DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

PHYSICS PROJECT
Done by:-
A.A.R.Vimal
XII-B
VIKAASA HERITAGE CAMPUS
(PONNAGARAM COMPOUND MADURAI)

Date: Place:
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Physics project entitled “DUAL NATURE OF

RADIATION AND MATTER” has been completed by the candidate
A.A.R.VIMAL of grade XII, VIKAASA HERITAGE CAMPUS for the
practical examination conducted by CISCE for the year 2021-2022

It is further certified that the said project is the original work of the candidate
under the guidance of the Physics teacher

DATE: PRINCIPAL

PHYSICS TEACHER
 Sub-headings Page No.
1. Introduction 1
2. Origin of theory 1
3. Wave and Particles viewpoints 2
4. PARTICLE NATURE OF(LIGHT)WAVES 3
5. Photon 3
6. Photoelectric effect 4
7. History of the photoelectric effect 5
8. Hertz and Lenard’s observation of photoelectric effect 5
9. Einstein’s equation for photoelectric effect 8
10.The Compton effect 10
11.Applications of photoelectric effect 13
12.WAVE NATURE OF MATTER(PARTICLES) 15
13.de Broglie wavelength 15
14.Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle 17
15.de Broglie wavelength and the Bohr atom 18
16.Davisson-Germer experiment 18
17.Electron Microscopes 22
18.A sub microscopic diffraction grating 23
19. Conclusion 24

20. Reference 25
CONTENTS

DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

INTRODUCTION:
“Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation” this topic deals with the duality in the
nature of matter, namely particle nature and a wave nature. Various experiments
by various scientists were done to prove it. For example, light behaves both as a
wave and as a particle. If we are observing phenomenon like the interference,
diffraction or reflection, we will find that light
behaves as a wave. However, if we are looking
at phenomena like the photoelectric effect, we
will find that light behaves as a particle. We
must have heard about solar energy in earlier
and how it can be a good alternative to the non-
renewable sources of energy. We can use solar
energy as a source of electricity using solar
panels. The solar panel has solar cells (semiconductors like Si and Ge) and when
photons hit the solar cells the electrons get excited and due to their movement
electric current is produced. So here we got to know that light constitutes of
photons or in other words light contains particles which are a packet of
energy. But light does not only shows particle nature it also shows the wave nature
and we will get to know about it by various experiments that are discussed very
deeply in this project work.

ORIGIN OF THEORY:

The idea of duality originated in a debate over the nature of light and matter that
dates back to the 17th century, when competing theories of light were proposed by
Christian Huygens and Isaac Newton: light was thought either to consist of waves
(Huygens) or of particles (Newton). Through the work of Max Planck, Albert
Einstein, Louis de Broglie, Arthur Compton, Niels Bohr and many others, current
scientific theory holds that all particles also have a wave nature(and vice versa).
This phenomenon has been verified not only for elementary particles, but also for
compound particles like atom and even molecules, for macroscopic particles,
because of their extremely small wavelengths, wave properties usually cannot be
detected.

Page: 1
WAVE AND PARTICLE VIEWPOINTS:
Aristotle was one of the first to publicly hypothesize about the nature of light,
proposing that light is a disturbance in the element air (that is, it is a wave-like
phenomenon). On the other hand, Democritus-the original atomist-argued that all
things in the universe, including light, are composed of indivisible sub-
components (light being some form of solar atom). At the beginning of the 11th
century, the Arabic scientist Alhazen wrote the first comprehensive treatise on
optics; describing refraction, reflection, and the operation of a pinhole lens via
rays of light travelling from the point of emission to the eye. He asserted that these
rays were composed of particles of light.

In 1630, Rene Descartes popularized and accredited in the West the opposing
wave description in his treatise on light, showing that the behaviour of light could
be re-created by modelling wave-like disturbances in a universal medium
(“plenum”). Beginning in 1670 and progressing over three decades, Isaac Newton
developed and championed his corpuscular hypothesis, arguing that the perfectly
straight lines of reflection demonstrated light’s particle nature; only particles could
travel in such straight lines. He explained refraction by positing that particles of
light accelerated laterally upon entering a denser medium. Around the same time,
Newton’s contemporaries Robert Hooke and Christian Huygens- and later
Augustin-Jean Fresnel- mathematically refined the wave viewpoint, showing that
if light travelled at different speeds in different media (such as water and air)
refraction could be easily explained as the medium-dependent propagation of light
waves. The resulting Huygens–Fresnel principle was extremely successful at
reproducing light's behaviour and, subsequently supported by Thomas Young's
discovery of double-slit interference, was the beginning of the end for the particle
light camp.

The photoelectric effect introduced evidence that light exhibit particle properties
on quantum scales of atoms.

PARTICLE NATURE OF (LIGHT) WAVES

The photoelectric effect is an example of light behaving as a particle whereas
the diffraction and interference are examples of light acting as a wave. So it is
Page: 2
confirmed now that light has dual nature. Under this topic particle nature of
light (an electromagnetic radiation) has been discussed.

Until 1900, physicists assumed that light travelled in the form of waves.
However, the photoelectric effect experiment suggested that it also possesses
energy packets. Even other forms of electromagnetic energy comprise quanta of
energy.
What we call ‘photon’ today is nothing but constituents of energy. It, in turn,
helped them to arrive at the particle nature of light.
Moreover, scientists such as Albert Einstein observed a few highlights
mentioned below.
 Light sources with longer wavelengths contain lesser energy. This mainly
refers to red and orange.
 Contrarily, shorter wavelengths contain higher photons or packets of
energy.
 Consequently, wavelengths with higher energy content displaced a
greater number of free electrons from metal surfaces.
This last observation helped Planck find out that the frequency of a source of
light was directly proportional to the radiation of such electrons.

PHOTON:

Photons, also known as light quantum or energy packets, are elementary

particles i.e., constituents of energy. In the simplest terms, a photon is a particle
of light. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTONS:

1. Photons are the basic constituent of light

which is considered as the smallest
quantum of radiation.
2. Photons travel at the speed of 2.99 ×
108 m/s in a vacuum and never stay at
the state of rest.

3. The energy of a photon is represented as

E = hv,

where h = Planck's constant = 6.626 × 10-34 m2kg/s and

v = frequency.
Page: 3
 We can further represent it in the form E = hc/λ,

where c = speed of light and

λ = wavelength of light.

4. The formula for the momentum of a photon is represented as p = hv/c.

5. Photons are massless.
6. The number of photons per second gradually increases on increasing the
intensity of the light of any given wavelength.
7. They are electrically neutral.
8. Photons are stable particles.
9. They never decay on their own.
10.Photons are not deflected by an electric or magnetic field.
11.When photons interact with an electron or other subatomic particles, the
collision that takes place is known as Compton Effect.
12.In a photon-electron (or photo - other subatomic particles) collision, the
complete energy and momentum are conserved.
13.Photons transfer energy during a collision or interaction with other
particles.

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:
Phenomenon in which electrically charged particles are released from or within a
material when it absorbs electromagnetic
radiation. The effect is often defined as the
ejection of electrons from
a metal plate when light falls on it. In a broader
definition, the radiant energy may be infrared,
visible, or ultraviolet light, X-rays, or gamma
rays; the material may be a solid, liquid, or gas;
and the released particles may
be ions (electrically charged atoms or molecules)
as well as electrons. The phenomenon was
fundamentally significant in the development of
modern physics because of the puzzling questions it raised about the nature of
light—particle versus wavelike behaviour—that were finally resolved by Albert
Einstein in 1905. The effect remains important for research in areas from materials
science to astrophysics, as well as forming the basis for a variety of useful devices.

Page: 4
HISTORY OF THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:
The photoelectric effect was first introduced by Wilhelm Ludwig Franz
Hallwachs in the year 1887 and the experimental verification was done by
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz. They observed that when a surface is exposed to
electromagnetic radiation at a higher threshold frequency, the radiation is
absorbed and the electrons are emitted. Today, we study the photoelectric effect
as a phenomenon that involves a material absorbing electromagnetic radiation
and releasing electrically charged particles.
To be more precise, light incident on the surface of a metal in the photoelectric
effect causes electrons to be ejected. The electron ejected due to the
photoelectric effect is called a photoelectron and is denoted by e–. The current
produced as a result of the ejected electrons is called photoelectric current.

HERTZ AND LENARD’S OBSERVATION OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:

It was in 1887 when Heinrich Hertz

was conducting experiments to
prove Maxwell’s electromagnetic
theory of light, that he noticed a
strange phenomenon.

Hertz, Hallwachs and Lenard (from left to right)

Hertz used a spark gap (two sharp electrodes placed at a small distance so that
electric sparks can be generated) to detect the presence of electromagnetic
waves. To get a closer look, he placed it in a dark box and found that the spark
length was reduced. When he used a glass box, the spark length increased and
when he replaced it with a quartz box, the spark length increased further. This
was the first observation of the photoelectric effect.
A year later, Wilhelm Hallwachs confirmed these results and showed that UV
light on a Zinc plate connected to a battery generated a current (because of
electron emission). In 1898, J.J. Thompson found that the amount of current
varied with the intensity and frequency of the radiation used.
In 1902, Lenard observed that the kinetic energy of electrons emitted increased
with the frequency of radiation used. This could not be explained as Maxwell’s
electromagnetic theory (which Hertz proved correct) predicted that the kinetic
energy should be only dependent on light intensity (not frequency).
The resolution would only come a few years later by Einstein when he would
provide an explanation to the photoelectric effect.

Page: 5
Experimental setup:
J.J. Thompson’s set up (later improved by Lenard) to study this effect is of great
importance. It consists of two zinc plate electrodes placed on the opposite ends
of an evacuated (a vacuum is maintained) glass tube. A small quartz window
illuminates one of the electrodes that is made the cathode. Quartz is used
because ordinary glass blocks Ultra-Violet light. A variable voltage is exerted
across the two electrodes using a battery and a potentiometer. The current in the
circuit can be recorded using an ammeter as the potential and light intensity is
changed. The setup is shown below:

Observations:

1. The photoelectric current (same as the rate of emission of electrons) is

directly proportional to the intensity of light falling on the electrode. Note
from the figure below that with increasing intensity the current is
increasing. Also, observe that as the voltage has decreased the current
also decreases. But to obtain zero current, the voltage has to be reversed
to a certain V0 known as the stopping potential. The voltage must be
reversed to such an extent that the electrons cannot reach the anode. This
is the maximum kinetic energy an
emitted electron can achieve,

Maximum Kinetic energy, KE=eV0

(e is the charge of the electron)

It is to be noted that the stopping potential is

independent to the intensity of light.

Page: 6
2. The Maximum kinetic energy increases with increase in the frequency of
light. With a higher frequency of light (ν), the stopping potential becomes
more negative which implies that the kinetic energy of electrons also
increases.

3. All frequencies of light, however, cannot cause a photoelectric current to

develop. Only light above a certain frequency (ν0) can
produce a photoelectric current. This frequency is
known as the threshold frequency. This varies with the
electrode material. Also, the maximum kinetic energy
of the electrons increases linearly with increasing light
frequency. If we extend the graph below the x-axis,
the intercept on the Kinetic energy axis represents the
minimum energy required for emission of the
electron; this is known as the work function of the
material.
4. Lastly, the electron emission occurs instantly without any time lag.

[Electron emission-The liberation of electrons from the surface of a metal is

known as Electron Emission. If a piece of metal is investigated at room
temperature, the random motion of the electrons will be shown in Fig.
However, these electrons are free to the extent that
they may transfer from one atom to another within
the metal but they cannot leave the metal surface to
provide electron mission. It is because the free
electrons that start at the surface of metal find
behind them positive nuclei pulling them back and
none pulling forward. Thus at the surface of the metal, a free electron
encounters forces that prevent it to leave the metal. In other words, the
metallic surface offer a barrier to free electrons, their kinetic energy
increases and is known as surface barrier. However, if sufficient energy is
given to the free electrons, their kinetic energy increases and thus the
electrons will cross over the surface barrier to leave the metal.
 Work function (W0): The minimum energy required by an electron to just
escape (i.e. with zero velocity) from metal's surface is called Work function
(W0) of the metal. The work function of pure metals varies (roughly) from
2eV to 6eV. Its value depends upon the nature of the metal, its purity and the
conditions of the surface. We selected those metals for electron emission Page: 7
which have low work function.

The electron emission from the surface of a metal is possible only if

sufficient addition energy (equal to work function of the sources such as heat
energy, energy stored in electric field, light energy or kinetic energy of the
electric charges bombarding the metal surface. Accordingly; there are
following four principal method of obtaining electron emission from

(I) Thermionic emission: In this method, the metal is heated to a

sufficient temperature (about 2500oC) to enable the free electrons to
leave the metal surface.
(II)  Field emission: In this method, a strong electric field (i.e. a high
positive voltage) is applied at the metal surface which pulls the free
electrons out of the metal because of the attraction of positive field.
(III) Photoelectric emission: In this method, the energy of light falling upon
the metal surface is transferred to the free electrons within the metal to
enable them to leave the surface.]

EINTSTEIN’S EQUATION FOR PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

The ejection of electrons from a metal surface by light is called the photoelectric
effect. It has been observed that

1. There is a minimum or cut-off or threshold frequency ν0, specific to the metal

surface, below which no emission of electrons takes place, no matter what the
intensity of the incident radiation is or for how long it falls on the surface,

2. The maximum kinetic energy of the emerging electrons is independent of

intensity of incident radiation but depends linearly on the frequency of the
radiation,

3. Electrons start emitting immediately after the light shines on surface without
detectable time delay,

4. For a given frequency of incident radiation, above ν0, the number of electrons
emitted per unit time is proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.
Classical wave theory of light, however in direct conflict with above observations,
tells us

1. Photoelectric effect should occur for any frequency of light provided only the
light is intense enough to give energy needed to eject photoelectrons,

2. Kinetic energy of the emitted electrons should depend on intensity of incident

radiation since more intensity implies more imparted energy and

3. If the incident light is too feeble there would be a measureable time lag between
incidence of light and ejection of photoelectrons, since electrons cannot emit
unless it has absorbed enough energy.

Planck restricted energy discretization to the oscillators, representing the source of

electromagnetic fields, which can radiate electromagnetic energy in quantum,
which once radiated spreads as wave.

Einstein proposed (1905) discrete quanta for

electromagnetic field itself, which later came to
be called photon, each carrying energy hν as it
moves away from source with velocity c.
Einstein also assumed that in the photoelectric
process one photon (of appropriate frequency) is
completely absorbed by one electron in photo-
cathode or none at all. The maximum kinetic
energy of the emitted electrons is, therefore,

Kmax = e V0 = hν − W = h (ν − ν0) …………. (1)

where W is the characteristic energy of the metal called work function and is
defined as the minimum energy needed by an electron to liberate from the metal,
Kmax = 0 ⇒ W = hν0 ,

where ν0 is the cut-off frequency.

Page: 9
The V0 is the stopping potential, the reverse potential at which photoelectric
current goes to zero. The present day accepted value of Planck’s constant is h =
6.62 × 10−34 joule-sec. Intensity of light beam is merely the number of photons in
the beam, doubling the light intensity simply doubles the number of photons and
thus doubles photoelectric current. It does not change the energy hν of the
individual photons. The photon hypothesis thus explains all the features of
photoelectric effect.

1. It follows from equation (1) if the frequency of incident radiation is reduced

below ν0, the individual photons, no matter how many of them there are (i.e. no
matter how intense the radiation is), will not have enough energy individually to
liberate photoelectrons.

2. Kmax is completely independent of intensity and depends linearly only on the

frequency of the incident radiation.

3. When the photons above cut-off frequency strike the metal, there is either hit or
no-hit with the electrons and when hit, the photon will be absorbed immediately
leading to immediate emission of photoelectron.

THE COMPTON EFFECT

In 1922 the American physicist Arthur

Compton measured the change in wavelength of X-
rays after they interacted with free electrons, and he
showed that the change could be calculated by
treating X-rays as made of photons. Compton
received the 1927 Nobel Prize for Physics for this
work.

Upon incident on a block of material, the x-ray of Arthur Compton

wavelength λ0 scatters and the intensity of scattered
radiation is found to peak at two wavelengths – one
is the same as the incident wavelength λ0 while the other is λ1, where λ1 > λ0. The
shift ∆λ = λ1 − λ0 is called Compton shift and depends only on the scattering angle
and not on the initial wavelength λ0 and material of the target.

Page: 10
Classically, the oscillating electric field of the incident radiation, of specific
frequency ν0 = c/λ0 interacts with the electrons contained in the atoms of the target
and forces them to vibrate with same frequency, thus scattering at the same
wavelength λ0 as the incident x-ray. Hence, classical picture cannot explain the
presence of larger wavelength λ1.

Compton and Debye regarded the incident x-ray beam as a collection of photons,
and not as waves, each of energy E0 = hν0 = hc/λ0. They suggested that λ1 could be
attributed to scattering of x-ray photons from loosely bound electrons in the atom
of the target, where they lose some of its energy in the inelastic collision, E1 < E.
Therefore, their frequency is reduced implying larger wavelength λ1 = c/ν1 = hc/E1.
Since the electrons participating in the scattering process are treated almost free
and initially stationary (binding energy of the electrons are small compared to the
energy of the x-ray photons) and does not involve entire atoms, this kind of
explains why ∆λ is independent of the material of the scatterer.

To calculate the Compton shift, let a photon of total energy E0 and momentum p0
is incident on a stationary electron of rest mass energy m0c2,
hc E0 h
E0 = hν0 = λ and p0 = =λ ……………….. (1)
0 c 0

After the collision, the photon is scattered at an angle θ and moves off with total
energy E1 and momentum p1,
hc E1 h
E1 = h ν1 = λ and p1 = = λ ………………. (2)
1 c 1

and electron recoils at an angle φ with kinetic energy K, total energy E and
momentum p,

E 2 = ( p2 c2 +m 20 c 4 ) and K = E – m0c 2 ……………. (3)

Page: 11
Momentum conservation leads to,

p0 = p1 cos θ + p cos φ

0 = p1 sin θ − p sin φ.

Squaring and adding the above two

equations, we get

p2 = p2+ p2− 2p0p1 cos θ...

0 1

………………. (4)

From conservation of energy in the collision, it follows that

E0 + m0c2 = E1 + E ⇒ E = (E0 − E1) + m0c2…………… (5)

and using equations (1) and (2), we obtain

√ ( p2 c2 +m 20 c 4 ) = c (p0 − p1) + m0c2 ……………. (6)

This upon squaring gives us,

p2 = (p0 − p1) 2 + 2m0c (p0 − p1)……………. (7)

Comparing equations (4) and (7), we have

(p0 − p1) 2 + 2m0c (p0 − p1) = p02 + p12− 2p0p1 cos θ

This reduces to

(1p )–(1p )= 1m c
1 0 0 ❑
(1 − cos θ)……………… (8)

Multiplying through by ‘h’ and applying (1) and (2) we obtain the Compton
equation

∆λ = λ1 − λ0 = λc (1 − cos θ) …………………… (9)

where, λc is the Compton wavelength defined as,

h
λc = m c = 0.0243Å…………………………. (10)
0 ❑
A few more lines of calculation gives us the relation between scattering and recoil
λ c ν0 λ c
angle and kinetic energy of the recoiled electron (using α = = λ ),
c 0

θ
cot φ = (1 + α) tan 2 , ………………………… (11)
Page: 12
α ( cos θ-1 )
K = hν0 ……………………… (12)
1+α ( cos θ-1 )

To explain the presence of peak at unchanged photon wavelength λ0, we observed

that if the electron involved in scattering are particularly strongly bound to the
atom in the target then the whole atom recoils. Therefore, the electron rest mass m0
in Compton equation (9), has to be replaced by mass of the atom M ≫m0 and
hence the Compton shift becomes way too small, ∆λ ∼ 1/M.

APPLICATIONS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:

The photoelectric effect has many practical applications which include the
photocell, photoconductive devices and solar cells.

1) A photocell is usually a vacuum tube with two electrodes. One is a

photosensitive cathode which emits electrons when exposed to light
and the other is
an anode which is
maintained at a positive
voltage with respect to
the cathode. Thus when
light shines on the
cathode, electrons are
attracted to the anode
and an electron current
flows in the tube from
cathode to anode. The
current can be used to
operate a relay, which
might turn a motor on to
open a door or ring a bell in an alarm system. The system can be
made to be responsive to light, as described above, or sensitive to the
removal of light as when a beam of light incident on the cathode is
interrupted, causing the current to stop. Photocells are also useful as
 exposure meters for
cameras in which case the
current in the tube would
be measured directly on a
sensitive meter.

Closely related to the photoelectric

effect is the photoconductive effect
which is the increase in electrical
conductivity of certain non-metallic
materials such as cadmium sulphide
(CdS) when exposed to light. This
effect can be quite large so that a
very small current in a device suddenly becomes quite large when exposed to
light. Thus photoconductive devices have many of the same uses as photocells.

2) Solar cells, usually made from specially prepared silicon, act like
a battery when exposed to light. Individual solar cells produce
voltages of about 0.6 volts but higher voltages and large currents can
be obtained by appropriately connecting many solar cells
together. Electricity from solar cells is still quite expensive but they
are very useful for
providing small amounts
of electricity in remote
locations where other
sources are not available.
It is likely however that
as the cost of producing
solar cells is reduced they
will begin to be used to
produce large amounts of
electricity for commercial use.

3) Scintillators: A scintillator is a
device that emits light when it
attracts radiation from either source
in the lab or a cosmic source.
 WAVE NATURE OF MATTER (PARTICLES)

A natural question arises: If radiation has a dual (wave-particle)

nature, might not the particles of nature (the electrons, protons,
etc.) also exhibit wave-like character?
In 1924, the French physicist Louis victor de Broglie (1892-
1987) put forward the bold hypothesis that moving particles of
matter should display wave-like properties under suitable
conditions. He reached this conclusion, on the observation that
the entire universe is composed of matter and (electromagnetic)
radiation, and that nature loves symmetry. These two physical
entities, matter and radiation, must have symmetrical character.

DE BROGLIE WAVELENGTH:

According to the hypothesis, particles behave as waves which are called matter
waves. The wavelength (De Broglie wavelength) of the matter-wave
corresponding to a particle of momentum p is given by, 
λ=h/p  
Here, h denotes the Planck’s constant. The De Broglie wavelength is inversely
proportional to the momentum (hence mass) of a particle. For macroscopic
objects, the wavelength is much smaller than the size of the object. The wave
nature becomes prominent for microscopic objects e.g. electrons.
A photon having energy E has momentum (p):
 p=E/c…………. (1)
Here, c denotes the speed of light in vacuum.
According to Planck’s concept, the energy of a photon of frequency (ν) and
wavelength (λ) is given by,
E = hν = hc/λ……………… (2)
The energies should be equal, suggesting:
hc/λ = pc………… (3)
λ=h/p…………….. (4)
De Broglie realized that the above relation should hold for particles also. A
particle of mass m and velocity v has momentum p=mv. Therefore, it should
have a wavelength given by,
λ = h/p = h/mv……………. (5)
The above equation for a material is basically a hypothesis whose validity
can be tested only by experiment. However, it is interesting to see that it is
satisfied also by a photon. For a photon, as we have seen
p=hν/c

Page: 15
 Therefore, h/p=c/ν= λ
That is, the de Broglie wavelength of a photon given by the (5) equals the
wavelength of electromagnetic radiation of which the photon is a quantum
of energy and momentum.
Clearly from equation (5), λ is smaller for a heavier particle (large m) or
more energetic particle (large ν). For example,

1.) An electron of mass 9.11×10−31 kg moves at nearly the speed of light.

Using a velocity of 3.00×108 m/s, calculate the wavelength of the electron.

 mass (m)=9.11×10−31 kg
 Planck's constant (h)=6.6262×10−34× J⋅s
 velocity (v)=3.00×108 m/s

h
Applying the de Broglie wave equation λ= mv to solve for the wavelength of
the moving electron.
Step 2: Calculate

h 6.626 × 10-34
λ= mv = = 2.42 × 10-12
( 9.11 × 10-31 ) × ( 3.00×10 8 )

(9.11×10−31 kg)× (3.00×108 m/s) =2.42×10−12 m

2.) Why do we not observe matter wave effects for macroscopic objects?

De Broglie of a 1g object moving at 10m/s:

λ = h/p = h/mv= (6.63( 1g×)(1010m/s

-34 Js
) )
= 6.63× 10 -32
m

De Broglie wavelength of an electron moving at 0.02c:

h
λ = h/p = h/mv= 0.02c m = 0.36nm
e

c→ speed of light

Macroscopic objects have wavelengths that are far too small to interact with
slits etc. to show interference or diffraction.
HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE : Page: 16

o This principle was in favour of the

wave nature of matter
o It stated that it is impossible to
simultaneously evaluate the precise
position and momentum of particle. There
is always some probability in predicting
the position and momentum of a particle.
Mathematically, it can be written as:
                   (Δx)(Δp) ≥ h/ (2π)

Considering the above equation, 2 cases are possible:

o Case-1- If precise momentum(p) of an electron is known, then its

wavelength by De Broglie’s hypothesis will be constant:
              λ = h/p
It means that the wavelength has a fixed value and the wave is extended
infinitely throughout the wave. Hence, it is impossible to find the position of the
wave. Mathematically, if   p = fixed, Then, Δp→0, Δx→∞

o Case-2- If the wave is localized, having finite end points

A localized wave is shown below:

As we can see in the

diagram, the wavelength
(λ) is not fixed, so the
momentum (p) is also
not fixed.

Hence, there is
uncertainty in both, momentum (p) and position (x)
DE BROGLIE WAVELENGTH AND THE BOHR ATOM:
Page: 17
De Broglie’s matter wave provided an explanation of the quantization of
angular momentum in the Bohr atom:

Waves travelling in opposite directions in a confined space can set up a standing

wave due to constructive interference [A pair of light or sound waves will
experience interference when they pass through each other. The individual
waves will add together (superposition) so that a new wavefront is created.

Constructive interference occurs when the maxima of two waves add together

(the two waves are in phase), so that the amplitude of the resulting wave is
equal to the sum of the individual amplitudes. Equivalently, the minima of the
waves would be aligned.]

A standing wave in a circle is formed when an integer number of wavelengths

fits around the circumference:

2
π r = nλ

Using the expression for the de

Broglie wavelength we obtain
the condition for quantized
angular momentum:

λ = h/p = h/mv

⟹ mvr = n (2πh ) = nħ
ħ→ reduces Planck’s constant (also known as Dirac’s constant)
(It’s a closely-related quantity to Planck’s constant)

DAVISSON-GERMER EXPERIMENT

Initial atomic models proposed by scientists could only explain the particle
nature of electrons but failed to explain the properties related to their wave
nature. C.J. Davisson and L.H. Germer in the year 1927 carried out an
experiment, popularly known as Davisson Germer’s experiment to explain
the wave nature of electrons through electron diffraction. In this article, we will
learn about the observations and conclusions of the experiment.
Experimental setup: Page: 18
The experimental arrangement of the Davisson Germer experiment is discussed
below:

 An electron gun comprising a tungsten filament F was coated with

barium oxide and heated through a low voltage power supply.
 While applying
suitable potential
difference from a high
voltage power supply,
the electron gun emits
electrons which were
again accelerated to a
particular velocity.
 In a cylinder
perforated with fine
holes along its axis,
these emitted electrons
were made to pass through it, thus producing a fine collimated beam.
 The beam produced from the cylinder is again made to fall on the surface
of a nickel crystal. Due to this, the electrons scatter in various directions.
 The beam of electrons produced has a certain amount of intensity which
is measured by the electron detector and after it is connected to a
sensitive galvanometer (to record the current), it is then moved on a
circular scale.
 By moving the detector on the circular scale at different positions that is
changing the θ (angle between the incident and the scattered electron
beams), the intensity of the scattered electron beam is measured for
different values of angle of scattering.

The thought behind the experimental setup:

The basic thought behind the Davisson and Germer experiment was that the
waves reflected from two different atomic layers of a Ni crystal will have a
fixed phase difference. After reflection, these waves will interfere either
constructively or destructively. Hence producing a diffraction pattern.
In the Davisson and Germer experiment waves were used in place of electrons.
These electrons formed a diffraction pattern. The dual nature of matter was thus
verified. We can relate the de Broglie equation and the Bragg’s law as:

From the de Broglie equation, we have:

Page: 19
λ = h/p = h/√ 2mE= h/√ 2meV    … (1)

where, m is the mass of an electron, e is the charge on an electron and h is the

Plank’s constant. Therefore for a given V, an electron will have a wavelength
given by equation (1).

The following equation gives Bragg’s Law:

nλ = 2d sin (90̊ - θ/2) … (2)

n is an integer, the order of the reflection

λ is the wavelength of the incident X-ray beam
θ is the angle of incidence= Angle of scattering of X-rays
d is the distance between atoms in a crystal (here it is Nickel crystal)

Since the value of d was already known from the X-ray diffraction experiments.
Hence for various values of θ, we can find the wavelength of the waves producing
a diffraction pattern from equation (2).

Observation:

The detector used here can only detect the presence of an

electron in the form of a particle. As a result, the detector
receives the electrons in the form of an electronic current.
The intensity (strength) of this electronic current received
by the detector and the scattering angle is studied. We call
this current as the electron intensity.

The intensity of the scattered electrons is not continuous.

It shows a maximum and a minimum value corresponding to the maxima and the
minima of a diffraction pattern produced by X-rays. It is studied from various

Plots between I – the

intensity of scattering (X-
axis) and the angle of
angles of scattering and potential difference. For a particular voltage (54V, say)
the maximum scattering happens at a fixed angle only (50̊) as shown in the
figure:

Results of the Davisson-Germer experiment:

From the Davisson and Germer experiment, we get a value for the scattering
angle θ and a corresponding value of the potential difference V at which the
scattering of electrons is maximum. Thus these two values from the data
collected by Davisson and Germer, when used in equation (1) and (2) give the
same values for λ. Therefore, this establishes the de Broglie’s wave-particle
duality and verifies his equation as shown below:

From (1), we have:

λ = h/√ 2meV

For V = 54 V, we have

λ = 12.27/54 = 0.167 nm … (3)

Now the value of‘d’ from X-ray scattering is 0.092 nm. Therefore for V = 54 V,
the angle of scattering is 50̊, using this in equation (2), we have:
nλ = 2 (0.092 nm) sin (90̊−50̊/2)
For n = 1, we have: λ = 0.165 nm ….. (4)

Therefore the experimental results are in a close agreement with the theoretical
values got from the de Broglie equation. The equations (3) and (4) verify the de
Broglie equation.

De Broglie’s proposal of a wave nature for all particles initiated a remarkably

productive era in which the foundations for quantum mechanics were laid. In
1926, the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961) published four
papers in which the wave nature of particles was treated explicitly with wave
equations. At the same time, many others began important work. Among them
was German physicist Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976) who, among many
other contributions to quantum mechanics, formulated a mathematical treatment
of the wave nature of matter that used matrices rather than wave equations. We
will deal with some specifics in later sections, but it is worth noting that de
Broglie’s work was a watershed for the development of quantum mechanics. De
Broglie was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1929 for his vision, as were Davisson
and G. P. Thomson in 1937 for their experimental verification of de Broglie’s
hypothesis.

Electron Microscopes:

One consequence or use of the wave nature of matter is found in the electron
microscope. As we have discussed, there is a limit to the detail observed with
any probe having a wavelength. Resolution, or observable detail, is limited to
about one wavelength. Since a potential of only 54 V can produce electrons
with sub-nanometre wavelengths, it is easy to get electrons with much smaller
wavelengths than those of visible light (hundreds of nanometres). Electron
microscopes can, thus, be constructed to detect much smaller details than
optical microscopes. (Refer the figure given below).

There are basically two types of

electron microscopes. The
transmission electron microscope
(TEM) accelerates electrons that are
emitted from a hot filament (the
cathode). The beam is broadened
and then passes through the sample.
A magnetic lens focuses the beam
image onto a fluorescent screen, a
photographic plate, or (most
probably) a CCD (light sensitive
camera), from which it is transferred
to a computer. The TEM is similar
Schematic of a scanning electron microscope
to the optical microscope, but it
(SEM) (a) used to observe small details, such
requires a thin sample examined in a
as those seen in this image of a tooth of a
vacuum. However, it can resolve
Himipristis, a type of shark (b)
details as small as 0.1 nm (10−10 m),
providing magnifications of 100
million times the size of the original
object. The TEM has allowed us to see individual atoms and structure of cell
nuclei.
The scanning electron microscope (SEM) provides images by using secondary
electrons produced by the primary beam interacting with the surface of the
sample (adjoining figure). The SEM also uses magnetic lenses to focus the
beam onto the sample. However, it moves the beam around electrically to
“scan” the sample in the x and y directions. A CCD detector is used to process
the data for each electron position, producing images like the one at the
beginning of this chapter. The SEM has the advantage of not requiring a thin
sample and of providing a 3-D view. However, its resolution is about ten times
less than a TEM.

Electrons were the first particles with mass to be directly confirmed to have the
wavelength proposed by de Broglie. Subsequently, protons, helium nuclei,
neutrons, and many others have been observed to exhibit interference when theyPage: 22
interact with objects having sizes similar to their de Broglie wavelength. The de
Broglie wavelength for massless particles was well established in the 1920s for
photons, and it has since been observed that all massless particles have a de
Broglie wavelength
h
 λ=  p

A SUBMICROSCOPIC DIFFRACTION GRATING:

The wave nature of matter allows it to exhibit all the characteristics of other,
more familiar, waves. Diffraction gratings, for example, produce diffraction
patterns for light that depends on grating spacing and the wavelength of the
light. This effect, as with most wave phenomena, is most pronounced when the
wave interacts with objects having a size similar to its wavelength. For gratings,
this is the spacing between multiple slits.) When electrons interact with a
system having a spacing similar to the electron wavelength, they show the same
types of interference patterns as light does for diffraction gratings, as shown in
top left of the figure given below.
Fig: The diffraction pattern at top left is
produced by scattering electrons from a
crystal and is graphed as a function of
incident angle relative to the regular
array of atoms in a crystal, as shown at
bottom. Electrons scattering from the
second layer of atoms travel farther than
those scattered from the top layer. If the
path length difference (PLD) is an
integral wavelength, there is
constructive interference.

Page: 1
Atoms are spaced at regular intervals in a crystal as parallel planes, as shown in
the bottom part of Figure 3. The spacing between these planes act like the
openings in a diffraction grating. At certain incident angles, the paths of
electrons scattering from successive planes differ by one wavelength and, thus,
interfere constructively. At other angles, the path length differences are not an
integral wavelength, and there is partial to total destructive interference. This
type of scattering from a large crystal with well-defined lattice planes can
produce dramatic interference patterns. It is called Bragg reflection. The
expanded view also shows the path-length differences and indicates how these
depend on incident angle θ in a manner similar to the diffraction patterns for x
rays reflecting from a crystal.
Page: 23
Let us take the spacing between parallel planes of atoms in the crystal to be ‘d’.
As mentioned, if the path length difference (PLD) for the electrons is a whole
number of wavelengths, there will be constructive interference—that is,
PLD = nλ (n = 1, 2, 3,…). Because AB = BC = d sin θ, we have constructive
interference when nλ = 2d sin θ. This relationship is called the Bragg
equation and applies not only to electrons but also to x rays.

The wavelength of matter is a sub microscopic characteristic that explains a

macroscopic phenomenon such as Bragg reflection. Similarly, the wavelength
of light is a sub microscopic characteristic that explains the macroscopic
phenomenon of diffraction patterns.

CONCLUSION:

The phenomenon of interference, diffraction, polarization of light is well

explained by considering the wave nature of light. On the other hand,
phenomena like photoelectric effect, Compton Effect, Raman Effect etc. require
particle nature of light. Bohr's complementary principle states that the wave and
particle description are complementary ways. According to uncertainty
principle it is impossible to design an experiment which will show both the
particle and wave nature at the same time.
i) de Broglie wavelength is inversely proportional to the velocity of the particle.
If the particle moves faster, then the wavelength will be smaller and vice versa
ii) If the particle is at rest, then the de Broglie wavelength is infinite. Such a
wave cannot be visualized.
iii) de Broglie wavelength is inversely proportional to the mass of the particle.
The wavelength is associated with a heavier particle is smaller than with a
lighter particle.
iv) de Broglie wavelength is independent of the charge of the particle. Matter
waves, like electromagnetic waves, can travel in vacuum and hence they are not
mechanical waves.

Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves because they are not produced by
accelerated charges.

REFERENCE: List of websites referred for completion of this project:

Page: 24
1) https://collegedunia.com/exams/particle-nature-of-light-the-photon-
properties-physics-articleid-111

2) https://byjus.com/jee/photoelectric-effect/#history-of-the-photoelectric-effect

3) https://collegedunia.com/exams/einsteins-photoelectric-equation-energy-
quantum-of-radiation-physics-articleid-105

4) https://www.slideshare.net/ramashankerpandey/dual-nature-of-radiation

5) https://www.slideshare.net/rahulkushwaha06/photoelectric-effect-and-dual-
nature-of-matter-and-radiation-class-12

6) https://science.jrank.org/pages/5169/Photoelectric-Effect-Applications.html

7) https://byjus.com/physics/hertz-lenard-observations/

8) https://bohr.wlu.ca/pc242/Phys242Lec10.pdf

9) https://www.ck12.org/book/cbse_physics_book_class_xii/section/11.5/

10) https://testbook.com/learn/physics-dual-nature-of-matter-and-radiation/

11) https://www.examfear.com/notes/Class-12/Physics/Dual-Nature-Radiation-
Matter/1102/Experimental-Observations-of-Photoelectric-Effect.htm

12) https://byjus.com/physics/davisson-germer-experiment/

13) https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/29-6-the-wave-nature-
of-matter/
14) https://www.learnpick.in/prime/documents/ppts/details/4865/dual-nature-of-
light

15) https://www.slideshare.net/LovedeepGehal/dual-nature-of-radiation-and-
matter-class-12

16) https://www.toppr.com/guides/physics/dual-nature-of-radiation-and-
matter/davisson-and-germer-experiment/

Books used for reference: (1) ISC Physics class-XII Volume-2

(2) NCERT Physics book for class12 (Volume 2)

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