pre-
tidal range. stressed piles for dock fendering in the
In older structures, large tidal variations United States occurred in 1985, when these
are usually accommodated by the fender piles were installed at a tug berth at a
systems comprised of creosoted wooden piles naval station in Norfolk, Virginia.
supported by rubber units at the deck level These piles were designed for two condi-
(Fig. 7-16). Where wood was scarce or use tions of berthing impact, namely frequent
of creosoted wooden piles raised environ- loading and extreme (one-time) loading. It
mental concerns, steel or prestressed con- was thought that under relatively frequent
crete piles were used. The pile fender sys- loadings, cracks would appear in the fender
tem, however, proved to be vulnerable to piles prior to reaching the ultimate moment
damage inflicted on it by berthing ships, capacity; however, these cracks closed when
particularly by those with bulbous bows. the impact load was removed. Alternatively,
Furthermore, underwater inspection of an ~xtreme loading was assumed as one
these piles and repair or replacement are severe enough to spall the cover over the
also difficult and very costly. reinforcement; if this level of pile damage
In recent years, research sponsored by occurs, then the pile must be either re-
the U.S. Navy has resulted in a new class of paired or replaced by the new one. These
prestressed concrete fender piles capable piles were installed by water jetting.
of high-energy absorption for use in a In the process of operation at N orfolk
wide range of pier fendering applications some of the piles have cracked and subse-
(Zinserling et al., 1987; Fotinos, 1986). This quently closed as anticipated (Zinserling et
al., 1987). To the best of this author's
knowledge, no significant problems with
these piles have been reported to date. Rub-
bing strips or a high-density polyethylene
cover on the piles at Norfolk were used to
prevent abrasion to both the ship and con-
crete surface. As suggested by Fotinos
(1986), the behavior of prestressed fender
piles can be improved by providing saw cuts
in the concrete cover over the reinforcement
located on the compressive side of the pile.
Ţhese cuts placed at 600- 900 mm (on cen-
ters) in the area of maximum bending mo-
ment will allow the high compressive stress
to be carried by the concrete located away
from the unconfined surface. The saw cuts
Figure 7-16. Tradition fender system comprised of
should be filled with an epoxy material to
creosoted wooden piles supported by rubber units at maintain proper cover over the reinforce-
deck level. ment.
724 Piled Waterfront Structures

Again, it must be pointed out that pre-

stressed concrete piles could hardly resist ••
~ :.
o

the impact load produced by a large vessel. ! .o '

-----.:.o ..
o

These piles can normally be used to absorb

ship impact energy in the neighborhood of . ~. : :.
up to 4 tm. In modern marine engineering
practice, piled fender systems are more of-
ten replaced by the efficient rubber fenders.
Where the open piled construction with a
suspended deck is used in areas with large
tidal ranges, the rubber fenders are usually
mounted on a concrete face panel sus-
pended from the deck structure. Naturally,
the height of these panels depends on the
tidal variation. In recent projects, to mini-
mize the expensive over-water works, these
panels were prefabricated and subsequently PIPE 8JIACt:

stressed by posttensioning techniques to the

underside of the deck structure. A typical
example of such type construction is illus-
trated in Figure 7-2.
Where the tidal range is substantial, rel-
atively thin and long fender panels can be
supported by braces similar to that indi-
cated in Figure 7-17. Here the lateral shear
load at the panel's upper end is resisted by
the concrete shear key provided at the in-
terface, and at its lower end, the panel is Figure 7-17. Precast concrete fender supporting
panel posttensioned to concrete deck or pile capping
propped by a steel pipe brace. Longitudinal structure. [From Shrivastava and Youdale (1986).]
shear produced by ship rubbing along
the face of the dock during the berthing
maneuver is resisted, when required, by the
secondary bracing system installed parallel hard soils with inclusions of large boulders.
to the dock's face. This system was used for To develop the required uplift capacity, piles
fendering the breasting dolphins con- can be anchored in competent soil or bedrock
structed for the Ridley lsland Coal Termi- by one of the following techniques. One of
nal (Shrivastava and Youdale, 1986). these methods is to drill a socket into the
foundation that is of slightly smaller diame-
ter than the inside diameter of the pile.
Then the insert is installed in the socket
7.3. 7 Pile Anchoring in hole and grouted there and in the pile.
Foundation Soil and the Another method is to anchor the pile to
oeck Structure the foundation by using conventional
ground-rock anchor techniques. The combi-
Sometimes piles cannot be driven deep nation of both methods can also be used.
enough into the foundation soil to develop Where piles are required to be anchored,
an adequate uplift capacity. This may occur then pipe piles are normally used. The work
where bedrock is close to the surface or in is typically carried out in the following
 Piled Waterfront Structures 725

sequence: Because of the nature of the socket, the

pile load is distributed through the sides of
1. Piles are driven through the soft overbur- the socket to a much larger rock area than
den to the competent soil-rock layer. As would be if the pile merely rested on the
the pile is advanced, the overburden ma- rock surface. Very high axial loads could
terial is cleaned out from the pile's inte- therefore be applied on these piles. In prac-
rior. In deep water conditions where a tice, this load would be controlled by pile
long freestanding pile is required andjor buckling and its compressive strengths.
where the overburden layer is too thin to
In a second method, the pile is driven
support pile, then steel templates or jack-
ets are used to assist both pile-driving
into the overburden with a preinstalled con-
and anchoring. Here the template or jack- crete plug or is completely filled with con-
ets are positioned and secured to the bot- crete. Next, a deep hole is drilled through
tom. The piles are lowered down through the pile and beyond the pile tip through the
template sleeves or jacket columns and tubing preinstalled at the pile center. This
driven to required penetration. is followed by installation of a steel tendon
2. With the pile in place, the socket is drilled and its grouting to the soil-rock interface.
and cleaned from inside the pile. The tendon is then stressed, anchored, and
3. Steel pins made of H-piles or other sec- grouted to ensure its complete protection
tions, a rebar cage, or a combination of from corrosion. The disadvantage of this
both are installed within the socket and method is that it requires extreme care in
the lower end of the pile; the system is controlling the quality of tendon installa-
grouted up, thus bonding the insert to the tion and grouting. Lack of reliable quality
walls of the socket hole and to the pile. control may result in a complete failure of
the anchor system, as has occurred during
In both methods, the grout is delivered to the construction of breasting dolphins for
the socket by utilizing either the tremie the Ro-Ro terminal in Boston Harbor
method, or by pumping concrete through a (Blowers et al., 1992).
grout pipe. The rebar cage should be ade- A typical example of a pile socket system
quately sized to provide ample room to per- with a steel insert is illustrated in Figure
mit the free flow of concrete or grout be- 7-18. As it is also seen in this figure the
tween the bars. To create more space for pile connection at the deckjpile cap struc-
concrete, the vertical bars can be bundled ture is provided by the rebar cage extended
in groups of two and more. A spiral rein- from the concrete plug inside the pile. This
forcement system should also be well can also be accomplished by welding steel
spaced; if necessary, it can be roade of bars to the pile as seen in Figure 7-3.
heavier-gauge steel. The space and clear-
ings between rebars should be at least four
times the size of coarse aggregate. Alterna-
tively, the insert can be roade of a precast 7_4 RELIEVINO PLATFORMS
reinforced concrete plug which contains all
the required reinforcement. The walls of As noted earlier, these structures are very
this plug should be rough enough to ensure effective where the foundation soils are
a good bond with the grout. Mter installa- weak and the tide range is substantial. Also,
tion of the plug into the socket, the annular as previously stated, the relieving platforms
space between the plug and socket, and the are usually used as a viable alternative to
plug and pile is grouted via preinstalled sheet-pile anchored bulkheads.
grout pipes; the grouting is carried out with Practically, there is no limit on water
no interruptions. depth into which the relieving platforms
726 Piled Waterfront Structures

ther advantages of these structures is that

the wall piling is well protected from im-
pacts by ships and ice and effects of envi-
ronmental loads such as waves and cur-
rents. Because in most practica! cases of
relieving platform construction, the piles are
always surrounded by soil along their full
lengths, the buckling stability of these piles
and, hence, their structural strength is
enhanced.
Relieving platforms can be comprised of
ali basic structural materiala such as wood,
steel, and concrete, and/ or combinations of
these. Severa! typical examples of relieving
platforms constructed elsewhere in the
world are illustrated in Figures 7-19
through 7-25.
An all-wood structure built in Russia is
depicted in Figure 7-20a. This structure
was built in the early 1960s in the northern
Russian Port-of-Archangelsk, White Sea. Its
piled foundation is composed ofwooden piles
30 cm in diameter and wooden sheet piles
22 cm thick. Pile bents are spaced at 1.0-m
centers. The deck structure and superstruc-
ture are constructed in the dry at a low sea
level. The deck structure is composed of
longitudinal and transverse members that
embrace the piles; the 10-cm-thick timbers
are placed on these members to form a flat
deck. The retaining superstructure was de-
Figure 7-18. Pile socket and pile to deck or pile signed and constructed in a form of a rock-
capping beam connection. [From Shrivastave and filled gravity-type timber crib wall.
Youdale (1986).]
In a freshwater environment or in cold
regions, wood structures can be quite
can be constructed economically. For durable. In fact, if structural wood compo-
example, quay walls 30.5 and 31.0 m high nenta are properly pressure treated, the
to accommodate 400,000 DWT vessels structures can serve as long as 20-30 and
(draught 22.86 m) have been successfully more years. They can represent a competi-
built at Port-of-Rotterdam, Netherlands in tive solution in dock construction where
the 1980s (Parent, 1986). The cross section wood is a cheap and locally available
of a somewhat smaller structure is depicted material.
in Figure 7-19. Normally, to prevent wood decay, the
The relieving platform structures can wooden components should be submerged
carry very heavy live loads (e.g., high- below the mean minimum water level and
lifting-capacity portal and mobile cranes, extended above the water level by ineans of
iron ore, packaged steel products, and oth- steel or concrete componenta to allow for
ers) without unacceptable deflections. Fur- construction in the dry of a concrete plat-
 Piled Waterfront Structures 727

(a) (b)

Figure 7-19. Deep water quay wall constructed at Port-of-Rotterdam: (a) Typical cross section;
(b) sheet-piling details; (c) cast-iron saddle. 1-composed-type steel sheeting; 2-prestressed
concrete bearing piles; 3-M.V. (Miiller Verfahrem) tension piles (steel grouted piles); 4-con-
crete superstructure; 5-granular drainage; 6-pavement; 7-fender system; 8-conventional
sheet piles; 9-steel pipe piles; 10-reinforcing plates; 11-roofmate; 12-cast-iron saddle;
13-dowel.

form (superstructure). The relevant exam- crete, the head of the tension piles is typi-
ple is shown in Figure 7-20b. Here, the cally made in the form of a truncated cone
piled foundation is composed of wooden with its larger base at the top. Additionally,
sheeting, wooden bearing piles, and con- a spiral reinforcement made from 10-12-
crete batter piles. The sheet piles are sup- mm-diameter bars is normally placed
ported against prefabricated concrete face around the cone. Obviously, if the structure
panels incorporated via extended steel dow- is constructed "in dry" conditions, the
els into the cast-in-situ concrete platform, wooden piles are embedded directly into the
and the wooden piles are extended up above concrete platform.
sea level by means of concrete cylinders In the case depicted in Figure 7-20b, the
joined with the platform structure via steel lateral loads are resisted by concrete batter
dowels. After installation on piles, the con- piles. The timber sheeting is designed as a
crete cylinders are :filled with concrete. Nor- conventional sheet-pile bulkhead to retain
mally, to ensure reliable wooden pile- the back:fill soil. In permanent structures,
concrete structure interaction, the bearing wooden sheeting is normally used only
piles should be embedded into the concrete where there is no marine organisms able to
to the depth equal to at least the pile head damage the wood; otherwise, steel or con-
diameter; the piles in tension should be crete sheet-piling is employed. The relevant
embedded to a minimum of0.7-0.9 m. Fur- example is illustrated in Figure 7-20c. In
thermore, for a better connection to con- this particular case, the structure is corn-
728 Piled Waterfront Structures

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 7-20. Examples ofrelieving platforms: (a) constructed totally from

wooden components; (b) concrete relieving platform with masonry superstructure
constructed on vertical and bearing wooden piles, and batter concrete bearing and
tension piles with timber sheet piling; (c) concrete relieving platform with regular
concrete sheet-piling and all-wooden regular piles. 1-Creosoted wooden piles;
2-timber criblike superstructure filled with rocks; 3-timber relieving plat-
form; 4-timber sheet piling; 5-prefabricated concrete extension for wooden
piles; 6-precast concrete panel to support timber sheeting; 7-masonry
superstructure; 8-cast-in-situ concrete platform; 9-concrete pile; !O-concrete
sheet-piling; 11-granular ballast; 12-granular backfill; 13-original surface;
14-granular drainage.
 Piled Waterfront Structures 729

prised of all-wooden piles embedded into between the pipe piles as indicated in Fig-
the concrete platform at the mean water ure 7-19b. All sheet piles were installed by
level, and concrete sheet-piling. vibration down to a layer of dense sand; to
Described in the following examples are achieve adequate bearing capacity the pipe
the other combinations of piles and sheet piles were driven further into the dense
piles: prestressed concrete piles in combina- sand by an impact hammer. For better
tion with steel sheet-piling; prestressed alignment, a steel guiding frame was used
concrete bearing piles and steel tension piles during installation of the piles. In some
in combination with steel sheet-piling; pre- instances, a water jet was used to assist in
stressed concrete bearing piles and steel the installation of the pipe piles; the water
grouted piles in combination with steel jet was not used during driving into the
sheet-piling. dense sand layer. Installation of pipe piles
As noted earlier, several exceptionally was followed by driving of the conventional
high dock walls (up to 31.0 m) have been steel sheet piles.
recently constructed at Port-of-Rotterdam. During sheet-pile-driving, several inter-
One of those structures constructed for the locks were ruptured. Damages to interlocks
European Bulk Goods Transhipment Com- could not be easily detected from vibration
pany in Maasulakte, Netherlands is de- records during pile installation; subse-
picted in Figure 7-19. This low-level reliev- quently, they have been found by divers
ing structure was designed to provide the during the wall inspection carried out after
berthing facility for ships up to 350,000 dredging the harbor basin in front of the
DWT with a design draught of about 22.0 wall was completed. The underwater repair
m. It was constructed "in dry'' on land and of damaged interlocks proved to be very
followed by soil excavationjdredging in costly.
front of the berth. As mentioned earlier, in order to reduce
The pile foundation of this structure is the bending moment in the sheeting, the
composed of a raked steel sheet-pile wall, load from the superstructure was applied to
prestressed concrete batter bearing piles, the sheet-pile wall eccentrically via special
and steel grouted tension piles. Piles were cast-iron saddles. Furthermore, the effects
surmounted by a cast-in-situ concrete su- of soil arching between the pipe piles were
perstructure. The steel sheet-piling of com- taken into account in the design of the con-
posite construction was designed to carry ventional sheet piles installed between pipe
vertical loads produced by heavy bulk han- piles. In further developments at Port-of-
dling equipment and by the relevant weight Rotterdam, other combinations of the con-
of the superstructure (backfill soil included) ventional steel sheet piles with fabricated
and to resist lateralloads produced by hori- steel sheet piles were used (De Gijt et al.,
zontal soil pressure and by mooring forces. 1993).
To reduce bending moments in the sheet- Prestressed concrete piles, 450 and 500
pile wall, the load from the superstructure mm in diameter, used for constructing the
was transferred eccentrically to the sheet- quay wall depicted in Figure 7-19 varied in
ing via cast-iron saddles installed on the length from 22 to 30 m. These piles were
sheet-pile heads (Fig. 7-19c). driven by diesel hammer through miscella-
Depending on the wall's height at a par- neous soils into the stratum of dense sand.
ticular location, the sheet-pile wall was Pile installation through soils that overlaid
composed of open-end steel pipe piles 904 the lower dense bearing sand was assisted
mm-1420 mm in diameter, 30-35 m long, by a water jet; the water jet was not used
and a set of three steel sheet piles, Larssen while piles were driven into the dense sand
Ils or Ills, approximately 24 m long driven to the desired penetration of 4-7 m.
730 Piled Waterfront Structures

Use of the water jet helped reduce pile

skin friction so that pile-driving into the
dense sand proceeded without damaging the
pile heads by heavy blows. Furthermore,
water jetting loosened soil around the pile,
which resulted in a reduction of negative
skin friction with a subsequent increase in
pile bearing capacity.
Special features of the wall in question is
the tension element called the M.V. pile
(M.V. stands for Miiller Verfahrem) in-
stalled at the top of sheet piling and embed-
ded into the concrete base of the super-
structure. The length of these piles varied
from 30 to 36 m. The piles were designed to
carry tensile loads equal to 3000 kN, which
was transferred to the concrete superstruc-
ture by means of 80 dowels, each approxi-
mately 16 mm in diameter. The M. V. pile is Figure 7-21. Eemhaven Quay, Rotterdam, Nether-
essentially a steel grouted pile, or a grouted lands: 1-steel H-piles; 2-steel sheet piles; 3-pre-
steel anchor. It is designed to transfer the stressed concrete piles; 4-precast concrete beam;
horizontal load that acts on a structure to 5-cast-in-situ concrete platform; 6-granular ballast;
7-pavement; 8-riprap placed on natural slope;
the competent layer of subsoil. The anchor 9-granular fill.
has an enlarged tip and is equipped with
two grout pipes. The steel pile's cross sec-
tion depends on its required drivability as for container ships. The foundation soils at
well as on the design tensile load and the the construction site consist of very w.eak
load due to the soil that may hang on the clay and peat layers, underlain by firm,
pile. During pile-driving, a space is formed dense sand. The top of the wall was ele-
behind the enlarged tip that is immediately vated 3.35 m above mean sea level and the
filled with pumped-in grout. It is essential underside of the relieving platform was
that pile-driving and the grouting process located approximately 65 cm above the
continue without interruption and that the minimum low sea level.
grout pressure is kept as necessary to en- The wall's foundation was comprised of
sure that grout level always stays at the steel sheet piles and prestressed concrete
ground surface level. Similar to conven- piles, 390 X 457 mm, driven into the firm
tional ground (rock) anchors, M.V. piles used sand stratum. The pile-driving rig was
for wall construction were load tested. The mounted on a special platform. The water-
drainage system, as indicated in Figure side of this platform along with a pile-driver
7-19, was provided to equalize the hydro- track sat on a floating structure, and the
static pressure around the wall. land-based track was placed on sleepers
The high-level relieving platform con- embedded in the natural slope. The sheet-
structed in the mid-1960s at Port-of- ing was comprised of conventional steel H-
Rotterdam is shown in Figure 7-21. piles and conventional steel sheet piles
It was constructed for expansion of the driven in sets of two between H-piles; to
Eemhaven basin, which was required to accommodate the conventional sheet piles,
cope with the increased demand for driving of the H-piles had tobe carried out
berthage for general cargo freighters and with utmost accuracy. After pile installa-
 Piled Waterfront Structures 731

tion, the sheet-pile wall was cut accurately structures constructed later at Port-of-
to design elevation. Following installation Rotterdam (Parent, 1986; De Gijt et al.,
of the prestressed concrete piles, the riprap 1993). One of the most interesting develop-
was placed on the face of the natural slope ments at Port-of-Rotterdam is construction
behind the sheeting, and the concrete level- of Swarttouw Quay (Figure 7-22). This
ing pad was cast in place at the top of the structure, which carries heavy portal cranes
riprap to provide the temporary support for and superimposed loadings, was con-
the precast concrete beams to be installed structed on poor foundation soils. Here, the
on this pad and the sheet-pile wall. These soils consisted of layers of soft clay and fine
beams were installed on top of each H-pile sand, underlain by firm clay. Similar to the
and subsequently connected to these piles previously discussed structure constructed
by means of special cast-iron saddles. Every at Maasvbakte (Fig. 7-19), this structure
fourth precast beam was extended beyond was also constructed on land and under dry
the face of sheet-pile wall to provide sup- conditions. The pile foundation of this
port for vertical hardwood timber fenders. structure was composed of raked sheet-
As depicted in Figure 7-21, the rest of piling, prestressed concrete bearing piles,
superstructure was cast-in-situ. It should and steel tension H-piles. The composite
be pointed out that originally this structure sheet-piling included fabricated steel
and its fender system were designed to ac- sections made up from two H-piles and con-
commodate fairly large ships approaching ventional steel sheet piles driven between
the dock with the assistance of tugs. In H-piles in sets ofthree. One basic feature of
practice, however, some ships approached sheet-piling design was the provision of ad-
the dock without tug assistance and some- ditional fiange plates in zones of high bend-
times with a speed that exceeded the design ing moments.
approach velocity. Furthermore, the dock Support for the waterside crane track
was used by barges that loaded the fender was provided entirely by steel sheet-piling
system in an unfavorable way. This re- which was raked toward the land so that its
sulted in substantial damage to the prefab- top lies under the crane raii. The predomi-
ricated beams used for installation of the nantly cast-in-situ concrete superstructure
fenders and to the longitudinal face beam. had a soil-retaining wall erected from pre-
The damage to wharf components was in a cast concrete panels. The panels are sup-
form of deep, long cracks spreading almost ported at counterfort concrete walls that
in all directions. One of the reasons for were designed to provide stiffness to the
these cracks was an inadequate amount of superstructure as well as to support moor-
reinforcing steel. ing bollards and the fender system.
In 1988 this structure underwent exten- The latest development at Port-of-
sive rehabilitation work during which the Rotterdam was constructed of a deep
cracks were injected with grout, and the water quay wall (Delta Container Terminal
beams were strengthened by use of postten- at Europahaven) with no tension piles at
sioning techniques (Parent, 1986). Finally, ali; the lateralload acting on this structure
it should be pointed out that the underdeck was resisted by the anchor system com-
(underwater) fill was completed using riprap prised of steel sheet-pile walls and pre-
placed on the natural slope. This resulted in stressed high-tensile-strength steel anchor
a significant reduction in lateral pressure cables (Fig. 7-23).
against the sheeting. The pile foundation of this structure con-
The experience gained in rehabilitating sists of fabricated steel box piles driven at 2
the dock shown in Figure 7-21 helped m cjc (center to center) and conventional
to refine designs of other waterfront steel sheet piles driven between the box
732 Piled W aterfront Structures

top elements of the superstructure were cast

in 13.5-m pours.
The anchor sheet-pile wall was also used
as a foundation for the land-based crane
rail. The anchor wall and the Delta super-
structure were connected by high-tensile-
strength posttensioned steel cables.
Experience gained at Port-of-Rotterdam
and elsewhere in the world indicate that
composite sheet-pile walls, comprised of
conventional high-tensile-strength steel
sheet piles alternating with large-diameter
high-strength pipe piles or made up sec-
tions, can be a very economica! solution for
construction of relieving platforms. In the
above combinations, steel sheet piles are
normally used in groups of shorter than
ring pile lengths. The advantage of these
walls is that they can withstand a very
heavy vertical load in combination with
lateral loads from the backfill. The attrac-
tiveness of this system increases with wall
Figure 7-22. Swarttouw Quay, Rotterdam, Nether- inclination.
lands. Typical cross section: 1-double steel H-piles; 2 Sometimes quay walls need to be con-
-steel sheet piles; 3-prestressed concrete piles; structed in populated areas where local con-
4-steel H-piles; 5-concrete superstructure; 6-pre-
cast concrete panels; 7-granular backfill; 8-pave-
ditions such as neighboring buildings or the
ment. presence of sensitive soil vibration equip-
ment may necessitate strict avoidance of
noise, or shock and vibration of the ground
which is normally associated with pile-
piles. As in the earlier discussed examples,
driving.
the sheet-piling is raked toward the land
Under the aforementioned site condi-
and is loaded eccentrically to reduce the
tions, the "quiet" slurry wall techniques can
design bending moment in the sheeting. be successfully utilized for wall construc-
Penetration of raked box piles, and also the tion. The example presented in Figure 7-24
raked prestressed concrete bearing piles, illustrates this type of construction. This
varied, depending on local soil conditions. deep water structure was built for
The bearing piles were driven to a mini- the Burchardkai Container Terminal,
mum 4.0 m penetration into the dense sand Germany, located on the bank of the north-
layer (the required cone resistance was ern Elbe (Hofmann, 1989). There, to pre-
specified to be not less than 30 Njmm 2 ). vent potential settlement of the closely
The Delta-shaped concrete superstructure located Elbtunnel, shocks and ground
was designed to support the waterside track vibration had to be avoided. Also, because
of the heavy portal cranes and to accommo- of the close proximity of residential housing,
date one railway track. The expansionjoints the substantial noise associated with
along the berth were at 40.5 m spacing and construction activities was unacceptable.
the concrete was placed by concrete pumps; Furthermore, the suspected (and confirmed
the inclined walls, fender (face) wall, and later during construction) presence of large
 Piled Waterfront Structures 733

2000 j_
r-------~~------·

Figure 7-23. Delta Container Terminal at Europahaven, Rotterdam, Netherlands: 1-fabri-

cated steel box pile; 2-conventional steel sheet pile; 3-prestressed concrete piles; 4-hollow
concrete superstructure; 5-granular drainage; 6-steel anchor sheet-pile wall; 7-concrete
wall; 8-concrete beam to support crane track; 9-prestressed high-tensile-strength anchor
cables; 10-pavement.

boulders and other obstacles in the subsoil from the face of a new wall and space
also roade sheet pile and conventional pile- between the natural slope, and the design
driving impractical. grade was hydraulically filled with granu-
The bidding competition resulted in many lar material.
• Next, a very short steel sheet-pile guide
interesting proposals. However, the pro-
wall was installed and the reinforced con-
posal that included construction of a slurry crete slurry wall was completed. This wall
wall with a relieving platform resting on was extended down to marl bedrock. Then
both cast-in-situ piles and the slurry wall conventional bored concrete piles, both
was selected for construction. It is worth bearing and tensile types, were con-
mentioning that the generally economica! structed. Finally, the structure was com-
solution such as a slurry wall anchored by pleted with a cast-in-situ concrete reliev-
raked posttensioned ground anchors at this ing platform, after which the previously
particular location happened to be very ex- installed semivertical wall was dismantled
and soil in front of the wall was dredged to
pensive and was ruled out.
the design elevation.
The wall in question was constructed on
built-up land in the following sequence: As mentioned earlier, each project is site-
specific and therefore depends on many con-
• First, the semivertical cantilever sheet-pile straints that affect the wall design in one
wall was constructed offshore about 12 m way or another.
734 Piled W aterfront Structures

1r-- 1&00-11
r-21,00~

Figure 7-25. A deep water quay wall constructed at

Figure 7-24. Port-of-Hamburg, Germany. Burchard- Port-of-Hamburg; typical cross section: 1-sheet-pile
kai Container Terminal; Typical cross section. wall comprised of steel H-piles (king piles) and conven-
1-Guide wall constructed from steel sheet piles; tional steel sheet piles driven between king piles;
2-natural bank ofthe Northern Elbe River; 3-built- 2-drilled concrete piles; 3-grouted steel tension pile;
up grade (removed after the wall is built); 4-slurry 4-concrete platform; 5-ballast; 6-pavement.
diaphragm wall; 5-concrete drilled piles; 6-concrete
relieving platform; 7 -granular ballast; 8-pavement;
9-fendering; 10-granular hydraulically placed back-
fill. .
strate the variety of pile arrangements and
the potentials of the relieving structures for
use in port development.
The example presented in Figure 7-25
illustrates the variety of piles which, de-
pending on site conditions, can be used eco-
nomically for waterfront construction. This
7.5 STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
deep water wall was completed in 1980 in
Port-of-Hamburg, Germany (Hofinann, Piled waterfront structures (e.g., open piled
1989). Its pile foundation included sheet- construction with suspended deck, or reliev-
piling comprised of bearing (king) piles ing platforms) are typically comprised of
(heavy H-piles) and filler elements that in- the following basic structural elements: pile
clude conventional steel sheet piles driven foundation, superstructure, and protected
between the king piles. The bearing load from erosion underdeck slope. In some in-
from heavy cargo handling equipment and stances, as discussed in Section 7.1 an an-
the surcharge load was transferred to chor system can be added to the structure
high-capacity cast-in-situ (drilled) bearing to support all or some lateral forces that are
piles, and the lateral load was resisted by acting on structure.
grouted steel piles similar to those depicted The reliable performance of all structural
in Figure 7-19. elements is paramount to an effective dock
The examples discussed in this section operation and its longevity. Damage of one
certainly do not represent all types of re- or several of these elements or premature
lieving platforms available for construction deterioration may substantially hamper
of waterfront walls; they illustrate some. dock operation, resulting in limited permis-
characteristic case histories and demon- sible loads allowed to act on the structure
 Piled Waterfront Structures 735

and possibly a drastic reduction in the current, earthquake) and dock operations
structure's usefullife. (e.g., ship impact and mooring loadings).
In the following sections, details on the As discussed in Chapter 3, these loads
structural elements that are used in con- are not necessarily cumulative. For exam-
struction of piled marine structures are ple, wind, wave, and current forces can oc-
discussed. cur simultaneously and in the same direc-
tion, whereas the forces due to ship impact
and mooring forces can act in opposite di-
7.5.1 Pile Foundation rections. Furthermore, wave loads or ice
impact cannot coincide with ship impact,
7.5.1.1 Pile Arrangements and so on.
Piles of any type of construction and ma-
As discussed in previous sections, a piled
terial used in the harsh marine environ-
foundation can be comprised of vertical piles
ment are vulnerable to deterioration. As
or a combination of both vertical and batter
stated earlier, the premature deterioration
piles. Additionally, as in the case of a reliev-
of piles may drastically reduce the useful
ing platform or sometimes in the case of an
life of the structure or, at least, may result
open pile construction with a short deck
in a limiting of the permissible loads that
structure, sheet-piling is used as a part of
may act on the structure. Deterioration of
the pile foundation. Basic structural ar-
piles in a marine environment may occur as
rangements of pile foundations and some
a result of the presence of aggressive sub-
specific arrangements are discussed in Sec-
stances in the foundation soil (rock), sea
tions 7.2-7.4. Additionally, details on sheet
andjor river water, the presence of marine
piles (design, structure, material, and in-
borers, the exposure to aggressive atmo-
stallation methods) are discussed in Chap-
spheric conditions, fouling, abrasion in-
ter 6. Some information on piles and sheet
flicted by sediments movement, ice, and
piles is also given in Chapter 2.
other factors. For details on the aggressive
In this section, only basic information on
nature of the marine environment, as ap-
conventional piles and conventional meth-
plied to marine structures, and necessary
ods of pile installation are presented. For a
precautions against the effects of these ag-
detailed discussion of this subject matter,
gressive substances on marine structures,
the reader is referred to standard texts on
the reader is referred to Tsinker (1995).
Foundation Engineering, standard hand-
To prevent pile deterioration, a thorough
books on the same subject (e.g., Foundation
investigation is usually carried out to detect
Engineering Handbook, 2nd edition, edited
the presence of harmful substances in the
by H-Y. Fang (1991), or special publications
foundation soils and in the sea (river)
such as Chellis (1961), Prakash and Sharma
water. The obtained information should be
(1990), or a more recent text by Tomlinson
carefully evaluated to determine the degree
(1994).
of potential aggressive action against the
structure and its components (e.g., as piles).
7.5.1.2 Piles Foundation piles can be vertical or bat-
Piles used for construction of marine ter. They can also be prefabricated (precast)
structures are normally designed to carry or cast-in-situ (bored or drilled). Cross-
loads from the dead weight of the structure, section-wise piles can be square, rectangu-
cargo handling and hauling equipment, lar, circular, octagonal, hexagonal, and even
miscellaneous surcharge loads, as well as triangular; they can also be H-shaped, solid
all kinds of lateralloads attributed to envi- or hollow. Pile shafts can be prismatic,
ronmental phenomena (e.g., wave, wind, cylindrical, or conical; the latter can be
736 Piled Waterfront Structures

smooth tapered, or step tapered. The pile from used railway rails, or other materials
leading end (toe, tip, or point) can be blunt, are used.
open, or pointed; where hard driving is ex- Steel piles have the advantage of being
pected, the pile toe can be furnished with a easy to handle on the construction site. They
special shoe usually made of a hardened do not have to be an exact predetermined
steel. With respect to their ability to carry length before driving, as an excess length
loads, piles can be defined as friction, end can be quickly cut off by a welder's torch or
bearing, or of composite action. The former an extra length added by welding or by
developed its capacity through the friction means of special splices. Furthermore, the
that is developing between the pile surface previously cut pile length may be used for
and the soil through which it is driven. End extension of the other pile. The obvious dis-
bearing piles are those resting on a firm advantage of steel piles is their susceptibil-
bedrock stratum or any other competent ity to corrosion. The basic methods for pro-
soil. These piles derive their load-carrying tection of steel elements from corrosion used
capacity through both friction and the toe in the marine environment are the use of
resistance. protective coatings that range from simple
Materialwise, piles may be made from coal tar to a very durable polyethylene film,
wood, concrete, or steel. Combinations of installation of protective concrete jackets in
the three materials are also employed. tidal and splash zones, installation of sacri-
ficial anodes in submerged zone, and pro-
7.5.1.1.1 Wooden pi/es viding some additional steel as corrosion
allowance. The phenomena of corrosion of
These piles are discussed in detail in
steel in marine environment and its protec-
Chapter 2. Piles made from wood represent
tion are discussed in detail in Tsinker
the oldest type of pile in existence. When
(1995).
fully submerged, they will not decay and
are likely to last for centuries. Wooden piles,
however, would deteriorate rapidly if sub- 7.5.1.1.3 H-Piles
jected to alternate drying and wetting. Im-
Due to their small soil displacement,
pregnation of wooden piles by creosote
these piles are suitable where piles must
andjor other chemicals prolongs the useful
penetrate hard material (e.g., dense sand,
life of these piles but cannot entirely protect
gravei, or even sloped riprap) to the design
them from marine borer attack, especially
elevation below the dredge line. Penetration
in warm waters where borers are particu-
of 3-4 m in a weathered rock or up to 5-6
larly active.
m in cemented sand and gravei are quite
Wooden piles are usually not permitted
common. Because of their small displace-
to carry loads in excess of 250-300 kN per
ment of foundation soil, H-piles are very
pile, which prevents their use for construc-
useful for driving where close spacing is
tion of deep water, heavily loaded modern
required. They are also indispensable for
waterfront structures.
enhancement of existing structures, where
they can be driven through small spaces in
7.5.1. 1.2 Steel piles
an existing structure, or where piles are
Steel piles have been in regular use since required close to an existing structure.
the 1890s (Schwartz, 1958). They are fabri- Where large lateral or tensile loads are
cated in a variety of cross sections. Those exerted or where substantial seismic loads
used more often are H-piles and pipe piles. may occur, the large tensile and bending
Sometimes box piles fabricated from con- strength capacity of H-piles is also of great
ventional sheet-pile sections, piles made value.
 Piled Waterfront Structures 737

Furthermore, to reduce the weight of H- transfer. H-piles can also be projected suf-
piles, they can be easily spliced on-site so as ficiently far into the superstructure to
to have heavier sections where required by transfer the load and moment to the pile.
the load distribution or where more al- The embedment of the pile has the further
lowance for corrosion is needed (e.g., in the advantage of enabling it to take uplift loads
splash or tidal zone). and ensuring the pile's fixity within the
H-piles do not require special care in concrete superstructure. The latter is par-
handling unless they are very long. In this ticularly important where long unsupported
case, they are supported with the web ori- piles act as columns in deep water. The
ented vertically andjor with attachments bond between concrete and pile should be
made at several points. Handling holes may kept as low as practical. Normally, the bond
be furnished at the pile's centerline, if re- stress should not exceed 0.02 f~. Where pile
quired. H-piles can be extended easily and embedment into the concrete is limited, then
quickly to any length to meet the required a better fixity may be provided with short
driving resistance. They can be spliced by reinforcing bars installed in holes burned in
bolting, welding, or commercially available the pile fl.anges andjor web.
splicers. It is essential that the splice be
compatible with the strength of the pile. 7.5.1.1.4 Steel pipe pi/es
Typical pile splicers and splicing procedures
are depicted in Figure 7-26. To avoid pile The advantage of these piles is that for
damage when it is driven through riprap, any given weight of steel, they represent
very dense gravei, or soils in which occa- the stiffest shape possible. Essentially, the
sional boulders are encountered, it must be pipe pile's strength and stiffness are equal
protected by using a commercially available · in all directions. A further advantage of
cast steel shoe of miscellaneous design or by pipe piles is that in a marine environment,
using reinforcing steel plates welded to the its circular shape minimizes drag forces
pile toe. from waves and current. Additionally, they
Caution, however, must be exercised can be readily inspected for damage andjor
when H-piles are driven into hard bedrock. deviation from plumb from inside.
Excavations have occasionally revealed that Pipe piles can be driven either as closed
H-piles can be overdriven and split when ended or open ended. Closed-ended piles
the pile hits a sloped bedrock or the edge of can be furnished with either a standard
a boulder (Tschebotarioff, 1973). The bear- conical point or with a plate welded to the
ing capacity of H-piles that do not reach a pile tip (Fig. 7-27a-7-27c). Closed-ended
hard bearing stratum can be increased by piles can be driven through rock riprap
welding steel plates on both sides of the pile when furnished with conical points. The
web and flanges. conical 60° point is welded to the tip of the
The connection between the concrete su- pile and provides dependable protection for
perstructure and the bearing H-piles is of the pipe pile driven into difficult foundation
considerable importance. It must be such to soils. These soils or bedrock are never
ensure that the pile bearing against the smooth or encounter the pile at right an-
concrete does not exceed 0.25{~, where f~ = gles. The conical point centers the reaction
28 day concrete compressive strength. This force when the hard stratum is reached or
is also true for other pile types. when natural or man-made obstructions
Steel H-piles may be cut off 100 mm within foundation soil are encountered.
(min.) above the underside of the concrete When pipe piles are driven into soft,
and furnished with a suffi.cient number of obstacle-free, materials, the end closure can
dowels to ensure an adequate axial load be fabricated with a simple flat plate welded
738 Piled Waterfront Structures

(b )

Figure 7-26. Splicing of steel H-piles: (a) details of assembly: step-by-step

procedure; (b) splicer HP 30 000. (From Associated Pile and Fitting Corporation,
Bulletin GP 8512.)

to the pile's end. The latter, however, should pulls the pile down. Details on pile installa-
not be used where the pile is expected tobe tion methods are discussed later in this
driven through diffi.cult foundation soils; chapter.
here, the plate closure may concentrate the The required wall thickness of the pipe
impact forces onto a small arc of the pipe pile is dependent on the pile's diameter, the
(Fig. 7- 27b). This may lead to complete pile driving energy delivered to the pile's head,
failure. difficulties encountered in driving, the pile's
Closed-ended pipe piles displace an length, the imposed design loads, the ex-
amount of soil equal to their embedded vol- pected effects of the ambient environment,
ume; therefore, they should not be used and protection from corrosion. Sometimes,
under conditions when excessive displace- for better buckling stability and strength,
ment of the soil may result in damaging the steel pipe piles are filled with concrete.
loads on closely located structures (e.g., ex- It should be pointed out that in marine
isting sheet piling, soil-retaining walls, and applications, large externa} hydrostatic
similar structures). In these cases, the prob- pressures can be exerted on empty closed-
lem can be solved by either driving low- ended pipe piles. These forces must be taken
displacement H-piles or using open-ended into account. In most practica} cases, how-
pipe piles and periodically cleaning out the ever, this pressure does not present a major
soil from within the pile. problem for a steel pipe pile.
Closed-ended piles can be head or toe In soft soils with no obstruction to pile
driven. In the former case, the pile is forced penetration, open-ended pipe piles are com-
into the ground by an impact force applied monly used. A soil plug that is developing
to the pile's head, and in the latter case, the inside the pile during penetration effec-
pile is driven by means of a hammer im- tively turns the pile into an end-bearing
pacting the pile toe via a mandrel from pile, similar to closed-ended piles. The ef-
inside the pile, creating a tensile force that fective plug, however, will not develop
 Piled Waterfront Structures 739

(a) (b ) (C)

(d )
{e)

Figure 7-27. Steel pipe pile: (a) standard conical point; (b) end fiat plate: when contact
sloping hard stratum an unsymmetrical stress distribution will most lik.ely start crippling the
pile; (c) symmetrical pattern of stress distribution by conical point; (d) damage to open-ended
steel pipe pile after encounter with large boulder; (e) damage to open-ended steel pipe pile after
hitting the sloping bedrock.
740 Piled Waterfront Structures

within a pipe pile if the internal friction from steel plates rolled into cans (cylinders)
between the plug and the pile interior is not whose seams are closed by longitudinal
adequate to balance the full end-bearing welds. The cans are joined at their ends by
pressure. This may occur in the case where girth butt welds. Seams of two adjacent
steel pipe piles are of a very large diameter. cans are usually rotated 90° apart.
In this case, the pile, as described by Yaron In the process of rolling the individual
et al. (1982), will cut through soils such as pile cans, variation may occur both in the
sand and calcareous layers "like a cookie diameter and roundness, particularly near
cutter through the batter." To prevent this the longitudinal seam weld. At the point
phenomenon from occurring, the pile's in- where the plate edges meet in the rolling
terna! diameter should be reduced by process, it is difficult to deliver the full
installing horizontal places, as discussed in curvature to the can; therefore, the plate
Section 7.1. near the edges may remain somewhat flat.
In some practica! cases, to facilitate pile- This may result in a bending moment dis-
driving and for deeper penetration, the soil continuity with a localized stress concentra-
plug inside the pipe pile was removed by tion. Furthermore, when the cans are joined
drilling it out or by using the airlift method. together, the localized distortions in can
To restore the pile's end-bearing capacity, diameter and roundness will produce a mis-
the removed soil plug should be replaced match at the girth butt weld.
by a concrete plug. The plug is installed
Hence, great care must be exercised dur-
underwater by the tremie method or by
ing pile fabrication. Failure to meet the
pumping in concrete. Essentially, this plug
very stringent tolerances for pile fabrication
must have a sufficient length to develop full
may result in structural failure.
bonding capacity inside the pile. It must be
Commercially fabricated pipe piles are
remembered, however, that in large-
available in lengths up to 21 m (Stelco) and
diameter piles (1 m or more), cement-rich
are supplied with beveled ends to facilitate
concrete or grout plugs can develop exces-
splicing, if required. In marine applications,
sive heat. This may cause concrete cracking
as the plug cools. To reduce the heat of the prebeveled sections are normally joined
hydration, a blast furnace slag~cement is together by full penetration welds with
normally specified. Furthermore, inclusion backup plates that are usually built into
of synthetic fibers in a concrete mix will the stabbing guides. However, where soil
restrain the development of the intrinsic has to be cleaned up from the pile's interior,
cracks and inhibit crack propagation. interna! backup plates cannot be employed,
Pipe piles are commercially available in and the stabbing guides must be external to
a variety of lengths, diameters, and wall the pipe pile.
thicknesses. For example, a Canadian Piles can also be spliced together by spe-
steel-producing company (Stelco) offers pipe cial splicers made in a form of a sleeve. The
piles in a range from 219 to 1524 mm in sleeve is slipped onto the head of the previ-
diameter with wall thicknesses that vary ously driven pile length and welded to it by
from 4.8 to 28.6 mm. These piles are avail- a circumferential weld of adequate size. The
able in 241-, 310-, and 345-MPa minimum next length is set into the splicer and accu-
yield strengths. In offshore engineering, rately aligned with the previously driven
large-diameter steel piles (cylindrical piles) length. Finally, the weld is made on top for
ranging from 1 to 2 m (and up to 4 m) in the splicer, and driving continues as soon
diameter have been commonly used. In con- as the weld cools. For long piles, with sev-
ventional offshore construction practice, erallengths added, great care must be exer-
large-diameter steel piles are fabricated cised to ensure accurate axial alignment of
 Piled W aterfront Structures 741

each length, so that the pile will be as piles in lieu of lifting lugs. Holes are burned
straight as possible. undersized and then reamed. U se of burned
The primary type of fabrication which holes alone, without reaming, may result in
occurs on most steel-pile-driving jobs is the dangerous stress concentrations during pile
welding of pile splices. These splices must handling and driving.
be thoroughly checked for alignment of the Where the pile is expected to encounter
pile and compliance to specifications. The hard layers, and therefore excessively hard
engineer should ascertain whether the driving is expected, for example when driv-
welder performing the job is properly certi- ing through limestone or similar, the pipe
fied to carry out the specified welding. piles should be furnished with an open-
In most jurisdictions, properly qualified ended cutting shoe. For small to moderate-
welders would carry certification cards. The diameter piles, cast steel shoes are readily
welding procedure is of paramount impor- available. The cutting shoe protects the pipe
tance; hence, materials must be carefully pile and makes it practica! to use a
selected with regard to the pile steel quali- thinner-walled pipe for driving through a
ties and the temperature at which driving hard media. In large-diameter piles, the re-
is performed. This is especially critical when inforced shoe should be at least one diame-
pile-driving is carried out at low tempera- ter in length and have a wall thickness 1.5
tures. In this case, low-hydrogen electrodes times the minimum thickness of pile section
are normally used. in that pile (American Petroleum Institute,
In some instances the head of a thin- 1989). Experience in driving large-diameter
walled piled section on which driving is pipe piles through weak limestone, contain-
carried out may be deformed during driv- ing embedded ballast cobbles, indicates that
ing. This pile must be reheated before splic- such a shoe should be two diameters in
ing is performed. Allowance for pile reheat- length to prevent pile buckling (Gerwick,
ing is usually considered. Conversely, 1986). Where most of the pile's capacity is
heavy-walled piles normally do not need to developed through skin friction, the thick-
be reheated. Essentially, the wall fitting ened shoe section is usually made flush with
driving heads would minimize head the exterior surface of the pile, so as not to
damage. reduce the shaft resistance. However, where
Large-diameter pipe piles are normally the pile is intended to be driven into the
handled with the help of lifting lugs welded hard stratum and socketed there, the pro-
transversely to the pile section. The pile tective shoe is normally the same interna!
lifting points are usually designed for the diameter as that of the pile. This approach
initial pickup load and for the load that is does not provide obstructions for drilling
developed when the pile is rotated to align- through the pile where the pile's interior is
ment with its final axis. In most practica} required to be cleaned of soil or where
cases, the lifting lug is designed to support socketed into the bedrock.
the entire hanging weight. In all design The presence of a driving shoe affects the
cases, allowance for the impact that varies conditions of soil plug formation thin an
from 50% to 100% is usually considered. open-ended pipe pile which, in turn, affects
Essentially, the pile toughness must be pile-driving. For example, Akagi et al. (1985)
adequate to maintain intact its shape dur- found that piles with both external
ing handling and driving procedures. Lift- and interna! thickened sections driven in
ing lugs, if required, are removed by medium-dense to dense submerged sand re-
flame-cutting 5 mm from the pile's surface. quired fewer blows to obtain the required
Sometimes it is followed by grinding the cut penetration relative to piles with no shoe at
smooth. Holes are usually used in smaller ali. The latter investigators also found that
742 Piled Waterfront Structures

the soil plug is developing in aU types of 7.5.1.1.5 tnsert steel piles

experimental piles. However, the longest
When proven very difficult or impossible
plug was developed in a pile having exter-
to drive pipe piles to the required penetra-
nally fiushed shoe. For more details on the
tion, then in order to reach the required tip
effects of pile shoe geometry and its effect
elevation, an insert pile can be used
on plug formation and pile drivability, the
(Gerwick, 1986). In this case, first the soil
interested reader is referred to Raines et al. plug is removed from the primary pile, then
(1992). Where the pipe pile is expected to a smaller-diameter pipe pile, or a pile of
encounter an obstacle within the founda- other suitable cross section is placed inside
tion soil or hard bedrock, the absence of tip primary pile and driven ahead. The insert
reinforcement can result in severe damage pile, which is free from skin friction over
to the pile's end. Typical examples are de- the length of the primary pile, can be driven
picted in Figures 7-27d and 7-27e. to a substantial additional penetration. The
The D jt ratio is critica! for local pile connection between both primary and in-
buckling and it must be limited so as to sert pile is achieved by filling the annulus
preclude pile overstress. Here, D is the pile between both piles with a good quality
externa! diameter and t is the wall thick- grout. Naturally, the smaller section will
ness. Where moderate driving resistance is produce a reduced moment and skin friction
anticipated, the pile is usually designed as capacity. Grouting of the insert pile, along
a steel cylindrical member and checked for with its deeper penetration, helps to in-
buckling stability due to the combined ac- crease the overall pile skin friction capacity.
tion of both axial compression and bending. A grout pipe with exit nipple(s) may be
By a rule of thumb, the latter is not critica! installed inside the insert pile.
when D jt is less than or equal to 60. When
D jt is greater than 60, the piles should be 7.5.1.1.6 soi/ plug
checked for buckling stability by using an
The behavior of an open-ended pile is
in-depth analysis, such as one recom-
infiuenced greatly by the soil plug that is
mended in API RP 2A (American Petroleum developing inside the pile during driving.
Institute, 1989).
Usually, when a pile is driven into the soil,
The performance of axially loaded pipe a soil column is created inside the pile. As
piles is affected by many parameters [e.g., penetration continues, this inner soil col-
soil parameters, pile characteristics (com- umn may develop sufficient frictional re-
pressibility, displacement ratio, diameter, sistance to prevent further soil intrusion,
length), installation method, loading, and causing the pile to become plugged with
others]. Kraft (1991), on the hasis of a de- soil. This prevents entry of additional soil
tailed review of available literature, offers a during penetration. When plugged, the
comprehensive discussion of these parame- open-ended pile penetrates in a mode char-
ters and their influence on the performance acteristic of a closed-end pile. In conven-
of axially loaded pipe piles in sand. tional design practice, the soil plugging
In the case of open pile construction, pile mechanism requires that a balance between
buckling stability can be enhanced by filling the interna! skin friction (due to soil
it with concrete, if required. Concrete-filled column-pile interaction) and the pile re-
piles are also used to resist lateral load sistance over the full pile cross section is
such as moderate ice impact. achieved.
More recent information on versatility Paikowsky (1990) suggests that, in sand,
and effectiveness of the large-diameter steel the plugging mechanism is based on soil
pipe pile is given in Gerwick et al. (1995). arching phenomenon. According to
 Piled Waterfront Structures 743

Paikowsky, the arches are built-up and de- investigators conclude that in the open-
stroyed during pile penetration; this contin- ended pipe piles driven into a layer of dense
ues to the point where stable arches are sand plug slippage may occur during driv-
developed. ing at approximately equal rates that are
Brucy et al. (1991) studied plugging and up to pjd = 21 for all pile toe geometrics
driving resistance in plane-toe piles in satu- (e.g., a pile with no shoe or with the toe
rated sand as a function of driving energy. section thickened externally or internally.
They found that longer plugs were present Here, p is the pile penetration and d is the
when the energy of the hammer was the pile diameter.
greatest, hammer mass was lowest, and On the other hand, Yamagata et al.
where single-acting hammers were used. (1985), on the basis of driving tests on
They established that the incremental fiU- open-ended piles without shoes in mixed
ing ratio varies as a function of the soil profiles of clay and medium-dense sand,
density and compressibility. The latter au- conclude that plugs were not formed at all
thors also point out that the modes of pile during driving and that the only significant
penetration, and therefore these modes of resistance to penetration was in toe bear-
failure, are completely different under static ing. Here, the interlayered clay may have
and dynamic loads. In an open-ended pipe served to "lubricate" the interior pile sur-
pile loaded to failure, either the full end face during driving.
bearing at the pile tip is mobilized or the It follows from these and other reported
soil plug slips. The weakest component in observations that the soil plug interacts
this scheme is determination of the mecha- with the pile in a complex manner. This
nism of the soil plug-pile interaction. Con- may be further complicated where an inter-
ventional design practice, as stipulated by na! water jet is used to reduce the friction
American Petroleum Institute API 2A between the plug and the pile. The problem
(1989), recommends that the interna! plug is complicated by the fact that if a pile does
resistance be estimated by using the same not plug or plugs only partly during driv-
unit shear components used for estimating ing, it may stiU plug solidly and behave as a
the external skin friction. closed-ended pile during static loading
Randolph (1985) has shown that in the (Heerema and DeLong, 1980). These obser-
case of dense sand, a soil plug can have vations also suggest that the conventional
much greater capacity than predicted by one-dimensional wave equation analysis,
the conventional approach. This has been which is routinely used to model pile-
confirmed analytically and experimentally driving and to assess pile capacity, be used
by Murff and Raines (1990). The latter au- with caution. For more discussions on this
thors suggest that under drained conditions subject, the reader is referred to Raines et
in dense sand, the plug length equal to a al. (1992) and Randolph et al. (1991).
few pile diameters will be effectively locked
up, generating pressures sufficient to crush 7.5.1.1.7 Box pi/es
the sand grains.
Raines et al. (1992) conducted driving These piles are typically fabricated from
tests on 102-mm-outside-diameter steel pipe the conventional steel sheet piles or from
piles driven by the impact method into a sheet piles with the addition of steel plates,
saturated sand column. The column was as depicted in Figure 7-23. The advantage
confined in a pressure chamber to simulate of this type of pile is that they can be
a near-isotropic effective stress state in a incorporated in a row of conventional steel
dense layer of sand 30-38 m below the sheet-piling to carry heavy axialloads, such
surface of a submerged soil deposit. These as those produced by portal cranes operat-
744 Piled Waterfront Structures

ing along the edge of a wharf. Steel box length and are used for a wide range of
piles resemble steel pipe piles in that they loads. Precast piles are widely used for con-
can be driven either open ended or provided struction of wharves, piers, and other port
with shoes; also, they can be filled with related structures where piles are required
concrete or left hollow. Typical examples of to be extended above the soil level in the
box piles fabricated from conventional sheet form of structural columns, or perform as a
piles are illustrated in Figure 7-28. member in tension.
The structural design of precast concrete
7.5.1.1.8 Precast concrete piles piles is usually governed by the stresses
caused by pile lifting and handling, as well
Concrete piles used in waterfront con- as by stresses caused by pile-driving. In
struction are basically of two types: precast pile-driving, the stress wave after each flow
and cast in place. The former is usually travels from the pile head to the toe and
used for overwater construction and the lat- back, causing tensile stresses in the pile.
ter is generally employed for construction The greatest stresses, however, to which
on land where precast piles are unaccept- regular precast pile is usually subjected are
able, either due to geotechnical or environ- due to its handling prior to driving.
mental conditions. Experience has demonstrated that unless
Precast concrete piles have been used stress in the reinforcing steel is kept suffi-
extensively worldwide since the 1930s. Con- ciently low, fine cracks may develop in the
ventional precast piles are constructed surface of precast pile during handling.
either square with constant cross section, These cracks will generally close and be
tapered, or octagonal, with or without a almost invisible when the pile reaches an
circular cored hole to save material and upright position before driving, but they
reduce weight. Solid concrete circular piles will usually become visibly enlarged during
of constant cross section, cast horizontally pile-driving as a result of the impact stress
in round metal forms, have been used also. set up by the hammer. In salt water, these
Depending on foundation soil conditions and cracks may lead to corrosion of the rein-
method of driving, the tip of these piles may forcement. Hence, piles must be designed
or may not be protected by a metal shoe. and handled in such a manner that crack-
Typically, conventional precast concrete ing will not occur. Typically, precast piles
piles with non prestressed reinforcement are handled with two or more pickup points.
are economically fabricated up to 30 m in In figuring the weight of the pile for calcu-

(b) (c)

Figure 7-28. Typical steel box piles: (a) Larsen box pile; (b) Frodingham double-box pile; (c)
Frodingham plated box pile.
 Piled Waterfront Structures 745

lating the bending moment due to its 3. Mechanicallocking

handling, a minimum of 25% of the weight 4. Connector ring
is normally added for impact. 5. Wedge
Because precast piles are usually cast at
6. Sleeve
specialized yards, they are subject to close
control and inspection during their fabrica- 7. Dowel
tion. Typically, these piles can carry loads 8. Posttensioned
up to 50-80 tonnes and can take fairly
heavy punishment during driving. These authors present 20 structural
A disadvantage of precast piles is that sketches illustrating the above type of pile
casting and storage require appreciable splices; the interested reader is referred to
space at both the casting yard and the job their work. Each splice used for a particular
site. At a job site lacking sufficient storage job must be job-specific. Therefore, before
space, the piles are usually stored on dedi- the job is started, the owner, the pile manu-
cated barges or pontoons. Another disad- facturer, the driving contractor, and the en-
vantage is that the required length of the gineer must thoroughly evaluate the pro-
precast pile has to be accurately deter- posed method of pile splicing, associated
mined in advance of installation, which is costs, and the long-term effects on pile per-
not always possible. Adjustments in the formance. These authorities should also
precast pile length after it has been driven agree on the proposed method of pile head
are expensive and time-consuming. If the and tip protection, the driving equipment to
pile is too long, then the excess length must be used, and the step-by-step pile installa-
be knocked off, and if it is too short, then its tion technique. Particular caution must be
length must be increased or additional piles exercised when the structure is constructed
must be added to the wharf system. In- in a moderate to severe seismic environ-
creasing the pile length is a complicated as ment. In this case, embedded steel plates
well as time-consuming effort. clamped together with tensioned high-
The above shortcomings can be effec- strength bolts offer a reliable solution, pro-
tively overcome by the use of piles made up vided that reduction in bolt tension and,
from the relatively short precast pieces therefore, reduction in friction force be-
spliced in the process of pile-driving. Effec- tween embedded plates are prevented. A
tive pile splicing can reduce or eliminate useful discussion on connections in precast
many problems associated with the instal- concrete structures operating in seismic
lation of long precast piles. Among these zones is given in Stanton (1987).
are the elimination of potential waste due Precast piles with prestressed reinforce-
to an inability to forecast the pile length ment are among those most coinmonly used
accurately, and the reduction in stresses in marine application. These piles, ranging
associated with pile handling and trans- in size from 300 to 900 mm square (or
portation. U se of proper splicing method diameter in the case of octagonal cross sec-
eliminates the need to predetermine exact tion) are usually cast in one length. They
pile lengths and allows extension of the pile have been used extensively as bearing piles,
when necessary. piles in tension, and moment-resisting piles.
Bruce and Hebert (197 4) categorize pile Larger piles [generally those above 500 mm
splices as follows: square (diameter)] are usually hollow-cored.
Because of their lower dead weight and
higher resistance to bending moment and
1. Wel.ded tensile load, the prestressed piles can be
2. Bolted made longer than is practica! with a regu-
746 Piled Waterfront Structures

Iar precast pile with nonprestressed rein-

forcement. Prestressing is usually designed
to give a minimum effective prestress of at
least 5.2 MPa in order to permit handling
and driving without damage. For very long
vertical piles, piles in tension, or moment-
resisting piles, higher prestress values (e.g.,
6.9-8.3 MPa) are usually required (Gerwick,
1971, 1974).
Better quality prestressed piles (spun
piles) are roade in a centrifuge. Spun piles
are roade in individual steel molds designed
to resist the pretensioning force during
Figure 7-29. Enlarged ends of concrete piles. [From
casting and curing of the pile. The manufac- Plantema and Nolet (1957).]
turing procedure consists ofplacing the ten-
dons and reinforcing cage in the molds,
stressing the tendons, and placing the mold lower level, resulting in an enhanced bear-
on revolving wheels that turn the mold as ing capacity. Here, the point bearing pile
the concrete is placed. The centrifugal force acts as a column, transmitting the load
compacts the concrete and forces excess down to a level at which it can be safely
water from the plastic concrete. The pile is carried. Piles of this type were extensively
used in Russia and Europe (Tsinker, 1972,
then cured and stripped from the mold.
1988; Gorunov, 1984).
Prestressed piles are more durable than
regular precast reinforced piles because the
concrete is under continuous compression.
7.5.1.1.9 cvlinder concrete pi/es
This prevents concrete spalling during driv- Concrete cylinder piles have been used in
ing. Compression also keeps the hairline Europe and in the United States since the
cracks closed. This prevents or at least lim- 1950s. Although these piles have a very
its contact between the salty seawater and good record, their utilization has been lim-
reinforcing steel. The concrete cover over ited basically by heavy self-weight and
longitudinal prestressed reinforcing steel is bending moment capacity. However, the
typically 75 rom thick. continuing improvements in concrete tech-
Basic requirements for materials used for nology as well as the application of a new
pile fabrication, as well as pile manufactur- generation of pile-driving equipment and
ing and installation are given in revised enhanced methods for pile installation roade
ACI 543 "Recommendations for Design, large-diameter cylindrical piles a viable and
Manufacture and Installation of Concrete economica} solution for marine applications.
Piles", by American Concrete Institute In the past 20-25 years, concrete cylinder
(1973), in Gerwick (1971), Tomlinson (1983, piles ranging from 600 to 2000 mm in diam-
1994), in American Concrete Institute eter (and more) have been used extensively
(1993) and many other relevant articles. for construction of marine terminals and
Sometimes prestressed piles are used other marine related projects such as off-
with enlarged points (Fig. 7-29) or enlarge- shore platforms and bridge piers. Piles of
ments (sometimes called "blisters" or this type have been used to carry design
"widenings") roade on a lower part of a loads of up to 550-600 tonnes and more.
pile's shaft. This usually involves the as- Generally, cylindrical concrete piles can
sumption that the enlargement will be be divided into two classifications: postten-
driven into a competent layer of soil at a sioned and prestressed.
 Piled Waterfront Structures 747

d.A--1
Posttensioned piles are multielement piles (a) 'A'
comprised of precast cylinders joined together
using posttensioning techniques. Individual
cylinders are typically manufactured in sec-

~A~
tions approximately 5-8 m long with wall
thicknesses ranging from 100 to 250 mm.
Holes are formed longitudinally through the
walls at the time the sections are cast. After
the precast sections have cured, they are 1 7

/~ ~
aligned and the posttensioning tendons are
threaded through the holes in the walls,
IQ
stressed, and grouted in place. In this man- 'A' 'a'
ner, piles up to 45-50 m long can be made.
The disadvantage of this method of pile fabri-
cation is that because the piles are manufac- (c)
tured in certain predetermined lengths, it is (b)
difficult and costly to change the lengths on
site if required.
Prestressed cylinder piles are usually assem-
bled from sections connected together at the
yard or during the process of pile installation.
Typically, sections are made 5-8 m long with
an embedded interlocking system. Pile sec-
tions 600-2000 mm in diameter are fabri-
cated in a manner similar to that used for
previously discussed prestressed spun piles.
Piles of larger diameters (sometimes referred
to as caissons) have been fabricated in a spe-
cial vibrating steel mold. Large-diameter ~€_ F-F
cylinder piles have been manufactured also
with nonprestressed reinforcement. A typical Figure 7-30. Cylinder concrete pile. (a) Typical ele-
cylinder pile and its details are illustrated in vation, cross section, and details: 1-pile; 2-spiral
reinforcement; 3-cutting edge; 4-steel joint system;
Figure 7-30. Some useful data on prestressed
5-longitudinal regular or prestressed reinforcement;
concrete piles and cylinder piles of 915-1370 6-high-tensile-strength belt. (b, c) Bolted and welded
mm in diameter are given in Libby (1984) connections: 1-pile; 2-spiral reinforcement; 3-stif-
American Conerche Institute (1993) and fener; 4-circulai steel bearing plate; 5-steel transi-
American Petroleum Institute (1989). tion ring; 6-longitudinal regular or prestressed rebar;
7-high-strength bolt; 8-continuous fillet weld;
9-steel transition from concrete to steel; 10-steel
In the United States, posttensioned cutting edge.
cylinder piles have been manufactured by
Raymond International, Inc. They were as-
sembled from lightly reinforced concrete alignment. A plastic joint compound having
units 915 mm and 1370 mm in diameter a high strength when set was first applied
and 100 and 120 mm in wall thickness. to seal the joints between sections. Next,
Longitudinal holes for later prestressing by steel tendons were posttensioned and
steel tendons were left open in the walls by grouted to form a single unit. The excess
rubber cylinders on 22-mm-diameter rods. length of this pile can be cut off at any
Once cured, the short cylinders were assem- elevation. Under favorable soil conditions,
bled end to end horizontal to the desired Raymond posttensioned cylindrical piles
pile length with tendon holes in complete have been used for design loads exceeding
748 Piled Waterfront Structures

1.8 MN and in lengths up to 63.5 m. They In the case of large-diameter piles (2 m

were installed using heavy hammers. and larger), pile-driving can be assisted by
Cylindrical concrete piles are installed by water jets applied both externally and in-
a wide variety of techniques, including driv- ternally. If the combined capacity of the
ing, jetting, vibration, or a combination of available water jets is inadequate, then the
some of these. They may also be set in soil plug that is forming inside the pile
predrilled holes and then seated to the de- should be removed. This can be accom-
signed penetration by driving. plished by drilling it out or by using airlift
Typically, however, the relatively thin- techniques. Normally, plug removal may be
walled large-diameter, concrete cylindrical required when piles are installed into hard
piles, particularly those with diameters clay, sandy clay, or similar soils.
greater than 1000 mm, are not suitable for Typically, cylindrical piles composed of
hard driving by the impact hammer. In this prefabricated sections of limited lengths are
case, pile-driving may be aided by water driven in the following sequence (Fig.
jetting, in which case jet pipes could be 7-32a).
installed either from inside or outside the
pile. Water jetting is usually used in sand 1. The initial pile length consisting of sev-
or sandy type of soils; it is generally ineffi- eral prefabricated sections is driven to
cient for large-diameter piles driven in clay. limited penetration into the foundation
In the latter case, pile-driving can be aided soil. Then the next section of pile is in-
by excavating soil from inside the pile. stalled on a previously driven length
Multiple outside jets are usually in- and both are reliably joined together
(Phase 1).
stalled around the pile as indicated in Fig-
ure 7-31; four or more symmetrically lo- 2. The jet pipes are installed as required
cated jet pipes are usually employed for and the extended pile is driven further by
the hammer or vibrator with the aid of
installation of vertical piles, and at least
water jets. At this stage, the pile is driven
three pipes placed as indicated in Figure to the depth that is equal to the length of
7-31b are used for installation of batter the added section. This operation contin-
piles. The distance between adjacent jet ues until the pile is driven to the desired
pipes installed around the pile peripheral is penetration (Phases 2 through 5).
usually 1.0 mor less. Normally each pipe is 3. Finally, the hammer (or vibrator) and the
designed for discharge of 50-100 m 3 of jet pipes are removed from the installed
water per hour at 0.5-1.0 MPa; lower water pile and the pile-driving system is moved
pressures are used for loosening of fine to to a new location and pile-driving equip-
medium sands, and higher pressures are ment is reinstalled on the next pile.
used for aiding pile-driving in dense sand.
The jets must be run continuously during A practica! example of pile installation is
driving in order to prevent plugging. illustrated in Figures 7-32b-7-32e. In this
In order to prevent soil liquefaction in- particular case, precast prestressed cylin-
side a pipe pile, the jet pipes are usually drical 915-mm-diameter piles, 67 m long,
placed 0.5-1.5 m above the pile cutting edge. have been used for the construction of the
lf the pile is driven to a depth in excess of U.S. Navy pier in the New York harbor
20-25 m, then the effectiveness of the (Stapleton site). Figure 7-32b illustrates the
water jet can be enhanced by adding com- process of pile handling by crane for instal-
pressed air at a rate of no less than 2-3 lation at the design location; the process of
m 3 jmin. Air pipes are usually attached to pile jetting is illustrated in Figure 7-32c;
the jet pipes, at approximately 1 m above Figure 7-32d illustrates the process of re-
the water discharge nozels. moving a soil plug from inside the pile; the
 Piled Waterfront Structures 749

final penetration of the pile is obtained by An investigation of the pile cracking re-
impact hammer, as shown in Figure 7-32e. vealed that it was caused by substantial
For complete details on pier construction, hydrodynamic pressure developed insi de the
the reader is referred to papers by Buslov et pile as a result of pile vibration (Savinov
al. (1988) and Damaschi and Bonasia (1989). and Lavrinovich, 1969; Buslov, 1974). This
For more details on pile jetting techniques, resulted in hoop stresses up to 3 MPa high.
the reader is referred to Chapter 6. The mechanism by which the high hydro-
In the past 25-30 years in Russia, con- dynamic pressures were created was ex-
crete cylinder piles made both from conven- plained as follows: when a pile stops at the
tional reinforced concrete and prestressed bottom of its vibrating cycle, the column of
concrete have been successfully used for water moving up inside the pile produces
construction of seaports. Most often, two an interna! pressure within the pile. It was
types of a cylinder pile were used: a pre- concluded from the investigation that low-
stressed pile with outer diameter 1600 mm frequency vibrators are preferable for pile
and wall thickness 120-150 mm, and a pile installation. Furthermore, for better pile
with regular reinforcement and outer diam- protection during installation by vibrators,
eter of 1200 mm (wall thickness 100-120 the use of air-powered shock absorbers of
mm). Piles of both types were assembled to various designs was recommended. Aerat-
required lengths from precast sections 4 ing the water column inside the pile can
and 8 m long. These piles were installed by reduce the density of water considerably
powerful vibrators. The subsequent under- and thus provide good damping. Also,
water inspection revealed long longitudinal special shock absorbers placed inside
cracks 1-50 mm wide, mainly in the middle the pile can effectively reduce the afore-
part of the pile. mentioned hydrodynamic forces (Savinov
and Lavrinovich, 1969).
When hollow cylindrical piles are used
(a) (b) for the construction of marine structures in
cold-temperature regions, the formation of

m
~
ice inside these piles may result in the high
i
A
~-6--
S .
hoop stresses with subsequent pile crack-
ing. This has been observed on severa! ma-
2
A-A
rine projects constructed in northern re-
gions of Russia (Lavrinovich et al., 1967).
To prevent ice formation in the pile exposed
to low temperature, the pile interior may be
filled with nonshrink concrete. Alterna-
tively, to reduce the excessive hoop stresses,
closely spaced spiral reinforcement may be
considered.
B-B
Normally, driving stresses are extremely
high. To mitigate the pile-driving process
and to prevent formation of cracks associ-
ated with hard driving, piles should be
Figure 7-31. Placement of jet pipes to aid driving properly reinforced and the hammer or vi-
large-diameter cylindrical concrete piles: (a) vertical
pile; (b) batter pile. 1-Steel cutting edge; 2-pipe
brator must be in strict alignment with the
pile; 3-steel jet pipe keeper; 4-rubber hose; 5-jet pile. Furthermore, adequate cushioning of
pipe; 6-steel strip to guide jet pipe. the pile head must be used.
750 Piled Waterfront Structures

(a)

1 2 3 4 5

·.: :::.: .=. ·: ,: ·:::: .:·~· .: ;'

... : ·:.. ·:·.' : ~ .

(c)

(b )

Figure 7-32. Sequence ofinstallation oflarge-diameter concrete cylindrical piles. (a) Standard
procedure; (b- e) practica! example. (b) Preassembled pile is lifted by crane; (c) pile is installed by
means of a water jet; (d) removal of soil plug from pile interior; (e) final set by impact hammer.
1- Crane; 2-prefabricated cylinder section to be installed on the top of a previously driven
pile length; 3- cylinder pile assembled from prefabricated sections; 4- templet; 5- jet pipe;
6- hammer or vibrator; 7-complete pile; 8- soil plug ejecting system. (Photographs courtesy of
Dr. V. Buslov, at the time a principal designer to Mueser Rutledge Consulting Engineers, who
together with Frederic R. Harris, both of New York City, designed the pier; Contractor: Yonkers
Contracting, N.Y.jWeeks, Stevedoring, N.J.)
 Piled Waterfront Structures 751

(d ) (e)

Figure 7-32. Continued.

Where piles are installed in deep water, the mudline; therefore, adequate temporary
sufficient pile support during construction support must be provided before the pile
should be provided to prevent pile vibration head is embedded in a superstructure. Sim-
and buckling during driving. Raked piles ilarly, when piles are tobe driven in rivers
could be overstressed due to the dead weight with substantial flow velocity or in harbors
of unsupported overhanging length above with high tidal currents or waves, they may
752 Piled Waterfront Structures

require a temporary support to prevent

severe vibration before a superstructure is
in place.

7.5.1.1.10 Belled pi/es

Concrete bells may be constructed at the -···---:==.c...• :-.c.o.:-.-1--Hr------

tip of cylinder piles, both steel and concrete,

to give increased bearing and uplift capac-
ity through direct bearing on the founda-
tion soil (Fig. 7-33). Drilling of the bell is
carried out through the pile by underream-
ing with an expander tool. In a typical in-
stallation, the pile is driven down to seal it'
into the bearing stratum. A hole is then
drilled and belled, a reinforcing cage or the
reinforcing inserts (e.g., steel tubular or
structural member) are installed and the
hole is filled with concrete. Where piles are
designed to resist uplift load, posttension-
ing tendons may also be used for connecting
the bell to the pile shaft or capping super-
structure.
In reinforcing cages, the reinforcing bars
are usually bundled by a spiral reinforce-
ment; naturally, space between the rein-
forcing bars must be such as to permit the
free flow of concrete into the beii. The bell
body beyond the cage is usually left unrein-
forced because the hoop steel cannot be
placed there. The annulus between the re-
inforcing cage or other inserts and the pile
interior must be 6-10 times the maximum
size of coarse aggregate so as to permit flow Figure 7-33. Underreamed beii footing: 1-large-
around the inserts. diameter pipe (steel or concrete) pile; 2-reinforcing
In soft soils, reverse circulation of a cage; 3-underwater concrete; 4-loose sand, soft clay,
drilling mud (usually a bentonite slurry) is or the like; 5-hard clay, gravei, dense sand, or the
employed to keep the empty drilled space like.
from collapsing. Reverse circulation must
have sufficient velocity to remove the cut- tremie pipe is usually about 10 times the
tings. The drilling mud should (preferably) diameter of the maximum size of the coarse
be converted to a calcium base so as to aggregate used. In the pumping method,
avoid coagulation on contact with the the fine rounded aggregates, with an ade-
cement. quate sand content (at least 50%), are used
Placement of concrete can be carried out in concrete mix to ensure satisfactory place-
either by the tremie method or by pumping. ment of concrete. Because the flow rate of
Both methods have been used in the past concrete is normally controlled by friction
and prove to be reliable. The diameter of in the pipe, a field test is usually run to
 Piled Waterfront Structures 753

determine the actual friction that is devel- in 1839 and were first used for the founda-
oped while pumping the actual mix. This tion of a lighthouse in the Thames estuary
helps to size the delivery pipe properly. To (Mitchell, 1848). There, nine wrought iron
prevent the formation of a vacuum in the piles, 125 mm in diameter and 7.95 m long
dawn-leading pipe, a relief valve is usually with 1.22-m-diameter cast-iron screws, were
installed at the top. screwed 6. 7 m into a sandbank and an iron
Placement of large amounts of confined frame was erected on them.
concrete can generate a great deal of heat In the past, timber, wrought iron, and
due to hydration. Resulting expansion and cast iron have all been used for the pile
subsequent cooling may result in severe shaft used with cast-iron screws. In recent
cracking. Hence, the cement selected for the years however, only steel and concrete have
concrete mix should be a low-heat-type ce- been used for screw piles. There are numer-
ment; for example, ASTM Type N or Type ous examples in which these piles have been
II with Pozzolanic replacement of up to 50% successfully implemented. Screw piles have
of the cement. Alternatively, a low-heat- the advantage that the large-diameter heli-
generating coarse ground slag-portland ce- cal blade gives a high bearing capacity or
ment (70: 30) mix may be used. The mix high uplift resistance to the pile because of
should be as cool as practical at the time of the large bearing area of the blade. This
placement. The aggregate should be pre- makes the best use of a low-bearing-
cooled with a cold water spray, orice could capacity soil.
be added to the mixing water to facilitate Furthermore, the shaft of a screw pile is
cooling. Additionally, liquid nitrogen can be usually of a robust construction, which en-
injected into the mix. As stated earlier, the ables it to resist substantial lateral forces,
addition of synthetic fibers to the concrete as in piers and dock structures. For exam-
mix can prevent formation of the intrinsic ple, the piles included in the structure de-
cracks. picted in Figure 7-34 have a shaft diameter
For heat reduction, Gerwick (1986) rec- equal to 915 mm.
ommends a mix which incorporates sand or Screw piles can be used with either closed
small aggregates (e.g., pea gravei 8-10 mm or open ends. The latter type is used in
in diameter). This type of cement mortar, difficult soil conditions when water jetting
according to Gerwick, has relatively low is needed to loosen the soil below the blade.
heat properties and good tensile strength To assist pile sinking, the soil plug can be
and yet is stiU able to flow readily. For more removed from inside the hollow cylinder
details on underwater placement of con- and from below its base. Typically, the screw
crete, the reader is referred to Chapter 2. has a complete turn, with a pitch large
The effects of the bell geometry on belled enough to pass the stones expected to be
pile in uplift performance are discussed by encountered. Screw piles normally have
Dickin and Leung (1992). been installed employing a capstan head
fitted to the pile head (upper end). Torque is
7.5.1.1.11 Screw pi/es and screw applied to the capstan via a steel cable to
cvlinders winch, or by electric screwing capstans op-
erating within a specially designed head
Steel or concrete screw piles and cylin- frame.
ders are a form of pile in which the shaft at It is very difficult to install screw piles
its lower end is fitted with a large-diameter through stiff clays or dense sand and gravei,
horizontal helical blade. Examples are even when aided by a water jet. In fact, the
shown in Figures 7-9b and 7-34. These water jet, although helping facilitate pile
piles were invented by Alexander Mitchell sinking through the hard clay, may cause
754 Piled Waterfront Structures

t - - - - - - - - - 2 . 2 _ 3 _ . 3_ _ _ _ _ _ _-----.;

Figure 7-34. Pier in Scotland founded on screw cylinders: 1-915-mm-

diameter cylinder; 2-2440-mm-diameter screws; 3-crane track support-
ing beams; 4-road supporting beams; 5-transverse beams; 6-deck and
railway track supporting beams; 7-406-mm-diameter wooden fender pile;
8-2155-mm-diameter screws; 9-natural seafloor level; 10-dredged level.
[From Morgan (1944).]

excessive loosening of the clay and there- where no suitable bearing stratum for regu-
fore a substantial reduction of its bearing/ lar piles exists within a reasonable depth.
uplift properties. To some extent, this also Essentially, screw piles are much shorter
applies to dense sands and gravels. Screw than regular piles because they can achieve
piles function most efficiently in weak soils a desired carrying capacity either in com-
(e.g., soft clay or loose sand) where they are pression or uplift at a much shorter pene-
easy to install. tration. On the other hand, some additional
In general, screw piles are best suited to settlement of these piles may be expected
conditions where they can be sunk through due to the disturbance of a soil media caused
soft materials to a very limited penetration by the screwing action.
into firm stratum (e.g., stiff clay or dense A further advantage of the screw piles is
sand). They penetrate soft soils without that they can be safely installed without
great difficulties and will push aside boul- adversely affecting adjacent structures, and
ders that are not too large. Screw piles and the process of pile installation is practically
cylinders are most useful in conditions noiseless.
 Piled Waterfront Structures 755

A detailed discussion on screw (helical) mined. Furthermore, installation of drilled

piles is beyond scope of this text. For more piles in water-bearing soils normally re-
information on the subject, the interested quires the use of casings.
reader is referred to Chaly and Hanna In N orth America, drilled pile construc-
(1992, 1994) and Chaly et al. (1991). The tion should conform to the requirements
information on a so-called "spin-fin" pile, specified in the latest publication of ACI
which is essentially a screw pile with a 336.1-79 (revised 1988) published by the
large pitch, is given in Pierce and American Concrete Institute (1988). Uplift
Martinson (1992) and Gilman and capacity of small-diameter drilled piles is
Nottingham (1991). discussed by Lutenegger and Miller (1994).
For comprehensive information on this
7.5.1.1.12 cast-in-ptace piles type of pile, the reader is referred to Chellis
(1961) and Tomlinson (1980, 1994). Infor-
These piles are occasionally employed in
mation can also be found in almost any
marine applications. Examples were dis-
standard text on foundation engineering.
cussed earlier and are illustrated in Figures
7-24 and 7-25. There are a variety ofthese
piles. They can be formed and installed 7.5.1.1.13 Plastic pi/ing
practically in ali ground conditions. This is, perhaps, the latest innovation in
In marine engineering applications, these marine engineering. Some "plastic" piles are
piles have been used as drilled cast-in-place in fact piles of composite steel-plastic con-
piles. The size ofthese piles can vary widely struction; they are fabricated from steel
from small (300 mm in diameter) to very pipes encased in recycled plastic (Heinz,
large (up to 1500 mm in diameter and more). 1993).
Casing or drilling mud is normally used to At present, these piles are fabricated in
keep a drilled hole in water-bearing soils sections about 6 m long with a 280-330-mm
open. After installation of the reinforcement outside diameter. Both ends of the 150-
cage, the concrete is pumped in and is placed mm-diameter steel insert pipe are female
by the tremie technique. threaded, which enables the joining of pile
Drilled piles can also have an enlarged sections with a threaded steel coupler. The
bottom (beii) for an additional bearing area. adjacent sections must be tightly joined; the
The beii is created by special auguring tools. joint must be tight enough to ensure a solid
The advantages of drilled piles are as contact across the interface of the plastic at
follows: each joint. A gap between plastic surfaces,
particularly at the outer edge, will allow
1. They do not require soil displacement and, the joint to fiex or tip. Insignificant move-
therefore, do not produce any heave.
ment at the joint could result, causing the
2. The noise and soil vibration are minimal. pile to run to the side during driving, and
3. They allow inspection of the bearing thus go out of alignment.
stratum. A driving plate and protective steel shoe
4. They penetrate buried debris and large are installed at both ends of the pile simply
boulders. by screwing the attached nipples into the
5. They can be constructed in any practical pile steel core.
size. The driving plate is required to prevent
separation of the plastic cover from the steel
The disadvantage of this pile is that skin pipe core. Without the driving plate, under
friction may not be fully developed and the the impact force of the hammer, the pipe
bearing capacity cannot be readily deter- can be driven into the wood cushion block;
756 Piled Waterfront Structures

therefore, substantial loads can be trans- that for cylindrical piles with the same vol-
ferred to the plastic encasement. This can ume and the same mean radius. Zilberberg
produce a significant shear stress at the and Sherstnev investigated performance of
interface between steel and plastic parts, a tapered pile with rectangular cross sec-
resulting in a bond break between the pile tion. These piles were driven in sandy soils.
and the plastic. Axial capacity of these piles was 200-300%
Another type of plastic pile that is used higher than that of cylindrical piles with
in marine application is discussed by Taylor the same volume and mean radius. In the
(1995). These are fabricated in a single piece majority of the aforementioned field tests
with no joints to make up or seals to install. the additional side resistance continued to
These piles are available in lengths as re- develop with further axial deformation, in
quired up to 31 m. They are fabricated from contrast to conventional cylindrical piles
100% recycled plastic and are structurally where side resistance generally reaches a
reinforced with fiberglass bars. limiting value. It should be noted that most
At present, plastic piles up to 27 m long of these tests have not been carried out up
penetrating soil up to 7.6 m have been used to pile failure.To-date two basic types of a
as substitutes for creosoted timber fender tapered pile have been used for construc-
piles. They have been installed at six U.S. tion of miscellaneous geotechnical projects.
ports and, according to Heinz (1993) and These are the step taper piles (a propri-
Taylor (1995), are functioning well. etary system of Raymond International
The advantages of plastic piles is ·that Builders, Inc., Houston, TX) and piles in
they are environmentally friendly, are im- which the top cross section is greater than
pervious to marine borers, need low mainte- the bottom one. In both types an increase in
nance, and are made from recycled plastic. the pile side resistance is expected when
Also, these piles are highly ductile, possess there is some slip of the pile relative to the
a high energy-absorption capacity and can ground.
therefore be successfully utilized for con- The typical step taper pile is composed
struction of fender systems. · Plastic piles from approximately 7.9 m long cylindrical
also can be effectively used as bearing piles. steel jackets of different diameters that are
connected to each other to form a long
7.5.1.1.14 Tapered pi/es casing that steps downward in diameter
from top to bottom. At each pile location a
Under certain site conditions, e.g., when shaft is drilled part way to the design depth.
the structure such as relieving platform is Then the casing is placed in this shaft and
constructed in dry and excavated later, sim- driven with a mandrel to its full depth. The
ilar to that illustrated in Figures 7-24 and casing is then filled with concrete. The sec-
7-86a, use of a tapered pile can have poten- ond type of pile is usually fabricated from
tial cost advantage. Earlier investigations regular or prestressed concrete. Note, that
carried out by Norlund (1963) reveal that the long wooden piles are naturally tapered
having a taper on the pile wall can substan- piles. As can be expected the axial capacity
tially increase the compressive axial load of the compressed tapered pile depends on
capacity of the pile. Most recently Rybnikov taper angle, ground strength and ground
(1990) and Zilberberg and Sherstnev (1990) modulus of deformation. It is obvious that
reported results of a field test conducted in the uplift capacity of the tapered pile should
the former Soviet Union. Rybnikov has re- be substantially less than its compressive
ported on the behavior of a bored cast-in- capacity.
place tapered cylindrical pile. These piles Despite their advantages the tapered
had bearing capacity 20-30% higher than piles in most practica! cases are not consid-
 Piled Waterfront Structures 757

ered as a potential design option for con- Normally, the choice of pile type is based
struction of marine structures. The most on the following considerations.
apparent reason for this is a lack of aware-
ness of a tapered pile performance charac- (a) Characteristics of the ground through
teristics under effects of axi.al and particu- which the piles are to be driven and on
larly lateral loads. Also, to-date there is a which they are to be founded.
lack of a well developed analytical proce- (b) Pile materials, which are typically wood,
dure for predicting the pile response to ax- steel, concrete, or a combination of these.
ial and lateralloads. The simplified theoret- (c) Destructive infl.uences, which include ef-
ical model for evaluation of a tapered pile fects of marine borers, wave action, salt
spray, presence of strong current, chemi-
performance is developed by Kodikara and
cal attack, corrosion, scour around piles,
Moore (1993). and others.
(d) Design life that can be considered as tem-
7.5.1.3 Selecting the Pile Type porary or permanent.
(e) Investment justification.
When selecting a suitable type of pile it
should be remembered that no single type Selection of the most economica! and tech-
can be best suited to meet all of the great nically feasible pile can be very difficult in
variety of conditions likely to be encoun- many cases. Hence, the designer must care-
tered in the construction of marine struc- fully investigate advantages and disadvan-
tures. tages of each altemative type of pile to
The pile selection is usually affected by avoid the decision that can compromise his
site geological and environmental condi- or her design. The following are brief char-
tions, the type of superstructure, and the acteristics of piles of different types that
value and character of the design live loads. are employed in marine applications.
In addition, as has been shown earlier in
this chapter, the economics of pile selection Timber Piles-Suitable for moderate loads,
depend greatly on the piling contractor's temporary wharves, or where wood is locally
ability to perform a certain type of pile available at competitive prices. They are un-
work. suitable for use in deep water structures and
On a large project, more than one type of for heavy loads. Timber piles are subject to
pile may meet the technical requirements of attack by marine borers and to decay due to
fluctuating water levels. When driven too
a given job. The availability of a certain heavily, they are also subject to brooming or
material at a given time and place and the unseen splitting.
cost of the material may prove to be the Concrete Piles-Suitable for all practica!
decisive factors. Cost of labor, which varies ranges of loading and readily adaptable to
from country to country, and availability of various sizes and shapes. They can be fabri-
pile handling and driving equipment also cated from regular reinforced concrete or from
can be important factors in the selection of prestressed (posttensioned) concrete. If prop-
a pile type. In countries experiencing dif- erly designed and installed, these piles are
ficulties with producing or importing cer- practically maintenance-free in corrosive
tain materials (e.g., steel pipe piles, steel marine environments.
Disadvantages of these piles are as follows:
sheet piles, and other metal products suit- heavy weight which requires heavy handling
able for marine application), the engineers and driving equipment; unseen cracks which
are compelled to use less economica! but can develop during handling and driving; de-
locally available materials, or even to switch lay between casting and installation; large
to a nonpiled type of structure. area needed for storage. In addition, some
758 Piled Waterfront Structures

types of concrete piles, both regular and pre- Hammer ram point
stressed concrete, cannot be readily cut down Hammer base
or extended. Jp.z:iZ?Z~J_- Cap block shield
Steel Piles-Suitable for ali practica! ~ ~W4~~~= Cap block or hammer cushioo
~ Drivehead
ranges of loading. They can be readily ad-
Pile cushion
justed to the required penetration length (cut
down or extended by welding of additional
lengths). They can be hard driven without
being damaged. Some types of steel pipes have
small ground displacement and, therefore, can
be safely installed close to existing structures
(e.g., retaining walls). A disadvantage of steel
piling is that in marine environments it re-
quires elaborate protection from corrosion,
such as paint coating, use of cathodic protec-
tion, installation of protective jackets, or a
combination of these.

7.5.1.4 Pile Jnstallation

This section provides brief background
Figure 7-35. Principal component of the pile-driving
information on piling equipment and pile system. [From ASCE Deep Foundations Committee
installation methods and requirements. (1984).]
Some relevant information is also provided
in Chapter 6. For detailed information on
pile installation, the interested reader is Normally, the pile head, particularly a con-
referred to any standard text on the subject crete one, is protected by the pile cushion
of foundation engineering. from possible damage due to hammer im-
As follows from the information provided pact. There are different systems of pile
in previous sections, there are four basic hammers that are used to drive piles. The
methods for pile installations used for the selection of pile-driving hammer is based
construction of marine structures: mainly on the type and size of the pile being
used on a job. The selection also depends on
1. Driving with impact hammer the experience of the piling contractor and
2. Installation by vibrators on the availability of the required driving
3. Forming piles in situ equipment. ·
The latest developments in pile-driving
4. Installation by water jet
equipment are the introduction of hydrauli-
cally driven hammers and sophisticated
A combination of the first two methods with
control systems. This has resulted in a more
a water jet has also been used extensively.
efficient pile installation and often in a
smaller crew needed on site.
7.5.1.4.1 Pile driving with impact
Hydraulic pile hammers like conven-
hammer
tional hammers are available in single- and
The principal arrangement of a pile- double-acting modes. The single-acting
driving system that includes the pile, ham- hammer is basically an hydraulically oper-
mer, and other components is depicted in ated drop hammer where the ram is raised
Figure 7-35. As discussed in Chapter 6, the hydraulically; when the required stroke is
hammer impact load is delivered to the pile reached, the hammer ram is released and
head via the cap block or hammer cushion. descends under the force of gravity to strike
 Piled Waterfront Structures 759

the pile. The double-acting hammer uses ing time, it is usually advisable to use as
hydraulic power on the downstroke as well. heavy a hammer as possible without over-
The advantage of the hydraulic pile ham- stressing the pile.
mer is that it delivers a less punishing blow lnteresting and helpful observations on
to the pile head, which is particularly im- the effects of the impact pile-driving sys-
portant when driving in soft and variable tems on drivability and capacity of concrete
soils. This is achieved by the precise stroke piles are given in Thompson and Thompson
control that gives this hammer increased (1979). For a general discussion on pile-
efficiency of the blow. The other important driving hammers, the reader is referred to
advantage of the hydraulic hammer is that Chapter 6. Detailed information on pile-
it can operate in air and underwater. This driving equipment is found in recent pub-
makes it especially valuable for underwater lications by Gerwick (1986), Prakash
installation of piles driven within jackets. and Sharma (1990), Tomlinson (1994), and
The main disadvantage of the hydraulic others.
hammer is that it requires a separate power Noise is an obvious disadvantage of im-
source connected by hydraulic hoses which pact driving equipment, and in some situa-
can, in certain conditions, cause handling tions, noise restrictions may prohibit the
problems, particularly when driving steel use of impact pile-driving for pile installa-
sheet piles. tion. When noise is a problem, a special
Hydraulic hammers are generally avail- field procedure for reducing the noise should
able with ram weights varying from 2 to be considered. For example, most of the
over 10 tonnes, with energy outputs of 12 noise can be avoided or reduced by using a
tonne meter and greater. lnstruments added softer cushion or by installing baffie cham-
to the hydraulic hammer system measure bers around the driving rigs to intercept the
and display the amount of blow energy de- sound. This obViously makes pile-driving
livered to the pile and the displacement of more difficult and costly. It should be noted
the pile into the ground. This allows the that manufacturers of pile-driving equip-
operator to keep the stresses in the pile ment are developing less "noisy" pile-
under control. driving equipment.
In general, there is no single type of
impact hammer that is best suited for ali 7.5.1.4.2 Pile-driving rigs
classes of work; in some instances, more
than one type of hammer may be suitable The hammer is operated and guided on a
for a particular project. For example, when rig. Floating rigs are normally used for off-
driving displacement piles (e.g., precast shore operations. They typically include a
concrete into dense strata such as stiff clay, barge or special pontoon with a high driving
dense sand, or gravei), a heavy blow with a frame designed for installation of long off-
heavy ram, short stroke, and low impact shore piles. The frame has stiff leaders that
velocity has been found most satisfactory; serve the dual purpose of holding the pile in
the low impact velocity allows more energy position and maintaining the axial align-
to be transferred into the motion of the pile. ment of the pile and the hammer. The bot-
On the other hand, when driving light- tom part of the driving frame is fastened to
weight piles in soils of average consistency, a special moonbeam that allows the frame
the higher speed of double-acting hammers to move in a lateral and fore-and-aft direc-
is thought to keep the pile in motion better tions, thus permitting pile-driving over a
by reducing inertia, skin friction, and point wide range of side batter and in-and-out
resistance. batter. Examples are illustrated in Figures
Since the size of the hammer affects driv- 7-Se and 7-36b.
760 Piled Waterfront Structures

Figure 7-36. Floating pile-driving rig: (a) vertical steel pipe pile driven by a
diesel hammer; (b) batter steel pipe pile driven wi~ negative slope; (c) typical
pile-hammer system. ·

Piles can be driven also from the rig erally defined as 75% of the tipping load.
mounted on a commercial crawler or other For truck cranes, it is usually taken as
suitable mobile crane. Depending on site 85%. Detailed discussions on stability of
condition, this system can operate from crane-mounted pile drivers are given in
land, pontoon, or barge (Fig. 7- 37). For bet- Rang (1969).
ter pontoon or barge floating stability, the In cases where water jets are used to aid
crane usually operates from stern or bow. pile-driving, the jet pipes are mounted on
Obviously, both the crane used for pile the leaders next to the pile as indicated in
installation and the adversely loaded Figure 7-40.
crane- pontoon system must be sufficiently
stable during flotation and pile-driving. 7.5.1.4.3 Mandrel driving
Normally, the allowable crane load is es- technique
tablished as a fi.xed percentage of the load
that would tip the crane when working with Closed-ended cylinder piles and, particu-
a given boom length at a certain radius. In larly, thin-walled piles fabricated from reg-
North America, the allowabie load for ular reinforced or prestressed concrete are
crawler crane-mounted pile drivers is gen- usually driven via a steel mandrel (Fig.
 Piled Waterfront Structures 761

( C)

(b )

Figure 7-36. Continued.

7.5.1.4.4 Floating template

7-38). The advantage ofthis method is that
heavy driving impact does not affect the Where the dock superstructure is erected
pile head. During driving, the mandrel ac- from precast concrete components, a high
tually pulls the pile into the ground. The degree of accuracy in pile insulation is re-
mandrel is extended when a new pile sec- quired. In some cases, the high degree of
tion is added to a previously installed pile accuracy is achieved by using floating tem-
length. At the final penetration, when the plates. An example is depicted in Figure
pile reaches the desired capacity, driving is 7-39. This type of template can be used for
stopped and the mandrel is withdrawn. If installation of large-diameter steel and con-
required by the design, the reinforcement crete cylinder piles. It consists of a steel
cage can be lowered inside the pile and the pontoon (5), four pile holding mechanisms
(2), and three pile guides (leads) (4), one at
shell filled with concrete. The mandrel driv-
the pontoon stern and two at the bow. The
ing technique also permits installation of
depth of guides is equal to about one-fourth
thin-walled (corrugated) steel shells; the
of the pile length. This helps to keep the
shell is filled with concrete following with-
pile firmly in the leads and to drive them
drawal of the mandrel.
accurately. The rear half of the lead (4) can
The advantage of the mandrel driving
be released and swung open, as shown in
technique is that it allows lightweight piles
Figure 7-39.
to be driven to high resistance. In certain Piles are installed in the following se-
situations where the pile head needs to be quence:
driven below the water level, a rigid steel
follower is used as an extension of the pile. 1. The template is firmly and accurately an-
762 Piled Waterfront Structures

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 7-37. Pontoon-mounted crawler crane with pile-driving leaders: (a)

plump; (b) out-batter; (c) in-batter; (d) side batter; (e) typical crane-mounted
pile-driving system: general view. 1-crane-based pile driver; 2-pontoon
(barge); 3-counterweight,

chored in place and the first seven This method of pile installation guarantees
piles-three on each side of template and the best accuracy possible. At deep water
one at the pontoon stern-are installed. sites, which are relatively :f:I.exible and
2. The holding mechanisms are released and therefore susceptible to effects of waves and
the template moves one bent ahead (e.g., currents, piles must be temporarily braced
from position "a" to position "b") and is before the superstructure is constructed.
hooked at four previously installed side
piles, as depicted in Figure 7-39. 7.5.1.4.5 Driving accessories
3. Three new piles-one at the pontoon stern
and two at the template sides-are in- As shown in Figure 7-35, the pile-
stalled; the whole operation is then re- driving system includes pile-driving acces-
peated after the template is moved one sories such as a pile cushion, a drive head,
bent ahead. and a hammer cushion capblock shield.
 Piled Waterfront Structures 763

Figure 7-37. Continued.

The hammer cushion is 200-250 mm periphery in order to provide full contact

thick and is designed to protect the ham- with the pile. For example, a drive head
mer and the pile by reducing peak forces used for driving H-piles must have a mat-
while effectively transmitting the hammer ing H-pile shape which will fit snugly on
energy to the pile. The hammer cushion is pile top.
usually made from hardwood or laminated A pile cushion is 150 mm thick and is
timber materials; mechanical cushions of placed between the top of precast concrete
miscellaneous designs also have been used. piles and the drive head. It is usually made
A drive head is a steel cap installed on from layers of hardwood and softwood
the top of the pile that distributes the ham- boards or plywood. The purpose of the pile
mer blows uniformly to the pile. It must be cushion is to protect the pile top from dam-
fit snugly to the pile head around its entire age during driving and to assist in effec-
764 Piled Waterfront Structures

canceled out and movement occurs verti-

cally. The vibrator is usually suspended by
a crane and the vibration is transmitted
directly to the pile by clamping the unit to
3 the pile top. Pile vibration breaks down
(a) skin friction and tends to displace soil
particles away from the pile.
In the past 25-30 years, vibrators have
(b) been used often for pile installation. The
method is best suited for installing low-
displacement piles, such as open-ended
pipe piles and H-piles, into granular soils.
It is particularly advantageous in saturated
granular soils. However, it also has been
used efficiently for driving piles and sheet
piles in soft clays. The advantages of driv-
ing piles by vibrators include faster driving,
less noise, and less damage to the pile due
to lower impact driving energy. For exam-
ple, during construction of the bridge over
the Yangtze River at Hank.ow, China,
Russian-made heavy vibrators of 4.5-11.25
tonnes with 400-1000-rpm frequencies have
been used successfully for sinking 1.55-m-
diameter cylindrical concrete piles through
sand to the bedrock. These piles were sunk
with the aid of a water jet to a depth of
approximately 25 m; it took about 4 hours
to install one pile.
Figure 7-38. Cylinder pile-driving with mandrel: (a)
The disadvantages of pile installation by
driving through soft strata; (b) pile installed in bearing vibrators are the potential effects on adja-
stratum. 1-cylinder pile; 2-joint between pile sec- cent structures, which may include disrup-
tions; 3-pile-driving system; 4-mandrel; 5-bearing tion of the operation of sensitive equipment
stratum; 6-soft stratum. or machinery andjor consolidation of gran-
ular soils under existing foundations and
tively transmitting the hammer energy to behind retaining structures. The latter may
the pile and distributing the load unifonnly result in excessive settlement, structural
over the pile head. damages, and liquefaction of water-bearing
fine granular soils. Most of these problems
can be avoided by locating the new piles
7.5.1.4.6 Pile installation by
away from existing structures or selecting
vibrators
piles and installation techniques which
In this method, piles penetrate the avoid vibration.
ground through rapid vertical vibrations of Many different types of vibrator are
small amplitude, which are created by the presently available for pile-driving. The se-
rotations of eccentric weights mounted on lection of the vibratory pile driver depends
the vibrator. The rotation of the weights is on geological conditions and experience of
synchronized so that lateral vibrations are both the engineer and the piling contractor.
 Piled Waterfront Structures 765

12,0 12,0

,;:t,·l

·=:lt
1

3 b 1 .
·-·-"':·.!
~
Figure 7-39. Floating templet for pile-driving: 1-cylinder pile; 2-pile holdingjguid-
ing mechanism; 3-pile; 4-guide; 5-pontoon.

A comprehensive list of impact and vibra- Driving of concrete piles through sand
tory pile drivers and their basic parameters and gravei deposits is often associated with
are given in Prakash and Sharma (1990). heavy resistance that sometimes results in
Despite their advantages for pile-driving damage to the piles. As an alternative to
in favorable soil conditions, the use of vi- pile-driving, water jetting may be adopted.
brators can lead to reduced pile capacity. For successful pile jetting, a sufficient sup-
Barkan (1957, 1962) demonstrated that the ply of water at an adequate pressure is
vertical vibration of a pile can markedly required. Jet pipes are usually placed sym-
reduce the pile skin friction (shearing re- metrically about a vertically driven pile (Fig.
sistance between the pile shaft and the sur- 7-40) and in nonsymmetrical fashion when
rounding soil). Rodger and Littlejohn (1980), used for installing batter piles (Fig. 7-31).
Bernard (1968), and other workers investi- Symmetrical arrangement of jet pipes for
gated many parameters that influence the driving vertical piles is required to keep the
vibratory pile-driving and their impact on pile on a vertical course. Hence, a minimum
pile-soil interaction. These included the vi- of two pipes is usually used.
brator power, peak acceleration, frequency, Jet pipes can be free hanging at the pile
pile cross section (contact perimeter), size of sides (Fig. 7 -40a) or guided by special
soil grain, angle of internal friction, mois- guides that are installed on the pipe shaft
ture content, and others. The most recent (Fig. 7-40b). In some cases, the jet pipe has
discussion on behavior of vibro-driven piles been installed centrally within the pile shaft
in sand was offered by Vipulanandan et al. (Figs. 7-40c and 7-41).
(1990), and soil-pile interaction in vibro- It is not advisable, however, to set the jet
piling is discussed by Billet and Sieffert pipe outlet in the center of the pile tip, as it
(1989). may become blocked by soil in that position;
if the jet pipe is set centrally in the pile
7.5.1.4.7 Pile jetting shaft, then the outlets should be projected
A detailed discussion on pile jetting is sideways, as indicated in Figure 7-41. In
given in Chapter 6. Several specific details ali cases where a water jet is used to aid
related to use of water jet for pile installa- pile installation, the piles should be driven
tion are discussed here. the last 1-1.5 m to their final set by an
Pile jetting can be used as a sole method impact hammer.
of pile installation or in combination with As pointed out in Chapter 6, the capacity
other methods, such as the impact hammer of driven piles could be much greater than
or vibrator. those installed by jetting with return flow
766 Piled Waterfront Structures

(a) (b) (c) (Tsinker, 1972, 1977, 1988; McClelland,

1974).
Pile jetting may not work in the presence
of large boulders and it may also be inef-
fective in thick soft clay stratum because
clay can blanket the return water so that it
cannot escape from the jets. Mouchel and
Partners (1957) have developed a system
intended for use where a clay stratum can
blanket an underlaying sand layer in which
jetting would be advantageous otherwise
(Fig. 7-41). While driving through the clay
stratum, the ends of the channels installed
at the pile sides are closed by steel scrolling
plates. When the jet pipes reach the level of
the sand stratum, a slotted steel wedge is
carried down by a 32-mm-diameter steel
Figure 7-40. Pilejetting. Conventional arrangement bolt and forces the scaling plates open, thus
of jet pipes: 1-pile-driving system; 2-fiexible high-
pressure hose; 3-jet pipe; 4-pile; 5-nozzle; 6-8-jet
forming an escape channel for the return
pipe guiding accessories. water.

~ 11 M.S. plate welded

lo Y." dia. bar. '""dia. M.S. bars
welded lo channels

s"x 2Y:,"" to·22 lb.

f !4" dia. M.S. bolt

~" M.S. cover plate

r---- f6 11 ---1
li;;;;::;;:::=;:;;;:i
1
ta"

i dia. bers
'/. 11
welded to
channel web
l .."J"~.~..-~-,.~·; .:;._;bed~-..~-.~- -..~k. ,
TYriCAL CAOSS SECUOH OF rtiL

Figure 7-41. Jetting arrangement with path for return water. [From Mouchel and
Partners (1957).]
 Piled Waterfront Structures 767

7.5.1.4.8 Ground heaving The technical requirements section out-

lines requirements of materials to be used
When large displacement piles are driven
for pile fabrication, pile handling and stor-
in groups into dense cohesive soils they may
ing conditions, pile-driving criteria, instal-
cause ground heaving. This phenomenon
lation tolerances, and other relevant techni-
may cause previously driven piles to lift off
cal requirements. The materials section
their bearing stratum, thus eliminating or
governs size and quality of materials and
reducing their point resistance; to restore
procedures for checking the quality of mate-
it, lifted piles must be redriven at consider-
rials supplied. The fabrication section out-
able expense. To avoid ground heaving, it is
lines requirements applicable to welding of
advisable to switch to smaller displacement
pile splices in steel piles, placement of rein-
piles, such as open-ended piles or H-piles.
forcing steel and concrete in precast piles,
To avoid this from happening in hard clays,
and other relevant requirements aimed at
the soil can be preaugered prior to pile
obtaining good quality piles. This section
installation. Selecting a wider pile spacing
also should include the quality control re-
or using the proper pile-driving sequence
quirements.
(e.g., working outward from the center of a
The piles handling and storage section
pile group) can also effectively limit ground
stipulates conditions which will prevent
heaving.
damage to piles after they arrive on site
and prior to their installation. For precast
7.5.1.5 Installation Specification concrete piles and for long prestressed piles,
Good pile installation practice begins specifically, the location ofthe pickup points
with a good specification which explains and must be specified.
controls ali aspects of pile installation. The Pile~driving criteria is the most impor-
specification represents the written transla- tant aspect of the piling specification. It
tion of the designer's intention that the stipulates pile penetration resistance which
piling contractor and the construction must be achieved using the energy of the
inspection should follow. A well-written specified hammer. Alternatively, when piles
specification can help the inspector carry are installed by vibrator or water jet, only
out his responsibility if it is clearly defined the required penetration, which includes the
in the specification; a carefully executed de- pile final setting achieved by use of an im-
sign can be destroyed by a poorly written or pact hammer, is stipulated.
ambiguous specification. Pile installation tolerances stipulate al-
A typical pile installation specification lowed pile deviation from the design posi-
usually incorporates the following items: tion, plumpness or batter, cutoff elevation,
and amount of pile curvature. Piles exceed-
(a) Preamble ing the curvature tolerance should be re-
jected upon arrival on site.
(b) Technical requirements
The pile locations and their compliance
(c) Recording and payments with project requirements must be checked
and confirmed by the surveyor and inspec-
The preamble usually includes general tion staff in time to allow any necessary
project information such as a brief descrip- changes to be made without causing job
tion of a project, and it outlines the scope of delays and certainly before commencing
work by the contractor and by others. It construction of the superstructure. The
also defines the extent of the contractor's specification must also include the condi-
responsibility regarding the supply of labor, tions, number, and method of pile load
equipment, and materials. te sting.
768 Piled Waterfront Structures

7.5.1.6 Pile Load Test detail the arrangement and procedure of

the pile test.
The pile load test is the surest way to In a standard pile test method, the pile is
determine the ultimate design loads which loaded in eight equal increments up to a
can prove that the pile, when installed ac- maximum load, usually twice as much as
cording to the specification, will not fail due the design allowable load. Each load level is
to excessive settlement when loaded. It is maintained until the rate of settlement has
usually carried out to confirm results of decreased to 0.25 mmjh, but not longer
theoretical pile analysis, to evaluate pro- than 2 h. The finalload equals 200% of the
posed techniques of pile installation, and design load and is maintained for a dura-
to check the competence of the piling con- tion of 24 h. After the required holding
tractor. Results of pile test are used to re- time the load is removed in decrements of
fine and finalize the design. 25%' with 1 h between decrements. After
Sometimes, pile load tests are conducted the l~ad has been applied and removed, the
on existing structures to verify their real pile is reloaded to the test load in incre~
capacity and to investigate their ability to ments of 50% of the design load, allowing
carry an increased live load. 20 min between load increments. Finally,
The decision on the number and location the load is increased in increments of 10%
of piles to be tested is usually based on the of design load until the failure load is
variability ofthe site soil conditions; at least achieved, allowing 20 min between load in-
one test should be carried out for each vari- crements. This method of pile test is gener-
ety of soil condition. Piles are usually tested ally used for site investigation prior to in-
by statically applied loads, or dynamically. stallation of contract piles. Results of the
These two methods are discussed in the pile test are used for writing specifications.
following sections. This method is time-consuming, requiring
from 30 to 70 h (and more) to complete.
7.5.1.6.1 static axiat pile test A faster, and less expensive, test is the
so-called "Quick Test" stipulated by ASTM
Besides standard pile testing procedures, 1143 as an optional method. In this load
as outlined in the ASTM Standards, there test, the maximum load is normally kept on
are additional pile testing methods that the pile not longer than any other preceding
have been reported in literature. Examples load. The Quick Test is carried out in the
are found in Butler and Hoy (1977), following steps.
Fellenius (1975, 1980), Mohan et al. (1967),
New York State DOT (1974), Swedish Pile 1. The pile is loaded in 20 increments to
Commission (1970), Weele (1957), Witaker 300% of the design load (i.e., each incre-
(1957, 1963), and Witaker and Cooke (1961). ment is equal to 15% of the design load).
Chellis (1961) lists 17 methods employed Each load is maintained for a period of 5
by various individuals, organizations, and min, with readings taken every 2.5 min.
building codes for the determination of uiti- 2. The load is added in increments until
continuous jacking is reqliired to main-
roate or working loads of piles under com-
tain the test load, or the maximum test
pressive loads. load has been reached.
In N orth America, pile te sting is usually 3. The pile is unloaded in about five steps
performed in compliance with the latest is- with a duration of no greater than about
sue of ASTM Standards D-1143, D-3689, 1 min.
and D-3966 for static testing of a single pile
in axial compression, axial uplift, and lat- U sually the Quick Test is completed within
eral loading, respectively. These standards 3-6 h. Fellenius (1991) suggested that from
 Piled W aterfront Structures 769

a technical, practica!, and economica! point secondary reaction beam as is shown in

of view this method is superior to the Figure 7-42b.
standard pile testing procedure. Backup load measurements are also
Another method recommended by ASTM made by a manometer or gauge calibrated
D1143 as option is the 'Constant Rate Pene- together with the jack. These measure-
tration Test.' This method is also recom- ments, however, sometimes can produce
mended by the Swedish Pile Commission substantially overestimated result
and the New York State Department of (Fellenius, 1984). The reason for the errors
Transportation. During this test, the pile are that the laboratory-calibrated jacking
head is force to settle at a rate of 1.25 system when exposed to field conditions
mmjmin to a total penetration of 50-75 (e.g., eccentric loading, bending moments,
mm. The force required to achieve the pene- or temperature variations) reacts differ-
tration rate is recorded. The main advan- ently, mainly because of effects of ram fric-
tage of this method is its speed and econ- tion occurring along the sides of the ram
omy. It may be of particular value for fric- (primarily at the location of the seal). The
tion piles, both in compression and uplift, friction may result in errors as large as
but may not be practica! for end-bearing 30-40% according to Fellenius. This is why
piles because of the high force requirements many engineers usuaiiy prefer to use load
cells for measurements of the test load and
to cause penetration through the hardbear-
to calibrate the jack-load cell system as a
ing stratum. For a detailed discussion on
unit. A complete discussion on instruments
Constant Rate Penetration Test, the reader
that are used for pile load testing is given
is referred to Feiienius (1980).
in Dunnicliff (1988).
It should be pointed out that there are no
Davisson (1970, 1989) suggests that most
conceptual differences in methodology be-
of the adverse effects associated with the
tween the axial compression and puii-out
jack system can be completely eliminated
pile tests. The only difference is that in the by use of special spherical bearings placed
latter case the test load is applied in the between the ram and the load cell (Fig.
upward direction on the test pile. Details on 7-43). Naturally, the pile loading system
the puii-out test are provided in ASTM must be designed for the anticipated maxi-
D3689. mum load; a conservative design of a reac-
tion beam is usually recommended.
Load App/ication Arrangement and As an additional note, the hydraulic jack
tnstruments should have sufficient travel to provide for
anticipated pile settlements, deflection of
A typical setup for pile testing consists of the reaction beam, and elongation of con-
a minimum of two anchor piles located on necting anchoring details.
either side of a test pile, a reaction beam Sometimes, the actual field conditions
attached to the top of each anchor pile, or dictate the use of modified pile jacking sys-
equivalent arrangement, hydraulic jack tems; for example, weight platform, loading
placed as required for pile compression or frame, or the reaction beam of a more com-
puii-out test, and instruments for measur- plicated design than illustrated in Figure
ing loads and pile movements (Figs. 7-42 7.42. Three relevant examples are illus-
and 7-43). In the case of an axial compres- trated in Figure 7-44.
sion test, loads applied by an hydraulic jack The arrangemenf illustrated in Figure
are measured either by a calibrated load 7-44a was used for a pile load test during
cell placed between the jack and the reac- construction of a shiplift facility at Seward,
tion beam, or between the jack and the Alaska. In this particular case, because of
770 Piled Waterfront Structures

"' .. (a)

" F"

1 1
r6 r-5
t--4
J
~ i
~t
~

1--2 1-
=
*=i ,,
==j~

j
i
'
l
1
(b)

~7
<;;

s--=: ?
4--1

1 1

J t-6

1 1
~ -
2-~
~
-1
r--
i
1
1
i
1

Figure 7-42. Typical setup for pile testing: (a) application of axial
compression load; (b) application of puii-out load. 1-Test pile; 2-anchor
pile; 3-reaction beam; 4-hydraulic jack; 5-load cell; 6-anchor strip
(bar); 7-secondary reaction beam.

the specifics of the existing pile foundation out on a pile included in the seven-pile
and the relatively shallow pile penetration, mooring dolphin. For this test a steel cap-
seven anchor piles were employed to test ping plate was cut at its central part, thus
the 406 mm-diameter open-ended concrete separating the centrally located, 762-mm-
filled steel pipe pile. For this test a double diameter vertical steel pipe pile from the
reaction beam system with a secondary dolphin's pile system. A special reaction
cross-beam was employed. The maximum frame was prefabricated and welded to the
test load reached approximately 340 tonnes. dolphin's capping plate. In this test the pile
The purpose of the pile load test illus- was loaded by four hydraulic jacks to a load
trated in Figure 7-44b was to obtain infor- up to approximately 700 tonnes.
mation on the real capacity of open-ended In the example depicted in Figure 7-44c,
steel piles included in existing mooring and the pile load test was performed 2000 m
breasting dolphins and in a coal-loader sup- offshore on a 1524-mm-diameter steel pipe
porting platform that are part of the coal- pile included in a mooring dolphin at
loading terminal constructed at Seward, Hadera coal unloading terminal, Israel. In
Alaska. The pile load test has been carried this test the pile load from several hy-
 Piled Waterfront Structures 771

nated system. The plotted data are used to

estimate the failure load so that an allow-
able pile capacity can be estimated. By def-
inition, the failure load applied on the pile
is reached when rapid movement occurs un-
der sustained or slightly increased load.
However, this definition may be inadequate
because pile plunging may require large
Hydraulic pressure
movements that may exceed the acceptable
range of the pile-soil system.
Dial stern In general, the definition of pile failure is
reaction very much judgmental and depends on an
plate
individual's personal experience. Many en-
gineers define the failure load at the point
Wire
of intersection of the initial tangent to the
load-movement curve and the tangent to, or
the extension of, the final portion of the
curve. Other failure definitions consider ar-
Figure 7-43. Typical instrumentation for pile test- bitrary settlement limits; for example,
ing. [From Davisson (1970).] sometîmes the pile is considered to have
failed when its head has moved 10% of the
pile end diameter, or the gross settlement
draulic jacks was applied against a weight of 40 mm and net settlement of 20 mm
platform loaded with six rectangular con- occurs twice when reloading to the design
crete blocks. The pile failed at a test load load.
equal to 1100 tonnes. In theory, in order to be independent of
A typical setup of pile test measuring individual interpretation, the definition of
instruments is depicted in Figure 7-43. As failure load should be based on some math-
mentioned earlier, the pile load is measured ematical rule resulting in a repeatable
by either a load cell, a manometer, or both. value. The various interpretation methods
Movements of the pile butt, both axial are presented in detail and discussed by
and lateral, are typically measured by a Prakash and Sharma (1990). Among these
dial gauge system, the wire, mirror, and
are methods proposed by Davisson (1972),
scale arrangement, and the conventional
Chin (1970, 1971), De Beer and Walleys
surveyor's level system.
(1972), Hansen (1963), Mazurkiewicz
Furthermore, a telltale andj or an elec-
tric strain gauge measuring system are in- (1972), Fuller and Hoy (1970), Buttler and
Hoy (1977), and Van der Veen (1953).
stalled for incremental strainjstress meas-
urements along the pile length. For further Fellenius (1980) carried out failure load
details on pile movement measuring sys- interpretation on load-movement curves ob-
tems, the reader is referred to Dunnicliff tained from a static load test on a 40-m
(1988). long, 300-mm-diameter pile in clay and silt
(Fig. 7 -45). All of the above interpretation
methods have been considered. The results
Jnterpretation of Results of Pile obtained by Fellenius varied widely from a
Axial Load Test conservative 240 tons [Davisson's (1972)
The results from a pile load test are usu- method] to 330 tons [Chin's (1970, 1971)
ally plotted in a load-pile movement coordi- method]. The latter is invariably higher
772 Piled Waterfront Structures

(n )

(b)

Figure 7-44. Pile test installation. Practica! examples: (a) double

reaction beam system for pile test used at shiplift facility, Seward,
Alaska; (b) space reaction frame used for pile test at coal-loading
terminal, Seward , Alaska; (c) weight platform used for pile test at
Hadera, Israel, offshore coal unloading terminal. (Courtesy of Yaron,
Shimoni and Partners, Consulting Engineers Ltd., Tel Aviv, Israel.)
 Piled Waterfront Structures 773

(c)

Figure 7-44. Continued.

than the actual test failure load. The other piles ranged from 12 to 32. Load-movement
seven values were grouped around 270 tons curves for ali test piles indicated that the
indicating that in the case in question the failure load was achieved. AII of the previ-
Fuller and Hoy, DeBeer, and Buttler and ously mentioned nine failure load interpre-
Hoy methods appeared to yield reasonable tation methods were used. The latter inves-
estimates of the failure load. tigators reached the following conclusiOJJ.S.
Joshi and Sharma (1987) carried out fail-
ure load interpretations on five different 1. For concrete bored piles and pile with
load-movement curves obtained using the expanded bases (e.g., belled end), the
standard pile load test method. In these Fuller and Hoy (1970) method provides a
tests, the length-to-diameter ratio of test reasonable estimate of the failure load.
774 Piled Waterfront Structures

site geological condition and pile loading,

300
-:::=··
]l *~·~
-+- 290 90 run1
the factor of safety can be reduced to 1.5-2.0.

1
J -t-~M -HOYCZ 7.5.1.6.2 Lateral pile Joad test
-+- 260 DE BEER.
1 ...,._ lSO BUTLER-HOY
1 -+- 240 DAVISSON This test is usually carried out to confirm
1
1 the design parameters used in piled struc-
1
1 ture design where the individual piles are

2
1 loaded axially and by the lateralloads, and
the whole structure performs as a ground
fixed frame. This test is particularly impor-

7
tant when the piles are installed in clay. As
pointed out by Sastry and Meyerhof (1987),
1
1
the pile installation method can have a dra-
1
1
matic effect on the behavior of rigid piles in
1
0 ~o-L~,~.oo~-.2.koo-L~3~.oo~~4.koo-L~s.oo
clay subjected to moments and horizontal
-l l-o.2S loads. Although the net lateral soil pressure
Movement, inches at pile failure along the pile shaft is unaf-
fected by the method of pile installation, the
Figure 7-45. Load-movement diagram from a quick pile displacement does. For example, the
maintained-load static loading test with measurement
of pile compression and toe movement. [From Fellenius
displacement of bored piles are, in general,
(1980).] 1.5-3 times those of driven piles.

2. For concrete expanded-base compacted rest procedure

(Franki) piles, the Davisson, Buttler and In the standard pile load test procedure,
Hoy, and Fuller and Hoy methods provide
the total test load is applied in 10 steps to
reasonable estimates for failure load.
200% of the design load (e.g., 25%, 50%,
3. For driven steel H-piles, Hansen's 90%
criterion and Fuller and Hoy's method 75%, 100%, 125%, 150%, 170%, 180%,
predicted a failure load similar to the 190%, and 200%). The 25% and 50% of the
actual failure load. design load increments are applied for 10
min each, and the 75% load increment is
Detailed discussion on all above nine meth- maintained for 15 min. AII other loads are
ods is found in Prakash and Sharma (1990). maintained for 20 min each. The 200% load
is maintained for 1 h, after which the pile is
Factor of safetv unloaded in steps of 50% of the design load
The working load on a pile is defined as (e.g., 150%, 100%, 50%, and 0%), maintain-
the ratio of pile ultimate capacity to the ing each decrement for 10 min.
appropriate factor of safety. Generally, the. Each test is project-site-specific. On some
safety factor for a single pile, 2.5 is consid- projects, the load testing procedure may in-
ered as appropriate. However, where there clude cyclic, surge, reverse, or other loading
is a sufficient number of pile loading tests, to suit the specific project requirements.
or where a large body of load experience is These and other loading procedures are de-
available, the safety factor of 2.0 is nor- tailed in ASTM D3966-81 (American Soci-
mally considered. ety for Testing and Materials, 1989).
In cases where the soil characteristics
are uncertain or large impact or vibratory
Jnstruments
loads are expected, the safety factor of up to The test load is normally generated by a
3.0 and more can be considered. standard hydraulic jack. As to the axial pile
For temporary structures, depending on load test, the load cell is used for measure-
 Piled Waterfront Structures 775

ments of the applied load. The jack is in- It must be pointed out that pile lateral
stalled horizontally between the test pile stability may be greatly influenced by sta-
and a suitable reaction system. The latter bility of the underdeck slope into which the
should be a relatively stiff system (e.g., pile is embedded, and vice versa. Therefore,
heavy gravity block, vertical batter pile sys- the effects of lateral loads imposed by piles
tem, and others), which will not yield ap- against the sloped bank or underdeck riprap
preciably under the test load. Davisson material should be considered in the design
(1970) recommends use ofspherical bearing of a piled marine structure.
in lateral load tests because it inherently One of the main purposes of the lateral
involves pile rotation. pile load test is to obtain a real value of soil
Instruments for measuring pile lateral reaction per pile unit length for subsequent
movements, associated bending moments use in the design of the structure. The de-
and the bending moment-induced stresses sign could be carried out either manually or
are commonly the same as those used for by using available computer programs
pile axial tests (e.g., reference-beam- [e.g., PILEDG by Geosoft (1984), LPILE
mounted dial gauges, wire-mirror and scale by Ensolft (1989), or others] which are
system, and others. Inclinometers installed typically based on a conventional beam on
in the pile's interior are often used to deter- elastic foundation theory.
mine pile deflection below the ground sur-
face. An example is provided in Hunter et 7.5.1.6.3 ovnamic pile Joad test
al. (1992).
In the case of solid concrete test piles, a Where the piled structure is exposed to
steel tube or a duct could be installed inside dynamic loading, the pile response is of a
or outside the pile to accommodate an incli- paramount importance. Dynamic loads may
nometer to measure the pile's lateral shift have significant effects on soil-pile bound-
along it embedded part. In this case, stiff- ary conditions, thus affecting the pile's dy-
ness of the test pile must .be compatible namic response. This basically includes the
with that of the production pile used in the response to vertical vibration, horizontal
real structure. Other means for the investi- displacements, and, in some cases, torsional
gation of pile deflection are also available vibration. Normally, the dynamic pile test
(Tsinker, 1972). Because of substantial dis- is performed to study all of the above
placements of test pile, the dial gauges effects.
should have at least 75-100 mm travel. It should be pointed out that at the pre-
Rotation of the pile head can be meas- sent time in North America, there is no
ured by surveying the position of the pile standard procedure for testing piles by dy-
before testing and during each phase of namic methods. Where required, it is done
load application; the difference between two according to the customized procedure
readings is a measure of the change in the adopted by the individual investigator.
pile head's slope. Several full-scale dynamic pile load tests
have been reported to date (Prakash and
Jnterpretation of test data Sharma, 1969; Gle, 1981; Gle and Woods,
1984; Prakash et al., 1985; Blaney et al.,
The generally accepted criterion for esti- 1987). In each of these tests, piles were
mating the ultimate (failure) lateralload on tested by different methods.
a test. pile is to consider the point of inter-
section of tangents on the load-movement Equipment and Jnstruments
curve. When this load is effectively reached,
the test pile usually fails to rebound after A steady-state sinusoidal force for the
removal of the load. pile test can be generated by conventional
776 Piled Waterfront Structures

mechanical oscillators applying a variable As suggested by Gle and Woods (1984),

alternating force in both the vertical or hor- the dynamic response of the soil-pile-mass
izontal planes. The magnitude of this force system can be represented correctly by
is controlled by adjusting the phase angle equations of motion written for each of the
between the unbalanced masses in the os- translation and rotation degrees of freedom
cillator. The speed of the oscillator is con- and solved simultaneously for the dynamic
trolled by a variable-speed electric motor response. For details, the reader is referred
connected to the oscillator through a flexi- to work by these 1nvestigators.
ble shaft. The motor can usually generate a
variable force within a frequency range 7.5.1.6.4 Pile integritv test
of approximately 5-55 Hz.
This test is performed on piles to confirm
In experiments by Gle and Woods (1984) their integrity after installation. Low-strain
the pile was excited with a Lazon oscillator integrity testing procedure is usually used
with ·added mass, created by steel plates on ali types of piles, but in particular on
tightened together by threading steal rods, concrete piles installed by driving methods,
which added vertical load to the pile, thus or on bored piles. In this test, a compressive
reducing its natural frequency within the impact wave is generated by impacting the
range of operation of the oscillator. Pile dis- pile head, and the resulting acceleration
placements were measure<;l with two veloc- and velocity of the impact waves are stud-
ity transducers mounted on each side of the ied. It is performed using a high-sensitivity
added mass. This provided an independent accelerometer placed on the pile head, an
check on the displacement amplitude. The amplifier-receiver, and a portable computer.
output signals from these transducers were In testing the pile, a slight blow is delivered
recorded on a dual-channel, strip-chart to the pile head by means of a hand-held
recorder. hammer. This initiates a small strain wave
that travels down the pile at the speed of
Test Procedure and lnterpretation sound. When the strain wave reaches a
crack or void in the pile, a reflection in the
As pointed out by Gle and Woods (1984), form of a tensile wave is sent back up to the
for the determination of the lateral dynamic pile head. This is picked up by the signal
response of the mas caused by soil-pile in- amplifier and sent to a computer for pro-
teraction, the mass added to the oscillator cessing.
should be located as close to the ground
surface as possible, but not in contact with
the soil. 7.5.2 superstructure
Essentially, as the distance between the
ground surface and the added mass is in- Structurally, the superstructure performs
creased, the dynamic response can be mod- as the top horizontal element of an essen-
eled as a structural response of a mass on a tially rigid frame. This implies that the
cantilever. However, this results in less in- superstructure must have a fixed-end
formation being obtained for the soil-pile connection with the piles to provide for good
interaction. With this in mind, usually five interaction and load distribution.
to seven tests are conducted on the same In most practica} cases, the superstruc-
pile. From the measured free-vibration re- ture is designed for continuity and is con-
sponse, damping and the damped natural structed either as cast-in-place structure,
frequency of the soil-pile-mass system are assembled from precase concrete compo-
determined. nents, or as a combination of both. The
 Piled Waterfront Structures 777

former is usually used for the construction with attached formwork, are installed on
of relieving platforms and in regions of high the pile capping beams and filled with
seismic activity; the latter is generally used concrete.
for the construction of deck of the open pile Essentially, each truss that is included
structures. in the reinforcing cage is designed for two
purposes: In the initial construction stage,
7.5.2.1 Deck Structure in the it is designed to carry loads produced by the
Open Pile construction weight of fresh concrete, formwork, con-
struction equipment, and other relevant
Deck structures are designed to maintain loads; in the final stage, the truss is de-
the minimum clearance between the under- signed as a part of the reinforced concrete
side of the deck and the expected maximum deck structure to carry all designed dead
(extreme) wave crest height, or maximum and live loads. The advantage of this method
tide level during the design life of the wharf. is the reduction of time needed for over-
Failure to provide a "safe" clearance may water construction.
result in the application of uplift loads to Alternatively, the superstructure can be
the deck structure and, more importantly, designed as a two-way slab incorporating
in damage to the upper part of the under- the concrete pile caps, edge beams, curbs,
deck slope protection. This phenomenon is crane and train track beams, and other
discussed further in Section 7.5.3. structural components. The concrete pile
The simplest, although not necessarily, capping beams must be designed to accom-
the most economica! scheme of deck con- modate pile-driving tolerances, yet assure
struction is a cast-in-place fl.at slab of uni- proper structural behavior by providing the
form thickness placed on piles. This type of appropriate fixed-end connected for both
construction minimizes and simplifies the tension and bearing piles.
required formwork. Furthermore, this type Sometimes, when piles deviate slightly
of construction can accommodate the most from specified installation tolerance they
adverse combination of misplaced pile. are forcibly brought back into alignment as
In a cast-in-place deck structure, the con- illustrated in Figure 7-46. This action,
ventional formwork can be replaced by however, can result in excessive bending
shallow precast planks that are eventually stresses in these piles. The effect of these
incorporated into the deck structures as stresses on the overall pile performance
load-carrying members. These planks typi- must be carefully evaluated. In some cases,
cally span longitudinally between trans- performance of such overstressed piles can
verse pile capping beams and are usually be enhanced by filling them with concrete.
designed to carry the weight of fresh con- In general, however, when precast concrete
crete and miscellaneous construction loads. pile capping beams are used, it is a good
The advantage of this type of construction practice to make them large enough so as to
is that it significantly enhances the quality enable them to accommodate the most ad-
of the deck underside that is exposed to the verse deviation of piles from their design
most severe effects of the marine environ- locations.
ment. It also, in general, accelerates the The selection of the structural type of the
construction process. capping beam is site-specific; as well as
Occasionally the cast-in-place deck struc- project-specific. It usually depends on the
tures are constructed by using trusslike re- number of piles in the pile bend and on the
inforcement blocks prefabricated from availability of a fl.oating or mobile heavy lift
structural steel components. These reinforc- equipment. For example, in the case of the
ing cages, consisting of space truss sections construction of the Navy Pier, discussed by
778 Piled Waterfront Structures

(a)
the precast portion is followed by cast in
place of a central part of the capping beam.
Shear keys have been provided in both pre-
cast sections to ensure the good connection
with the cast-in-place portion. Reinforcing
cages installed into the two middle piles
were extended above the beam's underside,
which ensured a reliable joint between these
piles and the cast-in-place portion of the
capping beam (Fig. 7-47d). After the rein-
forced steel was installed, the concrete was
poured and cured. This was follows by in-
stallation ofthe precast concrete planks and
(b ) the principal deck reinforcement (Fig.
7-47e), after which the deck concrete was
installed and cured. Finally, the pier was
completed by installations of precast com-
ponent of the utility trenches (Fig. 7-470.
This case history serves as a good exam-
ple of a well-balanced use of both prefrabri-
cated components and cast-in-situ concrete
for composite deck construction.
Normally, the pile capping beams are
connected to each other by longitudinal
beams which serve as the edge beams. These
beams sometimes provide support for the
Figure 7-46. Pile capping beams formwork: (a) Steel
piles in bents are brought in to a proper alignment for
crane track or accommodate service
installation of pile capping formwork; (b) the pile is trenches. They are also used for mounting
pulled into alignment with other piles (heavy flexural of fenders; in the case of marginal wharves,
stresses may result). the land-side longitudinal edge beam may
be used as the fill retaining bulkhead also.
Buslov et al. (1988) and Damaschi and The deck structure composed of precast
Bonasia (1989), the capping beams were of components is usually designed to perform
a composite construction: The edge portion as a solid unit. As pointed out earlier, the
of these beams on both sides of the pier, system, comprised of precast elements, usu-
which incorporated utility trenches, were of ally consists of precast components sup-
precast construction, whereas the middle ported on either cast-in-place or precast pile
part was cast in place (Fig. 7-47). The pre- caps. It is often topped with cast-in-place
cast components at the aforementioned pier concrete.
are connected to the concrete cylindrical Precast units are normally joined to-
piles via a reinforced concrete plug installed gether by splicing negative reinforcement
within the cylinder pile and are extended mechanically (Fig. 7- 470 or by field weld-
into t he opening left in the pile capping ing through a splice angle (Fig. 7-48). Then
beam (Fig. 7- 47a). the concrete is placed in between the pre-
The plug reinforcing cage is seen in Fig- cast members. This increases the effective
ure 7-47c. The process of installation of the depth of the capping beam and produces a
pile capping beam is depicted in Figure strong monolithic joint between all prefab-
7-47b. Installation and fixing in place of ricated components and piles (Fig. 7-48).
 Piled Waterfront Structures 779

(c)

( b)
(d )

Figure 7-47. Construction of N avy pier deck of composite design. 1- Cylindrical concrete
piles; 2-precast pile capping beam; 3-cast-in-place portion of pile capping beam; 4-concrete
joint between pile and capping beam; 5- precast deck planks; 6-precast fender panel;
7- utility trench; 8- cast-in-situ concrete deck; 9- reinforcing cage for joint between piles and
precast capping beam; 10-reinforcing cage for joint between piles and cast-in-situ part of
capping beam; 11-mechanical joint of rebars of precast component of utility trenches. (a)
Typical cross section; (b) installation of precast pile capping beam (2) on piles (1); (c) reinforcing
cage (9) installed in both pile and precast capping beam; (d) reinforcing cages (10) installed into
piles and extended above pile heads to provide solid connection between piles and cast-in-situ
part of the capping beam (3); (e) precast deck planks (5) installed on completed capping beams
and reinforcement (12) of cast-in-situ concrete deck is installed; (0 precast components of utility
trenches (7) are installed and dowels extended from these componenta are joined with each other
by couplers (11). (Photographs are courtesy of Dr. V. Buslov, at the time a principal designer to
Mueser Rutledge Consulting Engineers which together with Frederic R. Harris, both of New
York City, designed the pier. Contractor Yonkers Contracting, N .Y./Weeks Stevedoring, N.J.)

Birdy et al. (1989) suggest that in cases The development and use of large mate-
where a cast-in-place deck slab supported rial handling equipment in port operation,
on prestressed concrete piles is used, con- such as fork lifts and log loaders in capaci-
ventional dowel connections at the pile top ties of up to 40-50 tonnes and mobile
can be replaced with flared strands without truck-mounted cranes in capacities of 100
compromising the pile- deck fixity charac- tonnes or more with outrigger loading of up
teristics. to 150 tonnes per outrigger, dictate that
780 Piled Waterfront Structures

(e)

TYPICAL WHARF ANO

ACCESS PIER SECTION

(t)

PAECAST PILE CN>

DETAIL 1

SI'I.ICE CONNECTION
DETAIL 2

Figure 7-48. Joint between precast deck units and

pile capping beam. [From Sundberg and Stubbs,
(1992).)

Figure 7-47. Continued.

Hence, it can transmit vertical shear; how-
deck structures must be strong enough to ever, it cannot transmit transverse mo-
support heavy concentrated loads. ments across the joint. Essentially, at pile
Precast elements used for deck construc- bents, rigidity of pile caps prevents any
tion are usually designed in the form of separation of the panels at the shear key.
one-way fl.at or hunched concrete panels, Typically, precast panels are made fully
T-beams or double-tee beams, two-way fl.at continuous over the pile caps by postten-
slabs, or others. In most cases, the deck sioning or, as pointed out earlier, by joining
components are prestressed, and, in some the negative reinforcement projected from
instances, they are posttensioned after in- adjacent panels. This reinforcement, if re-
stallation. quired, can be prestressed by placing the
Precast deck components are usually hydraulic jacks between panels; when the
provided with longitudinal joints that are required tension in the reinforcing bars is
typically made in the form of large grouted achieved, the wedges between panels are
shear keys (Fig. 7- 71). The key helps to installed, jacks are removed, and concrete
eliminate differential movements of adja- is placed as discussed earlier.
cent panels by creating a sort of a large The results of research carried out at
structural diaphragm. However, there is no Lehigh University (Roesli, 1955; Walther,
reinforcing steel across the shear key. 1956) indicate that the presence of longitu-
 Piled Waterfront Structures 781

dinal joints does not impair the deck's over- ter. This dictates that the deck structure
all torsional stiffness, which is quite effec- should be designed in a way to prevent the
tive in distributing the concentrated .loads formation of cracks of unacceptable width.
transversely, and the lateral load distribu- Sufficient cover over reinforcing steel, as
tion is very similar to that in a monolithic discussed in Chapter 2, must always be
slab. It must be pointed out, however, that provided. This is especially important for
where the concrete topping over precast structures designed for long-term service.
panels is nominal, say 50 mm or less, the The quality of concrete used in deck con-
heavy point load placed directly over the struction is also of paramount importance.
shear key can produce some stress concen- Concrete mix, placement, densification, and
tration in the slab located under this load. curing must be carefully addressed in the
Typically, precast deck components are concrete specification. Congested reinforce-
designed to work in composite action with a ment should be avoided where possible, and
poured-in-place top slab, thus permitting where chloride concentration can be re-
the attainment of continuity in both longi- garded as severe, then the use of coated
tudinal and transverse directions.
reinforcement, concrete surface coatings, or
Sometimes, two-way precast concrete
the use of membranes, use of waterproofing
slabs are used for deck construction. The
admixtures, polymer in prejunction, and
relevant example is depicted in Figure
cathodic protection should be considered.
7 -12b. This type of construction has the
In good design, all structural components
advantage of being flexible and simple. It
should be readily accessible for inspection
eliminates the need for pile capping beams.
and maintenance. From an operational
The capping beams are replaced by individ-
ual pile caps that, in final analysis, allows viewpoint, steel chafe plates, or rubbing
for greater tolerances in the driving of piles. strips, should always be provided where
This is an important consideration when mooring lines pass over any part of a struc-
piles are driven without special templates. ture andj or structural elements are sub-
In such cases, pile misalignment is not un- jected to relative movements. These compo-
common, especially when driving heavy long nents should also be designed with extra
piles. material to allow for wear.
Naturally, the use of bigger precast ele- Last but not least, in the overall design
ments is better, because it helps reduce the concept, details like positive drainage to get
number of precast deck components, as well the stormwater water off the deck quickly
as the number of joints between these com- through gravity flow, proper design ofjoints
ponents. between adjacent deck sections, and others
The pier deck is normally designed simi- must be given proper attention.
larly to a bridge deck structure, and in
accordance with the standard bridge speci- 7.5.2.2 Relieving Platform
fications (e.g., AASHTO, CSA Standard S6,
British Standard Institute (1979) and oth- In the past, most of the relieving plat-
ers), with some additional requirements as forms were constructed in the form of a
applied to offshore structures and stipu- cast-in-place structure of miscellaneous de-
lated in ACI 318-89/ACI 318R-89, ACI sign. Sometimes, however, they are con-
357R-93, API RP 2A, and other relevant structed as a combination of cast-in-place
standards. techniques with the inclusion of precast
As stated earlier, the major concern for concrete components.
marine structures is their vulnerability to Typically, the approach to relieving plat-
corrosion due to their exposure to salt wa- form design is site-specific and is greatly
782 Piled Waterfront Structures

influenced by the assumed sequence of the tween piles and the sheet piles included in
construction procedure. the pile foundation. In the past, very stiff
In the case of a "dredged" type of con- relieving platforms, with little reinforce-
struction, the backfill is placed behind the ment, were used. These structures proved
sheeting and the relieving platform is con- to be easy to build and durable. They also
structed thereafter. Naturally, in the case require little maintenance. These struc-
of "backfilled" construction, the sheet-piling tures, however, were very heavy and, there-
must be properly supported to sustain the fore, produced heavy loads on piles. In mod-
lateral pressure from the backfill soil (Fig. ern marine engineering practice, "flexible"
7-86). Alternatively, in a "backfilled" type heavily reinforced structures are used more
of construction, the relieving platform can often.
be constructed prior to backfilling. This pro-
vides an effective anchorage for the sheet-
piling. In this case, the backfill material is
installed later through special openings left 7 .5.3 Underdeck Slope
in the platform.
Subsequently, to provide for the expected The underdeck slope is a very important
soil lateral pressure relieving effect these component of the open pile wharf system. If
openings are either filled with concrete or not property designed, it can be easily dam-
covered by precast slabs. The obvious disad- aged by the effects of natural or vessel-
vantage of this type of construction is induced waves andjor currents. Slope dam-
needed for the use of expensive formwork age typically consists of displaced armor
installed over water. For a detailed discus- stones, especially at the upper part of the
sion on both "dredge" and "backfill" type of slope. The latter usually results in a deep
construction, the reader is referred to Chap- hold in the pavement just behind the wharf
ter 6. It is also briefly discussed further in structure and in pavement settlement in
this chapter (Section 7.8.2.2) and illustrated adjacent wharf areas. Additionally, the
in Figure 7-86. washed-away material settles in front of
Where sheet-piling is stiff enough and is the wharf, thus reducing the underkeel
driven deep enough to sustain the full lat- clearance. Sometimes, this can severely
eral soil pressure without significant dis- hamper dock operation. Three characteris-
placement andjor overstress, then the re- tic case histories of slope damage are dis-
lieving platform can be cast-in-situ on the cussed by Leitass (1979). In the above cases,
backfill material; therefore, the need for damages observed at several wharves lo-
costly formwork is avoided. cated in breakwater-protected harbors con-
It must be pointed out that to reduce sist basically of displacements of stones
total soil pressure on a structure, some- from the upper part ofthe slope, and forma-
times the volume of the backfill material is tion of 0.5-1.0-m-diameter, 1-m-deep holes
reduced, as illustrated in Figure 7-21. This just behind the wharves.
technique is usually used in structures that At some locations, the pavement settled
include robust sheet-piling able to sustain up to 0.2 m. These damages were attributed
ship impact without significant local dam- to the combined action of waves and tides,
ages that may lead to catastrophic failure of with subsequent settlement of the rubble
the whole structure. The advantage of this mound.
structure is that the reduced quantity of a Shin and Anastasiou (1992) point out that
good quality backfill material is required. the basic reason for the kind of damages
Essentially, the stiffness of the relieving listed above can be attributed to the effects
platform affects the load distribution be- of air entrainment, wave characteristics,
 Piled Waterfront Structures 783

and the amount of clearance between the the backfill sand. Mter all the piles were
wave crest and the underside of the deck. driven behind dike 1, dike 2 was placed
between pile bents spaced at 6.1 m and
7.5.3.1 5/ope Design backfilled hydraulically. The same proce-
dure was follows for dikes 3, 4, and 5.
It is usually governed by two factors, Testing of soil samples taken from the
namely requirements for global stability and hydraulic fill has indicated that fines in the
the protection from erosion by waves and fill was more than twice as much as in the
currents of miscellaneous nature. As pointed samples taken from the original source of
out earlier, the steeper and, therefore, backfill sand. Presumably it was difficult to
shorter slope results in a shorter, hence borrow from only the sand stratum, thus
more economica!, deck structure. On the unsuitable material was mixed in and de-
other hand, a steeper slope is less stable posited with the fill. A value of <P = 30° was
and more vulnerable to waves and current used for a review of slope stability, and the
effects. Normally, a steep slope needs tobe most unfavorable slip circle produced a fac-
protected by heavier armor stones, relative tor of safety of only F = 0.87 when a sur-
to a fiatter one. Also, a steep slope is less charge load was considered and F = 1.02
stable than the fiat one. without any extra loading. It should be
It follows from the above comments on pointed out that due to the high silt content
slope geometry that geotechnical as well as in the fill, the actual value of the soil angle
hydraulic conditions are the principal gov- of internal friction, </>, and, therefore, of F
erning factors in slope design. should be even smaller. Apparently, a com-
An interesting case history of underdeck plete sliding failure was prevented by the
slope design is discussed by King and dowel action of the piles.
Gavaris (1961). In this case, a new wharf Lateral displacement of the wharf was
915 m long comprised of 12.9-m-wide con- attributed to one-dimensional orientation of
crete platform · supported on 46 cm square most of the batter piles (Fig. 7-49b). This
prestressed concrete piles, with a transition was confirmed by measurements of width
deck supported on a platform and on a changes in the nine expansion joints which
land-based foundation, with a 1 : 1.25 (V: H) progressively opened up at one end of the
underdeck slope was displaced laterally and wharf and closed toward the other end,
longitudinally by approximately 5 cm well thereby refiecting the cumulative effect of
before construction was completed. The sea- the longitudinal displacement component.
ward movement has reached appro:ximately To ensure the wharfs stability, rock dikes
8.1 cm when the fiii was placed behind rock 4 and 5 were removed, the apparently too
dike 5 (Fig. 7-49a) and the concrete of the steep slope beyond dike 3 was fiattened,
lower part of most of the pile caps and of and the wharf deck was extended further
the edge beams had been poured; at this toward the land, as indicated in Figure
stage, the signs of structure overstress were 7-49c.
observed, the construction was stopped, and A similar case history is described by
the investigation has begun. The project Tawil and Tanner (1979). In this case, the
called for removal of the poor soil that over- failure of the underdeck slope occurred due
laid a good sand deposit and replacement of to excess hydrostatic pressure caused by a
poor soil with a good sand dredged out from large (8.5 m) tidal fiuctuation which im-
a borrow area in the vicinity and hydrauli- posed a severe rapid drawdown effect in the
cally placed as required. harbor sediments. This hydrostatic loading,
Rock dike 1 was placed on exposed sand coupled with a low soil shearing resistance,
stratum in front of the structure to contain led to the redesign of the open pile marginal
784 Piled W aterfront Structures

,. H.WL.
yHI.11/'IIJ.Lif
(11.8m)

(a)

·9f.lm

tttltl!!t!!ltttt Direction of lateral earth pnssures

(b)

,. H.W.L

y•l>.11fM.LLW
f•IUm/

(c)

Figure 7-49. Effects of geotechnical conditions on slope stabil-

ity: (a) a too steep underdeck slope caused global instability of
the structure; (b) original pile arrangement that permitted
longitudinal movements; (c) modification of original design. [From
King and Gavaris (1961).]

wharf at the Rodney Container Terminal, proper evaluation of ali factors that affect
St. John Harbor, New Brunswick. At this underdeck slope stability. In this sense, the
wharf, the underdeck slope was flattened, slope stabilizing effect produced by the pile
which created an intervening body of water dowel action should be considered within
behind the wharf which was spanned by reason; this can result in more economical,
severa! access bridges. yet reliable, wharf design. It should be
Both of the slope failure examples given pointed out, however, that the pile dowel
above illustrate the importance of the action, in general, should not be considered
 Piled Waterfront Structures 785

when piles are installed in soft and sensi- dent soil displacement, in the form of verti-
tive clays, because relatively large move- cal ground heave or lateral displacement,
ments are required to mobilize the dowel may occur during installation of large dis-
action in these soils (Tschebotarioff, 1978). placement piles or closely spaced piles.
D'Appolonia and Lamb (1971) observed the
7.5.3.2 Slope lnstability caused vertical ground heave phenomenon at a dis-
by Pile-Driving tance of approximately 30 m from the loca-
tion of pile-driving.
Unstable slope conditions (natural or Sowers and Sowers (1967), D'Appolonia
mad-made) can develop during construction (1971), and Broms and Stille (1976) report
as piles are driven. Pile-driving contractors examples in which pile-driving displaced the
can describe many examples of outward backfill soil laterally toward the sheet-pile
movement of piles driven in slopes. Some- bulkheads, causing them to fail. The details
times, however, the possibility of the pile- are provided in Chapter 6.
driving causing slope movement is over- Low-displacement pipe piles can also
looked. This phenomenon has been dis- cause some lateral soil movement when they
cussed by many workers (D'Appolonia, 1971; get plugged. Naturally, the volume of dis-
D'Appolonia and Lambe, 1971; Crooks et placed soils can be minimized by using
al., 1980; Massarsch and Broms, 1981; Riker low-displacement pipe piles, provided that
et al., 1992; Anderson et al., 1992 and the soil plug is cleaned out from within the
others). piles. Vesic (1972) determined that the plas-
The Canadian Geotechnical Engineering tic (nonlinear) zone around driven piles can
Manual (1985) specifically emphasizes the extend 5-7.5 pile diameters for a range of
potential adverse effects of pile-driving in soil rigidity ratios E 1Tr = 200 to 500, where
slopes. Vibration of the soil caused by pile- E is Young's modulus and Tr is the shearing
driving may at least temporarily reduce the strength. In practice, for example, this
shear strength of the clay, especially if its would mean that a 500-mm-diameter pile
sensitivity is high. A reduction of up to 50% could displace soil within a range of 250
in the shear strength has been observed mm at the interface between the pile and
by Broms and Wong (1985). Broms and soil to several millimeters at a distance
Bennermark (1968) have described a land- 2.5-3.75 m from the pile.
slide in a very sensitive clay that had been However, in practice, predicting the mag-
initiated by pile-driving near the top of a nitude of soil movement is very difficult,
slope. and the usual recourse has been to avoid
Soil movement during pile-driving in the problem to the extent possible. The lat-
slopes may be caused either by soil dis- ter usually includes increasing the space
placement during pile installation, develop- between adjacent piles in both longitudinal
ment of high pore pressure in the soil re- and transverse directions. Typically, pile-
sulting from compression and shearing driving is starting from the top of the slope
strains in the soil displaced from its origi- and working down the slope so as to mini-
nal location by piles, vibration, or by any mize the effects to any installed piles.
combination of all the above. Comprehensive and shearing strains
Anderson et al. (1992) suggest that vibra- within the soil associated with pile-driving
tion associated with pile-driving is not a can lead to the buildup of pore-water pres-
primary concern. Shearing strains associ- sure. The increase in pore pressure occurs
ated with vibration attenuate so rapidly in clayey and silty soils, as well as in sands.
that their direct effect, from the standpoint In sandy soil structure, the pore pressure
of movement, is very limited. The most evi- normally dissipates rapidly and, therefore,
786 Piled Waterfront Structures

its cumulative effects on slope stability in many computer programs currently avail-
general is insignificant. However, in clayey able on the market.
soils, pore pressures do not dissipate Plots of pore pressure buildup, such as
quickly. Consequently, as the piles are those suggested by D'Appolonia (1971) or
driven into the soil, a progressive increase Massarsch and Broms (1981), can be used
in pore pressure can be expected. to obtain an initial estimate of the pore
As indicated by Anderson et al. (1992), pressure increase. In conventional methods,
the most critical cases are slopes consisting several issues must usually be dealt with
primarily of cohesive soils; however, cohe- separately or in combination. These include
sive soils with sand and silt seams and the amount of pore pressure buildup and
layers, or slopes consisting primarily of silt the zone over which it may act, the effects
materials can also be critical. of the increased pore pressure on the engi-
Pore pressure builds up in these layers neering properties of the soil, and the ef-
during pile-driving, but the presence of clay fects of the method of pile installation on
or low-permeability silt does not permit slope stability.
rapid pore pressure dissipation. Conse- The amount of slope movement is usually
quently, the soil profile will have layers and predicted by finite element methods. This
lenses with little shear strength. These lay- is, however, a very problematic undertaking
ers serve as potential failure surfaces. that involves considerable uncertainty, pri-
Quantifying the amount of pore pressure marily because of the three-dimensional
buildup and predicting the consequences of nonlinear nature of the problem, and its
pore pressure increase is very uncertain and high dependence on very accurately esti-
certainly a difficult task. In cases in which mated soil engineering properties.
the difficult soil conditions exist (e.g., sand During pile-driving, a contingency pro-
and silt seams and lenses), the observa- gram is usually developed. It includes con-
tional approach that includes a monitoring sideration of potential alteration of driving
program is usually recommended. This in- sequence or schedule until the pore pres-
cludes installation of pore pressure trans- sures are reestablished to acceptable levels.
ducers, piezometers,. slope indicators, sur-
face movements, and other devices to moni- 7.5.3.3 S/ope Protection
tor the slope performance during pile in-
stallation (Dunnicliff, 1988). The relevant Because of variability in the wave and
examples are reported by Tawil and Tanner current regimes in the vicinity of a wharf, it
(1979), Anderson et al. (1992), and others. is unlikely that any "universal" technique
As part of the observational approach, ana- can be recommended for underdeck slope
lytical methods, both conventional and the protection. Normally, each situation is site-
finite element method, are used to identify specific and, thus, has to be treated individ-
the critical point for the slope stability lev- ually.
els or pore pressure. A large variety of materials and tech-
The effects of built-up pore pressure on niques have been used worldwide for under-
slope stability are normally evaluated using deck slope protection. In most practica!
a conventional effective stress method a dis- cases, rock has been used routinely for slope
cussion of which is found in standard texts protection, especially where it could be ob-
on soil mechanics. Some of conventional tained cheaply and easily transported to
methods consider the effects of pore pres- the site. In general, however, the cost of
sure buildup generated as soil shear begins high quality carefully graded rock can be
to occur (Wright, 1991). The pore pressure very high, especially if the source of mate-
analyses are best accomplished by one of rial is distant from the construction site.
 Piled Waterfront Structures 787

This has led to the construction of slope bank protection and use in wharf construc-
protection from rocks of miscellaneous sizes, tion. Concrete filled bags are environmen-
back-tipped from lorries. Although subse- tally acceptable and can be successfully em-
quent topping-up with heavier armor stones ployed in areas with low to moderate wave
may be required, this technique can be sub- activity. It must be pointed out, however,
stantially less expensive than those of more that sometimes, despite the porous fabric
sophisticated designs, such as gabions, used for bags, the bags may not allow the
concrete-filled fabric bags, concrete pre- concrete to leach out, thus, bag-to-bag adhe-
fabricated units, asphalt-based mats, and sion may be not very good. The stability of
others. concrete-filled bags used for slope protec-
Gabions, which are essentially wire tion can be enhanced by short steel rebars
cages filled with stone, have been used in driven though bags while the concrete is
areas where large rocks could not be ob- still fresh.
tained at a reasonable cost. In freshwater, The temporary structures designed to
the wire cages are usually protected from serve a relatively short period of time (e.g.,
corrosion by galvanization, those used in a wharves used for construction of hydropro-
saltwater environment are protected by jects, bridges or other marine-related pro-
coating the wire with plastic. However, the jects), sand-filled bags can be considered for
wire protection of any kind, and the wire underdeck slope protection. However, be-
itself, could be vulnerable to abrasion by cause sand-filled bags can be damaged by
movement of coarse sediment; the latter, in waves or miscellaneous floating objects, the
combination with corrosion, can lead to a low capital cost has to be weighed against
very rapid failure of the gabions. Occasion- the risk of likely high maintenance costs.
ally, gabion failures result from incorrectly Sand-filled bags can be successfully used for
packed cages in which stones move within quick, temporary repairs to damaged per-
the cage, thus causing wire abrasion from manent structures.
within. The gabions installed on an under- Sometimes the sandbags can be used in
layer made up from a coarse granular mate- combination with concrete-filled bags. Here
rial (e.g., gravei, crushed stone, or similar the dike formed by the sandbags is pro-
materials) offer significant hydraulic ad- tected against wave action by the concrete-
vantages by permitting water movements filled bags placed on the top and at the toe
in and out of the slope material without ofthe dike.
loosening fine particles from within the fill. Concrete prefabricated units are par-
In addition, the gabions are usually suffi- ticularly useful in areas where rock materi-
ciently flexible to allow them to adjust to als are scarce. There are many types of
minor settlement of the underlayer. The concrete units available for slope protection
disadvantages of slope protection with with a wade variety of uses. These units are
gabions are as follows: an underwater in- typically designed as primary armor in-
stallation requires the use of divers, it is stalled on an underlaying level of a coarse
labor-intensive, and the replacement of a granular material. These units are usually
damagedj deteriorated unit is very difficult. designed to dissipate wave energy and com-
Concrete-filled fabric bags have been bat scour due to the effects of natural
used for slope protection as substitutes for andjor ship-propeller-induced currents.
large rocks. They are readily available and Mattress comprised of prefabricated
can be used on short notice to replace armor concrete blocks. In recent years, a num-
rocks removed by waves or stabilize the ber of patented systems have been devel-
toes ofbadly eroded riprap structures. There oped and used for slope protection. Some of
is a wide variety of fabric bags designed for these systems use concrete blocks joined by
788 Piled W aterfront Structures

steel ropes or chains to form large mat- action of natural and vessel-induced waves
tresses. These mattresses are prefabricated and currents.
onshore and can be rapidly installed under- Wave-riprap interaction has been exten-
water for slope protection by conventional sively investigated in the past 30-40 years
equipment such as mobile cranes. The block and various stability formulas that relate
cabling allows the wave impact force to be the median weight (W50 ) ofthe riprap to the
distributed over a wide area of the revet- wave height and the slope, have been pro-
ment, thus allowing for use of relatively posed by many investigators. For the theo-
lightweight blocks. Furthermore, a good retical stability of riprap, the U.S. Army
block mattress design, by virtue of its Corps of Engineers Shore Protection
roughness and permeability, help to dissi- Manual (1984) recommends the following
pate wave energy in a progressive manner, formula proposed by Hudson (1959):
provided that the individual blocks are fab-
ricated from a good quality concrete and the 1 ) 1/3
Hv = ( Pr W50 KRR(SR - 1) 3 cot a (7-1)
joining steel cables are provided with suf-
ficient protection from corrosion. This type
of slope protection can be reliable and where
durable, particularly in basins sheltered H v = = design wave height
from large waves. A further advantage of W50 = median stone weight
this type of slope protection is that it can K RR = stability coefficient
accept a limited degree of settlement of the SR = specific gravity of stone (SR = Prl Pw),
underlayer. where Pw is the water mass density
The major disadvantage of this system is a = slope angle
that in cases of serious damage to the blocks Pr = stone mass density
or cables, it is difficult to repair the ele-
ments without replacement of the whole KRR values suggested for design corre-
mattress section. spond to a "no damage" condition where up
Asphaltic-based mixture mattresses to 5% of the rock units may be displaced.
have been extensively used in coasta! de- Because no tests with random waves had
fense works as well as in the protection of been conducted, the Shore Protection Man-
seafl.oors from erosion by natural and ship- ual (1984) recommends Hv = H 10 , the av-
propeller-induced currents. These mat- erage of the highest 10% of ali waves. The
tresses have a number of advantages over value of KRR for breaking waves was re-
the less resilient forms of slope protection. vised downward from 3.5 to 2.0; for non-
By virtue of their elasticity, they can with- breaking waves, KRR is equal to 4.0.
stand short- and long-duration loading and The main advantage of the Hudson for-
high-impact forces. The basic disadvantage mula is its simplicity. Although this for-
of asphaltic mixture-based mattresses is mula is lacking the strong theoretical hasis,
their low permeability and, therefore, sensi- it is supported by a large number of tests.
tivity to the uplift hydrostatic forces. Lefebvre et al. (1992) carried out the
evaluation of the field performance of a
7.5.3.4 Riprap Design number of steep ripraps used for shore pro-
tection and concluded that the Hudson for-
As stated earlier riprap is the most widely mula, in general, realistically predicted the
used solution for protecting the underdeck behavior of steel riprap that is free of fine
slope of the open piled wharf structures. It material and, therefore, could serve as a
is normally designed to resist the combined good design tool. These investigators have
 Piled Waterfront Structures 789

also concluded that the presence of fine ma- For plunging waves ( gm < 2.5 to 3.0)
terial in steep-slope riprap is harmful to
stability. Generally, they found that riprap H
D_ =
__
s )o.2 f;;,o.s
6.2P0.18 ( _ d (7-3)
containing a large portion of fine material !::.Dso IN
experiences major damage even due to weak
wave action, whereas the calculations indi-
and for surging waves ( gm ;:: 3.0)
cate that the riprap should have resisted
this wave action when the gradation is ex-
pressed by Eq. (7 -1) in terms of W50 . This _H_
D_ = s )0 ·2 Vcot a gP
p-O.l 3 ( _ d (7-4)
factor, however, does not seem to be as !::.Dso IN m
detrimental for flatter slopes.
The Hudson formula has been used since where
the early fifties along with the Iribarren
formula, which reads as follows. gm = wave steepness based on mean period
NprgHJ Tm
Wso = ---------:: (7-2) gm = tan a/ {8: and Sm = 27THn/gT;,
±
!::.3 ( JL cos a sin a ) 3
P = permeability factor; P = 0.1 to 0.6 de-
where W50 , H D, a, and Pr are the same as pending on armor, filter, and core mate-
in Eq. (7-1) rials; for example, for armor and filter
material placed on impermeable slop
g = gravity acceleration material P = 0.1; for a rubble mound
N = stability coefficient (armor stones) with no filter and no core
!::. = relative density of riprap materials, P = 0.6; for more details,
JL = friction coefficient consult PIANC (1992)
N = number of waves; the maximum num-
In both Eqs. (7-1) and (7-2), coefficients ber of waves, N, which should be used
KRR and N are based on model experi- in Eqs. (7-3) and (7-4) is 7500; after
being exposed to approximately this
ments. Moreover, their values depend
number of waves the structure should
largely on the amount of damage accepted.
reach equilibrium
Despite their differences, both Eqs. (7-1)
and (7-2) have much in common. This be-
sd = damage parameter for rock slope; de-
sign values for Sd are given in Table
comes clear particularly when the influence 7-1; the "start" level of damage, sd = 2
of the slope (cot a versus J.L cos a ± sin a) to 3 is equal to the definition of "no
is compared for values of practica! signifi- damage" in the Hudson formula
cance. It should be pointed out that the D 50 = stone diameter that corresponds to W50 ;
lribarren formula has a more theoretical D 50 = (W50 /y.) 11 3 , where 'Ys =rock unit
basis than the Hudson formula, resulting in weightl
the use of the friction coefficient J.L. The
disadvantage of both formulas is that the Table 7-1. Design values of Sa for a two-
influence of the wave period is ignored. diameter·thick armor layer in eqs. (7-3) and (7-4)
Based on earlier works of various investi-
gators and on an extensive series of model Initial Intermediate
Slope Damage Damage Failure
tests that included rubble mounds with a
wide range of corejunderlayer permeabili- 1:1.5 2 3-5 8
ties and a wide range of wave conditions, 1:2 2 4-6 8
Van der Meer (1988) derived the following 1:3 2 6-9 12
formula for plunging and surging waves: Source: From PIANC (1992).
790 Piled Waterfront Structures

The transition from plunging to surging 1.00

waves can be calculated using a critica!

value of ţm as follows:
~
\
0.90

tmc = 0.80

\
(6.2P 0 ·31 Vtan a ) 1 /(P+0. 5 ) (7-5)

For cot a > 4.0, the transition from plung-

\
0.70

ing to surging does not exist, and for these

\
0.60
slope angles, only Eq. (7-3) is used. Equa-
tions (7-3) and (7-4) are more complex than 'A'o
o.so
Eqs. (7-1) and (7-2). They include the
effects of the wave period, the storm ~
\
0.40
duration, the permeability of the slope pro-

"' ------
tection structure, and a clearly defined 0.30
damage area. For more details on the V an
der Meer method, the reader is referred to 0.20 ...........
CURjCIRIA (1991) and PIANC (1992).
Taylor (1973) and Thompson and 0.10 1----
Shattler (1979) suggest that filling the voids
between large stones in the riprap with fine o.
o o.s 1.0 L5 2.0 2.S 3.0 3.5 4.0
material may be beneficia! for riprap with a PERCENTAGE OF AIR-HOLE AREA

slope of 2 : 1 of flatter. The worldwide expe-

Figure 7-50. Reduction of air pressure in relation to
rience, however, indicates that the designer percentage of air-hole area. [From Leitass (1979).]
must be aware of potential deterioration of
steep-slope riprap protection and must be waterway. These waves include the bow or
careful in terms of tolerating fine material front waue, the transuerse stern waue, and
in the riprap. the secondary waues. The wave size essen-
Also, where applicable, for example tially depends on vessel sailing speed, mode
where a continuous front wall (fender panel) of maneuvering, closeness to the wharf, and
is submerged below the water level, the a block coefficient. The latter is the ratio of
detrimental effects on riprap by fluctuating the channel or waterway cross-sectional
air pressures attributed to wave action area to the submerged cross-sectional area
should be considered. This could be sub- of the vessel(s) at midship. For details, the
stantially reduced by the installation of reader is referred to Chapter 2.
pressure-relieving holes in the deck. Re- The bow wave is propagating at an angle
sults from the laboratory tests using air from the sides of the vessel. The shape of
pressure reductions versus area of the the bow affects the magnitude and propaga-
pressure-relieving holes are shown in tion of this type of wave. In a confined
Figure 7-50. waterway, the magnitude of the bow wave
For more useful information on a subject is generally of a lesser magnitude than the
of slope protection, the reader is referred transverse stern wave. There, the bow wave
Fuehrer et al. (1981). Span et al. (1981), may coincide with the stern wave, forming
and Balanin et al. (1981). incidental peaks with amplified wave
Vessel-induced waves can also be a heights. The transverse stern wave is the
dominant force in the design of underdeck resulting wave formed as water displaced
riprap. This can occur when marine termi- by the vessel flows around the huli to the
nals are located on one or both sides of a stern. In a narrow waterway or near a bank,
relatively narrow navigation channel or the transverse stern wave moves in the
 Piled Waterfront Structures 791

same direction as the vessel and is gener- Results of recent research on navigation
ally perpendicular to the bank and can re- effects by typical commercial tugboats and
semble a moving hydraulic jump. This wave barges operating on the U.S. inland water-
is related to the drawdown. ways are reported by Martin and Maynord
The transverse stern wave, sometimes (1992). The basic theory of the propeller jets
referred to as the water-level depression, is is discussed in detail in Tsinker (1995).
the drop in the water level alongside the In PIANC (1987), the height of the trans-
vessel caused as it is moving forward and verse stern wave, ht> is defined as the maxi-
the water is displaced from bow to the stern. mum water-level depression. Its maximum
Drawdown accompanies the return cur- value is related to the average drawdown,
rents. It is a function of a ship's traveling hd, as follows:
speed, size, and draft, and the waterway
geometry. Secondary waves are those corre- (7-6)
sponding to the interference peaks formed
where
by the transverse stern and other diverging
waves propagating away from the ship. c = function of the vessel speed, V.; the eccen-
tricity about waterway centerline, y; the
Similar to the regular waves, the vessel-
midship cross-sectional area; Am; water
induced waves have the most impact on the depth, h; the vessellength, L.; the waterline
upper portion of the slope, and the wave width of the channel, bw; the angle of the
magnitude, angle of propagation, and pe- slope, a; it is calculated from the following
riod affect the run up characteristics of the expression:
waves and consequently determine the type
of slope protection.
The propeller jets, also called the screw
race, can cause slope erosion problems dur-
ing the ship berthing and departing maneu-
(7-7)
vers. Typically, during these maneuvers the
ship is moving at a slow speed while at a
high rate of propeller revolution. The char- where
acteristics of the propeller jets and the flow
impingement on slope are functions of the v.
Fh = fih and (7-8)
propeller size and type of the horsepower of
the vessel.
Yt = 0.5bw - y - 0.5h cot a
Essentially, due to the propeller's clase
proximity to the ship's keel, propeller-
induced high-speed currents tend to im- Essentially, for long ships and thus large
pinge on the lower part of the underdeck values of L., Eq. (7-7) gives higher values
slope as well as the seafloor in front of the of the correction coefficient c.
wharf. For details, the reader is referred to The drawdown, hd, that accompanies the
Tsinker (1995). return currents can be determined by the
energy conservation method proposed by
7.5.3.4.1 Quantification of
Jansen and Schijt (1953). The following
navigation-induced
basic assumptions are used in this method:
forces symmetrical trapezoidal or rectangular
This has been a subject investigated in cross section of the waterway; uniform re-
the past 30-40 years by the workers in turn velocity from vessel to banks; uniform
many countries. The experience gained drawdown from vessel to bank lines; negli-
worldwide is summarized in PIANC (1987). gible friction losses; uniform or negligible
 792 Piled Waterfront Structures

ambient velocity; vessel sailing on water- where

way centerline. vrs and hds return velocity and drawdown,
=
As indicated by Martin and Maynord respectively, on the side of the
(1992), in con:fined waterways having low vessel
blockage ratios, the assumption of uniform A.= area on the side of the tow for
distribution of the return velocity and the which vrs and hds are calculated
drawdown from vessel to bank is in agree-
ment with observed data. As the blockage For stability investigations, the average
ratio increases above approximately 10 the values from Eqs. (7-9)-(7-11) should be
distribution becomes increasingly nonuni- increased by approximately 20% to account
form with the highest values of return ve- for time variations above the average val-
locity and drawdown found near the vessel. ues. Equations (7-9)-(7-11) provide maxi-
From the above conditions, the continu- mum return velocity and drawdown for a
ity requires that blockage ratio N :::; 10. Above N = 10, the
return velocity and drawdown become
V.Ac = Aw(V. + Vr) (7-9)
nonuniform, and alternate techn:icques are
where being developed. According to Martin and
v. = the vessel speed Maynord (1992), most bank stability prob-
Ac = the undisturbed channel area lems resulting from return velocity and
Aw = the disturbed channel area around the mid-
drawdown would be expected in channels
section of the vessel having N < 10.
vr = the average return velocity The bow or front wave, hr, is a function
of both the average, hd, and maximum, h 1 ,
Conservation of energy requires that drawdowns and according to PIANC (1987)
can be computed as follows:
V2 (V +V ) 2
-•- + h = 8
r + (h - hd) (7-10)
2g 2g (7-12)

where
g = gravitation acceleration Secondary waves are typically related to
h = undisturbed average water depth vessel speed. The height of these waves, H,
can be computed as proposed by Verhey and
hd = average water-level drawdown
Bogaerts (1989):
The unknown Vr and hd can be determined
from Eqs. (7-9) and (7-10). A similar ap- (7-13)
proach by Bouwmeester et al. (1977) uses
conservation of momentum to determine the
average return velocity and the average where
drawdown. s = distance between the ship's side and the
For vessels off the waterway's centerline, bank
Maynord and Siemsen (1991) developed the h = depth of water
following equation to modify the return Fh = ship's Froude number
velocity and drawdown derived from Eqs. a1 =empirica! coefficient; a 1 = 0.35 for the
(7-9) and (7-10): empty conventional ship; a 1 = 0.5 for
empty conventional barge; and a 1 = 1.0 for
V __..:!!.
h
_!:!... = = 0.36 (A ) + 0.64
_c_ (7-11) loaded conventional ships
Vr hd 2A. a 3 = empirica! factor; a 3 = 4.0
 Piled Waterfront Structures 793

7.5.3.4.2 scour at the toe of stope 2. Use of rock energy-dissipating armor.

protection 3. Use of scour protection blankets; for de-
Waves and natural and/ or propeller- tails, consult Tsinker (1995).
induced currents can lead to movement of
bed material in close proximity to the struc- Note: In special cases the bed material
ture. This commonly happens in the form of could be reinforced by partial or local
a local scour in front of the structure. This grouting by cementitious or bituminous
process may eventually lead to substantial materials.
bed erosion andjor accretion of sediments Recommendations for the extension of the
at the toe of the riprap resulting in both scour protection rock blanket from the toe
local damage to the slope protection system of the riprap seaward are very limited. The
and a decrease in underkeel clearance. The Shore Protection Manual (1984) states that
former may eventually result in slope fail- in situations where severe scour is ex-
ure which may ultimately lead to a signifi- pected, the width of the blanket should be
cant operational problem. Hence, this po- about 3 to 4.5 times the design wave height.
tential problem must not be overlooked in However, in a separate paragraph, it also
wharf design. Accurate prediction of bed suggests that a width equal to four to six
scour requires a careful study of the near times the rock size should be sufficient.
wharf hydrodynamics and the seafloor re- Henceforth, where docking facilities are
sponse to it. Where local experience sug- constructed at locations well protected from
gests that scour is likely to occur, or the
the action of large waves, the latter recom-
consequences of the underdeck slope failure
mendation is more appropriate for under-
could be particularly severe, then physical
deck riprap design.
andjor numerica! modeling methods should
Figure 7-51 illustrates two examples of
be used to quantizy the potential effects and
scour protection using rock. For more prac-
design the slope protection system.
tica} examples and useful information on a
Current knowledge of wave and current
part of a slope protection design, the reader
effects on slope. protection structure is dis-
cussed in PIANC (1992); simple prediction
method is given in the Shore Protection
Manual (1984). Naturally, the stability of
the riprap toe is essential because failure of
the toe will most likely lead to failure of the
entire slope protection structure. To ac-
count for the scour, the riprap should be
extended to some distance seaward from (a)
the face of the wharf, and its tow is usually
buried below the seafloor to a depth equal
to or slightly greater than the expected
depth of erosion.
The principal methods of reducing or pre-
venting the scour of bed material can be
summarized as follows:
(b)
1. The riprap slope is made more gentle.
Flattening the riprap slope reduces wave Figure 7-51. Examples of two aprons for locations
and current forces by reducing refiection with severe scour potentials: (a) berm tow apron; (b)
effects. buried tow apron. [From PIANC (1992).]
794 Piled Waterfront Structures

is referred to the Shore Protection Manual gated extensively in the last decade. The
(1984) and PIANC (1987, 1992). key element in the scour process is the
Most recently Hamil et al. (1996) re- formation of a horseshoe-type vortex around
ported results of a study on the influence of the pile. The vortex, which is formed due to
a revetment on diffusion of a propeller wash. the presence of rotation in the incoming
Obviously, during the design stage a fun- velocity profile just above the bed level, is
damental choice should be made with re- able to erode a significant amount of sedi-
spect to capital cost of slope protection. Nor- ments away from the area around the pile.
mally, higher capital investment will mean Normally, scour "equilibrium" is achieved
lower maintenance costs and vise versa. for given parameters when the volume of
Furthermore, depending on local require- material removed by the vortex turbulence
ments, either the wharf structure has to be is equal to the volume introduced into the
designed to withstand the consequences of pit through the bed and suspended loads.
the underdeck slope failure due to scour, or At this point, a constant volumetric flux is
concrete steps have to be considered to pre- achieved, and further enlargement of the
vent or reduce the bottom erosion. pit requires longer periods of turbulent
surge.
7.5.3.4.3 scour around pi/es By rule of thumb, the equilibrium scour
depth in a current lies in the range of 1-1.5
When a pile is installed in an erodible times the pile diameter. The scour results
bed, the scour will take place around it due in an increase in the bed shear stress around
to the action of current and waves of miscel- a pile exposed to the current (Hjorth, 1975).
laneous nature. This process could be of a In his work, Hjorth presented a comprehen-
great importance for the stability of marine sive review of the subject state of the art.
structures supported on piles. Modern ships In recent years, with the introduction of
are often equipped with high-power engines a large number of offshore oii exploration
and side thrusters for faster navigation and production platforms, the scour around
speed and for better maneuvering. Such piles in waves and in combined waves and
ships during a berthing or departure ma- current environments has attracted much
neuver, can cause a serious bed erosion, attention. Palmer (1969) has reported some
damage to the underdeck slope, or scour field data on the magnitude of scour around
around piles. Bergh and Cederwall (1981), obstructions exposed to oscillatory wave-
McKillen (1985) and many other workers induced fl.ows; Das (1970) presented a com-
reported numerous ship and propeller- prehensive literature review on a subject of
induced damages to the port related a local scour around vertical cylinders in an
marine structures. oscillating fl.ume; Kawata and Tsuchiya
Extensive scour around piles may reduce (1988) reported results of tests carried out
their load-carrying capacity which eventu- with real waves and also in combined waves
ally may lead to failure of the structure. and current environments; Herbich et al.
Bed erosion around piles can lower the level (1984), Eadie and Herbich (1986), Herbich
of the pile fixity within foundation soil, re- (1991) and Halfin (1990) reported results of
sulting in an increase in pile's freestanding an extensive study of scour around piles
portion. Essentially, this will result in an exposed to waves and current; the most
increase in bending movement in these piles recent studies on scour around vertical piles
which should be taken into account. This is in waves and propeller-induced current car-
a particularly important consideration in ried out by Hamill and Johuston (1993),
the case of offshore piled piers and moor- Sumer et al. (1992, 1993), and Chin et al.
ings. Scour around piles in steady strong (1996). The quantification of scour pit di-
currents andjor waves has been investi- mensions is very difficult and the best re-
 Piled Waterfront Structures 795

sult could be obtained from physical model coastal are as andj or estuaries, where, due
tests or on the hasis of relevant local experi- to the history of their formation, soil condi-
ence. State-of-the-art review of ship pro- tions can be very variable within short
peller-induced scour is given in Tsinker distances.
(1995). In practice, the soil investigation pro-
gram cannot cover the whole project area
with sufficient detail because of spatial
7.6 PILE- SOIL INTERACTION variations in soil types and their character-
istics. Besides, it is usually a very difficult
Several important features of piles with task to obtain undisturbed underwater soil
emphasis on their use in marine structures samples and, as stated earlier, the soil pa-
are as follows: rameters obtained from these samples are
only valid for the location of the borehole.
(1) Typically, piles are widely separated and, Hence, the sensitivity of the selected ana-
therefore, react independently. lytical solutions and design methods to
(b) Because individual piles are exposed to variations in soil characteristics should be
high concentrated loads, significant pile carefully examined.
elastic settlement should be expected. The general attitude toward theoretical
(c) Because marine structures are normally analysis of pile foundations was exemplified
exposed to heavy horizontal loads, signif- by Terzaghi and Peck (1967) who stated
icant bending moment-induced stresses in " ... theoretical refinements in dealing with
piles at the foundation soil level and pile problems . . . are completely out of place
within the deck structure must be ex- and can be safely ignored."
pected. In the past two decades, due to the avail-
ability of the powerful desktop computers,
In the following subsections, the aforemen- attempts to develop practical theoretical
tioned factors of pile-soil interaction are methods of pile analysis based on the finite
discussed. element method and the boundary element
method have been made. Several such anal-
ysis methods have been proposed. These are
7.6.1 General evaluated in detail by Poulos (1989) in his
Rankine lecture. As he pointed out, the the-
At the present time, the design of piles and oretical methods lead to a significant in-
pile foundations are normally based on es- crease in understanding of the mechanics of
sentially empirica! methods of evaluation of pile-soil interaction and to improved appre-
pile load-carrying capacity, experience, and ciation of the factors which in:fluence pile
good judgment. Difficulties in obtaining ac- behaviors. He also pointed out that
curate input data which are needed to per- " ... theory should not be developed in isola-
form a sound theoretical analysis usually tion from controlled experiments and field
make the attempts to compute the pile observations, and should not be applied
load-carrying capacity with mathematical without due recognition of the importance
precision irrelevant. of proper characterization of the site geol-
One should realize that a calculation ogy."
method cannot be more accurate than the In general, the parameters that affect
available input data (e.g., load and soil soil-pile interaction are as follows:
characteristics). Marine piers, dolphins, and
other port related marine structures, de-
signed to accommodate large vessels are 1. Soil characteristics
usually located in relatively deep water in 2. Pile characteristics
796 Piled Waterfront Structures

3. Method of pile installation the structural engineer during his initial

4. Type of pile loading schematic design. Some of the factors af-
fecting his choice are as follows. The first is
AII of the above parameters are interrelated pile availability that may vary widely in
in one way or another; for example, soil different parts ofthe world. Next, the engi-
characteristics before and after pile instal- neer will try to minimize pile size in order
lation, or changes in soil parameters de- to hold down drag forces by waves and cur-
pending on method of pile installation. A rent, minimize weight, and reduce cost of
detailed discussion on this and the interpre- pile installation. On the other hand, in some
tation of the available data are given in cases it may be more economica! to increase
Kraft (1991). pile size in order to reduce the number of
piles to a practica! minimum. The overall
7.6.1.1 Soi/ Characteristics geometry of the structure is, therefore, a
strong controlling consideration. Essen-
Basically, it can be expected that the tially, the pile cross section must be large
ultimate shaft resistance increases with an enough to allow stresses to be held within
increase in the soil friction angle, effective allowable limits. The question of drivability
overburden stress, and effective soil-pile of the selected pile, which is a soil related
friction angle. Soil stress-strain parame- factor, is another problem to be solved by
ters, in addition to strength parameters, the engineer.
can also affect the shaft resistance and the Once pile type and size have been se-
deformation response of a pile subjected to lected, its penetration into the foundation
load. soil is determined. This is primarily a mat-
A decrease in soil compressibility can re- ter of designing the pile to develop ade-
sult in larger lateral stresses acting on the quate axial (tension and compression) and
pile shaft after installation and can affect bending capacities, given due consideration
changes in the lateral stress during loading to the pile installation procedure and its
as the principal stresses rotate when the influence on pile capacity.
soil next to the pile is sheared (Nauroy and In displacenient piles (e.g., closed-ended
LeTirant, 1983). pipe piles and precast concrete piles), the
Also important are stratigraphic changes pile size may affect the value of the ulti-
and changes in the soil properties with mate unit shaft resistance. Vijayvergiya and
depth due to increased overburden pres- Focht (1972) and Grutman (1971) suggest
sures and pile installation effects. that soil displacement during pile driving
mobilizes the lateral pressure in the sur-
7.6.1.2 Pile Characteristics rounding soil that in some instances can be
In terms of pile-soil interaction, the most compatible with passive pressure.
important pile characteristics are pile size Detailed investigation of the extent of
and configuration, compressibility, and dis- compaction of sand and the increase in rela-
placement ratio. tive density around the pile have been car-
ried out by Meyerhof (1959) and Robinsky
and Morrison (1964). The latter investiga-
7.6.1.2.1 Pile size and tors found that in the initially loose sand
configuration (relative density Dr = 17%), soil movement
Because of the high interaction between extends 3-4 pile diameters from the side of
piles and the structure of which they are an the pile and 2.5-3.5 diameters below the
integral part, the choice of pile size for pile tip. In a medium sand (Dr ""' 35%), the
marine structures is usually preempted by extent of soil movement · corresponds to
 Piled Waterfront Structures 797

4.5-5.5 diameters from the side to 3.0-4.5 tively weak, a plug may not develop at all
diameters below the tip. These figures are (Yaron et al., 1982).
in broad agreement with those obtained by In the case of H-piles the actual pile
Meyerhof (1959). On the hasis of field obser- surface does not always represent the fail-
vations and model test results, Kishida ure surface and if considered as such may
(1967) suggests that the diameter of the result in a grossly overestimated pile capac-
compacted zone around a pile would be con- ity. As reported by Hegedus and Khosla
sidered equal to 7d, where d is the pile (1984) in overconsolidated clays the un-
diameter. drained shear strength approach for pre-
The pile's length (penetration) plays an dicting of ultimate pullout capacity of H-
important role in the process of pile-soil piles resulted in a good agreement with the
interaction. The unit shaft resistance typi- observed values, then the 'effective' pile
cally increases more rapidly near the sur- surface was computed with inclusion of 'soil
face than at depth. According to Hanna and plug' located between pile fl.anges. In this
Tan (1973) and Tan and Hanna (197 4) who case use of the actual pile surface would
carried out pile model tests in a loose sand, result in gross overestimation of the pile
the average unit shaft friction increased pullout resistance. Since granular (nonplas-
approximately linearly and pile penetra- tic) soils are not likely to adhere to the
tions to about 40 pile diameters and re- entire pile surface to force formation of the
mained constant for the pile penetrations 'soil plug', thus in such soils the majority of
exceeding this depth. Additionally, the gen- the pile's perimeter could serve as a failure
eral configuration of the shaft friction dia- surface.
gram was more parabolic than triangular in
shape. Other investigators (Kerisel, 1961; 7.6.1.2.2 compressibility
Vesic, 1970; Das and Seeley, 1975;
The relative soil-pile compressibility is a
Chaudhuri and Symons, 1983; and others)
function of the material and cross section of
have observed a similar trend in distribu-
the pile and the stiffness of the surrounding
tion of average unit shaft friction primarily
soil. A key parameter in the relative
in the case of driven piles. In contrast, a
soil-pile compressibility characterization is
more linear distribution of average unit
the load-displacement behavior once the
shaft friction with penetration depth can be
peak load transfer is reached.
expected in piles installed by water jet.
The conventional methods used for com-
Similar to the limiting increase in shaft puting the load-deformation response of ax-
friction, the unit toe resistance often does ially loaded piled are based on a classical
not increase linearly with depth, as implied assumption that a soil can be represented
by classical theory (Neely, 1990). Limiting by a linear elastic continnuum (Mindlin,
values of unit toe resistance have been re- 1936) or by a series of unconnected linear
ported at penetrations of 10-30 pile diame- elastic springs (Winkley, 1967). Kraft et al.
ters (Vesic, 1964; Kerisel, 1961). (1981) developed a theoretical procedure
Furthermore, the size of the pile diame- for developing the equation for load-
ter may affect the formation of a soil plug in deformation curves which takes into ac-
the open-ended pipe piles. As indicated by count the nonlinearly of the soil.
O'Neill and Raines (1991), in dense sands Armaleh and Desai (1987) developed a
the plug may be fully developed when toe procedure in which the pile-soil system is
penetration is as small as 15 pile diame- idealized by using a one-dimensional finite
ters; on the other hand, when the pile diam- element technique. This proposed procedure
eter is very large and the soils are rela- according to the latter workers can be used
798 Piled Waterfront Structures

to predict load-deformation behavior and methods such as an impact hammer or vi-

bearing capacity for axially loaded piles in brator in the final 1.5-2.0 m penetration
cohesionless soils. The proposed method ac- (Tsinker, 1972, 1977, 1988).
counts for the elastic properties of both soil Data summarized by Meyerhof (1976) on
and pile materials. piles in sand indicates that shaft resistance
is highest for driven piles, intermediate for
7.6.1.2.3 Pile displacement ratio jacked piles, and the lowest for bored piles.
Furthermore, Tan and Hanna (197 4) found
Essentially, low-displacement piles cause
that the method of pile-driving also affects
less disturbance during installation and,
residual stresses in piles.
consequently, cause smaller changes in lat-
eral stresses than full-displacement piles.
As pointed out earlier, the open-ended pipe 7.6.1.4 Pile Loading
piles usually behave as low-displacement
The character of pile loading can affect
piles before formation of a soil plug inside of
pile-soil interaction significantly. For ex-
these piles; they perform as displacement
ample, during pile loading by compressive
piles when the plug is formed. The latter
or uplift loads, the lateral stresses along the
results in subsequent changes in pile shaft
pile shaft can increase or decrease, respec-
resistance. Beringen et al. (1979) found that
tively, depending primarily on the direction
shaft resistance of a closed-ended pipe pile
of load application, as well as on the stress-
could be about 50% greater than an open-
strain and compressibility characteristics of
ended pile driven to about 6. 7 m into a
the soil.
dense, overconsolidated sand. Differences in
It should be pointed out that there is not
the shaft resistance of open- and closed-
much data available for the evaluation of
ended pipe piles have also been found by
pile shaft capacity when subjected to a com-
Vesic (1964), Nauroy and LeTirant (1983),
pressive or uplift loading. Besides, the
and many other investigators. This phe-
available data are, to some extent, conflict-
nomenon is basically attributed to the fact
ing. For example, test results reported by
that soil displacements cause substantial
Ireland (1957) on piles driven into fine sand
increases in lateral stresses and, ulti-
suggests that the average skin friction for
niately, in increased shaft resistance.
uplift loading is equal to that for compres-
sion loading; Vesic (1970) suggested that
7.6.1.3 Method of Pile the limiting skin friction along the pile shaft
lnstallation is the same in tension and compression,
This is discussed in detail in Section and it basically depends on the relative
7.5.1.4 and in Chapter 6. It should be density of the surrounding soil and mode of
pointed out that in the literature very little pile installation; O'Neill and Raines (1991)
information on the direct comparison of pile carried out large-scale-model tests on piles
behavior for different methods of installa- installed in very dense pressured sand from
tion is available. To date, published data which slightly lower values were observed
from pile model tests and from field obser- in uplift loading; from compression and
vations suggest that pile installation using pull-out tests carried out on instrumented
water jetting may have detrimental effects precast piles driven into a sand deposit,
on pile capacity in comparison with Altaee et al. (1992a, 1992b) found no dif-
driven pile (Mansur and Hunter, 1970; ference in pile shaft capacity. De Nicola and
McClelland, 1974). However, the capacity of Randolph (1993) summarized results of sev-
jetted piles can be improved dramatically, era! field tests conducted on piles installed
provided they are installed using dynamic in sands. In these tests, the ratio of tension
 Piled Waterfront Structures 799

to compression pile capacity varied in the ally unsaturated) soil layers have been re-
range of 0.44-0.85. Furthermore, results of ported.
uplift tests on piles installed by different Most investigators tend to agree that, in
techniques reported by Levacher and Sief- general, tensile shaft friction is lower than
fert (1984) and McClelland (197 4) show a in compression. On the hasis of numerica!
wide variation in pile uplift capacity; in analysis, De Nicola and Randolph (1993)
these tests, the average ratio of ultimate conclude that the ratio of tensile to com-
pulling resistance of driven piles to ulti- pressive shaft capacity is a function of the
mate resistance of statically driven piles slenderness ratio Dr!d of the pile, but it is
was equal to 0.5. The former investigators largely independent of the relative stiffness
also found that the above ratio of vibro- of the pile; here Dr is the pile penetration
driven to statically driven piles is 0.67. and d is the pile diameter.
Data summarized by Sowa (1970) and De Nicola and Randolph (1993) also con-
Downs and Chienrzzi (1966) indicate con- clude that for most of the pile length inves-
siderable variation in average skin friction tigated, the shear stress mobilized in com-
found in different tests, especially in those pression is greater than that mobilized in
carried out on cast-in-situ piles. McClelland
tension and this varies with pile embed-
(1974) reported results of field tests carried
ment, Dr (Fig. 7-52).
out on four piles, each installed by different
Despite .the lack of a sound theoretical
procedures in uniform sand deposits. In this
hasis for the explanation of the discussed
set of experiments, the pull-out capacity of
phenomenon, there are plenty of good rea-
the driven piles was 9.4 times greater than
that of the pile installed by jetting with an sons for expecting the tensile shaft capacity
external return :flow. The nature of this to be lower than the compressive shaft ca-
phenomenon was explained by Tsinker
(1972, 1977, 1988). As stated by Tsinker,
the piles installed by water jet in sand can Normalised interface shear stress
regain almost full shaft capacity after expo- o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 !.2 1.4

sure to dynamic affects, such as vibration, o

on driving a couple of meters by a hammer. -0.1 ~
Randolph et al. (1993) point out that the
uncertain results obtained by different in-
\\1\.
\ f\ \r-.
-0.2
vestigators, when considering both installa- -0.3
tion methods and type of pile loading, are
partly related to different methods of evalu- ?. -0.4 f\\ \
ation of the pile's ultimate capacity. For jj
:1- -0.5 \\ ~Ideal

example, some investigators do not recog-

nize the phenomenon of residual strains
... -0.6 b\ \
\ 1\
~
being locked into the pile during fabrica- Tension [\ Compression
-0.7
tion. This can lead to large changes in true t[\ \ \
'
zero reading when instrumentation is in- -0.8
stalled along the pile shaft. The latter can
-0.9
(\\
lead to uncertainties in estimating the load ''lrS ~
distribution along the shaft. By reviewing -1
the available database, Randolph et al.
Figure 7-52. Correlation between normalized shear
(1993) identify a number of cases in which stress and depth to pile length ratio at shaft failure in
anomalous results with surprisingly high tension and compression. [From De Nicola and Ran-
values of shaft friction in the upper (gener- dolph (1993).]
800 Piled Waterfront Structures

pacity for piles in free-draining soils. In the data on time-dependent strength gains in
absence of sufficient information, Poulos and sands.
Davis (1980) recommend evaluating uplift Lowery et al. (1969) tentatively suggest
shaft resistance by reducing it to two-thirds that a setup factor (i.e., the ratio of soil
of the calculated shaft resistance for down- strength a considerable time after driving
ward loading. A more conservation ap- to that immediately after driving) of 3 might
proach is recommend by Tomlinson (1983), be appropriate for soft clays, 2 for firm and
who suggests that the ultimate skin friction stiff clays, and 1 for other soils. On the
on piles subjected to uplift loads should be other hand, McClelland et al. (1969) con-
reduced by one-half to allow for di:fferent clude that for piles driven into hard clay or
mechanisms of failure where uplift loads sands, a decrease of soil strength and adhe-
are carried. Additional information on pile sion with time can occur.
uplift capacity is found in the work by In fine-grained sedimentary deposits it is
Chattopadhyay and Pise (1986), Chaudhuri not uncommon for piles to indicate initial
and Symons (1983), Hegedus and Khosla low capacity, as determined by dynamic
(1984), Hanna and Afram (1986), driving formulas, but later show excellent
Narasimha Rao and Prasad (1993), and supported values under static loads. This is
others. a result of the dynamic effects caused by
As pointed out by Chellis (1961), Kraft the hammer blow that produced the tempo-
(1991), and others, factors that affect the rary quick condition in soil close to the pile.
shaft resistance mostly during loading in- This condition may disappear rapidly, re-
clude setup time, soil properties after in- sulting in the pile gaining much more
stallation, resistance between the soil and capacity; in some instances, it takes some
pile material, and the state of stress in the time.
soil at the pile-soil interface prior to load- The capacity of such piles may not
ing and during loading. Furthermore, the always be ascertainable by redriving,
axial pile behavior is also inftuenced by the although the first few blows may show
rate of loading, previous load history, and increased resistance before the soil quick
other factors. condition effect reestablishes itself. Under
the above conditions, the static load test is
7.6.1.4.1 setup the surest way to determine the pile axial
capacity.
Depending on the rate of pore pressure Similar effects are observed on piles
change, which affects the stress-strain be- driven into soft clays and into most silts
havior with aging, piles may be subject to and silty clays. These soils remold during
setup; that is, an increase in soil strength pile-driving which results in temporary
and adhesion with time. For example, losses of a large part of their compressive
Tavenas and Audy (1972) found the com- strength and shear value. Soft clays recon-
pressive capacity of concrete piles in a solidate quite rapidly at first after the ces-
medium-dense, uniform, fine-to-medium sation of driving and continue for some days
sand to increase with elapsed time after or weeks.
installation. A maximum increase of Four case histories, in which important
50-90% above the capacity measured 72 h changes in pile bearing capacity were ob-
after installation were developed with 20 served with time, have been reported by
days of setup. Kerisel (1964) and other in- Samson and Authier (1985). In their obser-
vestigators also report an increase in pile vations, friction piles driven into deep sand
bearing capacity in sands with aging. deposits show increases in bearing capacity
Mitchel and Solymar (1984) summarized sometime after installation. The increase
 Piled Waterfront Structures 801

occurs over a period longer than that needed been noted earlier, soil displacement during
for pore pressure dissipation. In one case, pile-driving mobilizes the lateral soil pres-
increases of 30% and 85% in the pile bear- sure in the pile surrounding soil, which in
ing capacity were measured 3 and 50 days, some instances could reach the magnitude
respectively, after pile-driving. In two other of a passive pressure.
cases in which closed-ended piles were Tests carried out by Robinsky and
driven to shale bedrock, the pile bearing Morrison (1964) have shown that the
capacity decreased. This was determined process of soil displacements is followed by
using dynamic monitoring during initial soil movements in areas adjacent to pile
driving and at the restrike a few days later. sides and below the tip. These movements,
The decrease ranged from 11% to 25%. particularly those in sands, tend to de-
For more information on the setup phe- crease the soil density in the immediate
nomenon, the reader is referred to Chellis vicinity of pile sides, thus reducing the ef-
(1961) Poulus and Davis (1980) and Tomlin- fect of soil densification around the pile.
son (1994). Naturally, this affects the pile-soil interac-
tion at the interface. Furthermore, pile-soil
7.6.1.4.2 Soi/ properties after pile interaction depends on the friction angle, 8,
installation between the pile and surrounding soil. Sev-
era! shear resistance studies have been per-
As discussed earlier, piles installed into
formed on the interaction between the pile
granular soils can change soil density and
and surrounding soil which suggest that for
rearrange the fabric of the soil. Further-
a smooth steel pile installed in a siliceous
more, pile-driving may result in the crush-
sand, 8/ cp ""' 0.7 could be a reasonable as-
ing of soil grains, resulting in a different
sumption, whereas 8/ cp""' 0.6 may be more
grain-size distribution, as well as in soil
appropriate for calcareous sands (Potiondy,
particles reorientation along the shaft, with
1961; Yoshimi and Kishida, 1981; Acar et
their long axis parallel to the shaft. The
al., 1982; Bozozuk et al., 1979; Datta et al.,
latter in particular may have a profound
1980).
effect of shaft resistance. The effect of grain
Yoshimi and Kishida (1981) found that
crushing is expected to be smaller for the
when the steel pile surface is very rough,
finer-sized particles and for less-angular
pile failure does not occur at the pile-soil
particles. The depth of the zone of infiuence
interface. Tsinker (1972) has observed a
along the shaft is small and is expected to
similar phenomenon during tests performed
be limited to just a few centimeters.
on large-scale-model piles roade from wood
In general, results of pile tests have indi-
and concrete. In these latter tests, piles
cated the pattern of density and fabric
were installed by means of a water jet into
changes to be very complex and nonuniform
a sand foundation. After being pulled out
(Robinski and Morrison, 1964; Tsinker,
from the soil, these piles always had a thin
1972; Davidson and Boghrat, 1983). As
film of sand that was adherent to the pile
noted earlier, cohesive soils tend to remold
shaft. This indicates that the shear failure
during pile-driving, resulting in a tempo-
occurs not at the soil-pile interface but
rary loss of the larger part of their cornpres-
rather between the film of soil adherent to
sive strength and shear value.
the pile shaft and surrounding soil. In the
above tests, the ratio 8/ cp varied from 0.7
7.6.1.4.3 Pile- soi/ interface
to about 1.0.
The condition of the soil at the pile-soil Lasebnik (1961), who carried out large-
interface plays an important role in the scale-model tests on steel sheet-pile bulk-
development of pile axial capacity. As has heads driven in sand, concludes that the
802 Piled Waterfront Structures

roughness of sheet piles has no or little for estimating these stresses that is based
effect on the magnitude of soil pressures on on a wave equation analysis. Briand and
sheeting. Again, this phenomenon is ex- Tucker (1984) have examined data for piles
plained by the fact that the shear failure at driven in sand and proposed simplified pro-
the interface between the sheeting and the cedures for estimation residual toe loads in
surrounding soil is affected not by the pile such piles. More recently, Poulos (1987)
roughness but rather by the film of soil that suggested a simple method for analyzing
is adherent to the sheet piles. the residual stresses in driven or jacking
Contrary to the aforementioned, piles and for determining the subsequent
Chaudhuri and Symons (1983) report pile axialload-deformation behavior.
scale-model test results in which the maxi- Although residual shear stress in the
mum shear stress developed on rough sur- pile-soil system does not contribute a great
face piles were approximately 4 times (for deal to the pile load capacity, knowledge of
dense sand) and approximately 3.5 times these stresses is importance for proper in-
(for medium sand) as large as those devel- terpretation of pile load test.
oped on smooth-surfaced piles. This, per-
haps can be attributed to a scale effect: In
the aforementioned tests, the embedded 7.6.1.4.5 coefficient of the lateral
depth of the model piles varied between 123 earth pressure
and 1313 mm. The horizontal effective stress on a pile
More discussions on soil parameters af- shaft prior to loading is usually related to
ter pile installation and their effect on pile the earth pressure coefficient, K. As indi-
axialload capacity are given in Olsen (1990), cated earlier, the value of K is highly de-
Briand and Audibert (1990), and Toolan et pendent on the state of stress within the
al. (1990).
soil deposit prior to pile installation, as well
as on changes in the condition of soil that
7.6.1.4.4 state of stress result from pile installation.
McClelland (197 4) reports on results of
The pile failure state can be influenced
by the magnitude of the state of stress prior pull-out tests carried out on four pipe piles,
to pile loading, which has an impact on the each installed into a uniform sand deposit
stress path during loading. The vertical ef- to the depth of 14.6 m by different methods.
fective stress next to the pile after setup The first pile was driven by a hammer, the
and prior to loading is usually assumed to second was installed by a water jet with
be related to the effective overburden stress. internal return fl.ow and final set of approx-
Kraft (1991) concludes that the rate of in- imately 4.1 m obtained by driving method,
crease in unit resistance, especially toe re- the third was jetted with external return
sistance, decreases with an increase in fl.ow and the final set of approximately 2.0
overburden stress in homgeneous sands. m obtained by driving, and the last pile was
Furthermore, in most cases, pile-driving re- installed entirely by jetting with the exter-
sults in residual stresses in the pile-soil na! return fl.ow. All piles were tested within
system. Essentially, where relevant, the 2-4 days after installation. The values of K
residual shear stress at the pile-soil inter- obtained from these tests, corresponding to
face should be considered in calculating the () = 30°, were equal to 0.4, 0.33, 0.2 and
pile load capacity. 0.05, respectively. These values clearly
The existence of residual stresses in demonstrate the effects of the pile installa-
driven piles after they have been installed tion method on the state of stress within
has been recognized for some time. the soil mass and, consequently, on pile
Holloway et al. (1978) proposed a method capacity. It should be noted, however, that
 Piled Waterfront Structures 803

the aforementioned dramatic changes in the

1 1
400

values of K can be related only to the spe- 1

7
cific soil conditions which are present at the 350
e Kahl, et al. (1968) i
test site.
~- O Kerisel (1961) o 1•
o
.g "c:- t:. Muhs and Weiss 119711
"'1,--...
1 •
And again, as reported by Tsinker (1988), ~
300 ~- x Melzer (19681
q,
~

/
the capacity of jetted piles can be improved 5f
;;;
dramatically when installed to their final o.

.s"' 250
set by the dynamic method. Normally, the
degree of increase in the K value depends
:'Î
c
.,.·
200 "'
iii"'
l
on the local soil conditions as well as the ~ o J_
characteristics of the pile-driving equip-
·;;;
~
/o
"' /
ment. 8 li.'
150
il
e X
~
tl
.§'
~ 1
,/X
100
~
;3 o.

7.6.2 Piles Under Axial Static

E
o
'-' /Very loose
50
Load
o
)J~~~
7.6.2.1 Soi/ Parameters 30 35 40 45
Angle of intern al friction, +', in degrees
Soil parameters that are used for pile
design include soil strength parameters, Figure 7-53. Approximate relationship between lim-
iting static cone resistance and angle of interna} fric-
soil-pile adhesion and soil elasticity.
tion of sand (ltsf = 95.8 kN jm2 ). [From Meyerhof
(1976).]
7.6.2.1.1 strength parameters
These are angle of effective internal fric- The undrained shear strength, cu, of a
tion, 4> for cohesionless soils and the
1
, soil is usually obtained from laboratory
undrained shear strength, cu, for cohesive testing of undisturbed soil samples, or by
soils. These soil properties are obtained by field vane shear tests, where for a meas-
laboratory testing of soils for which stand- ured torque, T, the value of cu is obtained
ard methods are used. The guidelines for from
standard testing procedures are found in
miscellaneous testing manuals and other (7-14)
relevant publications [e.g., Lambe (1951),
Terzaghi and Peck (1967), NAVFAC where k is a constant, dependent on the
(Design Manuals DM 7.1 and 7.2) (1982), shape and dimensions of the vane (m 3 ).
American Society for Testing and Materi- According to ASTM D2573 American Soci-
als, (1988), Lowe and Zaccheo (1991) and ety for Testing and Materials (1989), k =
others]. 0.00000366D 3 , where D is the measured
The angle of internal friction, 4> can
1
,
diameter of the vane (cm).
also be obtained from correlations estab- For normally consolidated natural de-
lished from: the standard field penetrometer posits, cu can also be estimated as proposed
test values (e.g., N or qc, where N is the by Bjerrum and Simons (1960):
observed standard penetration test value
and q c is the cone penetration resistance Cu = u~(0.1 + 0.004Pl) (7-15)
measured in the cone penetration test). The
example of the relationship between q c and where
the soil angle of internal friction, 4> 1 , is u~ = effective vertical overburden pressure
illustrated in Figure 7-53. PI = plasticity index
804 Piled Waterfront Structures

7.6.2.1.2 Soii-PileAdhesion (caJ materials (e.g., not prestressed significantly

to pressures above the present in situ over-
In some references this is also termed
burden pressure), the CPT bearing capac-
side or skin friction. As pointed out earlier,
ity, qc, has been correlated by DeBeer
the estimation of unit soil-pile adhesion is
(1965) and Webb (1965) with modulus of
complex and is dependent on factors such
elasticity, E.:
as soil characteristics, method of pile instal-
lation, pile material, type of loading, and (7-16)
other factors. There are several theoretical
methods that are used for evaluation of The Canadian Foundation Engineering
soil-pile adhesion values. Reliable values of Manual (1985) defines E. as the "apparent
ca, however, can only be obtained by per- modulus of elasticity" and recommends
forming full-scale pile load tests in the field. the following relationship proposed by
For a preliminary design, the values of ca Schmertmann (1970):
for piles driven into clayey soils can be
obtained from Figure 7-54. (7-17)

7.6.2.1.3 Elastic soi/ parameters where C1 is equal to 1.5 for silts and sand,
2 for compact sand, 3 for dense sand, and 4
The most common elastic soil property for sand and gravei.
required for pile design is its modulus of For cohesive soils, the value of E. accord-
elasticity, E •. It can be determined from the ing to the Canadian Foundation Engineer-
cone penetrating test (CPT) which provides ing Manual (1985) can be estimated from
a convenient and rapid way of measuring the following relationship:
the soil bearing capacity and soil properties
through correlations at various depths. In (7-18)
the case of normally loaded cohesionless
where
Pc = preconsolidation pressure
1.0
c2 = 60 for firm clays, and 40 for soft clays
0.9

0.8 , . - - - Concrete and timber piles

Jamiolkowski et al. (1985) present a com-
plete review ofthe problems associated with
0.7
the obtaining of the deformation moduli
0.6 from CPT, and Meigh (1985) provided a
··.. good summary of recent work using CPT
0.4
_,.._.)· .•...•.•.••..•... tests for estimating sand deformability.

0.3 7.6.2.1.4 Calcareous sands

0.2 These are commonly found in the coastal
0.1 areas of Australia, India, Saudi Arabia, the
Mediterranean, and the Caribbean. The
oL-~--~~~--~~~~~-------
o 500 1000 1500 2000 3000 4000 construction of miscellaneous marine struc-
tures on continental shelves and in coastal
Very Soft fm1 Stiff Very stiff Hard
soft areas very often require the installation of
Figure 7-54. Variation of cafsu with cu for driven
piles in the calcareous sands. This, how-
piles [developed by Prakash and Sharma (1990) from ever, has proved to be extremely trouble-
data in Tomlinson (1963)]. some, particularly for driven piles. The
 Piled Waterfront Structures 805

problems associated with pile performance For comparison, API RP 2A (American

in calcareous sands have been extensively Petroleum Institute, 1989) recommends a
discussed in the past 20-25 years. A de- limiting shaft resistance for medium-dense
tailed discussion on the state of the art is silica sand of about 80 kPa.
given in Murff (1987). Pile end-bearing resistance obtained from
Calcareous sands are soils that are basi- pile load tests show a wide range of values.
cally composed of sand-sized particles of Hagenaar and Van Seters (1985) carried
calcium carbonate. They originate from bio- out tension compression tests on the same
logica! processes such as sedimentation of piles and found the end bearing on the
skeletal debris and coral reef formation, or order of 23-36 MPa. Gilchrist (1985) car-
from chemical precipitation of particles such ried out similar tests on a plugged pile and
as oolites. More specific definitions of cal- obtained a unit end resistance of only
careous sands are found in the literature 1.3-1.8 MPa. For comparison, a limiting
[Clark and Walker, 1977; Bates and design value for a medium dense silica sand
Jackson, 1980; and others as listed by Murff recommended by API RP 2A (American
(1987)]. Petrolium Institute, 1989) is 4.8 MPa. API
The brittle , crushable nature of calcare- also suggest that great caution must be
ous sands immensely complicates site in- exercised in determining the load capacity
vestigations and laboratory testing proce- of piles driven in calcareous sands. Agarwal
dures. The physical properties of calcareous et al. (1977) recommend that sands with
sands include both the characteristics of the greater than 45% carbonates be treated as
bulk soil mass and the individual particles. calcareous and those with less than 30%
An important bulk characteristic is cemen- carbonates be treated as the "conventional
tation which affects pile installation signif- sands."
icantly. Normally, it can lead to a gap be- Other investigations are much more cir-
tween the pile and soil, thus precluding cumspect about the definition of calcareous
development of lateral stresses on a driven sands. However, there is rather widespread
pile. In fact, this is a reason for the low agreement that sands with very high car-
observed shaft resistance. Furthermore, bonate content (say 80% and over) clearly
cyclic loading can result in further signifi- act as calcareous and have the potential of
cant reductions in the pile shaft resistance. abnormally low capacities.
The assessment of cementation effects is McClelland (197 4) suggests an interim
often very difficult. Typical void ratios of limiting value of 20 kPa shaft resistance
calcareous sands is in the range of 0.8-1.4 and 5 MPa end-bearing resistance. He cau-
[Noorany (1985) and others], which is sig- tioned, however, that these values must be
nificantly higher than the values of 0.4-0.8 treated with caution. Agarwal et al. (1977)
usually found in regular sands. These recommend shaft resistance equal to 28.0
higher void ratios result in high compress- kPa for soils grading between carbonates
ibility of calcareous sands. In general, the and noncarbonates. Some more recommen-
friction angle in calcareous sand is quite dations are given in Murff (1987).
high, typically above 35° and often exceed- Unlike driven piles, the capacity of
ing 50° [Noorany (1985) and others]. grouted piles in calcareous sands in many
Murff (1987) summarizes load tests re- cases have been reported to exceed typical
sults carried out on piles driven in calcare- shaft resistance values for driven piles in
ous sands. AII tests indicated a very low silica sands (Nauroy and LeTirant, 1985).
skin friction value (13.3-17 .O kPa), result- Grouting tend to cement layers of calcare-
ing in pile capacity that typically was only ous sand which subsequently results in a
20-25% of the values used for silica sands. very high shaft resistance. Furthermore, the
806 Piled Waterfront Structures

grout which, is generally pressurized, pene- interior during driving and forms a solid
trates cracks and voids in the calcareous plug. This solid plug has a resistance to
sand. This results in increased strength of movement under static loading that is usu-
these sands and also in increased frictional ally much greater than that of the soil at
resistance. In the case of grouted piles, the the pile end. The ultimate axial pile capac-
shaft resistance is typically selected on the ity, Qu, is expressed as
order of 100 kPa (Nauroy and LeTirant,
1985). (7-19)

7.6.2.2 Piles Subjected to static where

Axial Compressive Load
QP = end-bearing capacity
The basic concept of a static load sup- Qf = frictional capacity along the pile shaft
ported by a pile customarily assumes that W = weight of the pile
this load is shared between the pile tip
(base), QP, and shaft friction, Qf, around There are many publications which pro-
the pile perimeter (Fig. 7-55a). The same vide in-depth discussions on pile design.
assumption applies to open-ended pipe pile Chellis (1961), Kezdi (1975), Meyerhof
because in most practica! cases, soil is forced (1976), Vesic (1977), Poulos and Davis
up into the pipe pile because in most practi- (1980), Tomlinson (1980, 1983, 1994), NAV-
ca! cases, soil is forced up into the pile FAC DM-7.2 (1982) Canadian Foundation
Engineering Manual (1985), and, more re-
cently, Prakash and Sharma (1990) are
some of these state-of-the-art practically
oriented publications. Various empirica! and
semiempirical methods for evaluating the
ultimate axial compression load capacity of
piles have been proposed. However, depend-
ing on the soil conditions, the ultimate pile
capacity determined by methods proposed
(b) by different authors sometimes differ sub-
stantially from each other.
Briand and Tucker (1988) reported re-
sults of field tests carried out on 98 piles
driven into different soils. In this study, the
ultimate load on the pile was defined as
that corresponding to a pile settlement
Q equal to one-tenth the pile diameter, plus
the elastic compression of the pile.
A comparison of test results with analyti-
cal pile capacity, obtained by 13 different
methods for predicting the ultimate axial
pile capacity, has indicated that no one
method can practically accurately predict
the ultimate capacity of piles driven into
Figure 7-55. Basic concept ofload support by a pile:
different soils. However, of the 13 methods
(a) loads acting on a pile; (b) simplified distribution of tests, the cone penetration method
vertical stresses adjacent to a pile in sand. (Bustamante and Gianeselli, 1983) was
 Piled Waterfront Structures 807

judged to be the best one. This implies that ficult to predict those changes, the piles's
due to the extreme complexity of soil-pile ultimate bearing capacity is usually esti-
interaction, the pile capacity can only be mated based on original strength and defor-
estimated roughly. Full-scale field load tests mation characteristics of the soil. In cohe-
should, therefore, be carried out to confirm sionless soils, the effect of changed soil
the validity of results obtained by theoreti- properties is accounted for by nondimen-
cal, empirica!, or semiempirical methods. sional empirical coefficient, Nq, and mobi-
Typically, the end-bearing capacity, QP, lized skin friction, { 5 •
and the frictional capacity along the pile Because c = O for cohesionless soils and
perimeter, Q f' are expressed as follows: the term 0.5yBN1 in Eq. (7-20) is small
compared to yDfNq, then this equation can
be rewritten as follows:

where (7-22)
AP = pile point (base) area

cu= minimum undrained shear strength

where u:
is effective vertical overburden
in cohesive soil at the pile point stress at the pile base.
level The semiempirical factor Nq is a function
y = unit weight of soil of the Dr!B ratio, the angle of internal
friction cp, and the method of pile installa-
Ne, N 1 ,
tion. Theoretical values of Nq, as recom-
and Nq =nondimensional bearing capacity
mended by different investigators, are sum-
parameters that are dependent on
the angle of internal friction of soil marized by Coyle and Castello (1981) and
presented in Table 7-2. As seen from the
B = pile width or diameter
data presented in this table the value of Nq
Dr = depth of pile penetration
depends heavily on the theoretical model
used for its computation. Scattered results
(7-21) obtained by different workers (Table 7-2)
indicate that the true pile failure mecha-
where nism is not yet well understood. For design
purposes values of Nq recommended by the
p = pile parameter American Petroleum Institute API RP 2A
fs = unit skin friction over length z f (1989) (Table 7-3) are commonly used.
These terms are discussed further in this Skin Friction Capacitv, Qr
section.
The skin friction, { 8 , in Eq. (7-21) is
7.6.2.2.1 Pile capacitv in usually expressed as
Homogeneous
Cohesionless Soils fs = Ca + a~ tan o (7-23)

where
End-Bearing capacitv, Qp
ca = unit adhesion; for cohesionless soils ca = O
As pointed out earlier, the pile capacity a~ = effective horizontal stress along the pile
is influenced by many factors (e.g., soil den- shaft; af. = K a:, where a: is the effective
sity, angle of internal friction, etc.). Change vertical stress in soils surrounding the pile
of soil parameters due to pile installation and K is the coefficient of soil lateral
may result in profound changes in the pressure
soil-pile interaction. Because it is very dif- o= angle of friction between the soil and pile
808 Piled W aterfront Structures

Table7-2. Bearing capacity factors for piles in cohesionless soils

Approximate Nq Values for

Various Friction Angles, cp ', in Degrees

Theories• 25 30 35 40 45
DeBeer (1945) 59 155 380 1150 4000
Meyerhof(1953)
Driven piles 38 89 255 880 4000
Caquot-Kerisel (1956) 26 55 140 350 1050
Brinch Hansen (1961) 23 46 115 350 1650
Skempton, Yassin, and
Gibson (1963) 46 66 110 220 570
Brinch Hansen (1951) 32 54 97 190 400
Berezantsev (1961) 16 33 75 186
Vesic (1963) 15 28 58 130 315
Vesic (1972); U, = 60 b 20 27 40 59 85
1, = 200 b 29 46 72 110 165
Terzaghi (1943)
General shear 12.7 22.5 41.4 81.3 173.3
Localized shear 5.6 8.3 12.6 20.5 35.1

aVarious references are cited by Vesic (1972, 1977).

bRigidity factor.
Saurce:" From Coyle and Castello (1981).

Table 7-3. Design parameters for cohesionless siliceous soi!

Soil-Pile Limiting Unit

Friction Limiting Skin EndBearing
Soi! Angle, 5 Friction Values Values
Density Description (degrees) kipsjft 2 (kPa) Nq kipsjft 2 (MPa)

Veryloose Sand 15 1.0 (47.8) 8 40 (1.9)

Loose Sand-silt"
Medium Silt
Loose Sand 20 1.4 (67.0) 12 60 (2.9)
Medium Sand-silt"
Dense Silt
Medium Sand 25 1.7 (81.3) 20 100 (4.8)
Dense Sand-silt"
Dense Sand 30 2.0 (95.7) 40 200 (9.6)
Very dense sand-silt"
Dense Gravei 35 2.4 (114.8) 50 250 (12.0)
Very dense Sand

Note: The parameters listed are intended as guidelines only. Where detailed information such as in situ cone
tests, strength on high quality samples, model tests, or pile-driving performance is available, other values
must be justified.
• Sand-silt includes those soils with significant fractions of both sand and silt. Strength values generally
increase with increasing sand fractions and decrease with increasing silt fractions.
Source: From American Petroleum Institute (1989).
 Piled Waterfront Structures 809

{a) z,/d vs 121 (b} Ks tan 0'a vs 0 ( c) Valuczs of Ks ton 00 Basad

( Orlve~n Pilczs) on MCZ)'Qrhol { 1976)
20 3·0 1·6

1 1

1
15 2·5 1·2

~/
Oriwn
.o (9_0 pilczs

.
10 2·0 $ c
0·8
c
V 2
'" ,.,-
1
.2 ,0ck<Zd
1 Pl~
V
N
5 1·5 "' / 0·4
/

V / 1,-~orod
piis
o 1 /. o
/
28 33 38 43 28 33 38 43 30 35 40
121" 0' ,
For drivan piiGs 0 - 3~ 01•10 (Fig.3.10a,Fig.3.10b)
For borad pilczs,~ o:0; -3 (Fîg.3.10a); 0,.0; (Fig.J.TOc)
WhQ:ra ~· anglcz of intczrnal friction prior to
installation of pile:

Figure 7-56. Values of zc/d and K tan <P~ versus <P for piles in sand.
[From Poulos and Davis (1980).)

For design purposes, the American Subsequently, values of Qf and QP be-

Petroleum Institute API RP 2A (1989) rec- come constant (or clase to this) beyond a
ommends values of 8 provided in Table critica! depth Zc. This has been observed by
7-3. In most design cases, a theoretical Vesic (1967) and reported later by Meyerhof
value of 8(2/3)4> can be considered. Accord- (1976). Recently, Altaee et al. (1992a, 1992b)
ing to Lehane et al. (1993), the value of 8 is reported results of tests carried out on in-
independent of the relative density of the strumented precast concreted piles driven
soil. into sand deposits and subjected to com-
For cohesionless soils, Equation (7-23) pression and puii-out tests. The observed
can be transformed into the following: load distributions appeared to suggest the
existence of the aforementioned critica!
fs = Ka~ tan 8 (7-24) depth Zc. However when the load data was
supplemented with the residual load exist-
As discussed in the previous section, exten- ing in the pile before the start of the test,
sive research (Vesic, 1967; Kerisel, 1961; the appearance of the critica! depth disap-
Hanna and Tan, 1973; Lehane et al., 1993; pears. Instead, the analysis of the tests
and others) has revealed that the unit shaft showed that the load distribution was a
and base resistances do not necessarily in- function of the effective overburden stresses
crease linearly with depth, but instead in the soil over the full pile length.
reach an almost constant value beyond a Most recently Lehane et al. (1993) di-
certain depth. In other words, it has been rectly observed a reduction in with the u;
found that the effective vertical stress, u;, increasing Dr!R ratio, where R is the pile
adjacent to the pile is not necessarily equal radius, and provided a rational explanation
to the effective overburden pressure and, in for the tendency of the average shaft shear
general, can be approximated by the dia- stress to stabilize with depth. Poulos and
gram illustrated in Figure 7 -55b. This ide- Davis (1980) evaluated Vesic's (1967) and
alized approach assumes that the effective Meyerhofs (1976) test results and pre-
vertical stress, u;, adjacent to the pile is sented values of the dimensionless ratia
equal to the overburden pressure to some Zcfd (d = pile diameter) and K 8 tan 4>~
critica! depth Zc, beyond which it remains (equivalent of K tan 8) in graphic form (Fig.
almost constant. 7 -56). As pointed out by Poulos and Davis,
810 Piled Waterfront Structures

Vesic's tests were carried out on steel tube Table 7-4. Values for K. for various pile types
in sands
piles; therefore, data depicted in Figure
7-56 may need further refinements to be Pile Type
applicable to other pile materials.
Boredpile 0.5
A critica! component in the evaluation of
unit skin friction, r.'
is the coefficient of soil
Driven H-pile
Driven displacement pile
0.5-1.0
1.0-2.0
lateral pressure, K. Severa! investigators
Source: Data from Meyerhof (1976) and NAVFAC (1982).
attempted to evaluate the coefficient of lat-
eral pressure to be used in computing of
pile shaft capacity (Ireland, 1957; Sowa, where
1970; Meyerhof, 1973; Levacher and Q( = pile skin friction capacity in the upper zone
Sieffert, 1984; and others). Recommended (depth Zc)
values of K to be used for evaluation of pile Q( = pile skin friction capacity in zone below Zc
shin friction capacity vary from K 0 to K P
and more, where K 0 is the coefficient of Theoretical values of Qr' and Q{ can be
lateral soil pressure "at rest" and K P is the obtained from the following expressions:
coefficient of soil passive pressure. The
above investigators point out that different (7-26)
techniques used for pile installation may
have a profound effect on the value of K. and
Levacher and Sieffert (1984) proposed the (7-27)
K value estimate from K = K 0 Km 0 , where
K 0 is the coefficient of lateral soil pressure
where a: = yZc, where 'Y is the unit weight
"at rest" [K 0 = (1 - sin <f>)] and Kmo is the of soil. Hence,
coefficient which accounts for the method of
pile installation. They conclude that Kmo =
2 to 3 may cover ali practica! cases of pile
installation. Subsequently, at the ground The allowable pile capacity is obtained by
level fs =O and at depth Zc and below, the applying a factor of safety which is usually
skin friction can be expressed as r. = taken as 2-3; the value of the factor of
Ktan 8a:. safety depends on the geotechnical complex-
Where detailed information, such as re- ity of the foundation, method of pile instal-
sults of pile (large model or field) test, in lation, as well as on the importance of the
situ cone tests, or pile-driving performance structure (e.g., is it permanent or is it de-
characteristics are not available, data pro- signed to serve just a short period of time?).
vided by the American Petroleum Institute The factor of safety does not apply to pile
(1989) (Table 7-3) or that recommended by weight.
NAVFAC (1982) (Table 7-4) can be used as As pointed out earlier, the capacity of the
a guideline for estimation of the pile limit- pile can be evaluated empirically by utiliz-
ing skin friction and values of K in sands. ing standard field tests based on standard
On the hasis of the preceding discussion, penetration tests and static cone penetra-
the pile frictional capacity, Q,, can be con- tion. Sometimes, a pressure-meter test is
servatively estimated from the following ex- utilized for the same purpose. Discussion on
pression. these methods are given in standard texts
on foundation engineering or guidelines
such as Canadian Foundation Engineering
(7-25) Manual (1985) and the like.
 Piled Waterfront Structures 811

Dynamic Driving Resistance provide useful information to field person-

nel. Ideally, results obtained by pile-driving
Pile capacity can be estimated on the
hasis of dynamic driving resistance by us- formulas should be confirmed by pile load
ing pile-driving formulas, the wave equa- tests. Furthermore, pile-driving formulas
tion approach, or use of a pile-driving ana- can be calibrated on the hasis of pile load
lyzer (PDA). tests to suit the particular construction
Pile-Driving Formulas. In North site. NAVFAC (1982) recommends the pile-
America, the Engineering N ews Record driving formulas presented in Table 7-5.
pile-driving formula and its modified ver- Wave Equation Analysis. Smith (1962)
sions for estimation of pile capacity are pop- proposed an improved approach to dynamic
ular and often used. However, studies by evaluation of pile capacity which is based
Frageszy et al. (1985, 1986) and Lawton et on a one-dimensional stress wave propaga-
al. (1986) indicate that evaluation of pile tion. This equation is used to obtain the pile
capacity on the hasis of these formulas is capacity and the driving stresses and to
not always reliable and in general must be determine equipment compatibility. Accord-
used with caution. The advantages and ing to this method, the hummer (ram), the
shortcomings of dynamic pile-driving for- capblock, the pile cap, and the pile are rep-
mulas are discussed by Goble and Rausche resented as a series of weights and springs.
(1980). It is assumed that when a driving load is
The aforementioned studies reveal that applied to a pile, the soil compresses elasti-
most dynamic formulas have been devel- cally a certain distance, then fails plasti-
oped for specific pile types, driving equip- cally with a constant ultimate resistance.
ment, soil types, and driving conditions and On removal of the load, an elastic rebound
therefore cannot account for the variety of occurs.
pile-driving conditions that may exist at the Smith developed a mathematical formu-
specific project site. Nevertheless, despite lation suitable for numerical computation of
shortcomings of dynamic pile-driving for- pile capacity and driving stresses. It is found
mulas, they are widely used because they in standard texts or handbooks on founda-

Table 7-5. Basic pile-driving formulas

For Single-Acting For Double-Acting

For Drop Hammer Hammer Differential Hammer

a b 2WH b 2E
(Qu)all = S + 0 _1 (Qu)all = S + 0.1
2WH 2E
(Qu)!l{ = S + O.l(Wn/W) (Q)~n = S + 0.1(Wn/W)

Note: Ratio of driven weights to striking weights should not exceed 3.

(Q u>au = allowable pile load in pounds
W = weight of striking parts of hammer in pounds
H = effective height of fall in feet
E = actual energy delivered by hammer per blow in foot-pounds
S = average net penetration in inches per blow for the last 6 in. of driving set
Wn = driven weights including pile
• This is based on the most commonly used pile-driving formula, known as the Engineering
New Formula N.
b Use when driven weights are smaller than striking weights.
c Use when driven weights are larger than striking weights.

Source: From NAVFAC (1982).

812 Piled Waterfront Structures

tion engineering. The major advantage of quake, and damping factors, as well as the
wave equation analysis is its increased ac- driving stresses along the pile shaft. A
curacy over dynamic formulas. The analysis major drawback of both the PDA and
can be used to select the best pile- CAPWAP approaches is their relative com-
cushion-hammer combination and to maxi- plexity that necessitates use of specially
mize driving efficiency, and it can also be trained personnel to operate the equipment
used for prediction of driving stresses. Nat- and run the computer program.
urally, the accuracy of the analysis depends To conclude the discussion on the PDA
on the input of realistic soil model parame- approach, it should be noted that, most re-
ters of in situ soils. cently, Liang and Sheng (1993) introduced
Since the pioneering work of Smith, a an alternative method to determine the
multitude of computer programs have been Smith's wave equation parameters, includ-
developed. More notable programs in N orth ing the static soil resistance to pile-driving
America include the Texas Transportation and its distribution, the soil quake, and the
Institute (TTI) program (Hirsh et al., 1976) Smith damping factor. This method uses a
and the wave equation analysis program driven-rod for measurement in the high-
(WEAP) (Goble and Rausche, 1980). A strain test (HST). Further discussion on this
:finite-element-type program was also pro- new approach is beyond the scope of this
posed by Lee et al. (1988), Chow et al. (1988), text.
and, more recently, Liang and Husein
(1993), who present a modi:fied dynamic 7.6.2.2.2 Pile Capacity in Cohesive
method that is based on the concept of en- Soils
ergy balance (based on Smith's model). This
Typically, pile bearing capacity in cohe-
approach estimate shaft resistance of a
sive soils is critica! in the short-term be-
driven pile using the pile-driving record
cause strength of cohesive soils (e.g., clay)
(and blow-count pro:file and the transferred
normally increases in the process of consoli-
hammer energy). A detailed explanation of
dation. Therefore, for piles installed in co-
pile-driving analysis by the wave equation
hesive soils, consideration of undrained con-
and computer program to carry out these
dition is critica!. This implies the following
analyses is given in Samson et al. (1991).
Pile-Driving Analyzer (PDA). The soils parameters are applicable: cfJ = O, su =
PDA is an extension of the wave equation cu = c, N1 = O, and Nq = 1, where cfJ is the
analysis technique of piles. It is based on angle of interna! friction, su is the
data obtained from measurements of ham- undrained shear strength, cu is the cohe-
sion parameter under undrained condition
mer andjor pile performance during pile-
driving or during restrike. To obtain the (c/J = 0), and N 1 and Nq are the nondimen-
sional bearing capacity parameters. Hence,
required measurements reusable transduc-
Eq. (7-20) becomes
ers, along with a suitable data acquisition
system, have been developed to enable the
computation of pile-driving stresses, pile in- (7-29)
tegrity, hammer performance, and pile
capacity (Rausche et al., 1985). The Based on the cfJ =O, assumption, the shaft
wave equation based computer program unit skin friction, { 8 , as expressed by Eq.
(CAPWAP) developed by Rausche et al. (7-23) under the condition 8 = (2j3)4J = O,
(1972) is a further numerica! analysis will be equal to ca; therefore, the pile fric-
method for con:firming the pile capacity cal- tion capacity can be expressed as follows.
culated with data from the PDA.
The results obtained from CAPWAP in-
(7-30)
clude the static soil resistance distribution,
 Piled Waterfront Structures 813

The ultimate bearing capacity, Qu, for a ate vicinity of the driven pile is displaced
pile subjected to compressive loads in cohe- and usually get remolded a certain distance
sive soil can then be obtained from from the pile side. In this zone, the pore
pressure caused by pile-driving normally
dissipates quickly and the soil may regain
much of its original shear strength after
consolidation. This, however, may not occur
where in very sensitive or stiff overconsolidated
AP = pile end (tip) area clays. In these soils, because of loss of soil
cu = minimum undrained shear strength of clay structure, the resulting shear strength may
at pile point cu = su = qu/2, where qu is be less than that in the undisturbed state.
the unconfined compressive strength; for This normally is not applicable to bored
reference, consult Table 7-6 piles. As reported by Meyerhof (1976), in
Ne = bearing capacity factory; for most practica! the case of bored piles there is no signifi-
cases, Ne = 9 is used; in the case of drilled cant changes in soil shear strength with
piles Ne = 6 is usually considered time.
Dr = effective pile length In general, for most practical purposes,
ca = soil-pile adhesion (Fig. 7-54) shear strength of a bearing stratum consist-
p = pile perimeter ing of low to medium sensitive homoge-
y = soil unit weight neous clay can be considered unchanged by
Nq = bearing capacity parameter pile-driving (Prakash and Sharma, 1990).
W = weight of pile Hence, shear strength (c) values used for
the estimation of pile bearing capacity could
In Eq. (7-31), some parameters need be obtained directly from laboratory tests
further clarification. carried out on undisturbed clay samples. In
Undrained Shear Strength of Bear- highly plastic soft clays, the undrained
ing Stratum (c =cu)· Soil in the immedi- shear strength should be obtained from the

Table 7-6. Correlation between SPT penetration N values and estimated range of soil shear strength, S

Estimated Range of su =cu

SPT Penetration N Values Estimated Consistency kPa kipsjft 2

<2 Very soft (extruded < 12 < 0.25

between fingers when squeezed
2-4 Soft (molded by light 12-25 0.25-0.50
finger pressure)
4-8 Firm or medium (molded by 25-50 0.50-1.00
strong finger pressure)
8-15 Stiff (readily indented by 50-100 1.00-2.00
thumb but penetrated only
with great effort)
15-30 Very stiff (readily 100-200 2.00-4.00
indented by thumbnail)
> 30 Hard (indented with > 200 > 4.00
difficulty by thumbnail)

Source: From NAVFAC (1982).

SPT is standard definition for "soi! penetration test."
814 Piled Waterfront Structures

field vane tests (Bengtsson and Sallfors, (a) (b)

1983).
Soil-Pile Adhesion (c). As suggested
by Meyerhof (1976), the average value of ca
for· a homogeneous saturated clay is a func-
tion ofthe average value ofundrained shear
strength, cu, within the pile embedment
length, n,, and the ratio cafcu depends on
clay strength, pile size, installation method,
and rheological (time-dependent) properties
ofthe clay.
-
Where the pile penetrates severa! dif-
r--
ferent layers, the soil-pile adhesion, ca, can
c/ay sand
be approximated by the weighted average
·values related to the individuallayers. Q
EffectivePile Length (D,). This is de-
fined as the length that contributes to the
frictional capacity of the pile. It may be
smaller than that indicated in the design
drawings because, in some cases, the top
layer of soil may not be in close contact with
'-- ____ .....__

the pile due to such factors as disturbance Figure 7-57. Pile in layered soil system: (a) pile
caused by pile installation, erosion by natu- bearing on sand; (b) pile bearing on clay.
ral and ship-propeller-induced currents,
wave action, and other reasons. case, the pile ultimate capacity will be esti-
mated from
7.6.2.2.3 Pile capacity in a Layered
Soi/ svstem Qu = pDr< 1>Ktan ?>a-; +Apa-;Nq
This situation in simplified form is illus- = a-;(pDf(l>K tan ?> + ApNq) (7-33)
trated in Figure 7-57. It exhibits two char-
acteristic cases: In case (a), the pile shaft is In a situation where the pile shaft is located
located mainly in clay and its lower part mainly in a layer of sand and is resting on a
(tip) is resting on a sand layer: in the case layer of clay (Fig. 7-57b), the ultimate pile
(b), the situation is reversed. Consequently, capacity is expressed as follows:
the ultimate pile capacity in case (a) can be Qu = pK tan ?>a-;(Df(2 ) - 0.5Zc) + ApcuNc
estimated from
(7-34)
(7-32)
The definition of the various terms in Eqs.
Relationship (7-32) assumes that the rela- (7 -32)-(7 -34) were given earlier in this
tive stiffness and strength of both clay and section.
sand layers are compatible. Conversely, for When a multilayer soil is encountered in
example, if the pile penetrates through a practice, then the multilayer soil system
layer of soft clay into a deep deposit of a can be transformed into a two-layer system
dense sand, the bearing capacity of this pile so as to enable the use of Eqs. (7 -32) and
would be derived mostly, if not entirely, (7-34). For this, ali soil parameters in-
from the frictional resistance and the end- cluded in the above equations should be a
bearing capacities of the dense sand. In this weighted average of the actual soil proper-
 Piled Waterfront Structures 815

ties based on thicknesses of respective soil Ds = socketed length of pile in the sound rock
layers. cbs = allowable rock-socket friction; for prelimi-
nary design, values given in Table 7-8 can
7.6.2.2.4 Piles Resting on Rock be used

Where piles are instaiied on intact, good The aiiowable rock-socket friction, cbs> de-
quality rock, the pile bearing capacity will pends on the roughness at the rock-
be governed by the rock strength. The al- concrete interface, which, in turn, depends
lowable load on the pile is usuaiiy deter- on the strength and fracture frequency of
mined by the aiiowable working stress of the rock and the occurrence of clayey
the material in the pile shaft or, in the case weathered rock which may create a coating
of driven piles, by the stresses induced dur- on the socket.
ing the driving process. Naturally, the Qbs value should not ex-
Allowable bearing pressure on unweath- ceed the value of the bond between the pile
ered rock is usuaiiy influenced by joints and and the mortar used for pile socketing.
shear zones. For a preliminary estimate of In some cases where sound hard rock is
the allowable bearing pressure on a bedrock overlaid by fragmented weathered rock, the
foundation the values given in Table 7-7 piles can be driven through the weathered
and 7-8 can be considered. For detailed rock to sound rock.
design, the aiiowable bearing pressure on Rowe and Armitage (1987) suggest that
rock is determined from tests on rock in general soft rock should be regarded as a
cores; the average unconfined compressive very strong soil. For more information on
strength of rock core is determined accord- performance of concrete drilled in sockets or
ing to the most recent relevant national alike elements (e.g., piles and piers), an
standard; in North America, it is done ac- interested reader is referred to Horvath
cording to ASTM D2938-79. This, however, (1980), Williams (1980), Williams and Pells
is not applicable to soft stratified rock, such (1981), Armitage and Rowe (1983), Glos and
as shales or limestones (Canadian Geotech- Briggs (1983) and Tomlinson (1994).
nical Engineering Manual, 1985; Ladanyi
and Roy, 1971; Rowe and Armitage, 1987). 7.6.2.3 Piles Subject to
Where piles are terminated on strong rock, Axial Puii-Out Load
the skin friction is usuaiiy either neglected
or is reduced by a factor of 2. This is mainly The ultimate puii-out capacity, Pu, of a
because when the pile hits the sound hard pile is estimated similarly to a pile in com-
rock, the pile surrounding soil is shattered pression. Naturaiiy, in the former case, the
and may behave as a loose granular pile end-bearing capacity is irrelevant and
material. the weight of a pile, W, is added to the pile
In the case where the overlaying layer of ultimate shaft friction, Qfp· Hence,
soft material does not provide for pile fixity,
the pile can be socketed into the bedrock (7-36)
foundation. In this case the aiiowable fric-
tion capacity on socket parameter, Qbs> is 7.6.2.3.1 Puii-Out Capacitv in
based on the bond along the socketed sur- Cohesion/ess Soils
face and can be expressed as foiiows:
It is customary to assume the pile uiti-
(7-35) roate shaft friction puii-out capacity in the
cohesionless soils as two-thirds of that esti-
where mated for piles subjected to axial compres-
d = socket diameter sive load. The hasis for this are discussed
816 Piled Waterfront Structures

Table 7-7. · Estimates of allowable bearing pressure

Pres umed
Allowable
Types and Bearing
Conditions Strength of Pressure kPa
Group ofRocks Rock Material (tonjft 2 ) Remarks
(a) Massive igeneous and Highto 10,000 These values are
metamorphic rocks (granite veryhigh (100) based on assumption
(granite diorite, basalt, that the foundations
gneiss) in sound condition (2) are carried down to
unweathered rock.
(b) Foliated metamorphic Medium 3,000
rocks (slate, schist) in to high (30)
sound conditions
(1) and (2)
(c) Sedimentary rocks: Medium 1,000-4,000
shale, siltstone, to high (10-40)
sandstone, limestone
without cavities,
thoroughly cemented
conglomerates, all in
sound conditions
(1) and (2)
(d) Compaction shale and Lowto 500
other argillaceous medium (5)
rocks in sound conditions
(2) and (4)
(e) Broken rocks of any kind 1,000
with moderately close (10)
spacingof
discontinuities (1 ft
or greater), except
argillaceous rocks
(shale)
Thinly bedded limestone, See note (3)
sandstone, shale
(g) Heavily shattered or See note (3)
weathered rocks

These presumed values of the allowable bearing pressure are estimates and may need alteration upward or downward.
N o addition has been made for the depth of embedment of the foundation.
Notes
(1) The foregoing values for sedimentary or foliated rocks apply where the strata or foliation are level or nearly so, and,
then only if the area has ample lateral support. Tilted strata and their relation to nearby slopes or excavations shall
be assessed by a person knowledgeable in this field of work.
(2) Sound rock conditiona allow minor cracks at spacing not less than 1 m.
(3) Tobe assessed by examination in situ, including loading tests if necessary, by a person knowledgeable in this field of
work.
(4) These rocks are apt to swell on release of stress and are apt to soften and swell appreciably on exposure to water.

Source: From Canadian Geotechnical Engineering Manual (1985).

 Piled W aterfront Structures 817

Table 7-8. Allowable rock-socket friction, skin friction cbs' and end-bearing values
for Bored Piles in Rocks.

Allowable Skin Friction Allowable End-bearing

On Rock Socket Pressure

Type of Rock (kNjm 2 ) (tonsjft 2 )

Manhattan schist 1330 13.9

Black Utica shale
(Montreal) 1120 11.7 2,620 24.4
Black Billings
shale (Ottawa) 1120 11.7
Dundas shale
(Toronto) 1120 11.7 7,850 73.2
Limestone (Chicago) 1716 17.9 10,468 96
Fragmented shale 107 1.1
Widely fissured
hard sandstone 429 4.5

Source: From Tomlinson (1977).

earlier in Section 7.6.1. Hence, 7.6.3 Pile settlement

Settlement of piles in marine structures
may result in significant redistribution of
bending moments and axial and shear
All terms in the above equation are the stresses in the pile-deck system in the case
same as in Eq. (7-28). The allowable pull- of open-type structures or in the pile-
out capacity is obtained by applying a factor superstructure system in the case of a re-
of safety which usually varies from 2 to 3. lieving platform structure. In both cases,
Again, the factor of safety does not apply for the structure is usually modeled as a rigid
the pile weight. frame founded on elastic foundation.
Prediction of pile settlement is very com-
7.6.2.3.2 Puii-Out Capacity in plex because of many factors, as discussed
Cohesive Soils in Section 7.6.1, among which are soil dis-
For cohesive soils, the ultimate pull-out placement andjor disturbance, changes in
capacity of a pile is essentially equal to the soil properties and state of stresses, method
ultimate skin friction capacity, Qf, plus the of pile installation, and others. It is also
weight of a pile. Hence, complicated by the fact that soil materials
do not show a linear relation between stress
and strain, and settlement is a function of
(7-38)
the relative stress increase. Cohesive soils,
in particular, have a distinct nonlinearity.
The allowable pull-out capacity will then be As pointed out by Fellenius (1991), the
determined by applying the safety factor of larger the existing stress before an addi-
2-3 to the ultimate skin friction capacity tional stress is applied, the smaller the in-
only. duced settlement.
818 Piled Waterfront Structures

Although maximum allowable pile settle- where

ment is usually related to the allowable s. = axial deformation of a pile shaft
settlement of the individual pile, in prac-
tice, however, differential settlement is the
sp = settlement of pile point caused by load
transmitted to it
most important feature in pile foundation
design. U sually the problem is complicated
sps = settlement caused by load transmitted
along the pile shaft
by structural stiffness of both the piles and
the superstructure, load distribution among These three components are determined
piles via superstructure, construction tech- from the following formulations:
niques, and construction sequence.
In practice, three methods are employed
for estimating pile settlement: semiempiri- (7-40)
cal, empirica!, and the pile load test. Natu-
rally, the latter, although expensive and where
time-consuming, provides the most reliable
Q~ = actual point load transmitted to the pile tip
information on pile settlement.
in working stress range (force units); Q~ =
In recent years, theoretical methods, Qp/FS, where FS is the factor of safety
based on finite element method analysis,
have been used more often for computing
Q'r = actual shaft friction load transmitted by
the pile in the working stress range Q{ =
the load settlement relationship. Reference Qr/FS
to these methods and to some available Dr = effective embedded pile length
computer programs were given in the pre-
AP =pile cross-sectional area
ceding section.
EP = modulus of elasticity of pile material
a. = factor which accounts for distribution of
7.6.3.1 Pile settlement in skin friction along pile shaft; Vesic recom-
Cohesionless Soi/ mends a. = 0.5 for uniform or parabolic
skin friction distribution along pile shaft,
In cohesionless soils, the pile displace- and for triangular (zero at the ground level
ment needed to mobilize skin friction is and maximum at the pile base) skin fric-
usually small and may not exceed 5-10 tion distribution a 8 = 0.67. Sharma and
mm. On the other hand, the displacement Joshi (1988) state that estimation of the
required to mobilize pile point resistance is total settlement based on uniform or trian-
usually larger and depends on soil type as gular distribution of skin friction are, in
well as on pile type, size, and method of general, not sensitive to a 8 values.
installation. The latter may result in uiti-
roate skin friction being mobilized sooner
(7-41)
than point bearing. Furthermore, the load
sharing mechanism depends on pile length. and
AII of the above components of the load
transfer mechanism allow for an approxi- (7-42)
mate solution to the problem.
Semiempirical Approach Proposed where
by Vesic (1977). For design purposes Vesic CP = empirica! coefficient; typical values are
suggests the total pile settlement, st, be provided in Table 7-9
broken down into three components: Q~ = net point load under working conditions or
allowable load
Q{ = pile shaft load under working conditions or
(7-39)
allowable load
 Piled Waterfront Structures 819

Table 7-9. Typical values of coefficient CP soil consolidation. The latter occurs basi-
Soil Type Driven Piles BoredPiles
cally due to the fact that the imposed stress
initially carried by the pore water is gradu-
Sand (dense to loose) 0.02-0.04 0.09-0.18 ally transferred to soil skeleton as pore
Clay (stiff to soft) 0.02-0.03 0.03-0.06
pressure dissipates. In some instances, soil
Silt (dense to loose) 0.03-0.05 0.09-0.12
creep (i.e., compression without an increase
Source: From Vesic (1977). in effective stress) may add to the compres-
sion of the soil skeleton. Short-term settle-
qP = ultimate point-bearing capacity qP = ment can be determined by using Eqs.
QP/AP (7-39) through (7-44). The long-term
d P = pile diameter settlement, D...St for normally consolidated
clays can be determined from the following
expression:

In the above estimate it is assumed that the

bearing stratum under the pile tip extends
to at least 10dP below the pile tip, and
the soil below is of comparable or higher where
stiffness.
Empirica! Method. Vesic (1970) pro-
ce = coefficient of consolidation
e 0 = initial void ratio of the soil
posed the following empirica! formulation
for computing settlement of the pile ex- H = depth of clay underlained by relatively
incompressible material (e.g., rock, dense
posed to a working load:
sand, gravei, or the like)
u: = present effective vertical stress at the
middle of the layer (H - %D1)
(7-44)
u:
6. = increased pressure from pile load carried
to soil at the middle of the layer
(H- îD1); the value of c.u: depends on
where assumed geometry of a skin friction dis-
st = settlement of pile head (in in.) tribution diagram along pile shaft as dis-
dP =pile diameter (in in.) cussed in Section 7.6.3.1
Q~ = applied load (in lbs) D 1 = pile length in soil
D1 = pile effective length (in in.)
AP =pile cross-sectional area (in in. 2 ) For more details on pile settlement and
EP = modulus elasticity of pile material (in numerica! examples, the reader is referred
lbjin. 2 ) to recent work by Prakash and Sharma
(1990) and Tomlinson (1994).
As stated by Fellenius (1991), in cohesive
Pile Load Test. This is discussed m
soils the elastic modulus approach for anal-
Section 7.5.1.6.
ysis of pile settlement may not be appropri-
ate. Instead, use of compression index, Cc,
7.6.3.2 Pile settlement in and the original void ratio, e 0 , to determine
Cohesive soils the strain, E, induced in a soil should be
This usually includes short-term (elastic) considered. Fellenius points out that the
settlements that occur as the load is applied cohesive soils may be consolidated to a
and long-term settlements that are due to higher stress than the actual effective
820 Piled Waterfront Structures

stress. This higher stress is called the pre- cantly. Essentially, lateralloads usually act
consolidation stress, u;.
The compression of in combination with axialloads. In practice,
such a soil is much less for stresses below the pile head is either restrained (fixed)
the preconsolidation stress; it can be calcu- within the deck or superstructure, or free to
lated using a compression index, cer• When rotate.
in overconsolidated soils with the final Laterally loaded piles can be broadly
stress known, the strain E is calculated classifi.ed as rigid, semirigid, and fl.exible
according to piles (Figs. 7-58a, 7-58b, and 7-58c),
whereas with respect to the end restraint,
(7-46)
they can be distinguished as free-headed
(unrestrained) and restrained at the bottom
level, at the head, or at both levels (Figs.
where 7-58d and 7-58e).
IIo =original effective stress Meyerhof (1979) suggested that a free-
head pile in a soil media may be considered
II{ = new effective stress
rigid for all practica! purposes if its relative
A weakness of this equation is that the stiffness Kr ~ 10- 2 ; the pile is considered
calculation requires use of three parame- as fl.exible when Kr < 0.01.
ters: Ce, Cen and e 0 • For more information
on pile settlement consult Fleming (1992). (7-47)

where
7.7 LATERALLY LOADED PILES E P = Young's modulus of pile material
IP = moment of inertia of the pile
Eh = average horizontal soil modulus of elastic-
7.7.1 General ity along the pile
n. = effective embedment of the pile
Typical piled marine structures are ex-
pected to transmit lateral loads to the In this case, the effective embedment, D., is
ground. These loads are due to lateral soil defi.ned as the pile minimum depth that is
pressures, mooring forces, ship impact, required to resist the design lateral loads
wave loading, or a combination of some of below which the pile defl.ection can be ne-
these loads. In response to lateral loads, glected for practica! purpose. In the case of
piles are subjected to bending moments and fl.exible piles under eccentric or inclined
shearing forces that need to be evaluated in loads, D. can be approximated by
order to assess the safety against structural
failure of the pile, as well as to determine (7-48)
horizontal displacement of the pile-deck
(superstructure) system. where De is the depth of pile penetration
Where lateral forces are large they may into the foundation soil.
be distributed to the ground by a combina- Essentially, the effective length, D., is
tion of vertical and batter (raking) piles. dependent on pile stiffness, parameters of
This is an effective method of resisting lat- the surrounding soil, pile head condition
eral loads because a large proportion of (e.g., free or fi.xed), loading conditions (e.g.,
these loads are carried axially by both verti- static or dynamic), and whether or not the
cal and batter piles, thus lateral displace- lateral load is accompanied by a moment
ment of the structure is reduced signifi.- andjor a signifi.cant vertical load. Tsinker
 Piled Waterfront Structures 821

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Figure 7-58. Classi:fication of laterally loaded piles: (a) rigid; (b) seini-
rigid; (c) flexible; (d) unrestrained; (e) restrained. 1-Point of rotation
(fixity); 2-hinge; 3-fixed head.

(1972, 1977) found that the horizontal com- mating the pile capacity. However, the
ponent of the inclined load applied to an observed distribution of lateral soil pres-
anchor pile installed in sand considerably sures is nonlinear throughout the pile
increases the pile's pull-out carrying capac- depth and the pressure decreases rapidly
ity; the greater the angle of the applied with the smaller eccentricity and inclina-
tion of the load; for piles in clay, the
pulling out load, the greater the ability of
roughly rectangular pressure distribu-
the pile's shaft to carry the load. Similar
tion was found to be applicable in esti-
results have been reported by Rao and mating ultimate pile capacities.
Prasad (1993).
In the past 15 years, the behavior of piles (iii) In loose sand and soft clay and in the
subjected to eccentric and inclined loads absence of structural pile failure, the ul-
timate lateralload of flexible piles can be
have been extensively investigated by
expressed in terms of an equivalent rigid
Meyerhof and his co-workers. The tests pile by using an effective embedment
were carried out on relatively small but depth that depends mainly on the rela-
well-instrumented model piles. A fulllist of tive pile stiffness.
references on these investigations is given
in Yalcin and Meyerhof(1991). Some ofthe
conclusions derived from these model tests Although the aforementioned model tests
are as follows: support the proposed theoretical solution
for determination of the capacity of a pile
exposed to eccentric or inclined loads
(i) The ultimate bearing capacity of a rigid
pile varies with eccentricity and inclina- Meyerhof and his co-work~rs suggest that it
tion of the load; this type of pile loading should be verified by full-scale field tests.
has significant infiuence on the ultimate Structurally, a pile is a shaft (vertical or
bearing capacity of the pile. inclined) embedded into the soil below the
(ii) In piles in sand under eccentric or in- design surface. To resist lateral loads, it
clined loads, the lateral soil pressure can must be buried deep enough into the soil to
be approximated by the classical triangu- ensure reliable pile fixation. Essentially,
lar distribution for the purpose of esti- under lateralloads the horizontal defiection
822 Piled Waterfront Structures

of a vertical fixed field within a soil mass pile length. The input for the solution in-
decreases with increasing depth. cludes the boundary conditions that stipu-
The design of a pile subjected to lateral lates pile restraint at the head consistent
loads primarily includes computation of the with the supported superstructure and
required pile embedment in foundation soil, elastic properties of ali components in-
bending stress developed in the pile shaft, volved (e.g., the soil, the superstructure, and
selection of pile size, and determination of the pile itself).
pile deflection. Lateral loads on most piers The Reese-Matlock approach is general
and solid-type piled wharf structures, such and rigorous. It allows the supporting soil
as relieving platforms, are substantial; for to be treated as a nonlinear material. Its
an economica} structural design to be primary advantage is that it provides an
achieved, the complete solution is usually accurate assessment of the moment dia-
needed. For the preliminary design, at gram along the entire length of the pile,
which stage the soil geotechnical parame- thus allowing the designer to computer pile
ters are usually insufficiently investigated, stresses realistically below the mudline.
a simplifYing concept, such as the assump- Again, the accuracy of these analyses are
tion of a pile fixity within the foundation directly dependent on accuracy of the input
soil, is usually considered as adequate. This data involved.
approach is based on the earth pressure
theory. The most commonly used methods
of this kind are conventional (Tsinker, 7.7.2 conventional Design
1986), Hansen's (1961) and Broms'
(1964a, b) methods. Both last methods are
Methods
usually used for the design of short rigid
7.7.2.1 Lateral Load App/ied at a
piles; however, Broms' method is also appli-
cable for the design oflong piles. An evalua-
Distance Above Ground
tion of these methods in terms of their ap-
Levei
plicability for piled foundation design is As pointed out earlier, the pile is treated
given in Prakash and Sharma (1990). as a column embedded into the soil below
During more advanced design stages and the design surface. The simplest form of
particularly during the detailed design vertical pile loaded with horizontal load is
stages when sufficiently complete informa- depicted in Figure 7-59a. It is assumed
tion on foundation soil geotechnical param- that the pile would rebound to its original
eters is normally available, the analytical position after the load is removed. Natu-
solutions based on the modulus of the sub- rally, the pile must be driven sufficiently
grade reaction approach are often used. In deep into the soil to ensure a reliable fixa-
these methods it is assumed that soil acts tion. The minimum embedment (tmin) re-
as a series of independent linearly elastic quired for pile stability in a cohesionless
springs. The difference equations used for soil is determined from the balance of hori-
these analysis have been generalized for zontal load, P, and soil resistance. It is
computer solution by Matlock and Reese assumed that after the horizontal load, P,
(1960). The method was further extended is applied, the pile would tend to rotate
for piles installed in specific soils such as about its fixity point, O, within the soil mass.
soft clays and sand (Matlock, 1970; Reese et The resulting soil reaction diagram is de-
al., 1974). In this method, the pile is as- picted in Figure 7-59c and represents a
sumed to be divided into small segments, simplification ofwhat would be, in reality, a
each of which experiences lateral deflection nonlinear soil reaction (Fig. 7-59c). Further
and soil resistance in units of force per unit simplification of the soil pressure diagram,
 Piled Waterfront Structures 823

KA = coefficient of soil active pressure, KA =

tan 2 (45° - c/J/2)
(a) ( b) K = coefficient that accounts for the increase in
soil resistance due to the so-called "wedge
effect" when the soil is displaced by the
shaft movement; in cohesionless soils, K is
usually assumed to be approximately equal
to 2d, where d = shaft diameter

The value of the required theoretical depth

of pile embedment is obtained by solving
Eq. (7-50) for t 0 •
The minimum required penetration, tmin•
( c)
is computed from the following:

(7-51)

where
(7-52)

Figure 7-59. Pile loaded by horizontal force; conven- where Pto is the intensity of soil resulting
tional design method. [From Tsinker (1986).]
pressure at depth t 0 ; Pto = -y(KP - KA)to;
as shown in Figure 7-59c, is achieved by
adding approximately equal trapezoids E~ = o.5ytscKP - KA)K- p (7-53)
mMNn and m'MNn' to both sides of the
resulting soil pressure diagram (Fig. 7-59c). In practice, tmin "" (1.2 to 1.25)t0 is usually
Thus, the left-hand side of the resulting considered.
diagram will have a triangular shape AnN Bending moments in the pile shaft at any
that is compatible with the ultimate soil depth x below grade is expressed by
resistance diagram; on the right-hand side,
trapezoidal diagram MFGm' is replaced by
the fictionalload E~, applied to the embed-
ded part of the pile shaft at the depth t 0 The location of the maximum bending
(Figure 7-59d). Hence equilibrium requires moment, Mmax• is found by solving
that
P(H + t0) - hCKP - KA)Kt8 = O (7-49) dMx
-- = P- 0.5y(KP - KA)Kx 02 = O ( 7-55 )
dx
from which
from which
P PH
t 3
0 -
6
y(Kp - Ka)K
t0 - 6
y(Kp - KA)K
=o
(7-56)
(7-50)

where and, therefore,

y = unit weight of soil
K = coefficient of soil passive pressure K P = 05
2( 2P )
tan 2 (45° + c/J/2), where cp is the soil angle +3
· ]
P Mmax = p [H y(KP - KA)K (7-57)
of internal friction
824 Piled Waterfront Structures

In the case of a vertical pile with a free value of (KP - KA)K in Eqs. (7-50) and
head acting as a cantilever beam from the (7-57) by the corresponding factor of safety.
fixity point, O, the pile lateral displacement, Pile length (H + x 0 ) can also be obtained
y 0 , at point C (Fig. 7-59a) is calculated empirically. One of the empirical methods
from that proved to be reliable for this calcula-
tion is recommended in the Russian
P(H + x0 )3 _ p 0 x6 ( H + x0 ) Standard SNIP II-17-80 (1980). There the
Yo =
3EI 30EI x0 pile length L = (H + x 0 ) from the bottom
of the superstructure to the fixity point, O
H + Xo (P(H + x )2- Pox8) (7-58) (Fig. 7-59) is obtained from the following
3EI 0 10 empirical formulation:
L=H+2jad (7-59)
where
p 0 = intensity of soil lateral pressure at point O where
(Fig. 7-59d); Po = yx 0 (KP - KA)K
(7-60)
E = Young's modulus of the pile material
I = moment of inertia of the pile cross section where
k = proportionality factor in kNjm 4 ; k depends
In the case of a single pile, a safety factor of on the type and condition of the soil; its
2-3 is usually considered. This means that recommended values are given in Table
the design values of t 0 and Mmax are tobe 7-10
obtained either by a corresponding increase bP = effective width of pile in meters; bP =
of value in horizontal load P by the as- 1.5d + 0.5, where d = pile diameter in me-
sumed factor of safety, or by reducing the ters

Table 7-10. Proportionality factor

Proportionality
Soi! Factor k (kNjm 4 )
Plastic to liquid clay and loam
(0.75 <IL :$ 1) 650-2,500
Plastic clay and loam
(O <IL :$ 0.75); plastic sandy loam
(O :$ IL :$ 1); silt (0.6 :$ e :$ 0.8) 650-2,500
Semisolid to solid clay and loam
(O :$IL :$ 0.5); hard sandy loam
(IL <O); fine sand (0.6 :$ e :$ 0.75);
medium sand (0.55 :$ e :$ 0.7) 5,000-8,000
Solid clay and loam;
coarse-grained sand (0.55 :$ e :$ 0.7) 8,000-13,000

Notes:
1. IL = liquidity index; e = void ratio.
2. Smaller values of proportionality factor k correspond to higher
values of IL and e. Similarly, higher values of k correspond to
smaller values of IL and e.
3. For dense gravei, dense graveljsand mixture, and very dense sand
(e > 0.55), values of k that are 30% higher than indicated for
coarse-grained sand (0.55 ;s; e ;s; 0.7) should be used.

Source: From Tsinker (1986).

 Piled Waterfront Structures 825

From a pile :fixity point of view the required those depicted in Figure 7-65). Basic design
penetration depth of a conventional steel or parameters as depicted in Figure 7-60 are
concrete pile should not be less than 5.0 m; obtained from the following formulations:
for timber piles this depth can be reduced to
3.0m.
It should be added that in most practica! (7-61)
situations the design of piles to resist lat-
eral loads is based on lateral displacement (7-62)
criteria rather than the ultimate lateral
capacity. where
EI = pile stiffness
7.7.2.2 Lateral Load App/ied
at the Ground Level kh stiffness of the spring; for details, consult
=
the following sections
The empirica! method is usually used in d = pile diameter or side
the case where piles are employed to sup-
port a gravity-type structure constructed on
soft foundation materials. When the pile Maximum values of pile deflection, y 0 , soil
foundation consisting of identica! piles is reaction, p 1 , and bending moment M 1 and
symmetrical in both directions, the horizon- M 2 as indicated in Figure 7-60 are com-
tal load per pile, P, can be determined as puted from the following expressions:
P = Qjn, where Q is the full horizontal
force acting at the gravity center of the pile (7-63)
foundation and n is the total number of
piles. (7-64)
The pile is assumed to be a beam embed-
ded into an elastic soil medium and sup-
ported on a series of infinitely closely spaced
independent and elastic springs (similar to

(a) (b) (c) (d)

'"·~---~
x, P,

v= f(x)

Figure 7-60. Pile with restrained head loaded laterally at ground level:
(a) pile defiection under lateralload; (b) soil reaction; (c) shear diagram; (d)
distribution of bending moment. 1-Pile; 2-deformed line.
826 Piled W aterfront Structures

7.7.3 Broms· Method LoadQ.

This method is based on simplified assump-

tions made on soil pressure distribution
along the pile length. The method treats
both short rigid and long fl.exible piles both

ID
with free heads and fixed heads separately. (a) (b)
In Broms' method, soil is considered either
SB Mmn
as purely cohesionless (c = O) or purely co-
hesive (cf> = 0). .
.

7.7.3.1 Free-Head Short Piles .

in Cohesionless Soils
Soil reactio~~~B ~~:n,
Short piles are defined as those for which Soil reaction
~~~~
LjT::;; 2 or LjR::;; 2 (Fig. 7-61), where L (c) (d)
is the pile embedded length,

_ (EI )
l
1 5
/
T-- (7-66)
nh

R--_ (EI) 1 4
1 (7-67) Bending
~
Soilreaction
kh moment

(e) (f)

where Figure 7-61. Short stiffpiles under lateralload: (a)

nh =constant of modulus of subgrade reaction rotation of free-head pile; (b) translation of fixed-head
pile; (c) soil reaction and bending moment distribution
kh = nhxL for linearly increasing soil modulus
of free-head pile in cohesive soils; (d) soil reaction and
kh with depth XL
bending moment distribution of fixed-head pile in co-
hesive soils; (e) soil reaction and bending moment
For short piles, the possible failure mode distribution of free-head pile in cohensionless soils; (0
and distribution of ultimate soil resistance soil reaction and bending moment distribution of
and bending moments are shown in Figures fixed-head piles in cohensionless soils. [From Broms
(1964a, 1964b).]
7-61a and 7-61e, respectively.
The assumed soil pressure distribution is
depicted in Figure 7-61e. Note that to
where
account for the "wedge effect," Broms
suggests a passive soil pressure on the KP = (1 + sin c/J)/(1 - sin cp)
pile shaft to be increased by three pile B = d = pile diameter or width
diameters.
The triangular soil pressure diagram can
Relationship (7 -68) is plotted using nondi-
be replaced with a concentrated force. Then,
mensional terms LjB versus Qu!KPB 3y
taking moments about the pile toe, the fol-
in Figure 7-63a. From this figure, Q u can
lowing relationship for ultimate lateralload,
be determined, provided the values of L, e,
Qu, is obtained: B, K P, and y are known. The maximum
bending moment in pile shaft, Mmax> occurs
(7-68) at depth x 0 below ground level. At this
point, the shear force equals zero, which
 Piled Waterfront Structures 827

gives

(7-69)

From Eq. (7-69), x 0 is found tobe equal to

Qu )0.5
xo = 0.82 ( yBKP (7-70)

Consequently, the maximum bending mo- Oeflection Soil

reaction
Bending
moment
Oeflection Soi!
reaction
Bending
moment
ment, Mmax• is computed as (a) (b)

(7-71)

7.7.3.2 Fixed-Head Short Piles

in Cohesionless Soils
The possible mode of failure for these
piles is assumed by Broms as a simple lat-
eral translation (Fig. 7-61b); the corre-
sponding soil reaction and bending moment
Oeflection Soil Bending Oellection Soil Bending
are depicted in Figure 7-61f. Due to the reaction moment reaction moment

assumed mode of failure, Qu and Mmax for (c) (d)

horizontal equilibrium conditions are deter- Figure 7-62. Long fiexible piles under lateralload:
mined from the following: (a) defiection, soil reaction, and bending moment dis-
tribution of free-head pile in cohesive soils; (b) defiec-
Qu = 1.5yL2 BKP (7-72) tion, soil reaction, and bending moment distribution of
fixed-head pile in cohesive soils; (c) defiection, soil
Mmax = yLsBKP (7-73) reaction, and bending moment distribution of free-head
pile in cohensionless soils; (d) defiection, soil reaction,
and bending moment distribution offixed-head pile in
Figure 7-63a provides a graphical solution cohensionless soil. [From Broms (i964a, 1964b).]
for :fixed-head short piles in cohesionless
soils.

7.7.3.3 Free-Head Long Piles computed from the following equations:

in Cohesionless Soils
Long piles in cohesionless soils are those
for which LjT > 4.0. The assumed failure
mode (de:fiection) for long piles and the dis-
tribution of ultimate soil pressure and
bending moment along the pile shaft are
shown in Figure 7 -62c. Because the maxi-
mum bending moment exists at the point where Mu is the ultimate moment capacity
where the shear force is zero, the value of of the pile shaft; Qu can be determined
x 0 can be obtained from Eq. (7-70), and the from Figure 7-63b by using expression
corresponding maximum bending moment, Qu!KPB 3y as a function of expression
Mmax• and ultimate shear force, Qu, can be Mu/B4yKP.
828 Piled Waterfront Structures

(a) Figure 7-63b provides graphical solution

for fixed-head long piles in cohesionless
soils.
,;..
~ 7.7.3.5 Free-Head Short Pile in
~1~~~~-++4~~~~
Cohesive Soils lL / T ~ 21
1
j ao~---<>-----tl--~'-.4~~ The failure mode and distribution of the
J ultimate soil reaction and bending moment
for these piles is illustrated in Figures
7-61a and 7-61c. According to Broms
o
........ L/B
(1964a), the maximum bending moment is
developed at the point located a distance
(b) (1.5B + x 0 ) from the surface of the ground.
1000 Consequently,
..... + 1.5B + 0.5x 0 )
... Mmax = Q,..(e (7-79)
d•oo
The length of the pile (L - x 0 ) is assumed
ie to resist a maximum bending moment which
1
.11 10
is given by
1 (7-80)
1
o 1.0
where
x0 = Q,../9c,..B (7-81)
Figure 7-63. Graphical solution for ultimate lateral
load capacity of short and long pile in cohensionless
soils: (a) short piles; (b) long piles. [From Broms
where cu is the undrained shear strength of
(1964b). cohesive soil (4J = 0). Equations (7-80) and
(7-81) can be solved for Qu. The graphical
solution for Qu is provided in Figure 7-64a.
7.7.3.4 Fixed-Head Long Piles From this figure, the ratio QufcuB 2 is ob-
in Cohesion/ess SOils tained for a known L jB and e jB from
The assumed failure mode and distribu- which the Q u value is calculated.
tion of ultimate soil pressures and bending
moment along pile shaft are illustrated in 7.7.3.6 Fixed-Head Short Piles
Figure 7-62d. Similar to that previously in Cohesive Soils
discussed, the ultimate shear force Q u and Failure mode, distribution ofultimate soil
the maximum bending moment Mmax are reaction, and bending moment are shown in
determined from the following relation- Figures 7-62b and 7 -62d. The following
ships: relationships are applicable for these piles
2Mu according to Broms (1964a):
Q =---- (7-76)
u e + 0.67x 0
Q,.. = 9c,..B(L - 1.5B) (7-82)

(7-77)
Mmax = 4.5c,..B(L2 - 2.25B 2 ) (7-83)

Qu and Mmax can also be obtained from

(7-78) Figure 7-64b.
 Piled Waterfront Structures 829

(a) 7.7.3.8 Fixed-Head Long Piles

in Cohesive Soils
The failure mode and the distribution of
ultimate soil reaction and bending moment
for these piles are shown in Figure 7-62b.
Value of Qu is obtained from

(7-84)

where x 0 is determined from Eq. (7-81).

4 8 12 16 20
Again, the graphical solution is plotted in
Embedment length LI B Figure 7-64b.
(b)

7.7.4 subgrade Reaction

Approach
This approach treats a laterally loaded pile
as a beam on elastic foundations with a
suitably defined boundary condition. In this
method, the structural model of a real pile
is substituted by a short length of a dummy
pile loaded by forces and moment from the
overhead portion of the pile. It is also as-
Ultimate lateral resistance, M.. tc.. B3 sumed that the part of the pile embedded
into the elastic soil medium is supported on
Figure 7-64. Graphical solution for ultimate lateral a series of infinitely closely spaced inde-
load capacity of piles in cohesive soils: (a) short piles;
(b) long piles. [From Broms (1964a).
pendent and elastic springs (Fig. 7-65).
The following discussion is related to the
treatments of the problem as developed by
Reese and Matlock (1956), Matlock and
Reese (1960, 1961, 1962), Matlock (1970),
and Reese et al. (1974, 1975). This is fur-
7.7.3.7 Free-Head Long Piles ther discussed by Smith (1987), Sun (1994),
in Cohesive Soils Ooi and Dunkan (1994), Duncan et al.
(1994), McVay et al. (1995), PIANC (1984),
These piles in cohesive soils conform to Young (1991), and Prakash and Sharma
LjR ~ 3.5. Assume failure mode and the (1990).
distribution of the ultimate soil reaction and More recently Prakash and Kumar (1996)
bending moment for these piles are indi- proposed a method for predicting the load-
cated in Figure 7-61b. Broms (1964a) sug- displacement relationship for single pile
gests that Eqs. (7-79) and (7-81) are also embedded in sand and subjected to lateral
applicable to long piles. The solution in load. This method is based on using the
graphical form is presented in Figure 7-64b load-defl.ection curves that are developed on
from which for a known M ulcuB 3 , the value a premise of the soil modulus degradation
of Qu!cuB 2 and finally Qu can be obtained. with strain.
830 Piled Waterfront Structures

(a) (b) (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

p

L V =El !!!z
clxl
p=El d'y
dz4

p Figure 7-66. Free-head pile subjected to lateralload

and bending moment: (a) lateral defiection; (b) slope;
(c) moment; (d) shear; (e) soil reaction. [From Reese
and Matlock (1956).]
1

!
X X
~ Reese, 1961, 1962):
Figure 7-65. Laterally loaded pile. Subgrade reac-
tion approach: (a) soil reaction; (b) elastic springs. (7-87)

(7-88)
7.7.4.1 Laterally Loaded
Free-Head Pile in
Cohesionless Soils (7-89)

The behavior of this pile (Fig. 7-66) is

expressed by Vx =AuQg + Bu( ~g) (7-90)

(7-85) Px = AP( ~) + BP( ;: ) (7-91)

where where
E = pile material modulus of elasticity Qg = lateralload applied to pile at ground level
I = moment of inertia of the pile section Mg =moment applied to pile at ground level
p = soil reaction per unit length of pile; p = k h y, EI = pile stiffness
where y is the pile lateral deflection and k h T = relative stiffness factor which is given as
is the stiffuess of the spring, also called the T = (Eljnh) 1 15 , where nx = khjx
modulus of horizontal subgrade reaction
Values of AY, As, Am, Au, AP, BY, B 8 , Bm,
Equation (7 -85) can be modified as follows: Vu and BP for various Z = xjT have been
computed by Matlock and Reese (1961,
1962) by using the finite-di:fference method;
(7-86)
these are given in Tables 7-11 and 7-12.
The above investigators found that the
By considering soil elastic behavior that as- pile with Zmax = 2 behaves as a rigid pile,
sumes a small defl.ection relative to the pile and the pile length beyond Zmax = 5 practi-
dimensions, the above equation can be cally does not affect the defl.ection coeffi-
solved for Yx, Mx, Sx, Vx, and Px as follows cients given in Tables 7-11 and 7-12. Val-
(for definitions, see Fig. 7-66) (Matlock and ues of AY, Am, BY and Bm for different
 Piled Waterfront Structures 831

Table7-11. Coefficient A for long piles (Zmax ;;:: 5): free head

z Ay A, Am Av AP
0.0 2.435 -1.623 0.000 1.000 0.000
0.1 2.273 -1.618 0.100 0.989 -0.227
0.2 2.112 -1.603 0.198 0.956 -0.422
0.3 1.952 -1.578 0.291 0.906 -0.586
0.4 1.796 -1.545 0.379 0.840 -0.718
0.5 l.Ei44 -1.503 0.459 0.764 -0.822
0.6 1.496 -1.454 0.532 0.677 -0.897
0.7 1.353 -1.397 0.595 0.585 -0.947
0.8 1.216 -1.335 0.649 0.489 -0.973
0.9 1.086 -1.268 0.693 0.392 -0.977
1.0 0.962 -1.197 0.727 0.295 -0.962
1.2 0.738 -1.047 0.767 0.109 -0.885
1.4 0.544 -0.893 0.772 -0.056 -0.761
1.6 0.381 -0.741 0.746 -0.193 -0.609
1.8 0.247 -0.596 0.696 -0.298 -0.445
2.0 0.142 -0.464 0.628 -0.371 -0.283
3.0 -0.075 -0.040 0.225 -0.349 0.226
4.0 -0.050 0.052 0.000 -0.106 0.201
5.0 -0.009 0.025 -0.033 0.013 0.046

Source: From Matlock and Reese (1961, 1962).

Table 7-12. Coefficient B for long piles (Zmax ;;:: 5): free head

z By B, Bm Bv BP
0.0 1.623 -1.750 1.000 0.000 0.000
0.1 1.453 -1.650 1.000 -0.007 -0.145
0.2 1.293 -1.550 0.999 -0.028 -0.259
0.3 1.143 -1.450 0.994 -0.058 -0.343
0.4 1.003 -1.351 0.987 -0.095 -0.401
0.5 0.873 -1.253 0.976 -0.137 -0.436
0.6 0.752 -1.156 0.960 -0.181 -0.451
0.7 0.642 -1.061 0.939 -0.226 -0.449
0.8 0.540 -0.968 0.914 -0.270 -0.432
0.9 0.448 -0.878 0.885 -0.312 -0.403
1.0 0.364 -0.792 0.852 -0.350 -0.364
1.2 0.223 -0.629 0.775 -0.414 -0.268
1.4 0.112 -0.482 0.688 -0.456 -0.157
1.6 0.029 -0.354 0.594 -0.477 -0.047
1.8 -0.030 -0.245 0.498 -0.476 0.054
2.0 -0.070 -0.155 0.404 -0.456 0.140
3.0 -0.089 0.057 0.059 -0.213 0.268
4.0 -0.028 0.049 -0.042 0.017 0.112
5.0 0.000 0.011 -0.026 0.029 -0.002

Source: From Matlock and Reese (1961, 1962).

832 Piled Waterfront Structures

zmax = LjT are also provided in Figure at X= o

7-67.

(7-93)
7.7.4.2 Laterally Loaded
Fixed-Head Pile in
Cohesion/ess Soils
From Tables 7-11 and 7-12 for Z = xjT =
Essentially, for these piles the slope at O, -(A 8 jB 8 ) = -(1.623/1.75) = -0.93.
the ground level is zero. Hence, from Eq. Thus,
(7-89),

(QgTz)
S =A8 - - + B 8 - -
(MgT) = O (7-92)
X El El Therefore, for a fixed-head pile, Eqs. ( )
7-87

Deflection coefficient, A 1 Moment coefficient. A.

·1 o o +1 o +2 o +3 o +4 o +5 o o +02 +04 +06 +0.8

..d1 ~.:--
..........
--· ,. .........
1-

1.0
~
........... - ..........
Z.,..=2-
......... '"---
-- V
--- 3- tylf1/ "'

~r
~/

4.0
4- r-.
1- r- 5&10
5.0
Coefficients for deflection Coeff~eients for bending moment
(a)

Deflection COeffiCienl. 8 1 Moment coefficient. B.,

02.0 -1.0 o +1.0 +2.0 +3.0 +4.0 +02 +04 +06 +08 +10
..........

1.0
Z,.,..=2- ~.:: .-- . -··
~
1.0
Zrnox=2-
r---.. .........
.J
-,·::::w
-·· t' .. ...... -·- ~-~ ........ ::;;.
.... . IN
, ..., .
..- 31:> -:::. ;.... "..
...; ~2.0

t
3- 107
~ ~ r-4

Mr
~Ys
§ ~ ~-

~r
3.0
~ 4, 5 & 10 f/?
4.0 4.0
·f..- f-4
10
t---Ii v 5 'X

5.0 5.0
Coefficients for deflection Coefficients for bending moment
(b)

Figure 7-67. Coefficients Ay, Am, B 7 , and Bm for piles in cohesionless soils; (a) free-head
piles; (b) fixed-head piles. [From Reese and Matlock (1956).]
 Piled Waterfront StniCtures 833

Deflection coefficient, c,
o +0.2 +0.4 +0.6 +0.8 + 1.0 +1.1

.....-:::
'/_... /
''
5&10
b:: ~· ;_-s:; ··\ 1-2
1.0
Zmax=2- 1----- ~~
~· -·· '-- 1-3
........... l~
~- ['--.. t-4
3 ~
~
/
1--'
,/ y

~r
4 ;;1

4.0
v- 10

s-.;
5.0
(a)

Moment coefficient, Cm
-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 o
o ·1.0
.......... ... :::::-
+0.2 +0.4

1.0
::=: ~ ...
-
...... _ ... :::::::- ,..._
::-
.........
::-- ........
_.:,., ' K 4,5&10
"l
~ 2.0
Zmax=2- ~
~
3
'-../ i}
8 Q, M / 1

~r
~ 3.0
o 4- :-v V
4.0
lj
1
10 5
5.0
(b)

Soil resistance coefficient, Cp

-o 4 -o 2 o +0 2 +0 4 +0 6 . +0 8

r--r-~--- . [,r4 3
~~~k-2
1.0 1--+--+-t---+---t-1--+--+-1-+--+-f>iv~I<T--~ -v
Zmax =2 -r---._ 5&10 ~ L~ l1

.... \.----~V

rp
"l
<'.,- 2.0 l--t--+-t---+--+-l--t--t'=-1-,_.,-;:4...-.h"3:~1-+----l
~ 3 1"'
f-... - - · . , 1/,"/
~... F""

!~ 3.0 1-"-"f---+~---·-+_-+
__-+-.,...9-~-+·~_·+--+---l ~"·
4 ~z_·1/
··" _..,,
4.0 1--t--+"-t-t--:tt--+-1-t-+--+--l
y-f--10

5.0 5.- '.\

L-..L.-L--'-.L.::......J.J.lL__I._.J...._...L..__L__JL__....!..__ __J

(c)

Figure 7-68. Deflection, moment, and soil reaction coef-

:licients for :lixed-head piles subjected to lateralload: (a)
deflections; (b) bending moments; (c) soi! reaction. [From
Reese and matlock (1956).]
834 Piled Waterfront Structures

and (7-88) can be rewritten under Zmax = LjR ~ 2, the pile behaves as
a rigid shaft, and for Zmax = L / R ;;::: 4, the
(7-94) pile behaves as if it was infinitely long.
In conclusion, it should be pointed out
(7-95) that the lateral capacity of piles calculated
on the hasis of a subgrade reaction can be
where extended beyond the elastic range where a
soil yields plastically. This can be done by
employing so-called p-y curves. The non-
linear p-y in soil spring idealization in a
Values of CY and Cm can be obtained from finite difference scheme (Reese, 1977) or in
Figure 7-68. a one-dimensional finite element method
scheme (Sogge, 1983) are presently very
Note: In cases where the pile head is ex- popular modeling techniques. In this
pected to undergo some rotation at the point method, the pile is divided in elements and
of fixity within the superstructure (partly each element is characterized by a load-
fixed-head pile), the coefficients cy and cm deflection p-y curve. The shape of these
are modified as follows: curves is approximated by a hyperbola with
parameters that are determined by the
CY = Ay - 0.93..\BY (7-96) pile-soil system interaction. In the develop-
ment of the p-y curves, the effects of dy-
Cm =Am - 0.93..\B;n (7-97)
namic loading, · reloading after extreme
loading, scour, as well as effects of other
where A is a factor that accounts for degree piles have to be considered. For a detailed
of pile fixity; for example, A = 1 for 100% discussion, the reader is referred to Matlock
fixity (fully restrained head), A = O for a (1970), Reese et al. (1974), Reese and Welch
fully free head. Accordingly, A= 0.5 and (1975), Bhushan et al. (1979), and Reese
A = 0.25 for 50% and 25% fixity, respec-
(1984). Reese (1977) provides a computer
tively. program documentation COM624 that
!30lves for deflection and bending moment
7.7.4.3 Laterally Loaded Pile for a pile under lateralloading. More recent
in Cohesive Soi/
development in the use of the p-y curves
Similar to the preceding discussion on technique is given in Smith (1987), Young
piles in a cohesionless soil, the lateral de- (1991), Ooi and Duncan (1994), Duncan et
flection of a pile in a cohesive soil, y, and al. (1994), Sun (1994), and Poepsel and
the bending moment at any depth, x, can Dowd (1995). Prakash and Sharma (1990)
be obtained from provide a detailed guideline in the form of a
step-by-step procedure and numerica! ex-
amples which can help the designer to s·olve
(7-98) the problem by developing and using p-y
curves.
(7-99) Finally, it should be noted that proce-
dures for developing p-y curves are differ-
in which case R = (Eljkh)l/ 4 • ent for various soil types and it is helpful to
Values of coefficients A and B can be consult the original works on the various
obtained from curves plotted in Figures criteria before applying the method to the
7-69a and 7-69b. As is seen in this figure, particular design problem.
 Piled Waterfront Structures 835

{a)
Deflection coeffiCient A.JC and moment coefficient Amc
-1.0 o +1.0 +2.0

Free head
Q8 =i, M6 =0

(b)
Oeflection coefficient B>< and moment coefficient B=
-2.0 -1.0 o +1.0 +2.0

..
...············

Free head
Q6 =0, M6 =i

4r---------+-------~Hr---------r--------~

5L---------~-----------W~--------~---------J

Figure 7-69. Coefficients of moments and deflections for

free-head pile in soils with constant soil modulus: (a)
coefficients of deflections and bending moment for pile
carrying horizontalload at head and zero moment; (b)
coefficients of deflections and bending moment for piles
carrying moment at head and zero lateralload. [From
Davisson and Gill (1963).]
836 Piled W aterfront Structures

7.7.5 Laterally Loaded

socketed Piles
Soil
A pile socketed in to rock is usually de-
signed to transmit a lateral load and bend-
ing moment to the bedrock, as well as to the
overburden material. In general, an accu-
0<2flczction Soil Rczsistanccz
rate solution to the problem is very diffi.cult
to achieve. A state-of-the-art review and the (a) ShOrt Pilcz

approximate theoretical approach for esti-

mating the ultimate lateral capacity of a
socket is given in Carter and Kulhawy
(1992). These authors assume that the em-
bedded shaft section has sufficient moment
and the shear capacity to resist the design
load and that the ultimate failure of the
shaft occurs when the surrounding rock
mass is not able to sustain any further
loading. These assumptions are critical and
must always be checked. Bcznding
There is very little published information (b) Long Piicz
Momcznt

on the performance of pile sockets in a rock.

One documented case of a field test on con- Figure 7-70. Free-head socketed piles. [From Poulos
and Davis (1980).]
crete piers embedded into rock was re-
ported by Tucker and Askari (1986).
Due to lack of sufficient knowledge on along a pile shaft can be estimated from the
socket performance, as well as difficulties theories described in Chapters 4 and 6. In
with underwater quality control design of these proposed methods, similar to that dis-
socketed piles, the design should be treated cussed earlier, the high pressure near the
with extreme caution. Socket design should pile tip is replaced by a single force, F.
be based on the application of a simple Poulos and Davis (1980) discuss two practi-
model for description of socket-rock inter- ca! situations related to "short" and "long"
action, and a sufficient factor of safety piles. According to these workers in the
should be considered. case of "short" piles, by taking moments
The following procedure for determina- about pile tip the following information is
tion of the ultimate value of lateral load, obtained.
Qu, and maximum bending moment, Mmax>
for piles that are socketed into rock or whose
tip is embedded in a firmer stratum has
Qu = e: L (IoL'Purxdx + ~:+L,Pusxdx)

been developed by Poulos and Davis (1980). (7-100)

A typical situation for a free-head pile is
illustrated in Figure 7-70. In the examples where
depicted in this figure, the assumed failure Pur = ultimate lateral resistance of stiffer
mode and moment distribution pattems are stratum
shown together with an arbitrary distribu- Pus = ultimate lateral resistance of soil
tion of ultimate soil resistance, Pu· In prac- x = vertical distance, measured from the tip
tice, distribution of the lateral soil reaction d = pile diameter
 Piled Waterfront Structures 837

Hence, for the known value of Qu, a value precast concrete piles with regular or pre-
of Mmax can be calculated. If Mmax < Mx, stressed reinforcement, pile size (e.g., diam-
the pile will fail as a short pile; if Mmax > eter, penetration, length of unrestrained
M x, the pile will fail as a long one and M max freestanding portion), number of piles per
must be equal to Mx. The position of Mmax bend, requirements for batter piles, poten-
(i.e., the distance f below the surface) is tial for soil erosion around piles, and other
determined by the condition of zero shear factors.
force. Hence, Two basic types of piled structures,
namely open-type piled structure and re-
lieving platforms, are discussed further in
this section.
Then the maximum moment, Mmax> is ob-
tained from 7.8.1 Design Criteria
This is a basic document on which the
structural design is based. It usually in-
cludes a statement in which the purpose of
In Eqs. (7-101) and (7-102), x = vertical the project is clearly stated. This normally
distance, measured downward from the sur- includes the description and volume of cargo
face, and the bracketed form {Pur} applies to be handled, type of cargo handling and
only if f extends below the top of the stiffer hauling technology to be used, type and size
stratum. Similar analysis can be carried out of ship(s) to be served at the dock structure,
for long piles and piles with fixed (re- method of ship handling during berthing
strained) head. For more details, the reader and departing operations, means of protect-
is referred to Poulos and Davis (1980). ing the dock structure from ship impact,
type of mooring accessories to be used,
safety of operation, and others.
7.8 Piled Marine Structures The "design criteria" establishes the ba-
Design Methods sic configuration and sizes of the docking
structure(s). This includes the required
The design of a piled marine structure is length and width of the structure, the depth
normally aimed at the most economica! of water which depends on the size of the
pile-deck (superstructure) system able to design vessel and the required underkeel
effectively resist the design vertical and clearance, and the deck elevation. The lat-
horizontal loads with an acceptable degree ter depends on tide range, storm surge, crest
of both horizontal and vertical displace- elevation of the most probable highest
ments. This includes the design of a stiff waves, ice run-up, effect of air gap, and
and durable deck (superstructure) system others. The discussion on the required depth
supported on a pile foundation, able to sup- of water in front of docking structures and
port the design dead and live loads and their elevation above sea level is given in
effectively resist environmental loads (e.g., Chapter 2.
waves, current, wind, ice, and earthquake). The "design criteria" includes ali static
In the design process, the following items and dynamic loads to be considered in the
are usually considered as an alternative: dock structural design. These typically in-
type of piles [e.g., pipe piles (steel or con- clude dead and live loads, environmental
crete), closed ended or open ended], large- loads, and construction (temporary) loads.
diameter cylinder piles (steel or concrete), Details are given in Chapter 3.
838 Piled W aterfront Structures

Dead loads usually include the weights of mental results, these investigators propose
the structure, permanently installed equip- empirica! formulas for the calculation of the
ment, and miscellaneous appurtenant struc- aforementioned pressures. Shih and Anas-
tures. tasiou believe that the results of their in-
Live loads are those imposed on the struc- vestigation are applicable for practica! de-
ture during its operation. They normally in- sign purposes.
clude all kinds of surcharge loads, weights Construction loads are those resulting
and dynamic loadings produced by all kinds from fabrication, transportation, and instal-
of cargo handling and hauling equipment, and
lation of individual structural components,
forces exerted on the structure due to ship
maneuvers, and while moored at the dock.
or prefabricated blocks.
Although detail geotechnical site condi-
Environmentalloads are those imposed on tions are provided in geotechnical reports,
the structure by natural phenomena includ-
ing wind, current, wave, ice, and earth-
basic information on soil data is also in-
quakes. These loads are all discussed in
cluded in the "design criteria."
Chapters 1 and 3. "Design criteria" normally includes the
proposed method(s) of structural analysis,
load combinations, allowable level of
It should be pointed out that according to stresses in structural components, and as-
established practice, the deck of a piled pier sumed factors of safety. Last but not least,
or a marginal piled wharf is designed to the "design criteria" includes requirements
maintain a sufficiently "safe" clearance be- for construction materials, fabrication and
tween the underside of the deck and the installation tolerances, safety considera-
expected maximum design wave crest ele- tions, method of inspection and testing
vation. Sometimes, due to uncertainties in- standards, and guidelines and regulations
volved in determination of the maximum to be used in structural design.
design wave height, the deck clearance is
reduced below "safe" minimum, and in the
extreme case, it is in direct contact with the
wave crest. This may be possible in the case 7.8.2 Design Methods
of a pier constructed offshore with no pro-
tection from wave action; it is less likely to This section is dedicated to discussion on
occur in protected harbors or in inland conventional methods of structural analysis
waterways. used for design of free standing and
Direct contact between the wave crest marginal open pile structures, and piled
and the underside of a pier deck will result relieving platforms.
in an uplift load to the whole st11,1cture. The
potential of such occurrences must be ac- 7.8.2.1 Design of Freestanding
counted for in pier design. and Marginal Open
The background of this phenomenon and Pile structures
results of a laboratory study of the wave-
induced vertical loading on platform deck
are discussed by Shih and Anastasiou
7.8.2.1.1 Freestanding piers
(1992). These investigators point out that in Examples of these structures are illus-
the case of offshore structures the total up- trated in Figures 7-la, arid 7-lb, 7-2, and
lift load consists generally of three compo- 7-4 through 7-7. These structures are nor-
nents, namely rapidly varying impact pres- mally constructed in a form of elevated
sures and slowly varying positive and nega- above the sea-level deck that is supported
tive pressures. Based directly on experi- either on solely vertical piles or on a combi-
 Piled Waterfront Structures 839

nation of vertical and batter piles. Depend- Normally, when the deck structure is
ing on the pier length, its deck can be con- comprised of precast components, they are
structed in one piece or in several pieces usually joined to each other by means of
separated from each other by the trans- large grouted shear keys. Typically, prefab-
verse expansionjoints. Traditionally, in long ricated panels are made fully continuous
piers, the expansion joints have been placed over the pile capping beams either by post-
no more than 180 m apart. However, in tensioning or by welding (alternatively by
more recently constructed navy piers in the using mechanical joints) negative reinforce-
New York harbor area, the expansionjoints ment. The prefabricated coinponents are
were placed at approximately 290 m apart joined to the capping beam by means of
(Green, 1989). It should be pointed out that dowels that protrude from the capping
normally the distance between expansion beam, and the cast-in-situ concrete is in-
joints is governed by the allowable stress stalled between ends of the deck panels.
level in the piles due to deck thermal ex- This results in a strong, massive composite
pansion or contraction. Essentially, the joint between the deck structure and pile
space between expansionjoints is a trade-off bents. The longitudinal joints between pre-
between the number of expansion joints in cast components are typically made using
the pier and the number and size of piles in large grout shear keys. There is no reinforc-
a pier section. ing steel across the shear key; therefore,
As pointed out earlier, the deck system is although these keys can transmit vertical
usually constructed either in a form of a
shear, they cannot then transmit trans-
solid cast-in-place concrete slab or assem-
verse moment across the joint. However,
bled from the precast components sup-
the connection between the deck panels and
ported on either cast in place or made from
the torsionally stiff pile capping beams pre-
precast concrete elements pile capping
vent any separation of panels at the shear
beams.
key. The presence of a shear key might be
Naturally, all vertical and horizontal
thought of as a significant reduction in the
loads acting on the deck structure are
transferred to the pile's foundation. A piled transfer distribution of a concentrated load
pier is essentially a three-dimensional exerted on the deck. However, the presence
frame in which all loads are distributed of the longitudinal shear key does not mate-
between all structural components accord- rially impair torsional stiffness of the slab,
ing to their relative respective stiffnesses. and the lateral load distribution is quite
similar to that in a monolithic slab (Roeski,
1955; Walther, 1956). Some additional
7.8.2.1.2 oeck Stiffness stress concentration, however, could occur
The deck stiffness (EI) depends on the when a load is placed over the shear key.
design and particularly on the material used A typical joint between precast deck com-
(normally regular prestressed concrete) for ponents is depicted in Figure 7-71. Strain-
the construction. Essentially, the deck mo- gauged tests on a dock deck comprised of
ment of inertia, J, depends on the deck precast haunched panels have been carried
geometry and is calculated taking into ac- out in Port-of-Seattle, Washington (ABAM
count every aspect of the deck details (e.g., Engineers, Inc., 1967). These tests prove
if it is designed as a solid slab of uniform the deck prefabrication does not cause any
thickness supported directly on piles, or on fundamental changes in slab behavior. In-
pile capping beams, or comprised of precast terestingly, the effect of the haunches in
units supported on pile caps or capping precast panels prove to be relatively minor;
beams, or other methods). they cause just a slight increase in negative
840 Piled Waterfront Structures

moments at the supports and a slight de- a National Building Code of Practice and
crease in positive moments at the midspan. other national standards applicable for de-
In summary, deck sti:ffness is a very impor- sign ofbridges. In North American practice,
tant structural parameter and must be the pier deck is commonly designed to con-
evaluated carefully in each specific case. form to the requirements of the latest issue
The distribution of horizontal loads be- of AASHTO specification, Canadian Stand-
tween pile bents depends directly on the ard S6 "Design of Highway Bridges," and
relative stiffness of the deck; naturally, the other relevant documents. Where the deck
relative sti:ffness of a longer deck is smaller structure is designed as a continuous slab
than a shorter deck with the same cross- supported on pile bents, elastic properties
sectional stiffness value. of pile bents (settlements) under vertical
loads are considered. For this, the bent
7.8.2.1.3 Deck design elasticity factor (spring characteristic) is
best obtained from the pile load tests. For a
In general, the deck should be placed preliminary design, relevant information
high enough above the highest expected published in standard texts on foundation
wave crest elevation. Where this is not fea- engineering can be used.
sible, wave uplift pressure should be consid- Calculations can be carried out on the
ered in the design. This pressure is charac- hasis of a five-moment equation (continuous
terized by a high localized initial peak pres- beam on elastic supports) or by utilizing a
sure of short duration followed by a slowly suitable computer program. The former is
varying uplift pressure (e.g., upward and found in basic standard texts on structural
downward) oflower magnitude but oflonger mechanics, and the latter is readily avail-
duration. Details are found in El Ghamry able on the market. In these analyses, the
(1963), Wang (1967), French (1979, and Lai deck structure is usually treated as a con-
and Lee (1989). As noted earlier, the uplift tinuous beam on elastic supports.
pressure can be significantly reduced even In general, any viable design method that
by a very small percentage of pressure re- is used for the deck structure design (analy-
lief openings (relative to deck area) pro- sis) is based on a number of interactive
vided in deck structure (Fig. 7-50). elements included in the criteria that de-
Structurally, the pier deck is usually de- fines satisfactory performance of the struc-
signed in accordance with the latest issue of ture. This includes design loads, structural
materials, and their properties, also a be-
havioral model and realistic, achievable
boundary conditions. Obviously, the nature
and accuracy of this model must take into
consideration the accuracy of available
foundation soil data. If the structure is de-
signed to be in service for a long period of
time, then the aggressive actions of chlo-
rides, sulfates, and other chemical agents
that are plentiful in the marine environ-
ments must be included in structure degra-
1 dation model(s).
Figure 7-71. Grouted key between precast deck
The structural design with ali con-
panels: 1-precast concrete panel; 2-grouted key; 3 straints and allowances included in the de-
-concrete topping. sign model is finally translated into con-
 Piled Waterfront Structures 841

crete and reinforcing steel specifications. (a)

These include the grades of both concrete

and reinforcing steel, the water1cement
ratio, and all ingredients and admixtures
included into the concrete mix.

7.8.2.1.4 Pile foundation ana/ysis

Essentially, this is affected by all kinds
of vertical and horizontal design loads (b)
transmitted to piles mostly through the deck
structure and in some instances imposed
directly on the piles (e.g., environmental
loads generated by waves, current, and ice).
The most significant horizontalloads that
affect pier or marginal structure design are
impact loads from berthing ships and moor-
ing loads. The former is transmitted to the
deck structure via the fender system
mounted on a deck face (edge) beam, and
the latter acts on the pier deck via mooring
accessories such as bollards, quick-release
hooks, and other items installed on the deck.
It should be pointed out that the wind load
imposed against the ship in light condition
can sometimes generate horizontal load on
the dock structure that is more critica! than
impact loads produced by fully laden ship.
Obviously, these loads are transmitted to Figure 7-72. Distribution of horizontalload among
the deck structure via the fender system or piles through deck structure: (a) deck comprised from
mooring accessories strategically placed prefabricated panels placed on pile capping beams; (b)
conventional 45° load distribution from impact point;
along the pier. (c) beam on elastic supports approach. 1-pile;
Lateralloads are distributed among piles 2-cast-in-place or precast pile capping beam; 3-pre-
through the deck structure and, as stated cast panels placed on pile capping beams; 4-cast-in-
earlier, this load distribution is dependent place concrete deck; 5-spring representing stiffness
on deck structural design and its stiffness of pile bent; kb = stiffness coefficient.
(EI). In rare cases of a pier design when
the deck structure is comprised of precast cast-in-place concrete slab placed directly
components sitting freely on pile caps, the upon piles, or the like, the horizontal load
entire horizontal load (e.g. ship impact) is distribution among piles is usually evalu-
assumed to be resisted by a single pile bent ated by one of the following techniques.
(Fig. 7-72a). This structural arrangement The first and the simplest technique as-
can be practica! in the case of a bridge-type sumes that the horizontal force of a berthing
pier in which a single-span deck section ship hitting the pier projects outward at a
rests on pile bends that are able to resist 45° angle from the impact point and is dis-
large ho~zontal loads. On the other hand, tributed among piles within the angle (Fig.
in the case of a continuous deck structure 7-72b). In other words, piles within 45°
rigidly joined with pile capping beams, or distribution only are mobilized to resist the
842 Piled Waterfront Structures

horizontal force. Hence, the horizontal load 7.8.2.1.5 Pile foundation stiffness
on one pile, qP, is determined as qP = Qjn,
The parameters affecting pile stiffness
where n is the number of piles included in
are numerous and not easily simplified.
the area abcd (Fig. 7-72b). In reality, how-
They basically depend on the following
ever, the load distribution among piles de-
factors:
pends on the relative stiffness of both the
deck and the piles. In most practica! design
cases, the deck structure is rather stiff and • Number of piles per bent and their cross
has the ability to distribute the horizontal section(s)
load among much greater number of piles • Spacing between piles and pile bents
than those indicated in Figure 7-72b. As • Presence of batter piles and pile batter
• Total pile length and freestanding portion
pointed out by Padron (1985) and Padron
of a pile that is the length between the
and White (1983), in practice the pier can underside of the deck and fixity point in
resist 2.5 times or more of the impact load the foundation soil
than that assumed in the 45° distribution • Soil parameters, which includes its elastic
method. Typically, the cost of piles consti- properties in both vertical and horizontal
tutes well over half the total cost of the pier directions
structure capable of accommodating deep • The group effect, which depends on factors
draft large ships. Hence, in order to opti- such as pile spacing in both the longitudi-
mize the design of pile-supported pier struc- nal and transverse directions, type and
tures, it is essential to maximize the distri- strength of soils, pile installation method,
bution of the horizontal loads (e.g., ship and so forth.
impact) or mooring forces among the sup-
porting piles. Vertical piles tend to resist lateral load
The second most often used technique flexurally by behaving as cantilever
treats the deck of a pier in a horizontal columns; therefore, when the pier founda-
plane as a girder supported on a set of tion is comprised of vertical piles only, the
elastic supports (springs) with a horizontal pile lateral stiffness, kb, is determined by
concentrated load among the pile bents dis- methods described in the preceding sec-
tributed according to the relative stiffness tions. Naturally, more accurate values of kb
ofthe deck and the piles (Fig, 7-72c). Again, can be obtained from pile lateral load tests.
this system can be analyzed by using the The latter can be economically justified for
five-moments equation or by utilizing a a detailed design of a pier comprised of a
suitable computer program. large number of piles.
This type of analysis produces a rela- Many (not to say most) piled marine
tively accurate assessment of distribution of structures utilize both vertical and batter
horizontal loads between pile bents, pro- piles. In most cases these piles are part of a
vided that the deck stiffness and pile bend typical pile bent; however, the batter piles
spring characteristics are estimated with a can also be placed randomly elsewhere
sufficient accuracy. When the space be- within a structure as required by the load-
tween pile bents is sufficiently small, the ing condition. Naturally, the order of mag-
deck-pile system can be treated as a beam nitude of stiffness of batter piles is much
on an elastic foundation (Padron and greater than vertical ones and, therefore,
Elzoghby, · 1986). Again, the results ob- the latter contribute to bent stiffness much
tained from the above method depend heav- less than battered piles. Mechanism by
ily on accuracy in calculating deck stiffness which batter piles resist horizontal load is
and estimation of pile spring characteris- different than that of vertical piles. Batter
tics. piles tend to resist lateral loads axially by
 Piled Waterfront Structures 843

behaving as columns. However, the axial and vertical piles are included (Fig. 7-73b).
pile deformations (settlement and pull-out However, because stiffness of batter piles is
due to compression and tensile loads) in- much greater than the vertical ones, practi-
evitably res.ult in lateral displacement. This cal infiuence of the latter on the k b value is
displacement is very similar to that which insignificant and therefore, where relevant,
occurs in sheet-pile bulkheads anchored by the effects of vertical piles can be conve-
racked anchor piles (Fig. 6-66d) and calcu- niently ignored.
lated using Eq. (6-56) in Chapter 6. Natu- In performing the frame analysis de-
rally, as discussed earlier, pile lateral dis- scribed above, it is assumed that the lower
placement results in soil reaction and, part of a real pile, below fixity point, O, is
therefore, in bending moments and shear substituted by three independent springs
forces in the piles. Consequently, the lateral that characterize the pile reaction at this
displacement of batter piles constitutes a point; one spring simulates the axial load
very complex phenomenon that includes the response of the pile-soil system, another
elastic deformations of piles itself and the reproduces the lateral resistance, and the
elasto-plastic displacements of foundation third gives the moment-rotation character-
soil. istic of the embedded portion of the pile.
Again, the most reliable values of lateral From these analyses, with a load equal to
displacements of the batter pile system are unity, the bent stiffness coefficient, kb, is
best obtained from large-scale model tests determined as kb = ljy 0, where y 0 is the
of field tests. The approximate solution for system lateral displacement under action of
the batter stiffness coefficient (which can unity load Q = 1.
also be defined as a pile bent stiffness coef- Numerica! values of the spring charac-
ficient), kb, can be obtained by modeling the teristics can be obtained from the pile model
batter pile system as illustrated in Figure indicated in Figure 7-65. This model can
7-73a. provide the required components of pile re-
Essentially, a more accurate solution for sponse needed with the boundary condi-
bent stiffness coefficient, k b, can be ob- tions for analysis of a frame formed by bat-
tained from the model in which both batter ter piles.

(a) (b)

Figure 7-73. Structural model for determination of pile bent stiffuess coefficient,
kb (note: horizontal springs conditionally are not shown): (a) batter pile system only;
(b) complete pile bent system that includes both batter and vertical piles.
844 Piled W aterfront Structures

Padron and Elzoghby (1986) developed (a)

curves for determination of k b in which the
value of kb is given as function ofthe Lt!A
ratio, where Lt is the pile equivalent length
and A is pile cross-sectional area. The solu-
tion is based on simpli:fied method devel-
oped by Ting (1985).
In the most complete method of open pile
analysis, the structure is not segregated
into two separate elements (e.g., the deck
and the pile foundation are treated as a
space frame). This procedure, however, is
very complex and time-consuming. It may
be used primarily in the final design stages
and also when accurate input data based on
real pile tests are available. The structural
analysis can be carried out via computer by
utilizing miscellaneous commercially avail-
able space frame programs.
Analysis of a marginal open-type piled
structure is carried out in a manner similar
to that used for open pile pier design. The
basic difference between a piled pier struc- Figure 7-74. Open pile marginal wharfwith grav-
ity-type retaining wall: (a) cross section; (b) plan.
ture and a marginal piled wharf structure 1-Piled structure; 2-gravity-type retaining wall; 3
is that in the former, relative stiffness of all -design slope; 4-"virtual slope" [according to
piles is approximately the same, whereas in Japanese Technical Standard for Port and Harbour
the latter, the structural elements are vari- Facilities (1980)]; 5-nth pile.
able. This is due to different heights of the
freestanding portion ofpiles (Figs. 7-74 and In this Japanese standard, the depth x 0 is
7 -85). The front piles are relatively more de:fined as the distance from the surface of a
fl.exible than those located closer to the land "virtual slope" to the pile :fixity in the soil
side of the structure. The freestanding pile (point 0). The "virtual slope" is de:fined as a
portion, Ln, which is de:fined as the pile slope that is stable while loaded by miscel-
length from the underside of the deck to laneous horizontal loads, including earth-
pile :fixity within the foundation soil, can be quake loads. The angle a, of a "virtual
determined as recommended by Japanese slope" with the horizontal, is determined
Technical Standard for Port and Harbour from
Facilities (1980) (Figure 7-74):
a=cp-e (7-104)
(7-103)
where
where cp = angle of internal friction of the main compo-
nent of slope material
x0 = 1/{3 in which {3 = (khdj4EI) 114 e = tan- 1k/,, where k/, is the horizontal seismic
kh = coefficient of horizontal subgrade reac- coefficient in water
tion (kgfjcm 3 )
d = diameter (width) of pile (cm) Where a gravity-type retaining structure is
(EI)n = flexural rigidity ofthe nth pile (kgfcm 2 ) placed behind the piled structure, the base
 Piled Waterfront Structures 845

of this retaining structure should be located ered

beyond the edge of the "virtual slope"
(Fig. 7-74) Yn = Yo + axn (7-108)

The J apanese Standard given above also where a is the torsional rotation of the
recommends the following distribution of piled section
horizontalload, Q, among individual piles.

(a) The horizontal load, Q, is acting at the

structure's gravity center (GC); therefore,
torsional rotation need not be considered.
Hence, The bending moment at the nth pile head,
M n, is calculated from
Q~ (kh(n)~~ kh)Q
= (7-105) (7-110)

(b) The horizontalload, Q, is acting eccentri- The axial load on each pile, Pn, included
cally; hence, the structure torsional rota- two components, Pn(h) and Pn(u)
tion needs to be taken into account:
(7-111)

where
Pn(v) = axialload contributed by verticalloads
where Pn(h) = axialload contributed by horizontalloads

Q~ = horizontal load distribqtion to the nth

pn(h) = sn(n-1) + sn(n+1)
pile
M(n-1)n + Mn(n-1)- Mn(n+1)- M(n+1)n

l
kh(n) = horizontal stiffness on the nth pile, or (7-112)
horizontal spring characteristic of the
nth pile; kh(n) = 12Eln!L!, where Eln where sn(n-1) and sn(n+l) are respectively
is the stiffness ofthe nth pile and Ln is
shear forces at the head ofthe nth pile on a
the design freestanding part of the n th
pile
side of the (n - l)st pile and on a side of
the (n + l)st pile caused in the deck struc-
L:n k n = horizontal stiffness of pile foundation,
or the sum of horizontal stiffness of all ture by horizontalloads; M(n-l)n' Mn(n-l)'
piles included in the pile foundation Mn(n+l)' and M(n+l)n are bending moments

e = distance from gravity center (GC) of a in the deck structure at the pile head caused
pile foundation to load application point by the horizontal force respectively on a
xn = distance from GC to the nth pile side of an nth pile at the head of a (n - l)st
pile, on a side of an (n - l)st pile at the
Accordingly, horizontal displacements ofthe head of an nth pile, on a side of an (n + l)st
structure, y, and individual piles, y n, can pile at the head of an nth pile, and on a
be calculated using the following expres- side of an nth pile at the head of an (n +
sions (note that the deck structure is con- l)st pile; l = space between pile bents
sidered as very rigid):
7.8.2.1.6 Length of a deck
(a) Torsional rotation need not be considered
between expansion
joints
Yo = Q ~~ kh(n) (7-107) Deck movements due to changes in the
ambient temperatures cause piles to deflect.
(b) Torsional resistance needs to be consid- Naturally, the piles included in the edge
846 Piled Waterfront Structures

bents on both sides of the deck will defl.ect L..__ _ __

the most. Hence, assuming that the maxi-
mum permissible defl.ection of the pile is
equal to [ y 0 ], the maximum length of the
deck between expansion joints, Ld, can be
expressed as follows.

2[y 0 ]
L --- (7-113) L
d- cÂt

where
c = coefficient of thermal expansion of deck 1
material (Table 7-13) 1
 t = design temperature fluctuation (in degrees)
1
The permissible defl.ection of a pile, [y 0 ], is 1
governed by the permissible stress level, ft, \
induced in a pile due to displacement from
its original position by virtue of deck move-
ments. Figure 7-75. Width of expansion joint between adja-
Essentially, relatively fl.exible piles are cent deck sections.
more adaptable to defl.ections than stiff ones.
The allowable pile displacement can be ob- between adjacent deck sections (Fig. 7-75).
tained from l = 2[ y 0 ] + 5 (7-115)

Note: l and [y 0 ] are in mm.

L 2 (S.M.)ft
[yol = 3(EI)p (7-114)
Essentially, permissible stress level in a
pile due to deck expansionjcontraction is a
where part of a total stress value contributed by
L =pile freestanding portion; L = H + x0 other loads, e.g., verticalloads, ship impact
load, mooring forces, environmental loads,
(S.M.) = pile section modulus
etc.
(EI)P = pile stiffness
7.8.2.1.7 Pile structural design
Allowable displacement of a pile also deter-
mines the width of the expansion joint, l, In open piled piers, the piles are nor-
mally treated as part of a rigid frame. De-
pending on the pile arrangement (e.g.,
Table 7-13. Coefficientofthermal expansion whether it is comprised of vertical piles
(linear, per degree X 10- 6 )
only, ora combination of vertical and batter
Material c per°C piles), structural pile design can be con-
trolled by either the combined action of both
Structural steel 11.7
Concrete 10 axial and horizontalloads or by axialloads.
Fir (parallel to fiber) 3.8 As said earlier, the former is basically char-
Fir (perpendicular to fiber) 58 acteristic of the case where the pile founda-
tion is composed of vertical piles only, and
Note: Coefficients of thermal expansion given in this table
are average values obtained from various sourees. the latter is more applicable to pile founda-
 Piled Waterfront Structures 847

tions that includes both the vertical and the where

batter piles. A = pile "effective" load-bearing area
For a long unsupported length, L, the r = (ljA) 0 ·5 = radius of gyration of pile cross
axial load-carrying capacity of the pile, Q, section.
is limited to that of a long column; thus,
Euler's formula for the critica! buckling load The expression kLjr is called the "effective
is applicable. Applying this formula within slendemess ratio," where kL is de:fined as
the elastic range, Q is computed from the the pile "effective length." Theoretical k
following expression: values for severa! idealized end conditions
are given in Figure 7-76. It should be
pointed out that in many practica! cases,
(7-116) the pile's reinforcement and its cross sec-
tion geometry are govemed not by axial
where loads (static or dynamic) but by the maxi-
E and 1 = the pile material modulus of elasticity mum bending stress induced during pile
and the pile cross-section moment of pick-up and handling operations.
inertia, respectively
k =pile end condition factor, which deter- Precast and Prestressed concrete
mines the pile's "effective" length Piles
L = length of pile between the deck un- These piles have been used extensively
derside and fixity point in foundation elsewhere in the world and are discussed
soil earlier in this chapter. A detailed discus-
sion on these piles as used in structural
The pile buckling stress, {p, is determined design is given in Gerwick (1968, 1971,
from 1974) and Libby (1984). Chellis (1961),
Q 7r2E
Quinn (1972), and Libby (1984) provided
(7-117) tables with typical details of precast con-
{p = A = (kLjr) 2
crete piles of different cross sections . and

(bl (el (dl (el (fi

) ~B?
(al
,..
~~ ~
. -<(,t'f'
... ~ ~
1 \
1 1 1 \ 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
BUCKLED SHAPE OF 1 1 1
1 1 1
COLUMN IS SHOWN l\ \ 1 1
BY DASHED LINE
\
1
1 1 1
l 1
1

.
1
1 1
"'1--
t i'"rr ~~
~~
~t
THEORETICAL K VALUE 0.5 0.7 1;0 1.0 2.0 2.0

DESIGN VALUE OF K
WHEN IDEAL CONDITIONS 0.65 0.80 12 1.0 2.1 2.0
ARE APPROXIMATED

1 ROTATION FIXED TRANSLATION FIXED

ENO CONDITION CODE V ROTATION FREE TRANSLATION FIXED

~ ROTATION FIXED TRANSLATION FREE

y ROTATION FREE TRANSLATION FREE

Figure 7-76. Theoretical value of effective length factor, K, for

axially loaded piles.
848 Piled W aterfront Structures

allowable maximum design loads for vari- and shop procedure, it can be expected that
ous sizes and lengths. circumferential welds between tubes will be
the controlling imperfection when they are
steel pi/es contained within a region of uniform mo-
ment.
The design requirements of these piles
are similar to those for concrete piles. The steel Piles Fi/led with concrete
task of the designer is to calculate the axial,
bending, and shear capacities and to exam- Concrete is often used to increase pile
ine the combined effect of axial and bending strength and buckling stability. Further-
stresses. Large-diameter thin-walled steel more, use of concrete-filled piles that, in
piles are basically designed as long-span general, will be of a smaller diameter than
girders, the strength of which is controlled those not filled with concrete require lesser
either by material yield or by local buckling driving effort for pile installation. Also, use
of the cylinder wall. The strength of axially of stronger concrete-filled piles may require
compressed cylinders can be taken as a fewer piles to support a pier deck.
starting point for the evaluation of local Concrete-filled piles perform similarly to
buckling strength of thin-walled pipe piles slender steel tubular columns filled with
in flexure. There is a considerable volume of concrete. Both have been used extensively
literature on this subject. The most recent in marine engineering practice; they were
discussion is given in Pinkney et al. (1983), used to support bridges and for construction
Stephens et al. (1982, 1983), and Kulak et of port related structure, in conventional
al. (1988). Criteria for design of thin-walled civil engineering practice, concrete-filled
fabricated large-diameter tubular members columns have been used extensively to sup-
are given in a variety of North American port floors in multistory buildings.
specifications [e.g., ASTM "Metal Contain- The load-carrying capacity of both axially
ment Shell Buckling Design Methods" that and eccentrically loaded slender steel tubu-
is part of the ASME "Boiler and Pressure lar piles and columns can be calculated us-
Vessel Code" (1980) from the American So- ing the design provisions contained in stan-
ciety of Mechanical Engineers]. dard codes of practice (e.g., ACI 318-891ACI
A comparison of codes is given in 318R-89, CAN 3-516.1 M84, BS 5400: Part
Stephens et al. (1982). It should be pointed 5, and others. These design guidelines are
out that current North American specifica- simple to use, although largely empirica!
tions do not distinguish between the local and conservative. On the other hand, some
buckling strength of cylindrical members, theoretical methods, such as one proposed
subjected to uniform axial compression, and by Neogi et al. (1969), are too complex.
the flexural strength of these members, The Intemational Committee for the De-
whereas the current European specification velopment and Study of Tubular Structures
"European Convention for Constructional (CIDECT), which includes members from
Steelwork" (1979) does. Kulak et al. (1988) Japan, Europe, the United States, and
carried out bending tests on large- Canada, recently issued Monograph No. 5,
diameter fabricated steel cylinders and con- "Design of Concrete-Filled Hollow Section
cluded that the local buckling strength of Columns: Calculation Method and Applica-
fabricated steel tubes loaded in flexure is tion Technology" in North America, repub-
affected by initial geometric imperfections lished by Stelco, Inc. (Stelco, 1981). This
and by nonhomogeneous material behavior document is based on research work on the
caused by residual stresses. Kulak et al. structural behavior of concrete-filled hollow
found that, assuming that fabrication of the structural section (HSS) columns done in
tube is done according to best workmanship several countries. It is important to note
 Piled Waterfront Structures 849

that in this monograph, the proposed

method of analysis for concrete-filled steel (a)

columns is based on European design rules F, • 350 lo4PI

~~ - 20MJ>a

such as Limit State Design Method of the

ECC (European Committee for Concrete)
and the buckling curves of the ECCS
,.
~ -~ 10 "'
v ..
s
.
""-

(European Convention for Constructional / / "

Steelwork). V/ V "
The design method included in the afore- 1; ./ ./
mentioned Monograph No. 5 is used for /;' / ./ /"
analysis of either square or tubular steel ~ V / ./
"
shells filled with concrete. The strength of ;/,V V / /
/

concrete, f~, has obvious effect on pile (col- j, '/ V / "

umn) strength; high-strength concrete can
"
d 'i / V //
..
~ / / / 1// c ....-
appreciably increase the load-carrying ca- f/

pacity of a pile while keeping steel use to a ~V / / .... v / -----e--"'

f.--"

-- - -
-- --
minimum. When the pile is exposed to ec- .â~ / V ./ / V v /
centric loads or when end moments are pre- "
~ ~ ~ ~ ./ / / / v 1-- ....-
sent, these can be accounted for by using
~ ~ ~ ~ -; VV ....- ::::: ....- 1--
factored loading conditions, which are dis-
~ ~ ~ ~ :;...-
cussed further in this section. Dimension-
less load charts for both square and round """ '
sections, given in Figures 7-77 and 7-78,
are aimed at simplifying the design calcula- (b)

tions by providing a direct graphical equiv-

alent of numerica! results.
These charts are prepared for long-term "'
loads; therefore, creep of concrete has been / ' •"
taken into account. The load charts account /1/ "
for the overall buckling of the column and / /1v"
V/ /
"'
the hoop effect for short circular columns.
") [/
They also give the factored compressive /
~ '/ "
strength, Cr, or concrete-filled steel columns V
/,'/ /
subjected to axialloading. " /'l / / /"
The following parameters are required ~/ / v
for use of the load charts: :'iV V V v"
~V V ....-
"
1. Type of steel column cross section (e.g., " ~ V / V ./ 1-- 1--
~/ / V /
" e-- 1--f-'
square or round)
v ....- --
1-- r-
50

A f? / ./ / /
_,....
2. Specified minimum yield stress of steel, ~~ V / / V / v ....- 1--
"
FY ~ ~~ ~ ;:::: v f.-:::: ::::: 1--
:;..-
3. Specified compressive strength of con- ~ ~ ~ f'::::
crete,r: ~

4. Effective length of column, kL

Figure 7-77. Concrete-filled steel piles. Load charts
5. Outside diameter, D, or width, b, of the
for square cross sections. [From Stelco Inc., CIDECT
steel column Monograph No. 5, Canadian edition (1981).]
6. Thickness of column wall, t
850 Piled Waterfront Structures

(a)
(a) F, .. 3$0 MPa Fr • 350MPa
1~ • 20MPa
ic - 20MPa

c. c.

. '1-%
.!!!,.

1 '
D
210
/ '
' "
.
,
,.
/
70
/ " V /

." /
20
,,.
..
, V
V "
.
."
/ V
vV V "
. ,,. / /
.1/ vvv /
no / "
~.~,v V V v'" ......
k;::vv 1/ / . 1/ /
""' v
/

_....!-- "'
30
~vv v v" ""'
V
~/ V / /
v"' "
. 1--- ~~--- ~--~
"
~
~'/
/ V
V
""' f-- ~~
v" . ..
1--
1-
1--1- 1-"'
i-1-- !--" ..
1-- " 1- i-1-r-
'ţ/ /
V
i-1-
1-
"
~~ ~::::: ~~
li'
15 20 25 .
(b)
.!i Fr .. 3$0 MPa
re • 2SMPa

c.
c.
r-f,- gs
,.
y .. ~
'
.!!!,.
o
'
240

"
V V
>O
/ "

,,. v" 1/
1/
..
,. V V .. /
" "
o
/ /
1/
V / ,.
/
" vvv /
o
~ V
V ,. "
V ""' ///V V V
.
/
V •o
/ d
.
/

...
70
.....
.
" ·e: '/,...- "..,.f-" v-f-- v v",.
...
1-- V
..... 1- ~~ /
V f-I-- "
1- !!l!!v 1--~--'
~[:;: ~P- F-i-1-
"
.. . .
1-

"""
." .""
30

"
90 95 100

Figure 7-78. Concrete-filled steel piles. Load charts for round cross sections. [From Stelco Inc.,
CIDECT Monograph No. 5, Canadian edition (1981).]
 Piled Waterfront Structures 851

ff-
c, (a) /1-~
Co
p. • 1~3 .{ji (c:ltcul• HSS)
Fr • 350 NPa
Mt p. - b 'f ~1 (squar.ttSS)
e--
e,
1f t"-..
" . - 2ftAI.
.. l• ..,l.,
b.,
1"/.
~
,, A.•1KAr.

l'f.. "V ''-, lf'

", 1• I~Ac
1\ .'\
3.0
'\
·'V.
.r
1'\
''\ i/ ['\.. _L "• . ,"""",
'\
r'\ ll !"""' ..
(b)
"'
.. i\ X \1 /
a
1/ IL' j
~ 1\ .~ '\
fi 1\ V lX ~ '\
... 1~

'
\ 1 !"-. ~ '\ Aa • H.~-

~"'
~ r--...' 1'-, ..
~
)
/}\
~ ~
\
.L
~ 1
IC•20M~
1

...
~~ [',. Î"-
1'--.
1\
'~"~ "ES.
~
(o;.• 25MPa

... r:::
~ [;::--- 1---- r---. t-
.!!!.•
o
l"
~ r;:: r-- t--
r--- r=:::.. ~V "':MPI
~
~V rc .. 35~•
... ~ ~ 1-- ..
F=:::::: ..
..• •..
Jl re •
..'
40MP•

'
.. .. ..
1~15
7.0 }'

... ... ... .Lor..!.

Figure 7-80. Concrete-filled steel piles correlation
between factors {3 and p. as a function of A 8 = f(Ac),
Figure 7-79. Concrete filled.steel piles: (a) correla- CIDECT monograph No. 5, Canadian edition (1981).
tion between axialload and end moment; (b) eccentric-
ity reduction factor, a. [From Stelco lnc., CIDECT
Monograph No. 5, Canadian edition (1981).] (Fig. 7-79a). Detailed information concern-
ing the theoretical data on which this ec-
centricity factor chait is based is given in
The appropriate chart is chosen according work by Guiaux and Janss (1970). As is
to parameters 1, 2, and 3. Parameters 4, 5, seen from Figure 7-79b, the eccentricity
and 6 are used to determine kL jD or kL jb factor, a, is a function ofthe real or equiva-
ratios, which are used to determine the fac- lent eccentricity, e, the effective length of
tored compressive strength, cr = yt 2 ' where the pile (column), kL, and the outside diam-
the factor y is obtained from the load chart eter or width of pile cross section, D
as a function of FY, {~, kLjD or kLjb, and or b; essentially, the favored compressive
Djt or bjt strength of the eccentrically loaded pile
As noted earlier, the eccentricity factor, equals era.
a, is used for calculating the factored com- Preliminary parameters for concrete-
pressive resistance of the pile when end filled piles are obtained with help of the
moments are present. This factor is ob- graph given in Figure 7-80. This graph is
tained from the chart presented in Figure based on the following assumptions:
7-79b. This chart is based on a linear inter-
action formula and leads to conservative 1. The load is purely axial; however, the
values of the factored axial capacity of a eccentricity reduction factor, a, is used
pile (column) of a given length when sub- when required to account for eccentricity.
jected to a real or equivalent eccentric load 2. The steel and concrete are limited to max-
852 Piled Waterfront Structures

imum stress levels of 0.9FY and 0.67{~ 8. From the manufacturer's catalogs, select
(limit state design). the nearest available preliminary diame-
3. The ratio between the area of steel, A., ter, D, or width, b, of the pile section
and the area of concrete, Ac, is in the that is as close as possible to values ob-
range 5% Ac :o; A 8 :o; 25% Ac. tained by expressions (7-118) or (7-119).
9. Check the data for the pile selected in
The preliminary parameters obtained for a item 8 against the assumptions made in
pile must then be checked by the use of item 2. lf they are not comparable, then
load charts and the eccentricity reduction correct the assumptions and repeat items
factor a. 3-9 again until convergence.
The following is a step-by-step approach 10. Obtain f.L from expressions (7-118) or
used to determine the pile axial load- '(7-119), and for known FY and {~, deter-
carrying capacity from a strength of mate- mine {3 from Figure 7-80.
rial viewpoint. 11. Compute the preliminary area of a steel
pile cross section, A., from
1. Specify pile cross-section geometry (e.g.,
square or round), minimum yield strength (7-120)
of steel, FY, and compressive strength of
concrete, {~.
2. Determine effective length, kL. 12. Using A., define a preliminary wall
3. Detine factored loading conditions in ac- thickness, t, from the manufacturer's
cordance with the appropriate national catalog.
design standard.
When the preliminary pile section is se-
The above parameters are then used for the lected, check it by using the load charts in
preliminary sizing of pile (column) cross the following sequence.
section. It is carried out in the following
sequence: 1. Compute the ratio DjT or bjt.
2. For known FY, {~, kLjD or kLjb, and
1. Calculate the factored load, e,. Djt or bjt, determine y from the appro-
2. Assume D or b, pile cross section. priate chart in Figure 7-77 or 7-78.
3. Calculate the real or equivalent eccen- 3. Calculate the factored compressive
tricity, e (Fig. 7-79a). strength of a pile under axial load from
4. Calculate ejD or ejb, and kLjD or er = yt2.
kLjb. 4. Finally, check for aer < e,, where e, is
5. From Figure 7-79b, determine eccentric- the factored load on the pile.
ity factor, a. In the case of aer< e,, it will usually
6. Determine a preliminary value of f.L from suffi.ce to increase the pile thickness by
Figure 7-80. A steel section with area one increment. Finally, it should be re-
A. close to 12% of the area of the con- membered that SI units are used
crete section Ac for a square cross sec- throughout the above procedure.
tion and 9% for a round cross section is
a good starting point for an economica!
design.
More recently, Rangan and Joyce (1992)
7. Compute a trial diameter, D, or width,
proposed a new simple method for calculat-
b, from the following relations: ing the strength of eccentricity loaded slen-
der steel tubular columns filled with con-
D = 1.13f.L(e,;a)0 .5 (7-118) crete. This method is based on the assump-
tion that the failure load is reached when
b = f.L(e,;a) 0'5 (7-119) the maximum moment at midheight of the
 Piled Waterfront Structures 853

column is equal to the ultimate bending bility are required, a reinforcing cage can
strength of the cross section at that loca- be added to the concrete in-fiU to com-
tion. Another assumption is that the de- pensate for potential loss of steel due to
flection of the column due to creep of corrosion.
concrete (or other long-term effects) and
imperfections in the steel shell may be 7.8.2.1.8 Pile design sequence
treated as an additional eccentricity. Ac-
cording to Rangan and Joyce, the column The design process is essentially a trial-
strength calculated by their method show and-error procedure during which the most
good correlation with test results. economica! solution is typically found by
Where additional strength andjor dura- the following sequence.

Determine design conditions

Assume the structure geometry and pile arrangements

Perform underdeck slope stability analysis

Design preliminary deck structure

Design preliminary and do stability calculations for

soil retaining structure (if any)

Calculate axial loads, bending moments and shear forces in

piles. Determine horizontal displacement of the structure

Determine pile penetration and calculate pile bearing capacity

Do detailed design

7.8.2.2 Design of Piled Relieving

Platform the relieving platforms are typically com-
These structures are illustrated in Fig- prised of a pile foundation surmounted by a
ures 7 -le, and 7 -lg, and 7-19 through heavy concrete deck ora retaining-wall-type
7-25. As is seen from these illustrations, concrete superstructure. As stated earlier,
854 Piled Waterfront Structures

relieving platforms are attractive for con- mitted eventually to vertical andjor batter
struction where soft andjor weak founda- piles. The superstructure is designed to
tion soils, unsuitable for construction of a carry the weight of a back:fill placed on the
gravity-type quay wall or conventional platform, surcharge, and other relevant
sheet-pile bulkhead, are present, andjor loads. Because these loads are transmitted
where the wharf is designed to handle an directly to the piles, the back:fill behind the
extremely heavy surcharge or concentrated sheeting is "relieved" from them, and the
loads. These loads, along with other loads lateral thrust against the sheet pile wall is
such as lateral thrust of a backfill soil, substantially reduced.
mooring and ship impact forces, loads pro- The soil pressure "relieving effect" can be
duced by miscellaneous cargo handling and maximized by extending the deck structure
hauling equipment, and others, are trans- some distance beyond the last row of piles.
mitted to piles which, in turn, carry them This will also add some vertical load to the
directly to the foundation soil. In most prac- tension piles, in which case the uplift .load
tica! cases, the deck or soil-retaining super- on these piles can be reduced or even elimi-
structure are placed some distance above nated. The latter may be an important con-
the mean water level, which enables the sideration where pile penetration is limited
contractor to carry out the construction by closely located bedrock and, thus, the
work above sea level. Sometimes, however, tension piles are not able to develop the
when a structure is constructed on existing required uplift capacity.
land or temporary placed :fill, and the har-
hor basin is dredged afterward, the super- 7.8.2.2.1 superstructure
structure can be placed below the mean
water level. It is similar to that discussed in Section
As discussed earlier, in some cases the 7.8.2.1. In the case of relieving platform,
concrete superstructure is placed directly however, the task of calculating the super-
on the :fill installed behind a sheet-pile wall, structure's stiffness can sometimes by more
whereas in other cases, the superstructure difficult and time-consuming because of its
spans a sloping :fill behind the sheeting. The complex geometry.
advantage ofthe former arrangement is that
the superstructure can be cast directly on 7.8.2.2.2 Sheet pi/ing
the back:fill, in which case however the
sheet-piling may require temporary anchor- As is seen from the various examples of
age (Fig. 7-86b); the anchorage may not be piled relieving platforms described earlier
required if the sheeting is of a "dredged" in this chapter, sheet-pile bulkhead placed
type of construction. For details on the in front of the wall can be of miscellaneous
"dredged" and "back:filled" bulkheads, con- construction; for example, conventional steel
sult Chapter 6. sheet-piling, reinforced concrete sheet-
The disadvantage of the second arrange- piling of miscellaneous design, heavy build-
ment is that the superstructure needs to be up steel king piles placed apart with the
cast on formwork supported on scaffolding, conventional steel sheet piles installed be-
none ofwhich may be recovered and reused. tween them, wooden sheet-piling, and oth-
Alternatively, the superstructure can be ers. In some instances, the waterside bulk-
erected from precast components. The obvi- head can be constructed in a form of slurry
ous advantage of this structural arrange- wall. The example is provided in Chapter 6.
ment, particularly in combination with a The waterside bulkhead is an integral
sloping fiii, is a substantial reduction in the part of a wall and is designed accordingly.
lateral soil pressure exerted on the sheet- In most practica! cases, this wall is joined
pile wall; the reduced soil pressure is trans- rigidly to a concrete superstructure; how-
 Piled Waterfront Structures 855

ever, sometimes the sheet-piling is hinged soil pressure against sheet pile wall is af-
at the superstructure's underside (Figs. fected substantially by the presence of ver-
7-19, 7-20a, and 7-23) or just leans against tical and batter piles located behind the
a special supporting member which is a sheeting. These piles reduce the amount of
structural part of the superstructure (Fig. soil thrust acting on the sheeting. In fact,
7-20b). Depending on the sheet-piling fixity because of a shielding effect of the vertical
mode, its design may vary substantially. and batter piles, the actual soil pressure
Normally, the sheet-piling is designed to against the sheeting included in the reliev-
have sufficient penetration in order to per- ing platform system is normally much
form according to the fixed-earth support smaller than that with no due consideration
mode of failure (for details, consult Chapter to piles effects.
6). Accordingly, when the sheeting is fixed When the soil pressure against sheet-pile
within the concrete superstructure, it is as- wall is determined, the following sheet-pile
sumed that the bending moments are trans- wall analysis is carried out in a manner
mitted through the sheeting in a way that similar to that used for the conventional
the fixing moments at the wall head and sheet-pile wall design. For a detailed dis-
the fixity point within the foundation soil cussion on sheet-pile wall analysis, consult
equal the mid-wall moment, whereby the Chapter 6. An example of a graphic analy-
capacity of the wall is utilized to its maxi- sis of a sheet-pile wall included in the
mum extent. In this scheme, however, the relieving-platform-type retaining wall is
location of the maximum bending moment presented in Figure 7-81. In this example,
will typically coincide with a tidal andjor the soil pressure diagram against the
splash zone which are most sensitive to the sheet-pile wall is depicted in Figure 7-81b.
material corrosio:n,. Therefore, ali attempts Further steps include calculating individual
must be roade to protect the wall from dete- loads and plotting the load vector diagram
rioration, specifically in a zone of maximum and string polygon, from which the sheet-
bending moment. pile penetration, D 0 , is obtained, depending
Stiff sheet-pile walls, such as those corn- on an assumed mode of connection between
posed of reinforced concrete sheet piles, the sheeting and the superstructure; namely
heavy steel piles, or the like, are usually fixed or hinged. Accordingly, line AB in
designed to carry both vertical loads from string polygon (Fig. 7-81c) corresponds to
the superstructure and bending moments full sheet-pile fixity within the concrete su-
from lateral soil thrust. Walls comprised of perstructure, and line A'B' is used when
conventional steel sheet piles and, in most the sheeting is hinged at the superstruc-
instances, walls roade from timber sheet tures underside. As discussed in Chapter 6,
piles are usually considered as too flexible the value of the bending moment in the
and, therefore, ineffective to carry the verti- graphic method ofthe sheet-pile wall analy-
calloads. In this case, the first row of verti- sis is computed from M 8 = pzmax> in which
cal bearing piles is usually installed as close values of p and Zmax are obtained from the
as practica! to the sheet-pile wall, and the vector diagram and string polygon (Figs.
latter is designed as an anchored flexible 7-81c and 7-810. As pointed out by
sheeting with no verticalload acting on it. Smirnov et al. (1979), values of M 8 and D 0
The basic concept of computing the lat- can be affected by the deflection of at least
eral soil thrust against the sheet-pile wall, the first row of piles located just behind the
which is part of a relieving platform, is sheet-pile wall; when deflection of the
discussed in detail in Chapter 4 and illus- sheeting is greater than the deflection of
trated in Figure 4-21. From the discussion piles, then some additional soil pressure
given in Chapter 4, one can find that the will be transferred to the sheet-pile wall.
 856 Piled Waterfront Structures

(a) (b) (c)

~~ J1 'Y, cp, 11 1

z 1 1
3-+r--+--~~--~~-

Figure 7-81. Graphic analysis of ftexible sheet-pile walllocated on the waterside of relieving
platform: (a) design scheme; (b) soil pressure diagram on sheet-piling; (c) sheet-piling string
polygon; (d) soil pressure diagram on vertical pile (line EF); (e) :file string polygon; (f) sheet-piling
vector diagram; (g) pile vector diagram. 1-Sheet-piling with restrained head; 2-sheet-piling
hinged at superstructure.

An accurate determination of the addi- be distributed between the sheet-pile wall

tional bending moment in a sheet-pile wall and the piles, proportional to their respec-
due to pile deflection is a very difficult task. tive stiffnesses. This assumption is sup-
Hence, a simplifi.ed approach is usually used ported by measurements on a quay wall at
to account for the effect of pile deflection. In Baltimore where a proportion of the total
this approach, the fi.rst row of piles located active lateral loads, carried by the steel
behind the sheet-pile wall is assumed to be sheeting and by Monotube piles, appeared
exposed to the pressures exerted on it from to approximately correspond to their EI
the soil in the space between the sheet-pile values (Tschebotarioff and Ward, 1957).
wall and the piles (Zone A) and also the soil In practice, the calculations proceed in
in the space between the fi.rst and the sec- the following sequence. Initially, the values
ond rows of piles (Zone B) (Fig. 7-8la). of M; and D 0 are computed as discussed
Naturally, if the pressure exerted by the earlier; the bending moment in sheet-piling
soil located in Zone A is smaller than that produced by the pressure of soil included in
in Zone B, then the piles will tend to deflect Zone A only is obtained from M; = pzmax.
toward the sheeting, and vice versa. Thus, N ext, the pressure on the screen plane
the unbalanced part of the soil pressure can EF exerted by soil located in Zone B is
 Piled Waterfront Structures 857

plotted (Fig. 7-81d), and, subsequently, The design bending moment for sheet-piling
M; = p 'z;"ax is calculated. Here, M; is the is determined from
bending moment in the first row of piles
when the balancing soil pressure from Zone
(7-126)
A is ignored. However, soil from Zone A will
apply pressure on row of these piles, which
in the case of conditional absence of soil in where K M is the bending moment reduc-
Zone B will result in bending moment in tion factor which accounts for fiexibility of
the piles equal to M;. sheet-pile wall. The value of K M is deter-
Because bending moments at place EF, mined as discussed in detail in Chapter 6.
attributed to soil pressures from Zones A For design penetration, the larger value
and B, have opposite signs; thus, the unbal- of D 0 or D'o is used. Note that when the
anced part of the bending moment is ex- sheet-pile wall is placed on the land side of
pressed as llMP = M; - M;. Naturally, un- the structure, the soil pressures on it is
der conditions where M; > M;, the pile will determined as discussed in Chapter 4 (Fig.
defiect toward the sheeting, thus exerting 4-32) and the sheet-pile wall is designed
an extra load on it. As noted earlier, the according to the guideline provided in
unbalanced moment, llM, is distributed be- Chapter 6.
tween the sheet-pile wall and the row of
piles according to their stiffnesses (El).
Mathematically, this assumption can be
7.8.2.2.3 Lateral soi/
expressed in the following terms:
pressure on relieving
platform used for
M; (EI). pile system analysis
(7-121)
As pointed out earlier; the advantage of
the relieving platform is that the screening
and effect produced by the wall's superstructure
(7-122) and piles help to significantly reduce the
lateral soil pressure exerted on the wall.
where The important question, of course, is how
M"s = part of !lMp transmitted to sheet pile wall much the lateral soil pressure exerted on
due to defiection of piles toward the wall the wall is reduced by the relieving plat-
M"p = part of !l M p acting on the pile form. Unfortunately, to date, not very many
a = distance between piles along the wall studies have been carried out to investigate
the interaction between the soil and the
From Eqs. (7-121) and (7-122) the fol- piled relieving platform wall.
lowing expressions for M; and M; are ob- Model tests perfoJ;IDed at the Franzius
tained: Institute, Germany (Streck, 1950;
Grundbau-Taschenbuch, Vol. 19, 1955)
M" = !lM/E/)sa (7-123) show that the size of piles, as well as the
" a(EI). + (EI)p space between them in both transverse and
M" = !lMP(EI)pa
longitudinal directions, have a profound ef-
(7-124) fect on soil pressure under the platform; the
P a(EI). + (EI)p
noncohesive soil present between piles, as
The total bending moment in a sheet-pile well as between piles and the sheet-pile
wall is obtained from wall, tend to act as if it· were inside of an
infinitely long silo, in which, because of fric-
(7-125) tion along vertical walls, a maximum lat-
858 Piled Waterfront Structures

erai pressure is reached at a certain depth line 1 is used when sheeting in hinged and
and remains constant below that depth. (For line 2 is considered when sheeting is joined
details on the silo effect, consult informa- rigidly with the wall superstructure. For
tion provided in Chapter 5). This compli- details on this graphic method of sheet-pile
cated phenomenon of soil-pile interaction analysis, consult Chapter 6. Because the
results in an uncertain soil pressure distri- sheet-pile wall is relatively flexible, the ac-
bution under the relieving platform. tual reaction force, Ra, is somewhat larger
To simplify calculations of the total soil than R~ obtained from the vector diagram
pressure on the relieving platform wall, the (Fig. 7-83e). It is usually computed as equal
effect of the piles is usually ignored. Obvi- toRa = KRR~, where, depending on sheet-
ously, this results in a conservative esti- pile wall stiffness (EI)P, K R = 1.2 to 1.4.
roate of soil pressure. The simplified version For a detailed discussion on K R, consult
of the soil pressure diagram on a sheeting Chapter 6.
(one soil system) is illustrated in Figure The design horizontalload from soil pres-
7-82. The soil pressure diagram as depicted sure, Ea, exerted on relieving super-
in this :figure is drawn using the following structure is determined as follows:
steps.
(7-127)
From the inner lower corner (D) of the
platform, a line DF' is drawn under the where E 1 is the soil active thrust on the
angle <jJ 2 , which is the angle of internal vertical projection of the wall's superstruc-
friction of a backfill soil. This determines ture.
the point F of the pressure diagram, above
which no pressure from beyond the plat- 7.8.2.2.4 Pile foundation
form is transmitted to the sheeting. Then a
line DN' is drawn under the angle 8 = This includes aU vertical and batter piles
45° + <Pd2, which defines the sliding place and sheet-piling on which the superstruc-
of the active wedge of soil through point D.
Below point N, opposite N', the lateral pres-
sure is taken equal to the value beyond the
limits of the platform. A straight-line tran-
sition is assumed between points F and N.
The active lateral soil pressure on the
sheeting is then represented by ABGNF.
Soil pressure ordinates F'F, N'N, and BG
are computed according to the rules dis-
cussed in Chapter 4. A relevant example is \

illustrated in Figure 4-20. The full horizon- \

.\
\
tal soil thrust on the platform is determined 1
as the upper reaction, R~, of a beam AB
having lower support below the dredge line. \
1
The determination of the soil pressure \
diagram and the horizontal reaction on the \
platform for a complex soil system that in- N' \
cludes several types of soils is illustrated in
Figure 7-83. This :figure is self-explanatory.
Figure 7-82. Conventional estimation of soillateral
As is seen from Figure 7-83d, the value pressures on sheeting for determination of soil reaction
of beam reaction, R~, depends on the as- on relieving platform (screening effect of platform is
sumed mode of fixity in the superstructure; considered, but that of piles is ignored).
 Piled Waterfront Structures 859

Figure 7-83. Practica! example of conventional estimation of lateral soil pressure

exerted on sheeting, and graphic calculation of soil reaction on relieving platform in a
multilayered soil system: (a) design diagram; (b) soil pressures diagram on sheeting; (c)
vector diagram; (d) string polygon.

ture (relieving platform) is resting. Essen- ably larger for piles in loose sand than for
tially, the load-carrying capacity of this piles driven into dense sand). Accordingly,
group of piles depends on factors such as in cohesive soils, the skin resistance of a
pile spacing, type and strength of soils that pile group should not be taken larger than
are present, pile installation methods, and the sum of the skin resistance of individual
so forth. Normally, because of a relatively piles. Reductions may be required when the
large spacing between piles, the skin resis- pile spacing is small, or when the overlap-
tance of a pile group is taken as equal to ping zones of shear deformation in:fiuences
the sum of the skin resistance of individual the skin resistance of the individual piles
piles; for this, the minimum space between over a signi:ficant length of the embedded
piles must not be smaller than 3d center to part of the pile. The reduction factor may be
center, and with a minimum clear space expressed as a ratio of the outside perime-
between pile sides of no less than 1.0 m. ter of the pile group to the sum of the
Here d is the pile diameter. perimeters of the individual piles. Accord-
Det Norske Veritas (1977) recommends ing to this approach, no reduction is re-
that the skin resistance of a pile' group in quired if the relative spacing of the pile,
granular soils may be at least equal to the l j d (l is the pile spacing), is greater than
sum of the skin resistance of individual n°· 5 + 1 for square piles and 0.785(n°· 5 + 1)
piles times the ratio of the outer perimeter for circular piles, where n is the number of
of the group to the sum of perimeters of piles in the group.
individual piles. The possible increase of Pile installation, both method and se-
this minimum resistance depends on the quence of installation, should always be
initial density of the soil (e.g., is consider- given proper attention. For example, driv-
860 Piled W aterfront Structures

ing piles behind the sheeting will densify deck; structurally, it is treated as an elastic
the fill andjor natural soil, resulting in an slab founded on elastic supports (piles).
increased lateral pressure against the A conventional relieving platform-pile
sheeting. In some instances, such practices foundation system is normally analyzed as
may result in sheet-pile failures. Some a two-dimensional frame. These analysis are
characteristic case histories are discussed time-consuming. In order. to arrive at the
in Chapter 6. most economica! solution in the shortest
possible way, first a preliminary simple
7.8.2.2.5 Pile foundation analysis graphic analysis on different alternatives of
pile arrangement is performed.
In general, the piled relieving structure Ferguson (1992), pointed out that the ad-
is treated as a two-dimensional frame, con- vantages of graphical statistics are qualita-
sidering the pile group as a structural tive, presenting in the calculations a sense
system elasticly interacting with the of "what's going on"-"a feel,"-permitting
foundation soil in a manner similar to that the engineer "to built in the mind's eye a
indicated in Figure 7-73. For reliable per- vision of the forces in a complex structure."
formance, the piles should be embedded A coherent system of graphic statistics
deep enough into the load-bearing soil to have been developed in the 1800s by Karl
preclude permanent settlement under ap- Culman. Culman's graphic method is based
plied loads. Also, the number of piles and on the assumption of an equilibrium of
their arrangement must be such to preclude forces at every joint in a structural system;
significant horizontal displacement of the the graphical diagram of forces, called a
relieving platform; thereby the piles are force polygon, makes it possible to predict
subjected to axial loads and to bending forces in different components of a system.
stresses associated with the elastic interac- · These forces are read directly from the force
tion between soil and piles and due to pile polygon, being proportional to the length of
shaft elasticity. In the case of a short, the lines in the polygon. The method provides a
latter may result in significant bending built-in check of the analysis through the
stresses. closure of the force polygon (diagram) and
In most practica! cases, the piles are allows a clear distinction of the compressive
treated as being fixed within the load- and tensile forces acting in the system's
bearing soil and at the concrete superstruc- structural components.
ture. However, where piles and, in particu- The graphic analyses are carried out on
lar, sheet piles have hinged connections the hasis of the following assumptions: The
with the relieving superstructure, they are relievii.lg platform is assumed to be a very
treated as beams fixed within a foundation rigid structure, and piles are hinged at both
soil and having bearing at the relieving the platform and within load-bearing soil.
platform. Then, axial loads on piles are calculated
Relieving platforms are usually rela- graphically by using Culman's method in
tively thin and, thus, are designed to absorb the following steps (Fig. 7-84).
bending moments and shear forces occur-
ring from the verticalloads. Naturally, the
1. Each group of identica! piles (e.g., verti-
platform must be strong enough to carry cal, batter in compression and in tension)
the design loads in both transverse and is replaced by an imaginary pile located
longitudinal directions to the pile system. at the center of gravity of the group. In
In general, the relieving platform is de- the example depicted in Figure 7-84a, a
signed according to the same philosophy as group of vertical piles, that includes the
that applied to the design of the open pier sheeting and the vertical piles, is replaced
 Piled Waterfront Structures 861

(a) Because of the very complex nature of

interaction among the relieving platform
(b)
system, foundation soil, and hackfill mate-
rial, accurate methods of statistic analysis
of such systems are not availahle presently.
Because the structure is treated as a frame
system, the important question is how to
determine the effective freestanding portion
of a pile, li (Fig. 7-85), or, in particular,
how to accurately determine the location of
d
pile fixity point within the foundation soil.
In the conventional design practice, the pile
fixity point within the foundation soil is
usually assumed to he located at some dis-
Figure 7-84. Preliminary analysis of load distribu- tance t; helow the line drawn at angle <P
tion between vertical and batter piles by Culman's from point a [i.e., the intersection of the row
method: (a) Design scheme; (b) load diagram. of sheet piles and the dredge line (Fig. 7-85,
line ah)]. Here, <P is the angle of interna!
friction of the hackfill material. Experience
hy the imaginary pile with axial reaction
indicates that, depending on the soil condi-
Ra.
tion, the pile fixity point can he assumed to
2. The line of action of the resultant load, R, he located approximately 1.5-3.0 m helow
is extended to intersect the line of Ra
line ah; larger values are relevant for the
action at point a.
weak soils and for the relatively rigid piles.
3. Point a is joined with point h (i.e., the The fixity plane can also he assumed as
point of intersection of the hatter piles' located at the point of maximum hending
line of action).
moment in the lower part of a pile (line cd,
4. Draw the load diagram as depicted in Fig. 7-85). This can he ohtained in a man-
Figure 7 -84h. This is done in the follow- ner similar to that depicted in the example
ing sequence: Draw lin.e ac parallel to and illustrated in Figure 7-81. Budin and
equal to resulting load R hy selecting an
Demina (1979) suggest that the fixity plane
appropriate scale. From point a, draw line
ah parallel to line ah shown in Figure
7-84a. Then from point c, draw line ch
parallel to Ra to intersect ah at point h.
From h, draw a line parallel to Rb and
from point a draw a line parallel to Re to
ohtain point d. Then Ra will he equal to
ch, Rb will he equal to hd, and Re will he
equal to ad.

These calculations will provide the designer

with a clear idea of potentialloads that may
act on each pile group. Suhsequently, the
designer should arrive at a preliminary so-
lution to the hest pile arrangement for the
particular site conditions. After a prelimi-
nary design scheme is finalized, more accu- Figure 7-85. Relieving platform. Design assump-
rate calculations are performed. tions on pile fixity within foundation soil.
862 Piled Waterfront Structures

can conservatively be considered at line ef produced by piles is usually taken into

(M = O) (Fig. 7-85), and the piles should be account.
analyzed for the unbalanced soil pressure However, because relatively large move-
in a manner to that as discussed earlier. ments are required to mobilize the dowel
In practica} analysis, it is usually as- action, the dowel effect is usually ignored
sumed that pile fixity point is determined when foundation soils are represented by
by the line cd; for this, the value of ti is sensitive and soft clays. The global stability
determined either empirically, or as sug- calculations can be carried out by methods
gested earlier; the best result is obtained similar to those used for anchor piles, as
from large-scale-model tests. As soon as the discussed in Chapter 6.
frame parameters and loadings are estab-
lished the structure can be analyzed as a 7.8.2.2.7 construction aspects
conventional frame on elastic supports, sim-
ilar to that discussed earlier and illustrated Normally, the pile placement specifica-
in Figure 7-73. tion refiecting practica! experience caUs for
Bending moments and shear forces in piles to be installed not further than 75-100
the sheeting, obtained from frame analysis, mm from their theoretical location and to
should be combined with those obtained be aligned not more than 15-20 mm from
from calculations of sheet-piling, as dis- the vertical or from the specified batter
angle.
cussed earlier and illustrated in Figure
Fuller (1983) suggests that the pile butt
7-81. A similar approach can be used for
(head) location tolerance can be increased
calculating bending moments and shear
up to 150 mm. This is a reasonable assump-
forces in vertical and batter piles. However,
tion for installation of timber piles because
because lateral soil pressure does not pro-
their nonuniform shape makes them diffi-
duce significant bending moments and shear cult to hold in position during driving. Be-
forces in piles, the latter pile analyses are sides, man.ufactured piles are not perfectly
usually ignored. Normally, bending mo- straight. Additionally, the allowable devia-
ments, shear forces, and axial loads result- tion from straightness is usually based on
ing from frame analyses are considered standard specifications, [e.g., American So-
suf:ficiently accurate for subsequent pile de- ciety for Testing and Materials (1982, 1987
sign. As pointed out earlier, the sheet-pile and 1988), and others]. A common specifi-
wall constructed from conventional steel or cation for both camber and sweep for H-piles
timber sheet piles is normally not designed (and their equivalent for other types of piles)
to carry verticalloads and, therefore, is not is that the pile should not deviate from a
included in the frame analysis, whereas re- straight line connecting the butt by one-
inforced concrete sheet piles or heavy duty tenth the pile length in feet (equivalent to a
steel sheet piles designed to carry vertical deviation of approximately 1.04 mmjm).
loads are normally analyzed for the com- These tolerances are considered sufficient to
bined effects of bending moment and axial preclude pile interference with each other
load. during driving. Essentially, the possibility
of pile interference increase with increasing
7.8.2.2.6 Global stability pile length and fiexibility. Hence, stiff piles
are used where long piles are required. The
This is carried out by using conventional other alternative is to increase the space
slip circle methods as discussed in Chapter between piles.
4. When slip circles cross piles, the effect of Severa! interesting case histories of pile
the additional resistance due to dowel effect interference are given in Fuller (1983) and
 Piled Waterfront Structures 863

the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1990). the cone overlapping zone. Wolff has devel-
These examples indicate the fact that the oped the pile interference probability
contractor should always be aware of the method using a two-step procedure. First,
likelihood of pile interference and be pre- the probability of interference is deter-
pared for the necessary adjustments in pile mined for a single interior pile in a large
arrangement, such as changes in space be- group using Monte Carlo simulation; then,
tween the piles, installation of additional a probability distribution for the number of
piles, and others. During the design phase intersecting piles in a group is obtained
it is usually assumed that the clear space using an adaption of the binomial and Pois-
between the sheeting and the first row of son distributions. Wolff (1993) developed a
batter piles should not be smaller than 1.0 set of charts that may help estimate the
m (Fig. 7 -86). probability of pile interference during in-
Wolff (1990, 1993) attempted to quantify stallation as a function of pile length, spac-
the likelihood of pile interference and how ing, and diameter.
it may be affected by values of various pa- Again, the sequence of pile-driving has to
rameters (e.g., pile diameter, length, spac- be given proper attention. For example, in
ing, camber, batter, and the standard devi- the case of "backfilled" construction (Fig.
ation from the required placement and 7-86b) piles could be driven in any se-
alignment). Wolff assumed that the pile po- quence, which in most cases depends basi-
sition in the ground may deviate from its cally on the availability of pile-driving
"as designed" location in two directions and equipment. On the other hand, in the case
the possible driven locations fali in regions of "dredged" construction, as illustrated in
that take shape of truncated cones. Subse- Figure 7 -86a, regular vertical and batter
quently, pile interference can occur where piles are preferably installed prior to instal-
these cones overlap. If the cones correspond lation of sheet-pile wall. As pointed out ear-
to the specific locations and alignment tol- lier, this would preclude additional soil
erances, a pile can be driven at any place pressure exerted on the sheeting due to the
within a cone. Pile interference can only driving of regular piles.
occur if both adjacent piles pass through Naturally, the relieving platform con-

{a) {b)

Figure 7-86. Relieving platform. Construction stages: (a) 'dredged' construction; (b)
'backfilled' construction. 1-sheet piling; 2-vertical and batter piles; 3-relieving
platform; 4-temporary anchorage for sheet piling; 5-natural slope' 6-dredge line;
7-above water excavation; 8-below water excavation; 9-backfill-first stage; 10-
backfill-second (final) stage.
864 Piled Waterfront Structures

structed on a pile foundation makes all piles ing exceeds those produced by the final de-
work together as a group. In many practica! sign loads, then the designer must decide
cases, the relieving platform is designed in on whether the temporary anchor system
a form of the retaining wall that is cast in should be installed to support the sheet-pile
situ directly on granular backfill material wall during construction (Fig, 7-86b), or
placed behind sheet-piling. At this point, altematively, the strength of sheet piles is
the sheet-piling will be performing as a can- increased to resist the construction loads.
tilever flexible wall loaded with lateral soil
pressures, weight of fresh concrete, and 7.8.2.2.8 Design sequence
weight of construction equipment as dis-
The design of a piled relieving platform
cussed in Chapter 6.
is usually carried out in a sequence as is
If the effects of the aforementioned load-
presented in the following chart.

Determination of the design conditions

J
Preliminary assumptions on wall height and elevation of 1~
relieving platform above seallevel; preliminary pile 1-+--
arrangement and width of relieving platform 1~

~
Preliminary design of sheet pile wall and calculation of
reaction force from earth pressure acting upon relieving t---
platform

~
Preliminary analysis of pile foundation in order to arrive
at the most economica! pile arrangement ~
~
Review of wall global stability

j
Final analysis of pile foundation; design of sheet piles
and other piles included in pile foundation; determination
of pile penetration

Final design of relieving platform

 Piled Waterfront Structures 865

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