YEAR ONE, FIRST SEMESTER, 2019/2020 ACADEMIC YEAR

EBS 108: LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS – 3 CREDITS

UNIT 1
WHAT IS LANGUAGE?
1.1 Some definitions of language:

a. Edward Sapir: Language is a purely arbitrary human and non-linguistic method of communicating
ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.
This definition suffers from several defects:
o There is much that is communicated by language which is not covered by the
words: ideas, emotions and desires.
o There are also other forms of expressing emotions other than the use of
language.
o The definition does not mention the spoken aspect of language which is
important.

However, Sapir makes good points in his definition.

o He mentions the fact that language is arbitrary and voluntary and is also
stimulus free. (non-instinctive)

b. David Crystal: Language is the systemic conventional use of sounds, signs or written symbols in a
human society for communication and self-expression.
o Language uses not only sounds and written symbols but also signs.
o Language is used by human society.
o Language is for communication and self-expression.

c. Leonard Bloomfield: In order to separate linguistics from any mentalistic theory,

Bloomfield rejected the classical view that the structure of language reflects the structure of
thought. He believed that spoken language is the only object of study and applied different
analytic procedures to study language. He showed how to analyse spoken language, dividing
it into its smallest units - phonemes (“vocal features”), morphemes (“stimulus-reaction
features”), and combinations of those units that make higher lexical structures.

Bloomfield also emphasized that linguists need to study spoken language rather than
documents written in a language, because language changes over time and the meaning of
something today might be different from what it meant in the past. The documents thus
cannot be adequate representations of a spoken language.
o Lays emphasis on spoken language.
o Language changes over time and the changes can affect meaning.
o Spoken language is made up of phonemes.
o Documents cannot be adequate representations of a spoken language because
of the changes that occur in spoken language.

1.2 PROPERTIES OF LANGUAGE

 Displacement:
This is a unique property human language possess. This refers to the ability of human
language to communicate throughout time and across space. In animals, language is
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 primarily an exchange between stimulus and response – the meaning conveyed by
animal language only works in context. For example, when a dog barks, it is a
response to whatever prompted the barking, and that bark cannot be used to express
its meaning before or after the event.

Human language on the other hand, can be used to indicate an action happening now,
in the past or future. [now – specific occasion; the past – by reference eg. Yesterday I
went to Accra; the future – Tomorrow I’ll do this or that.]
Language (human) can also be used to imagine things that do not exist. E.g. Ghost.

 Displacement refers to the fact that language can be used to refer to things that are
outside immediate circumstance of utterance. Human language can refer to remote,
immediate or future events. Animal noise or language is restricted to time (moment).

Controversy: it is said that bees communicate by signals and dances to show that there
is nectar somewhere but is done immediately it is seen and therefore it cannot be
displacement.

 Arbitrariness: There is no special connection or necessity between what words stand

for and the words themselves. [Form and meaning]. Different words or expressions
can symbolize different things or the same things not only in different languages but
even in the same language.

However, there are sporadic instances in all languages of what is traditionally referred
to as onomatopoeia, [connection between the form and meaning of some words], e.g.
“cuckoo”, “peewit”, “crash” etc. in English, but the vast majority of words in all
languages are non-onomatopoeic. The human language is arbitrary in that given the
form, it is impossible to predict the meaning. Words have no iconic relationship to the
objects they refer to.

 Productive: Another property of language is the element of productivity. By this, it

means that we are able to create new forms of language. We are able to construct and
interpret new signals in the language. This property enables us to use different
examples to explain one issue. It leads us to the element of flexibility – getting names
of for new inventions as they occur (expanding).

Most animal communication – systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to

the number of different signals that their users can send and receive. Language
systems on the other hand, enable their users to construct and understand indefinitely
many utterances that they never heard or read before.

 Cultural Transmission: This property enables the child to learn any language which
he socializes with when he begins to speak. The mechanism for processing language
in humans is language specific free therefore if a child is born to Ga parents and goes
to live with Akan foster parents, that child learn to speak Akan not Ga. Any language
spoken by a person depends on the language of the area where he was brought up.
Animals in any situation they are put will behave the same.
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  Discreteness: Every human sound can be distinguished from the other and this makes
it different from one another. Each sound has a distinct quality. Because of this, there
is no confusion when language is used because it conveys a specific meaning. E.g. /b/
and /p/ are produced at the same place but are not confused because there is
something distinct about each of them - /t/ is voiceless but /p/ is voiced.

 Duality: Language is organized at two levels simultaneously. There is first, the level
of sounds (phonemes) and the level of combinations of sounds. Sounds are limited but
there are infinite combinations that the sounds can go into. For example, /b/, /n/, /i/
are sounds but /bin/ is a result of a combination of the different sounds. In animals,
the sound of a cat, /meow/ is only one way (it cannot be altered)..

This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human
language because, with a limited set of discrete sounds, we are capable of producing a
very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.

1.3 Peculiar Feature of Human Language

Human language is medium transferrable, that is one can communicate either by speech or
writing. Language has both spoken and written channels. Speech uses sounds (phonemes)
while written language is graphemic, (graphemes). (Note: Not all languages are written.)

1.4 FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE

Roman Jakobson's Functions of Language

Roman Jakobson defined six functions of language (or communication functions), according
to which an effective act of verbal communication can be described.

Summary of Jakobson’s Functions of Language

Target factor and

Function No. Target Factor Source Factor Function

1. Context Message Referential

2. Addresser Message Expressive/Emotive

3. Addressee Message Conative

4. Contact Message Phatic

5 Code Message Metalingual

6. Message Message Poetic

The Referential Function

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This function corresponds to the factor of Context and describes a situation, object or mental
state. The descriptive statements of the referential function can consist of both definite
descriptions and deictic expressions (deixis) – point to the time, place or situation in which a
person is speaking.

The Expressive (Emotive or Affective) Function:

We need this function every time we want to express ourselves. This relates to the Addresser
(sender) and is best exemplified by interjections and other sound changes that do not alter the
denotative meaning of an utterance but do add information about the Addresser's (speaker's)
internal state, e.g. "Wow, what a view!"
This function of language is used to express feelings and impressions. Due to this function of
language, we can understand the personality of the speaker, and his/her emotions.

[Verbal communication helps us meet various needs through our ability to express ourselves.
In terms of instrumental needs, we use verbal communication to ask questions that provide us
with specific information. We also use verbal communication to describe things, people, and
ideas. Verbal communication helps us inform, persuade, and entertain others, which are the
three general purposes of public speaking. It is also through our verbal expressions that our
personal relationships are formed.]

The Conative Function

This engages the Addressee (receiver) directly and is best illustrated by vocatives and
imperatives. This function focuses on and is concerned with influencing the behaviour of the
addressee. E.g. "John! Watch out!"

The Poetic Function

This focuses on "the message for its own sake" (the code itself, and how it is used) and is the
operative function in poetry as well as slogans. The dominant function is the orientation of
the message.

The Phatic Function

This is language for the sake of interaction and is therefore associated with the
Contact/Channel factor. It keeps the channel of communication open. It primarily serves to
establish, prolong or to discontinue communication.

The Phatic Function can be observed in greetings and casual discussions of the weather,
particularly with strangers. It also provides the keys to open, maintain, verify or close the
communication channel: "Hello?", "Ok?", "Hummm", "Bye".

The Metalingual ("Metalinguistic" or "Reflexive") Function:

This is the use of language (what Jakobson calls "Code") to discuss or describe itself. For
example, in the sentence “white has five letters,” language is being used to talk about itself –
this is a metalingual function as opposed to “white is a colour” which is actually taking about
white.

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Other Functions of Language: (These are not part in Jakobson’s functions of language.)

Expressing Feelings

When we express feelings, we communicate our emotions. Expressing feelings is a difficult

part of verbal communication, because there are many social norms about how, why, when,
where, and to whom we express our emotions. Norms for emotional expression also vary
based on nationality and other cultural identities and characteristics such as age and gender.

Expressing Needs

When we express needs, we are communicating in an instrumental way to help us get things
done. Since we almost always know our needs more than others do, it’s important for us to be
able to convey those needs to others. Expressing needs can help us get a project done at work
or help us navigate the changes of a long-term romantic partnership. Not expressing needs
can lead to feelings of abandonment, frustration, or resentment

Expressing Thoughts

When we express thoughts, we draw conclusions based on what we have experienced. In the
perception process, this is similar to the interpretation step. We take various observations and
evaluate and interpret them to assign them meaning (a conclusion). Whereas our observations
are based on sensory information (what we saw, what we read, what we heard), thoughts are
connected to our beliefs (what we think is true/false), attitudes (what we like and dislike), and
values (what we think is right/wrong or good/bad).

1.5 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SPEECH AND WRITING

 Historical Priority: Speech antedates writing. No human community started writing

before speaking. Speech is primary while writing is secondary. All languages are
spoken but only a few are written even in the C20th.

 Biological Priority: Noam Chomsky states that all human beings have parts of our
genes which enable us to learn language. The language mechanism in our brain is an
innate property of all human beings. It is part of our birth. But writing is added to
speech at a later stage in our lives. [The assumption that those who cannot write are
primitive is false.]
In terms of communication speech is more important than writing because it is
endowed to every human.

 Structural Priority: This is the ordering of the symbols that are available to speech
and writing. In terms of the structure of the elements of speech, the combination is
infinitive. Speech has more orderliness in the organisation of its elements than
writing. Eg.
/t/, /a/, /n/ - /tan/ /b/, /a/, /t/ - /bat/
/ant/ /tab/
These sounds have an order which when violated communication does not take place.
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 Sounds are ordered to a particular meaning but if they are changed haphazardly, they
produce haphazard meaning.

[In writing, /gh/ is sometimes used to represent /g/ or /f/; eg. rough= /f/; Ghana = /g/.
It is said that in writing, symbols are used arbitrary to represent certain meanings.]

In speech, there is one to one correspondence between sound and form (symbol).
Eg. rough - /rᴧf/. speech is better organised for conveying meaning than writing.

 Functional Priority: Speech is used for a much wider range of purposes than writing.
Instances when speech is used eg. i. in delivering a lecture, ii. conversation iii.
expression of joy, pain, sadness, etc.

Mistakes made in speech can easily be retracted but in writing it cannot be easily
done. Writing is more permanent than speech for future reference. Speech fades
quickly but can easily be recreated at all times. Speech can be extended and this can
be done through the use of telephone. Speech can also be recorded to be used for
future reference. Therefore, speech can be made permanent just as writing.

1.6 CHRARATERISTICS OF SPECH AND WRITING

SPEECH WRITING
1. Inexplicitness (Not clear) Explicitness
Speech can be used to refer to things which Writing has a focus and much more clear.
do not relate to what is being discussed. It starts with a topic and ends on that
Speech has something inconclusive about it. same topic.
When two people are talking, it does not end.
There are intrusions (no focus, not clear). It
wonders from point to point, it is
unsystematic.

2. No Clear Sentence Boundaries Clear Sentence Boundaries

Pauses are used to indicate that there is a stop
In writing, you begin with a capital and
or not. People conversing find it difficult toend with a full stop (period).
know when one has ended. The sentence is contained in frame of the
word which begins with a capital and the
word which ends it is followed by a full
stop (period).
3. Normal Non-Fluency Fluency
Speech is never allowed to flow uninterrupted Writing flows unchecked. It begins from
(unchecked). This is because of the point “A” and ends at point “B”.
interruption when a conversation goes on There is orderliness in writing.
between two people. It is started by one
person and continued by another vice-versa.
There is a lot of stopping repetition etc.
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 peripatetic – it moves around.

4. Monitoring Features Lack of Monitoring Features

This is used to fill the gap between the Monitoring features are absent in writing.
making of the utterance and the utterance. Eg,
errrrrr, hmmm, ok, you know, etc.
5. Interaction Features No Interaction Features
The addressee and the addresser are engaged Writing has is usually read by one person
in speech. Interaction occurs when questions alone.
are asked and pronouns are used in
conversation. They indicate those who are
engaged in the interaction. There is immediate
feedback in speech.
6. Sentence Structure Sentence Structure
Speech uses simple sentences, ellipsis, Writing uses a variety of sentence
contracted forms. structures; simple, compound and
complex sentences.