Block 2

Mining Exploration

Lesson 2
Geophysical Surveys

Exploring
Geosciences –
12 Thematic Lessons-
September 16th, 2020
Your Host:
Francine Fallara, P. Geo., M.Sc.A (OGQ #433)

Exploration geologist with over 25 years

of field experience in various difficult
geological environments
Consultant in analytical data analysis
specialized in complex geological
exploration studies
Expert in 3D geological modeling and
www.ffexplore3d.com
digital targeting of minerals
 Thematic Bloc 2 - Overview
Thematic Block 2 Lesson Subtitle Date - 2020 English

1 Cartography Surveys September 2nd 1:30 – 3:30 PM

Mining Exploration 2 Geophysical Surveys September 16th 1:30 – 3:30 PM

3 Geochemical Surveys September 29th 1:30 – 3:30 PM

3
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
 Lesson 2 – Geophysical Surveys
Lesson 2 Sub-lessons September 16th

a. Intro to geophysics

Geophysical b. Overview of field 1:30 – 3:30 PM

Surveys techniques
c. Using geophysical data
d. Validating and
interpreting geological
surveys with geophysics

4
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
What is a Geophysics?
 Geophysics is used to study the physics of the Earth by measuring and
collecting the Earth’s physical properties data such as its:
 Shape
 Gravitational and magnetic field
 Internal structure and composition

*Gravity or gravitation is the fundamental

Map of smoothed gravity* deviations force of the universe:
draped on the idealized Earth.
https://kids.kiddle.co/Geophysics
 The force which causes objects to
fall onto the ground.

5
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Applied Geophysics?
 Applied geophysics is the application of
geophysical methods for commercial
purposes (making profit):

 Exploration for oil, gas, coal, minerals

 Search for groundwater
 Ground properties characterization for
geo-engineering (tunnels, dams, etc.)
 Geophysical archeology
 Geophysical geology
 Pollution mapping

6
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
What is Geophysics?
 Geophysics is mainly used to better understand geological processes such
as:

 Plate tectonics
 Magmas
 Volcanism
 Rock formation

7
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Geophysical Specialized Theme Maps
 Plate Tectonics World Map

8
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Geophysical Surveys: Definition
 Geophysical surveys are geological methods using ground-based physical
sensing techniques to produce detailed images or maps of an area.

 There are many different methodologies and these methods are

neither invasive nor destructive
• Important goal when surveying culturally sensitive sites

 Measures the intensity of waves or force fields as they pass through

different geological materials

 Illustrates unpredicted variations or deviations from ‘normal’

background (i.e. anomalies):
• Geological interpretations are based on the basis of these anomalies
9
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Why Geologists Use Geophysical Surveys?
 When they cannot get direct access to rocks

 To identify resources without sampling or disturbing surfaces

 To detect buried features in difficult-to-reach areas, or without
excavation

 When they are studying both small scale and large areas looking
respectively for local or regional anomalies

 To test if minerals or metals are present beneath the surface

10
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Why Geologists Use Geophysical Surveys?
 When they know what they are looking for; i.e. knowledge driven
approach

 Differentiating granitic intrusions from massive sulfides using

densities

 Want to validate their geological interpretations and models:

 Note: Geophysical techniques only ‘estimates’ geology based on

data interpretations

11
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Why Geologists Use Geophysical Surveys?
Importance of Geophysical Surveys

Sound Generator Truck Seismic Geophone Truck

Fault
Ore
Deposit

https://study.com/academy/lesson/geophysical-surveys-definition-methods.html

12
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Geophysical Survey Analysis Scales
 Geophysical analysis can be done on 2 different scales:

 Small-scale:
 Single drill hole
 Shallow seismic surveys

 Large-scale:
 Basin wide surveys + https://study.com/academy/lesson/geophysical-surveys-definition-methods.html

13
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
What Is the Magnetism of a Rock?
 Magnetization is directed according to the Earth's magnetic field and is
hence proportional to it.

 Susceptibility depends on the magnetic mineral content found in the rock,

which is found to be principally magnetite and pyrrhotite:

 Mafic and ultramafic rocks have a higher concentration of magnetite

than felsic, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks.

 Geologists often use aeromagnetic data to develop diagrams that map

out the contacts that exist between these contrasting geological units.

https://www.ageophysics.com/en/blog/what-is-an-aeromagnetic-geophysical-survey/2/6

14
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Geophysical Surveys Types
 There are several types of geophysical surveys and each has different
applications and equipment.

 They may be conducted from the:

• Air-based (i.e. Airborne)

• Ground-based
• Diamond drill holes (i.e. Borehole)

15
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Geophysical Surveys Applications
 Uses physical techniques, such as seismic, gravitational, magnetic, electrical
and electromagnetic to measure the Earth’s physical properties used to
illustrate areas with anomalies.

 Exploration geophysics is used by geologists to map the subsurface of a

chosen region to define the:

 Underlying geological structures (i.e. faults, folds, etc.)

 Geometry of intrusive rocks (i.e. plutons, dykes, etc.)
 Potential economic mineral deposits areas:
 precious metals like gold
 base metals like copper and zinc
16
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Airborne Geophysical Surveys Types
 During prospecting and early exploration stages, airborne geophysics
surveyed in grids:

 Magnetic surveys
 Radiometric surveys
 Gravity
 Electromagnetic surveys

17
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Aeromagnetic Surveys Disadvantages
 Airborne surveys have lower resolution than ground-based geophysical
surveys:

 An airborne magnetic survey cannot accurately locate drill hole targets

https://www.ageophysics.com/en/blog/what-is-an-aeromagnetic-geophysical-survey/2/6

18
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Aeromagnetic Surveys Advantages
 Airborne geophysical surveys are conducted from helicopters or light
aircraft in a grid pattern:
 Possible to cover large inaccessible areas without requiring any line cutting
 Reduces the cost for large area geophysical surveys

https://www.ageophysics.com/en/blog/what-is-an-aeromagnetic-geophysical-survey/2/6 19
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Aeromagnetic Surveys Advantages
 Used by government geological services for:
 Land-use development and planning

 Used by mining and oil exploration companies for:

 Hydrogeological, geological, environmental, archeological and even military research

 Aeromagnetic geophysical surveys consist of measuring the:

 Intensity of the geomagnetic field in order to detect local magnetic variations from
the rocks

 Resulting aeromagnetic data is used to support geological formations

mapping to detect any concentrations of magnetic minerals.
https://www.ageophysics.com/en/blog/what-is-an-aeromagnetic-geophysical-survey/2/6

20
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Aeromagnetic Surveys Methodology
 Magnetometers are fixed onto an aircraft, a helicopter or an unmanned
aerial vehicle (UAV) that flies over the area by performing a series of
equidistant linear pathways to collect magnetic measurements.

 The direction of the lines is generally perpendicular to the geological

structures of the area to study.

 The data is processed to produce profiles, maps and models that geologists
can interpret.

https://www.ageophysics.com/en/blog/what-is-an-aeromagnetic-geophysical-survey/2/6

21
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Aeromagnetic Surveys Methodology

 Modern technology in
geophysical drone
surveys is now able to
sample high resolution
data compared to those
of ground geophysical
surveys, and do so at a
lower cost and without
having to resort to line
cutting.

22
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys https://www.ageophysics.com/en/blog/what-is-an-aeromagnetic-geophysical-survey/2/6
Aeromagnetic Surveys: Useful For?
 Aeromagnetic surveys can be used directly or indirectly to identify several
different types of deposits and are especially effective in detecting:
 Iron deposits
 Titanium deposits
 Kimberlitic pipes (sources of diamond deposits)
 Bauxite deposits
 Rare earth elements (tantalum and niobium) linked with carbonatites

 They are also widely used to identify and locate:

 Chromium and nickel deposits associated with ultramafic rocks
 Volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS-Cu-Zn-Au-Ag) deposits
 Porphyry copper and iron-copper-gold oxide deposits (IOCG) of the type found in
the Olympic Dam
https://www.ageophysics.com/en/blog/what-is-an-aeromagnetic-geophysical-survey/2/6

23
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Geophysical Surveys
 Ground-Based geophysical surveys are conducted from the ground
 Seismology:
• Study of natural (from earthquakes) and man-made seismic waves
 Magnetic surveys:
• Analysis of variations in earth’s magnetic field
• Induced rock magnetism anomalies
 Electric surveys:
• Resistivity, VES soundings
 Radiometric surveys:
• Radioactive decay, isotopes, dating
 Gravity Surveys:
• Study of variations in earth’s gravitational field and density contrasts
 Induced Polarity (IP) surveys
 Electromagnetic (EM) surveys:
• Study of induced electromagnetic fields
• Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) surveys
• Magnetotellurics (MT)
 Borehole surveys
 Lidar
 Geothermal methods:
• Heat flow, temperature, conduction 24
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Geophysical Surveys
 Passive Methods:

 Measures spatial variations of static or natural fields of force

 Lateral subsurface material variations give rise to spatial variations in
the field
 There is inherent ambiguity in interpretations (multiple solutions)

• Magnetic surveys
• Gravity Surveys
• Radioactivity

25
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Geophysical Surveys
 Active Methods:

 Measurement of wave field characteristics:

• Travel times of elastic waves, and amplitude and phase of
electromagnetic waves

 Energy is introduced into the subsurface:

• Source and detector controlled

 There is less inherent ambiguity in interpretations (fewer solutions)

• Seismic surveys
• Electrical surveys
• Electromagnetic surveys
26
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
How to Collect Geophysical Data?
Ground-Based geophysical surveys conducted from the ground begins by
marking off the site into survey grids.

 A grid is created on the land, referred to as “line-cutting”, marked by

narrow cut-lines in the forest or by a line of pickets on open land

 Reference points placed along the corners of each grid mark the
collected data, minimizing positioning error.

 Surveyors will walk and carry geophysical instruments along the grid:

 Taking detailed geophysical readings and measurements at

regular intervals.
27
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
How to Collect Geophysical Data?
Ground-Based geophysical surveys conducted from the ground begins by
marking off the site into survey grids.

 Additional detailed field work, including:

 Geological mapping
 Trenching:
• Digging a long ditch in the ground to examine the geology
beneath the surface

28
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
How Geophysical Data Is Processed?
Data processing and imaging allow the conversion of raw numeric data into
interpretable maps.

 Geophysical data may be rendered as graphics, helping to intuitively:

 Recognize cultural and natural patterns

 Visualize physical features
 Interpret the causes of any detected anomalies

29
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Seismic Surveys
 Seismic surveys involve placing geophones (sensors connected to wires) in
strategic patterns to provide information about the properties of rocks
several kilometers below the earth.

 The survey team will induce vibrations using truck-mounted vibrating

weights or small explosives.

 Vibrations from weights or explosives are recorded with geophones to

provide information about the properties of rocks.

 The vibration is measured as it is passed through layers of the earth.

30
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Seismic Surveys
 Reflection Seismology, called
“seismic” in the minerals industry, is
the practice of inducing a vibration in
the Earth’s surface, and analyzing the
reflection.
 The vibration is induced using a
vibration machine or a series of
dynamite blasts.
 This creates a seismic wave that travels
to the Earth’s mantle, the ball of molten
rock below are feet.
 The mantle reflects the wave back up to
the surface, where they are measured.
https://www.gemsys.ca/all/magnetometers/different-methods-geophysical-surveys-used-mineral-prospecting/

31
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Seismic Surveys

32
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Seismic Surveys

Introduction to Haywick’s version of geology 33

Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Seismic Surveys

“Flagging grid lines” Vibroseis Truck inducing vibrations

http://www.sage.lanl.gov/

34
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Seismic Surveys
 Vibroseis Trucks inducing vibrations

35
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys http://www.sage.lanl.gov/
Ground-Based Seismic Surveys
 Reflection and Refraction data

Fault
Refraction

36
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys http://www.sage.lanl.gov/
Ground-Based Seismic Surveys
 Reflection and Refraction data

Fault

Refraction http://www.sage.lanl.gov/

Reflection
shot
analysis
37
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Seismic Surveys
 Reflection and Refraction data acquisition and processing

Bob Bauer and Eric Sandvol

38
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Seismic Surveys

39
http://www.sage.lanl.gov/
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Seismic Surveys

http://www.sage.lanl.gov/

Seismic data acquisition and processing

40
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Seismic Surveys: Useful For?
 Hydrocarbons:

 Oil, gas, and coal occur in stratified sedimentary rock.

 Since they were originally biomass, like forests or grasslands that

were covered up in layers of rock.

 These layers are easy to spot with a seismic wave, allowing

geologists to easily pinpoint any variations in the layers that might
contain hydrocarbons.

https://www.gemsys.ca/all/magnetometers/different-methods-geophysical-surveys-used-mineral-prospecting/

41
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Seismic Surveys: Not useful for?
 Hard rock environments:

 Minerals tend to occur below the sedimentary layer, in igneous

(solidified magma) or metamorphosed (heat-transformed) rocks.

 Hard rock environments are often extremely complex, and are much
more difficult to analyze seismically.

 Unfortunately, due to the popularity of seismic in the oil and gas

industries, many geologists use it exclusively and do not apply more
appropriate methods when exploring for minerals.
https://www.gemsys.ca/all/magnetometers/different-methods-geophysical-surveys-used-mineral-prospecting/
Seismic data acquisition and process
42
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Seismic Surveys: Not useful for?
 The environment:

 The vibrations, especially when caused by dynamite, have many

negative environmental effects.

https://www.gemsys.ca/all/magnetometers/different-methods-geophysical-surveys-used-mineral-prospecting/
Seismic data acquisition and process
43
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) Surveys
 In Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), the radar signal is an electromagnetic
pulse that is directed into the ground.

 Subsurface objects cause reflections in the data and the travel time
indicates the depth of the object.

 GPR is best utilized in sandy soils without a lot of clay, silts or material that
will cause metallic interference.

 Rocky terrain or heterogeneous sediments can further cause problems.

44
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) Surveys

1m

https://study.com/academy/lesson/geophysical-surveys-definition-methods.html

45
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys http://www.sage.lanl.gov/
Ground-Based Magnetic Surveys
 Magnetic surveys specify variations of the earth's magnetic field due to the
presence of magnetic minerals.

 Small variations in the magnetic content of specific metals allow

technicians to interpret rock types and assist in identifying resources.

46
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Magnetic Surveys
 Magnetometers provide better resolution of small, near-surface features.

 They respond strongly to iron and steel, brick, burned soil and many types
of rock.

 It's even possible to detect very subtle anomalies caused by disturbed soils
or decayed organic materials, like from a long ago campfire.

47
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Magnetic Surveys

 Magnetic exploration is
much more complicated
and precise than gravity.

 Geologists use variations in

the Earth’s magnetic field
to detect certain
magnetized ores and
precipitated minerals.
https://www.gemsys.ca/all/magnetometers/different-methods-geophysical-surveys-
used-mineral-prospecting/

https://www.ageophysics.com/en/magnetics

48
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Magnetic Surveys: Useful For?
 Minerals

 In particular, it is good for finding minerals hidden in complex rock

formations.

 Precipitated minerals, metals that have already been smelted from

the ore state by heat in the Earth’s crust, shine particularly bright on
magnetic scans.

https://www.gemsys.ca/all/magnetometers/different-methods-geophysical-surveys-used-mineral-prospecting/

49
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Magnetic Surveys: Useful For?
 Minerals

 Iron ore prospecting

 Iron formations with associated mineralization: IOCG

 Chromite and manganese prospecting

 Sulphide occurrences associated with magnetite and/or pyrrhotite

 Kimberlites (diamonds), asbestos & placer deposits

https://www.ageophysics.com/en/magnetics

50
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Magnetic Surveys: Useful For?
 Geological mapping of lithology

 Structural mapping:
• Faults, fractures, shear zones, folds, etc.

 Structurally-hosted deposits:
• Uranium-conglomerates
• Stratiform Pb-Zn

 Depth to bedrock to determine thickness of sedimentary section,

overburden, etc.
https://www.ageophysics.com/en/magnetics

51
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Magnetic Surveys: Useful For?
 Geological mapping validated using geophysics: Magnetic surveys

The magnetic anomaly

2D Surface Cartography
represents a heterogeneity of
composition and/or structure
within the earth which cannot
be observed at the surface
during mapping surveys.

Magnetic susceptibility on the surface

Fallara, Rabeau, Cheng and De Kemp (2008)

52
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Magnetic Surveys: Useful For?
Geological mapping validated using geophysics: Magnetic surveys

Example of the 3D
geological model of the
Joutel area

Joutel, URSTM-MRNF, Fallara et al., 2000-2002

53
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Magnetic Surveys: Useful For?
Geological mapping validated using geophysics: Magnetic surveys

Example of unconstrained
magnetic data inversion
in the Joutel region

Joutel, URSTM-MRNF, Fallara et al., 2000-2002

54
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Magnetic Surveys: Useful For?
Geological mapping validated using geophysics: Magnetic surveys

Example of an
unconstrained inversion of
magnetic-type geophysical
data versus 3D geological
model of Joutel area
Geological contact
poorly defined?

Joutel, URSTM-MRNF, Fallara et al., 2000-2002

55
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Magnetic Surveys: Useful For?
 Cost effective and response resolution

 Inexpensive equipment and straight forward survey procedures

 High resolution and cost-effective for detail or reconnaissance

surveys

 Useful complementary data enhances interpretation of other

geophysical surveys

 Highly sophisticated processing and interpretation tools

56
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys https://www.ageophysics.com/en/magnetics
Ground-Based Magnetic Surveys: Not useful for?
 Low experienced geologists

 Weak and ambiguous responses at low latitudes

 Magnetic maps can be extraordinarily complicated and require

advanced training to properly interpret them.

https://www.gemsys.ca/all/magnetometers/different-methods-geophysical-surveys-used-mineral-prospecting/

57
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Radiometric Surveys
 Radiometric surveys measure gamma rays that are continuously emitted
from the earth via natural decomposition of common radiogenic materials.

 You can therefore assess gamma radiation from the top 30 centimeters of
the ground.

 This may be performed from the air or directly on top of the ground to
identify metallic and industrial minerals.

58
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Gravity Surveys

 Gravimetry is the most underutilized

geophysical method that is very effective
when used properly, especially in parallel
with other methods.

 A gravimetric survey provides diagnostic

information on variations in soil density
and allows the presence of a deficit or an
excess of mass to be identified with
https://www.ageophysics.com/en/gravimetry
respect to the regional gradient.

59
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Gravity Surveys
 As explorers learn more about a deposits
footprints, additional information
provided by gravimetric surveys becomes
essential to the development of valid and
rigorous 3D geological models.

 At the scale of the deposit, when a

conductive and/or polarizable and/or
magnetic source is found, it becomes https://www.ageophysics.com/en/gravimetry

essential to determine if there is an

excess of mass to evaluate the chances of
success.
60
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Gravity Surveys
 Gravity surveys use a gravimeter to measure the gravity field to determine
variations in rock density.

 A technician must take gravity measurements during set intervals of

distance and record the precise height at each location.

 These surveys are used to identify areas that have mineral or energy
resource deposits.

61
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Gravity Surveys
 Gravity exploration is a passive
exercise that has no environmental
effects.

 Geologists measure variations in the

Earth’s gravitational field, adjusting
for the:
 Polar flattening
 Rotation of the Earth
 Gravitational impacts of the sun and
moon
 The remaining variations show dense
formations in the hard rock.
http://www.sage.lanl.gov/
https://www.gemsys.ca/all/magnetometers/different-methods-geophysical-surveys-used-mineral-prospecting/
62
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Gravity Surveys Stations and Maps

http://www.sage.lanl.gov/
63
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Gravity Surveys: Useful For?
 Oil

 Gravity can find oil deposits with spectacular accuracy.

 Airborne gravity surveys can find likely areas for exploration.
 Ground surveys can find the perfect place to drill.

 Gems

 Gravity is often used to find diamonds and other precious stones.

https://www.gemsys.ca/all/magnetometers/different-methods-geophysical-surveys-used-mineral-prospecting/

64
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Gravity Surveys: Useful For?
Geological mapping validated using geophysics: Gravity surveys
 Gravity modeling provides structural-
compositional models to help extrapolate
and visualize the geological contacts at
great depth:

 Useful tool to quickly estimate the geometry of

the source of gravitational anomalies:
• Used for interpretation of the geology
surveyed at the surface

 Ideal if geological sections exist to compare the

proposed model to the actual geology and gain
a better understanding of the physical property
of the source.
Cheng, Fallara, Foudil-Bey, Goutier, Dion et Petrella (2011)

65
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Gravity Surveys: Useful For?
Geological mapping validated using geophysics: Gravity surveys
This profile cuts across four faults:

 Hunter Creek Fault (F1) to the north

 Beauchastel Fault (F2)
 Horne Creek Fault (F3)
 Cadillac Fault (F4) to the south

According to the result of modeling:

 The Hunter Creek (F1) and Beauchastel (F2)

faults are rather sub-vertical
 Horne Creek Fault (F3) slopes north and Cadillac
Fault (F4) slopes south

Cheng, Fallara, Foudil-Bey, Goutier, Dion et Petrella (2011)

66
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Gravity Surveys: Useful For?
Geological mapping validated using geophysics: Gravity surveys
 2D gravimetric data considers
only the heterogeneity of
density along the interpreted
profiles and ignores the three-
dimensional effect:

 3D inversions are necessary

to validate the geometry of
certain units (i.e. plutons)

Cheng, Fallara, Foudil-Bey, Goutier, Dion et Petrella (2011)

67
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Gravity Surveys: Useful For?
Geological mapping validated using geophysics: Gravity surveys
3D distribution of residual
density gravimetric inversions
(plan view) of the Blake River
Group:

 The geometry of the main

plutons and faults of the
Blake River Group was
refined superposing:

 Field cartography data

 Diamond drill hole data
 Gravity surveys
• 3D Inversions
Cheng, Fallara, Foudil-Bey, Goutier, Dion et Petrella (2011)

68
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Gravity Surveys: Useful For?
Geological mapping validated using geophysics: Gravity surveys

Gravimetric geophysical
inversions versus the
geometry of a deposit

Cheng, Fallara and Rabeau (2004-2006)

69
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Gravity Surveys: Useful For?
Geological mapping validated using geophysics: Gravity surveys
Gravimetric geophysical inversions versus the
geometry of a deposit

Gravimetric inversion result

superimposed on metalliferous
concentrations

Cheng, Fallara and Rabeau (2004-2006)

70
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Gravity Surveys: Useful For?
Geological mapping validated using geophysics: Gravity surveys
Cu
Py
Zn

Sulphide
massive 913 m

600 m

Gravimetric inversion
result superimposed on
metalliferous
Gravity geophysical inversions versus orebody concentrations

Cheng, Fallara and Rabeau (2004-2006)

71
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Gravity Surveys: Not useful for?
 Certain mineral deposits

 Some minerals occur in distributions with little resemblance to the

patterns in the hard rock, and are hard to see by gravity.

https://www.gemsys.ca/all/magnetometers/different-methods-geophysical-surveys-used-mineral-prospecting/

72
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Induced Polarity (IP) Surveys
 Induced Polarity (IP) surveys induce an electrical field in the ground and
quantify the conductivity and resistivity of the subsurface.

 Identifying changes in the electrical currents allows technicians to identify

changes caused by different rocks and minerals.

 These surveys are used to find metallic minerals.

73
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Induced Polarity (IP) Surveys: Used For?
 Geological Exploration:

 Detection of disseminated metallic luster minerals:

• Veins or gold structures

 Detection of disseminated sulfides or veinlets surrounding a massive

sulfide deposit:
• Base metals (Cu, Zn)

 Discrimination of non-mineralized conductors:

• Faults and shear zones
https://www.ageophysics.com/en/ground-ip

74
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Induced Polarity (IP) Surveys: Used For?
 Geological Exploration:

 Detection of low or non-conductive solid sulfides:

• Rich in sphalerite, discontinuous mineralized strips, isolated
sulfide grains, and stockwork

 Mapping of alteration zones and structural elements controlling

mineralization:
• Porphyry copper systems

 Mapping of clay minerals:

• Associated with kimberlites
https://www.ageophysics.com/en/ground-ip
75
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Electromagnetic (EM) Surveys
 The main goal of electromagnetic geophysical prospecting in the mining
industry, which is based on variations in relative subsurface conductivity, is
to detect deposits that conduct electricity.

 These formations are detected using the principle of induction, as they

would be by a current transformer.

https://www.ageophysics.com/en/blog/what-is-electromagnetic-geophysical-prospecting/2/8
76
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Electromagnetic (EM) Surveys
 The usual process is to put an transmitter on the surface:

 It produces a strong primary magnetic field that varies over time and
penetrates more or less deeply into the subsurface.

 “Eddy currents” are induced in conductors that are “excited” by this

primary field.

 These in turn produce a so-called “secondary” electromagnetic field

that will be detected on the surface or in boreholes by a probe
connected to a receiver.

https://www.ageophysics.com/en/blog/what-is-electromagnetic-geophysical-prospecting/2/8
77
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Electromagnetic (EM) Surveys
 Electromagnetic (EM) surveys induce an
electrical magnetic field to measure the
3D variations in conductivity within the
near-surface rock and soil.

 These measurements may be used to

locate metallic minerals and to explore
the groundwater and salinity patterns
of a certain region.

Electromagnetic conductivity survey

https://study.com/academy/lesson/geophysical-surveys-definition-methods.html 78
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Electromagnetic (EM) Surveys
 In geology, changes in underground
conductivity may indicate buried
features.

 Conductivity measures respond strongly

to metal.

 This can be a disadvantage when the

metal is extraneous to geological
features (i.e. fuel drum tank), but can
be useful when the metal is of
geological interest.
Electromagnetic conductivity survey
https://study.com/academy/lesson/geophysical-surveys-definition-methods.html 79
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Types of Conductors Detected Using EM Surveys

https://www.ageophysics.com/en/blog/what-is-electromagnetic-geophysical-prospecting/2/8
 Superficial:
 Overburden, lake bottoms, streambeds
 Present in the rock:
 Graphite, sulfide deposits, magnetite deposits, shear and fault zones, ultramafic rocks (serpentine peridotite)
 Artificial:
 Metal tanks, metal conduits and waste, pipelines, railways, high voltage lines
80
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Fields Using EM Surveys

https://www.ageophysics.com/en/blog/what-is-electromagnetic-geophysical-prospecting/2/8

 Electromagnetic prospecting applies to various fields:

 Mining
 Environmental
 Civil engineering
 Hydrogeology
81
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Fields Using EM Surveys

https://www.ageophysics.com/en/blog/what-is-electromagnetic-geophysical-prospecting/2/8

 In geology, EM surveys are useful for:

 Structural studies to detect faults or fractures
 Unearthing cavities
 Estimating the thickness of alluvial cover
 Finding groundwater streams
 Locating graphite, sulfide or magnetite deposits 82
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Methods Used for EM Surveys

http://www.sage.lanl.gov/

83
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Methods Used for EM Surveys - VLF
Very Low Frequency (VLF) Electromagnetism

 This passive method uses permanent transmission antennas to detect:

 Surface conductors
 Structures boundaries (i.e. faults and fractures)

 Can be used in various environments since it does not use a local transmitter

 The transmitter used already exists for communication with submarines:

 Frequencies are around 20 kHz
 Corresponding to very low frequencies for radio transmissions

84
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Methods Used for EM Surveys - VLF
Very Low Frequency (VLF) Electromagnetism
https://www.ageophysics.com/en/electromagnetics-vlf

85
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Methods Used for EM Surveys – EMH-EMV
EMH-EMV

Used to map conductors at shallow depths

 Lower than 100 meters

 The method is relatively simple and inexpensive to carry out.

86
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Methods Used for EM Surveys - TDEM
TDEM on the ground and in borehole

Used to measure the conductive response of the subsurface and to locate

conductive bodies such as:
 Economic sulfide deposits: (such as Ni-Cu-PGE and VMS-Cu-Zn-Au-Ag)
• Conductivity of base metal sulfide deposits contrasts strongly to the other rocks in their vicinity, making this
method very effective for locating these types of deposits.
 Barren sulfides
 Graphitic sediments
 Saline Fluids

 The conductance of a deposit depends on its mineralogy, texture and thickness.

 The shape of TDEM response is influenced by the conductor’s position and size.

87
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Methods Used for EM Surveys - TDEM
N 2-D Model of TDEM Surveys S
Blue = Resistive

Ohm.m
Elevation

Red = Conductive
http://www.sage.lanl.gov/ Distance 88
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
EM Surveys – Ground TDEM: Useful For?
 Detection of conductors from the surface:
 Sulphide lenses, faults, shear zones, kimberlites, etc.

 Field tracking of airborne survey anomalies

 Brownfield:
 Prospecting periphery of existing deposits

 Greenfield:
 Recognition surveys through the use of effective loop configurations,
wide spacing lines and detailed field decisions.

https://www.ageophysics.com/en/ground-tdem

89
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
EM Surveys – Ground TDEM: Useful For?
 VMS-Cu-Zn-Au-Ag deposits:
 Locating a wide range of minerals, conductivities and environments

 Uranium deposits:
 Mapping of alteration zones
 Mapping of lithological contacts
 Mapping of graphite horizons

 Diamond hosting kimberlites:

 Mapping of intrusion
 Mapping of alteration zones

https://www.ageophysics.com/en/ground-tdem

90
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Borehole Surveys
 Borehole surveys involve:
 Drilling a hole

 To gather information about the rocks adjacent to the hole:

 Insert the instrumentation of geophysical equipment to gather

various measurements types:
• Magnetic
• Radiometric
• Electrical

https://www.ageophysics.com/
91
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Borehole Surveys
 Geological Exploration:

 Detection of disseminated metallic luster minerals:

• Veins or gold structures

 Detection of disseminated sulfides or veinlets surrounding a massive

sulfide deposit:
• Base metals (Cu, Zn)

 Discrimination of non-mineralized conductors:

• Faults and shear zones

https://www.ageophysics.com/
92
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Borehole Surveys
 Geological Exploration:

 Detection of low or non-conductive solid sulfides:

• Rich in sphalerite, discontinuous mineralized strips, isolated
sulfide grains, and stockwork

 Mapping of alteration zones and structural elements controlling

mineralization:
• Porphyry copper systems

 Mapping of clay minerals:

• Associated with kimberlites
https://www.ageophysics.com/
93
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Borehole Surveys
 Geological Exploration:

 Resistivity mapping to determine:

• Alteration
• Depth of a basin

 Selection of the best electrode configuration for recognition, depth of

penetration or detailed mapping of targets

https://www.ageophysics.com/
94
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Ground-Based Borehole Surveys

95
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
http://espace.inrs.ca/id/eprint/6842/1/R001739.pdf
Ground-Based Borehole Surveys

96
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
http://espace.inrs.ca/id/eprint/6842/1/R001739.pdf
Ground-Based Borehole Surveys

Hydro-stratigraphic
cross-section
from resistivity surveys

Resistivity mapping to
determine:
 Depth of a basin
https://www.ageophysics.com/

97
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Aerial and Ground-Based Lidar (LIght raDAR) Surveys:
 Lidar is an optical remote sensing technology:
 Measures the distance to a target by illuminating the target with light,
using pulses from a laser.

 Lidar has many applications in geology:

 Planning field campaigns
 Mapping indistinguishable features on the ground

98
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Aerial and Ground-Based Lidar Surveys
 Used in high vegetation areas:

 Lidar helps geologists to create high-resolution digital elevation

models (DEMs) of sites that reveal micro-topography that are
otherwise hidden by vegetation.

https://study.com/academy/lesson/geophysical-surveys-definition-methods.html

99
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
Aerial and Ground-Based Lidar Surveys

https://www.securitepublique.gouv.qc.ca/fileadmin/Documents/securite_civile/colloques/2012/mouvements_sols_charlesbourg.pdf
100
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
 Geophysical exploration for field
mineral exploration to help identify
ore bodies and geologic features.

101
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
 102
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys https://www.ageophysics.com/en/geophysics-lexicon
 https://www.ageophysics.com/en/geophysics-lexicon

103
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
 https://www.ageophysics.com/en/geophysics-lexicon

104
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
 B2: Lesson 2: Geophysical Surveys: Videos
Geophysical Seismic Surveys (3.00min)
https://youtu.be/22m27MhzSQs

Geophysical Gravity Surveys (2.27min)

https://youtu.be/9P6GEpxFtSY

Geophysical Magnetic Surveys (3.17min)

https://youtu.be/AZyNIGFHsE4

Geophysical Electromagnetic Surveys (2.18min)

https://youtu.be/CeQ7p2NdkPc

Massive Anomaly | IP Geophysics Report | Gold Exploration Dave Gamble (IMR) (6.10min)
Massive Anomaly found from the IP Surveys completed on the Gowganda West property of Ontario.
Gold exploration company iMetal Resources found two massive anomalous zones on the property.
https://youtu.be/sYXFoy-HeuE

Finding and Assessing Mineral Resources

https://study.com/academy/lesson/finding-and-assessing-mineral-resources.html (7.48min) 110
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys
 Questions?

Thanks!

FNQLSDI.CA

Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L2- Geophysical Surveys 106