TABLE OF CONTENTS

2
CHAPTER 1

Hyperbolic Functions

3
CHAPTER 2

Matrices

5
CHAPTER 3

Differentiation

7
CHAPTER 4

Integration

11
CHAPTER 5

Complex Numbers

13
CHAPTER 6

Differential Equations
 CIE A-LEVEL FURTHER MATHEMATICS//9231
1.2 Hyperbolic Identities
1. HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS • Osborne’s Rule:
“To move from a trig identity to a hyperbolic identity:
1.1 Exponential forms change cos to cosh and change the sign of a product of
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
• 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 = 2
. 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅,  𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝑅 sinhs.”
• List of Identities:
o 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 ≡ 1
o 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑥 ≡ 1
o 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ2 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ2 𝑥 ≡ 1
o 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝐴 + 𝐵) ≡ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝐵 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝐵
o 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝐴 + 𝐵) ≡ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝐵 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝐵
o 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥
o 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑥
9231/02/SP/20 Question 7:
a) Starting from the definition of tanh in terms of
1 1+𝑥
exponentials, prove that 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥 = 2 𝑙𝑛 (1−𝑥)
1−𝑥
b) Given that 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 ( ), show that
2+𝑥
−1 (𝑥)
Inverse: 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ = 𝑙𝑛(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1) (2𝑥 +
𝑑𝑦
1) 𝑑𝑥 +1=0
Solution:
𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
• 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 = 2
. 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅,  𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 1 a)
𝑒 2𝑥 −1
Using 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝑥 +1 we have:
𝑒 2𝑥 − 1
𝑦=
𝑒 2𝑥 + 1
𝑥
Substitute 𝑢 = 𝑒 and solve for 𝑢
𝑢2 − 1
𝑦= 2
𝑢 +1
→ 𝑦𝑢2 + 𝑦 = 𝑢2 − 1
→ (𝑦 − 1)𝑢2 = −𝑦 − 1
1+𝑦
→ 𝑢2 =
1−𝑦
Substitute back and solve for 𝑥:
Inverse: 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 (𝑥) = 𝑙𝑛(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1) 1+𝑦
𝑒 2𝑥 =
1−𝑦
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 −1
• 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝑥 +1 . 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅,   − 1 < 𝑓(𝑥) < 1 1+𝑦
→ 2x = 𝑙𝑛 ( )
1−𝑦
1 1+𝑦
→ 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛 ( )
2 1−𝑦
Switch all 𝑥 with 𝑦
1 1+𝑥
y = 𝑙𝑛 ( )
2 1−𝑥
(Answer)
b)
Use the Logarithmic definition for 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 (𝑥) and
1 1+𝑥
Inverse: 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥 = 2 𝑙𝑛 (1−𝑥) substitute in:

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 CIE A-LEVEL FURTHER MATHEMATICS//9231
1+𝑥
1 + 1−𝑥 10 −6 𝑥 2𝑥
1 𝜆=2 ( )( ) = ( )
y = 𝑙𝑛 ( 12 −7 𝑦 2𝑦
2 1+𝑥)
1− 1−𝑥
10𝑥 − 6𝑦 = 2𝑥
Simplify it:
→ 8𝑥 = 6𝑦
1 3 4
y = 𝑙𝑛 ( ) → 𝑥=𝑦
2 1 + 2x 3
Differentiate
𝑑𝑦 1 3 1 + 2𝑥 3
= × −2 ( )× Eigenvector: ( )
𝑑𝑥 2 (1 + 2𝑥) 2 3 4
𝑑𝑦 1
→ =− 10 −6 𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 1 + 2𝑥 𝜆=1 ( ) ( ) = (𝑦)
12 −7 𝑦
𝑑𝑦 10𝑥 − 6𝑦 = 𝑥
→ (1 + 2𝑥) = −1
𝑑𝑥 → 9𝑥 = 6𝑦
→ 3𝑥 = 2𝑦
𝑑𝑦 3
→ (1 + 2𝑥) +1 =0 → 𝑥=𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
(Answer)
2
Eigenvector: ( )
3
2. MATRICES
2.1 Eigenvalues & Eigenvectors Hence, we have found
• Eigenvector: vectors who do not change direction after a 3 2
𝜆 = 2, ( ). 𝜆 = 1, ( )
4 3
matrix is being applied to them.
• Eigenvalues: the scale factors of the eigenvectors after a 2.2 Matrix Algebra
matrix is applied to them • Given that Ae = λ𝑒 and Be = μ𝑒 where 𝑒 is a common
• Eigenvectors & eigenvalues has the relation: eigenvector for both A and B
Ax = λ𝑥 o The matrix A + B has eigenvalue λ + μ
• To determine a characteristic equation, use: o The matrix AB has eigenvalue λμ
𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴 − λ𝐼) = 0 o The matrix A + 𝑘𝐈 has eigenvalue λ + 𝑘
Example: o The matrix A𝑝 + A𝑞 + ⋯ has eigenvalueλ𝑝 + λ𝑞 + ⋯
Find the eigenvalues, and eigenvectors for the
following matrix 2.3 Diagonalization
10 −6 • A matrix 𝐀 that can be written in the form 𝐀 = 𝐏𝐃𝐏 −1
( )
12 −7
Solution: is said to be diagonalizable.
Using the characteristic equation • The diagonal matrix
det(A − λ𝐈) = 0 λ1 0 0 ⋯ 0
10 −6 1 0 10 − 𝜆 −6 0 λ2 0 ⋯ 0
Det (( ) − λ( )) = | | 𝐷 = 0 0 λ3 ⋯ 0
12 −7 0 1 12 −7 − 𝜆
Form an equation and solve to find eigenvalues ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
(10 − 𝜆)(−7 − 𝜆) − (−6)(12) = 0 ( 0 0 0 0 λ𝑛 )
𝜆2 − 3𝜆 + 2 = 0 Where each eigenvalue is placed in the leading diagonal
𝜆 = 2 or 1 of a square matrix.
Next, find the eigenvectors by multiplying by original • Finding matrix 𝐏: place two eigenvectors side-by-side
matrix and solving equation by putting values 𝑎 𝑐
( )
Using 𝐴𝑥 = λ𝑥: 𝑏 𝑑
Note: the eigenvalue should be in the same column as
the corresponding eigenvector

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Example: After simplification:
−𝟏
Decompose the following matrix into the form 𝐐𝐃𝐐 λ3 − 4λ2 − 27λ + 90 = 0
10 −6
( )
12 −7 Using the Cayley-Hamilton Theorem we get:
Solution:
𝐀3 − 4𝐀2 − 27𝐀 + 90𝐈 = 0
From the previous part:
3 2
𝜆 = 2, ( ) and 𝜆 = 1, ( ) Rearranging the terms:
4 3
Using method from above, 𝐀3 − 4𝐀2 − 27𝐀 = −90𝐈
2 0 3 2 → 𝐀(𝐀2 − 4𝐀 − 27𝐈) = −90𝐈
𝐃=( ) and 𝐐 = ( ) → 𝐀2 − 4𝐀 − 27𝐈 = −90𝐀−1
0 1 4 3
To find 𝐐−𝟏 , find the inverse of 𝐐
3 2 Therefore:
| | = 9−8 = 1
4 3 1 20 8 −2 −2 −4 2
1 3 −2 𝐴−1 = − [(10 13 8 ) − 4 (−2 1 2)
𝐐−𝟏 = ( ) 90
1 −4 3 8 −4 37 4 2 5
Hence, 27 0 0
10 −6 3 2 2 0 3 −2 −(0 27 0 )]
( )=( )( )( )
12 −7 4 3 0 1 −4 3 0 0 27
Finally:
• If there are fewer eigenvalues than the dimension of the 1 4 1
matrix, then there will be insufficient distinct − −
90 15 9
eigenvectors. This means that, in general, the matrix 𝑃 1 1
𝐴−1 = − 0
cannot have an inverse, and so the matrix 𝐴 cannot be 5 5
diagonalized. There are exceptions to this, but they are 4 2 1
not covered in the syllabus. ( 45 15 9)

2.4 Cayley-Hamilton Theorem

• The Cayley-Hamilton Theorem states that: 2.5 System of Linear Equations
“For a square matrix 𝐴, assume that the characteristic • For a system of equations, where the reduced
equation is 𝑃(λ) = 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴 − λ𝐼). The theorem states that augmented matrix is of the form:
∗ ∗ ∗ ⋮ ∗
𝑃(𝐴) = 0”
(∗ ∗ ∗ ⋮ ∗)
• In other words, if you have the characteristic equation: 0 0 𝑎 ⋮ 𝑏
𝑎λ3 + 𝑏λ2 + 𝑐λ + 𝑑 = 0 There are 3 cases to consider:
Then it is also true that: o If 𝑎 = 0 & 𝑏 = 0, then there is an INFINITE number
a𝐀3 + b𝐀2 + c𝐀 + d𝐈 = 0 of solutions
We can use this to find inverses of matrices. o If 𝑎 = 0 & 𝑏 ≠ 0, then there are NO solutions
Example: o If 𝑎 ≠ 0 & 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅, there will be a unique solution
The matrix 𝐴 is given as 9231/02/SP/20 Question 8:
−2 −4 2
(−2 1 2) i) Find the set of values of 𝑎 for which the system of
4 2 5 equations:
Determine the characteristic equation of 𝐴 and use it x − 2y − 2z + 7 = 0
to determine 𝐀−1 . 2𝑥 + (𝑎 − 9)𝑦 − 10𝑧 + 11 = 0
Solution: 3𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 2𝑎𝑧 + 29 = 0
Using the characteristic equation ii) Given that 𝑎 = – 3, show that the system of
det(𝐀 − 𝜆𝐈) = 0 equations in part (i) has no solution. Interpret this
Which is just: situation geometrically.
−2 − λ −4 2 Solution:
| −2 1−λ 2 |=0 There are two methods to solve this part (i), both
4 2 5−λ methods will be shown:

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 CIE A-LEVEL FURTHER MATHEMATICS//9231
Part i) Part ii)
1st method When 𝑎 = −3, substituting back into the original
Make the matrix into Row Echelon form by performing matrix will give us
row reduction 1 −2 −2 ⋮ −7
1 −2 −2 ⋮ −7 (2 −12 −10 ⋮ −11)
(2 𝑎 − 9 −10 ⋮ −11) 3 −6 −6 ⋮ −29
3 −6 2𝑎 ⋮ −29 The 3rd row is 3 times the 1st row, but their constants
do not satisfy each other. Only two equations do not
Apply 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 agree, this is means that there are 2 planes that are
1 −2 −2 ⋮ −7 parallel to each other.
(0 𝑎 − 5 −6 ⋮ 3 )
3 −6 2𝑎 ⋮ −29 3. DIFFERENTIATION
Apply 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 3𝑅1
1 −2 −2 ⋮ −7 3.1 General Differentiation
𝑑𝑦
(0 𝑎 − 5 −6 ⋮ 3) • If 𝑦 = [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 , then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛𝑓 ′ (𝑥)[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛−1
0 0 2𝑎 + 6 ⋮ −7 𝑑𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
• If 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛[𝑓(𝑥)], then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)
The trivial answer to (i) is that 2𝑎 + 6 ≠ 0, solving it 𝑑𝑦
• If 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥), then =𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑒 𝑓(𝑥)
would give us: 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 ≠3 • If 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣𝑤, where 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 are all functions of 𝑥, then

The other answer comes from the 2nd row where there 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑢𝑣 + 𝑢𝑤 + 𝑣𝑤
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
is 𝑎 − 5. At this point we should let 𝑎 = 5 and see if
both 2nd row & 3rd row agrees to each other 3.2 Second Derivative of Implicit
−6z  = 3 16z  =   − 7 Expressions
1 7 • Differentiate expression a second time
→𝑧=− 𝑧=− 𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
2 16 • Differentiating 𝑑𝑥 gives 𝑑𝑥 2
7 1
But since − 16 ≠ − 2, ∴ unique solution when 𝑎 ≠ 5
Example:
Final answer: 𝒂 ≠ 𝟓 & 𝒂 ≠ −𝟑 Differentiate 𝑥𝑦 2 twice
Solution:
2nd method 𝑑𝑦
Apply determinant on the square matrix and equate it 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 ( )
𝑑𝑥
to 0 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
1 −2 −2 2𝑦 ( ) + 2𝑦 ( ) + 2𝑥 ( ) . ( ) + 2𝑥𝑦 ( 2 )
|2 𝑎 − 9 −10| = 0 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
3 −6 2𝑎 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑦
4𝑦 ( ) + 2𝑥 ( ) + 2𝑥𝑦 ( 2 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
→ 2𝑎(𝑎 − 9) − 60 + 2(4𝑎 + 30)
− 2(−12 − 3𝑎 + 27) = 0
3.3 Second Derivative of Implicit Equations
Simplify the equation to give us: • May be asked to differentiate twice and use equation
to find out nature of stationary points
2𝑎2 − 4𝑎 − 30 = 0 • Nature of stationary point
𝑎 = 5 & 𝑎 = −3 o 2nd derivative +ve = minimum
o 2nd derivative –ve = maximum
Therefore, unique solution when: Example:
𝒂 ≠ 𝟓 & 𝒂 ≠ −𝟑 Find the stationary points and their nature of the
circle with equation 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 𝑦 2 − 8𝑦 = 0

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Solution: 3.5 Table of Derivatives
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝒅𝒚
2𝑥 − 6 + 2𝑦 ( ) − 8 ( ) = 0 𝒚
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝒅𝒙
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 − 3 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉(𝒙) 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑥)
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 − 4 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉(𝒙) 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝑥)
Stationary point: (3, −1) and (3, 9)
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉(𝒙) 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 (𝑥)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
2 + 2( ) + 2𝑦 ( 2 ) − 8 ( 2 ) = 0 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒉(𝒙) − 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ2 (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒉(𝒙) − 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ(𝑥) 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ(𝑥)
𝑑2 𝑦
Substitute values and find 𝑑𝑥 2
𝒄𝒔𝒄𝒉(𝒙) − 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ(𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ(𝑥)
𝑑2 𝑦 1
(3, −1) 𝑑𝑥 2
=5 Nature = minimum 1
𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝒙)
√1 − 𝑥 2
𝑑2 𝑦 1 1
(3, 9) = −5 Nature = maximum
𝑑𝑥 2 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝒙) −
√1 − 𝑥 2
3.4 Second Derivative of Parametric 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏(𝒙)
1
Equations 1 + 𝑥2
1
• Find first derivative simply by differentiating each 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉−𝟏 (𝒙)
parameter and dividing: √1 + 𝑥 2
1
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉−𝟏 (𝒙) −
= ⁄𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 1
𝑑𝑥 1
𝑑𝑡 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉−𝟏(𝒙)
• Find second derivative by differentiating
𝑑𝑦
and dividing 1 − 𝑥2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
by 𝑑𝑡 3.6 Maclaurin Series
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑑 𝑑𝑦
( ) • For an infinitely differentiable function 𝑓(𝑥) about the
= 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 ⁄
𝑑𝑥 point 𝑥 = 0, the Maclaurin series is given by:
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑡
′ (0)𝑥
𝑓 ′′ (0)𝑥 2 𝑓 ′′′ (0)𝑥 3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 + + + …
2! 3!
Example: • In summation form, the Maclaurin series can be
Find the stationary points and their nature of the represented by:
curve with parameters 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑡 + 1 and 𝑦 = 2𝑡 2 ∞
𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑛
Solution: 𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑦 𝑛!
=𝑒 = 4𝑡 𝑛=0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 4𝑡
𝑑𝑡 • List of Maclaurin Series can be found in the formula
= sheet MF19.
𝑑𝑥 𝑒 𝑡
At stationary point, 𝑡 = 0 so 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑦 = 0
9231/02/SP/20 Question 7 continued:
𝑑 4𝑡 Hence find the first three terms in the Maclaurin’s
𝑑2 𝑦 ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑒 𝑡 ⁄
= 𝑒𝑡
1−𝑥
series for 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 (2+𝑥) in the form
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑎 𝑙𝑛 3 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2
4(𝑒 𝑡 )−4𝑡(𝑒 𝑡 )
4 − 4𝑡 Where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are constants to be determined
= (𝑒 𝑡 )2 ⁄
𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑒 2𝑡 NOTE: this is a continuation from the question in the
chapter of hyperbolic functions
𝑑2 𝑦 Solution:
At 𝑡 = 0, > 0 ∴ (2, 0) is minimum
𝑑𝑥 2

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Using the first three terms of the Maclaurin series: 4.2 Integrating Inverse functions
𝑓 ′′ (0)𝑥 2 • Use integration by parts to integrate inverse functions
𝑓(0) + 𝑓 ′ (0)𝑥 +
2! • In doing it, Differentiate the inverse function and
Finding 𝑓(0): integrate 1
1−0 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 ( ) • In other words, let 𝑢 be the inverse function and 𝑣 = 1
2+0 2
By exponential definition of 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1(𝑥) Example:
1 Integrate:
1 1 1+
−1 2
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ ( ) = 𝑙𝑛 ( 1) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2 2 1− 2
1
→ 𝑓(0) = ln(3) Solution:
2 Perform integration by parts by differentiating
𝟏
∴𝒂= 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1(𝑥) and integrating 1:
𝟐 𝑥
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1(𝑥) + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
Finding 𝑓 ′ (0): √1 − 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 1 We can do a substitution for the latter integral
We can simply use the fact that 𝑑𝑥 = − 1+2𝑥 from the
question we have solved. 𝑢 = √1 − 𝑥 2
𝑥
1 𝑑𝑢 = − 𝑑𝑥
𝑓 ′ (0) = − = −1 √1 − 𝑥 2
1+0 Now we have:
∴ 𝒃 = −𝟏 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑥) + ∫ −1 𝑑𝑢
′′ (0):
Finding 𝑓
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
Differentiate 𝑑𝑥 to get 𝑑𝑥 2
∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝒙) − √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄
2
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = (Answer)
(2𝑥 + 1)2

2 4.3 Reduction Formula

𝑓 ′′ (0) = =2
(0 + 1)2 • Enables to solve integral problem by reducing it to an
To find the coefficient of 𝑥 2 , divide it by 2! (the easier integral problem, and then reducing that to an
exclamation mark is factorial) easier problem, and so on.
2 • Generally obtained from using by integration by parts.
=1
2! • Usually solved by splitting the power such that the lower
∴𝒄 =𝟏 power can be integrated, and the higher power can be
All in all, the answer is: differentiated.
𝟏 • Look for the original form in your solution.
𝒍𝒏 𝟑 − 𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐
𝟐 Example:
𝑛 𝑥
Find the reduction formula for ∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑑𝑥
4. INTEGRATION Solution:
𝐼𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
4.1 Some Standard Integrals Use integration by parts formula to split up
1
• ∫ 𝑎2 +𝑥 2  𝑑𝑥 can be solved with 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ to give 𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑛 and 𝑢′ = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑣 ′ = 𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥
1 𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑎) + 𝑐 𝐼𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
1 You can pull out the 𝑛 and place 𝐼𝑛−1 instead forming
•∫  dx can be solved with 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ to give
√𝑎 2 −𝑥 2
𝑥 𝐼𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑛𝐼𝑛−1
𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑎) + 𝑐 To find the integral of any value of 𝑛, you must start
•
1
∫ 𝑎2 −𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 can be solved with 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ θ to give with 𝐼0 = 𝑥 0 𝑒 𝑥 − 0 𝑑𝑥 hence you must first find ∫ 𝑒 𝑥
1 𝑥
𝑎
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 (𝑎) + 𝑐
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Example: For cartesian curves:
For 𝐼𝑛 defined below, find 𝐼7 • Factorizing 𝛿𝑥
𝜋
4 𝛿𝑦 2
𝐼𝑛 = ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 n 𝛿𝑠 2 = (1 + ) 𝛿𝑥 2
0 𝛿𝑥 2
Solution: Square rooting and integrating this:
Split into product to use by parts formula. Extract
tan2 𝑥 so you can convert to sec 2 𝑥. 𝑑𝑦 2
𝜋 𝑠 = ∫ √1 + ( ) 𝑑𝑥
4
𝑑𝑥
𝐼𝑛 = ∫ tan2 𝑥 tann−2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (can factorize 𝛿𝑦 instead and integrate with respect to 𝑦)
0
Use identity to switch to sec 2 𝑥 For cartesian curves defined parametrically:
𝜋
4
• Factorizing 𝛿𝑡
𝐼𝑛 = ∫ (sec 2 𝑥 − 1) tann−2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥 2 𝛿𝑦 2
0 𝛿𝑠 2 = ( 2 + 2 ) 𝛿𝑡 2
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡
Expand brackets and split integral Square rooting and integrating this:
𝜋 𝜋
4
2
𝐼𝑛 = ∫ sec 𝑥 tan n−2
4
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ tann−2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑠 = ∫ √( ) + ( ) 𝑑𝑡
0 0 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
For polar curves (refer to 3.5):
Replace final integral with 𝐼𝑛−2 and split main integral
• Factorizing 𝛿𝜃
using by parts rule
𝜋 𝛿𝑟 2
tann−1 𝑥 4 𝛿𝑠 = (𝑟 + 2 ) 𝛿𝜃 2
2 2
𝛿𝜃
𝐼𝑛 = [ ] − 𝐼𝑛−2
𝑛−1 0 Square rooting and integrating this:
𝜋
tan gives 1 so first part can be simplified giving 𝑑𝑟 2
4
1 𝑠 = ∫ √𝑟 2 + ( ) 𝑑𝜃
𝐼𝑛 = − 𝐼𝑛−2 𝑑𝜃
𝑛−1
We now can find what 𝐼7 is
4.5 Surface Area of a Solid Revolution
1
𝐼7 = − 𝐼5 • When calculating surface area, we split
6
1 1 curve into discs similar to when we find
→ 𝐼7 = − ( − 𝐼3 ) volume however use 𝛿𝑠 instead of 𝛿𝑥 for
6 4
1 1 1 greater accuracy, treating the disc as the
→ 𝐼7 = − ( − ( − 𝐼1 )) frustum of a cone
6 4 2
1
Note: 𝐼1 = 2 𝑙𝑛 2 𝐴 = ∫ 2𝜋𝑦𝛿𝑠
1 1 1 1 • Using our equation formed for 𝛿𝑠, substitute into
𝐼7 = − ( − ( − 𝑙𝑛 2))
6 4 2 2 expression and integrate
𝟓 𝟏 For cartesian curves:
𝑰𝟕 = − 𝒍𝒏 𝟐
𝟏𝟐 𝟐 • Factorizing 𝛿𝑥
𝛿𝑦 2
4.4 Arc Length of a Function 𝛿𝑠 2 = (1 + 2 ) 𝛿𝑥 2
𝛿𝑥
• When finding the length of a curve, using 𝛿𝑥
Square rooting and adding this to surface area equation:
is not accurate enough however we may
consider 𝛿𝑠 to be straight and hence 𝑑𝑦 2
𝐴 = ∫ 2𝜋𝑦 √1 + ( ) 𝑑𝑥
using Pythagoras’ Theorem: 𝑑𝑥
𝛿𝑠 2 = 𝛿𝑥 2 + 𝛿𝑦 2 For cartesian curves defined parametrically:
• We can then integrate to obtain 𝑠 however before this, • Factorizing 𝛿𝑡
we must first factorize to obtain an equation we can
work with
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2 2 4
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 16 3 1
𝛿𝑠 2 = (2
+ 2 ) 𝛿𝑡 2 𝐴 = 2𝜋 ∫ ( 𝑡 4 ) (4𝑡 −2 + 1) 𝑑𝑡
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡 1 3
Square rooting and adding this to surface area equation: 4
64 1 16 3
𝐴 = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑡 4 + 𝑡 4 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2 1 3 3
𝐴 = ∫ 2𝜋𝑦√( ) + ( ) 𝑑𝑡 4
256 5 64 7
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐴 = 2𝜋 [ 𝑡 4 + 𝑡 4 ] = 697 (3𝑠. 𝑓. )
1 15 21
{S05-P01}: Question 5:
The curve C is defined parametrically by • For arc length in polar form.
1 3
16
𝑥 = 𝑡 − 8𝑡 and 𝑦 = 3 𝑡 2 4
𝑑𝑟 2
𝑠 = ∫ √𝑟 2 + ( ) 𝑑𝜃
The arc of this curve joining the point where 𝑡 = 1 to 𝑑𝜃
the point where 𝑡 = 4 is denoted by 𝐶. {W04-P01} Question 4:
i. Show that the length of 𝐶 is 11. The curve 𝐶 has polar equation
ii. Find, correct to 3 significant figures, the area 1
3
of the surface generated when 𝐶 is rotated 𝑟 = 𝑒 5𝜃 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2 𝜋.
through 1 complete revolution about 𝑥-axis. i. Draw a sketch of 𝐶
Solution: ii. Find the length of 𝐶, correct to 3 significant
Part (i): figures
Find the derivatives of given variables: Solution:
𝛿𝑥 −
1
𝛿𝑦 −
1 Part (i)
= 1 − 4𝑡 and = 4𝑡
2 4
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡 First recognize that this is a spiral with center 0. Next,
Variables are defined parametrically so we use the 𝜋 3𝜋
work out the points of intersection at , 𝜋 and
following equation: 2 2
𝜋 3𝜋
(1.37, ) (1.87, 𝜋) (2.57, )
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2 2 2
𝑠 = ∫ √( ) + ( ) 𝑑𝑡 Sketch the spiral passing through the intersections
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
4 1 2 1 2
𝑠 = ∫ √(1 − 4𝑡 −2 ) + (4𝑡 −4 ) 𝑑𝑡
1
4 1
𝑠 = ∫ √1 + 8𝑡 −2 + 16𝑡 −1 𝑑𝑡
1
This can be rearranged to form a complete square:
4 1 1
𝑠 = ∫ √16𝑡 −1 + 4𝑡 −2 + 4𝑡 −2 + 1 𝑑𝑡
1
4 1 2
𝑠 = ∫ √(4𝑡 −2 + 1) 𝑑𝑡
1 Part (ii)
4
−
1
𝑑𝑟 2
𝑠 = ∫ 4𝑡 2 + 1 𝑑𝑡 First find (𝑑𝜃) and 𝑟 2
1 2
4 2
𝑠 = [8𝑡 + 1] = 11
1
2
𝑑 1
𝜃 1 1𝜃 2 𝑒 5𝜃
1
( (𝑒 )) = ( 𝑒 5 ) =
5
𝑑𝜃 5 25
1 2 2
𝑟 2 = (𝑒 5𝜃 ) = 𝑒 5𝜃
Part (ii):
To find area about 𝑥-axis with parametric equations Substitute into arc length formula
use the following: 3 2 3 2

√ 2
𝜋
𝑒 5𝜃2
𝜃 2
𝜋
√ 26𝑒 5𝜃
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2 𝐿=∫ 𝑒 + 5=∫
𝐴 = ∫ 2𝜋𝑦√( ) + ( ) 𝑑𝑡 0 25 0 25
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 Pull out constant and integrate with respect to 𝜃
Substitute known variables:
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3
√26 1 2
𝜋 to 𝑟 = 𝑛. Also note that the integral area from the
= [5𝑒 5𝜃 ] same interval is larger than the summation which
5 0
Substitute limits and work out length then gives us the following inequality:
𝑛 𝑛
𝐿 = 7.99 (3s.f.) 1 1
∑ 2
< ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑟 1 𝑥
4.6 Limits of Areas 𝑟=2
Notice the difference in bounds in the above
∞
• A summation ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑓(𝑛) can be replaced by ∫1 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 inequality
• If the integral area is less than the summation area, and Evaluate the RHS
the integral area diverges, then the summation area 𝑛
1 1𝑛
also diverges. ∑ < [− ]
𝑟2 𝑥1
• If the integral area is greater than the summation area, 𝑟=2
𝑛
and the integral area converges, then the summation 1 1
→∑ 2
< − +1
area also converges. 𝑟 𝑛
𝑟=2
1
• Example, for summations such as ∑∞
𝑛=1 , compare Since we intend to find the sum from 𝑟 = 1, we will
𝑛2 𝑙𝑛 𝑛
this to ∑∞
1 have to add both side the case when 𝑟 = 1 which is
𝑛=2 𝑛2 1
=1
• Power series: the following summation 12
∞ 𝑛
1 1 1
∑ 𝑠 1+∑ 2
< 1− +1
𝑛 𝑟 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑟=2
Will converge if and only if 𝑠 > 1 𝑛
1 1
→∑ 2
<2−
9231/02/SP/20 Question 4: 𝑟 𝑛
𝑟=1
1
The diagram shows the curve with equation 𝑦 = 2 for
𝑥 𝑛
𝑥 > 0, together with a set of (𝑛 − 1) rectangles of 1 2𝑛 − 1
→∑ 2
<
unit width. 𝑟 𝑛
𝑟=1
(Answer)
Part b)
If we want to find the lower bound for the summation,
then we have to use Left Endpoint Rectangles as the
summation area, which means we will be summing
from 𝑟 = 1 to 𝑟 = (𝑛 − 1) ∵ the integral area would
be smaller.
𝑛−1 𝑛
1 1
a) by considering the sum of the areas of these ∑ 2
> ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑟 1 𝑥
rectangles, show that: 𝑟=1
𝑛 Notice again the difference in the boundaries.
1 2𝑛 − 1
∑ 2
< Let us do a similar method as what we did before:
𝑟 𝑛 𝑛−1
𝑟=1
1 1𝑛
b) use a similar method to find, in terms of 𝑛, a lower ∑ 2 > [− ]
𝑟 𝑥1
1 𝑟=1
bound for ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟2
Solution: 𝑛−1
1 1
Part a) →∑ 2
>− +1
𝑟 𝑛
From the diagram, the first rectangle follows the 𝑟=1
height of 𝑥 = 2, in other words this is a right
endpoint rectangle. We will be summing from 𝑟 = 2
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Add the case when 𝑟 = 𝑛 to change the summation Sketch to find what angle you are looking for
limits:
𝑛−1
1 1 1 1
2
+∑ 2 > 2− +1
𝑛 𝑟 𝑛 𝑛
𝑟=1

𝑛 16
1 𝑛2 − 𝑛 + 1 𝜃 = 180 − tan−1 = 120°
→∑ 2> 16√3
𝑟 𝑛2
𝑟=1
Using De Moivre’s Theorem, find the modulus and
(Answer)
argument of 𝑧
5
𝑟 = √32 = 2
5. COMPLEX NUMBERS
120 + 360𝑛
5.1 Representing Complex Numbers 𝜃=
5

Substitute values of 𝑛 from 0 to the power i.e. 5

Must convert angles out of the range to bring
between −180 to 180. Do this by sketching the angle
quickly. Then convert to radians.
Angle Argument Radians
𝑛=0 𝜃 = 24° 𝜃 = 24° 2⁄ 𝜋
15
𝑛=1 𝜃 = 96° 𝜃 = 96° 8 ⁄15 𝜋
Cartesian Format 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑛=2 𝜃 = 168° 𝜃 = 168° 14⁄ 𝜋
Polar Format 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) (𝑟, 𝜃) 15
Exponential Format 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 (𝑟, 𝜃) 𝑛=3 𝜃 = 240° 𝜃 = −120° − 10⁄15 𝜋
𝑛=4 𝜃 = 312° 𝜃 = −48° −4⁄ 𝜋
5.2 De Moivre’s Theorem 15
𝑛=5 𝜃 = 384° 𝜃 = 24° 2 ⁄15 𝜋
𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)
• If the polar coordinates of 𝑧 are (𝑟, 𝜃) Therefore, the roots have:
• Then the polar coordinates of 𝑧 𝑛 are (𝑟 𝑛 , 𝑛𝜃) Modulus = 2 and arguments as above
Express in exponential format
5.3 Finding Roots 2
𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝑛15𝜋 where 𝑛 = 1, 4, 7, −5, −2
• For the equation 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑤. Convert 𝑤 to polar form w =
r𝑒 𝑖(θ+2πk). Take the 𝑛th root on both sides
θ+2πk
5.4 Powers of Sine and Cosine
𝑖( )
• We know that:
𝑛
z = √𝑟𝑒 𝑛

Where 𝑘 = {0,1,2, … , 𝑛 − 1 } 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃

Example: 𝑧 = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃
−1

Solve the following equation, giving your answer in • From these we can formulate trigonometric identities:
exponential format. 1 1
𝑧 5 + 16√3 − 16𝑖 = 0 cos 𝜃 = (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ) sin 𝜃 = (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
2 2
1 𝑖𝑛𝜃 1
Solution: cos 𝑛𝜃 = (𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑛𝜃 ) sin 𝑛𝜃 = (𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑛𝜃 )
5 2 2
𝑧 = −16√3 + 16𝑖
• Using De Moivre’s and the binomial theorems we can
Firstly, find the modulus and argument of 𝑧 5 express cos 𝑛𝜃 and sin 𝑛𝜃 in terms of cos 𝜃 and sin 𝜃
9231/02/SP/20 Question 6:
2
𝑟 = √(−16√3) + 162 = 32 a) Using De Moivre’s Theorem, show that

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5 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ − 10 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ + 𝑡𝑎𝑛5 θ
3 5θ = π𝑘, 𝑘 = {0,1,2,3,4}
𝑡𝑎𝑛 5θ =
1 − 10 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 θ + 5 𝑡𝑎𝑛4 θ
b) Hence show that the equation 𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 5 = 0 Get principle values:
π 2π π 2π 3π 4π
has roots 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( 5 ) and 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( 5 ) θ={ , , , }
5 5 5 5
Solution:
We reject θ = 0 because it satisfies 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ = 0
Using De Moivre’s Theorem
So, our roots are:
cos 5𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 5𝜃 = (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)5
π 2π 3π 4π
Expand the right-hand side using binomial theorem: 𝑥 = {𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( ) , 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( ) , 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( ) , 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( )}
5 5 5 5
cos5 𝜃 + 5𝑖 cos4 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 10 cos3 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 − 10𝑖 cos2 𝜃 sin3 𝜃
2 4π 2 π 2 3π
+ 5 cos 𝜃 sin4 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin5 𝜃 But because 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 5 ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 5 ) and 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 5 ) =
Equate real variables: 2π
𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( ), we disregard them.
5
cos 5𝜃 = cos 5 𝜃 − 10 cos3 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 + 5 cos 𝜃 sin4 𝜃 π 2π
𝑥 = {𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( ) , 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( )}
Equate imaginary variables: 5 5
(Answer)
sin 5𝜃 = sin5 𝜃 − 10 cos 2 𝜃 sin3 𝜃 + 5 cos4 𝜃 sin 𝜃
Find 𝑡𝑎𝑛 5θ: Note: The reason why they are equal is because
𝑠𝑖𝑛 5θ sin5 𝜃 − 10 cos2 𝜃 sin3 𝜃 + 5 cos 4 𝜃 sin 𝜃 4π π π
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( ) ≡ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (π  − ) ≡ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( )
𝑐𝑜𝑠 5θ cos5 𝜃 − 10 cos3 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 + 5 cos 𝜃 sin4 𝜃 5 5 5
Same goes for the other root.
Factor out 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 (θ) from numerator and denominator
• We can also express powers of sin & cos in terms of its
5 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ − 10 𝑡𝑎𝑛3 θ + 𝑡𝑎𝑛5 θ
𝑡𝑎𝑛 5θ = multiple angles
1 − 10 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 θ + 5 𝑡𝑎𝑛4 θ
Example:
(Answer) 5
Find expressions for cos 𝜃 in terms of cosines of
Part b) multiple angles.
We will have to divide the 𝑡𝑎𝑛 5θ equation by 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ Solution:
so that we will be able to substitute 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 θ 1
cos 𝜃 = (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
𝑡𝑎𝑛 5θ 5 − 10 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 θ + 𝑡𝑎𝑛4 θ 2
= 1 𝑖𝜃 5
𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ 1 − 10 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 θ + 5 𝑡𝑎𝑛4 θ ∴ cos5 𝜃 = (𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
32
Back to the Polynomial, divide by 1 − 𝑥 + 5𝑥 2 and Expand using the binomial theorem:
then substitute 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 θ: 1 5𝑖𝜃
𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 5 = 0 cos 5 𝜃 = (𝑒 + 5𝑒𝑖 3𝑖𝜃 + 10𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 10𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
32
+ 5𝑒𝑖 −3𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −5𝑖𝜃 )
𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 5 Rearrange this:
→ =0
1 − 𝑥 + 5𝑥 2 1 1 𝑖5𝜃 5
cos 5 𝜃 = ( (𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖5𝜃 ) + (𝑒 𝑖3𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖3𝜃 )
5 − 10 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 θ + 𝑡𝑎𝑛4 θ 16 2 2
→ =0
1 − 10 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 θ + 5 𝑡𝑎𝑛4 θ 10 𝑖𝜃
+ (𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ))
2
But because we know that the above expression is
1
equivalent to
𝑡𝑎𝑛 5θ
, we can substitute it. cos5 𝜃 = (cos 5𝜃 + 5 cos 3𝜃 + 10 cos 𝜃)
𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ 16
𝑡𝑎𝑛 5θ
=0 5.5 Complex Summation
𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ
Now we just have to solve: • For the following sum:
𝑁−1
𝑧𝑁 − 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛 5θ = 0, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ ≠ 0 𝑛
∑ 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑧 + 𝑧 + ⋯+ 𝑧2 𝑁−1
=
𝑧−1
𝑛=0
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This can be considered as a geometric sum, where 𝑧 is The next part, we differentiate both sides with
the common ratio. respect to θ.
• The denominator is of two types, 𝑒 𝑎𝑖θ − 𝑒 𝑏𝑖θ or 𝑑
𝑁
𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑁𝜃)
𝑘𝑒 𝑎𝑖θ − 𝑙, multiply by a suitable exponential ∑ 𝑐𝑜𝑠((2𝑛 − 1)𝜃) =
𝑑θ 𝑑θ 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
expression to make the denominator all real or all 𝑛=1
𝑁
imaginary
LHS becomes: − ∑(2𝑛 − 1) 𝑠𝑖𝑛[(2𝑛 − 1)θ]
9231/01/M/J/08 Question 10:
𝑛=1
By considering ∑𝑁
𝑛=1 𝑧
2𝑛−1
, where 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖θ , show
that RHS becomes: 𝑁 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑁θ) 𝑐𝑠𝑐 θ
𝑁 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑁θ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑁θ) 𝑐𝑠𝑐 θ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 θ
∑ 𝑐𝑜𝑠((2𝑛 − 1)θ) = 2
π
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ Let θ = 𝑁
𝑛=1
𝑁
Deduce that (2𝑛 − 1)π
𝑁 − ∑(2𝑛 − 1) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [ ]
(2𝑛 − 1)π π 𝑁
𝑛=1
∑(2𝑛 − 1) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [ ] = −𝑁 𝑐𝑠𝑐 π 1 π π
𝑁 𝑁 = N 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2π) 𝑐𝑠𝑐 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2π) 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑡
𝑛=1 𝑁 2 𝑁 𝑁
Solution:
The second term in the RHS is 0, Therefore:
Simplify the summation: 𝑁
𝑁 (2𝑛 − 1)π π
2𝑛−1 3 5 2𝑁−1 ∑(2𝑛 − 1) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [ ] = −𝑁 𝑐𝑠𝑐
∑𝑧 = 𝑧 + 𝑧 + 𝑧 + ⋯+ 𝑧 𝑁 𝑁
𝑛=1
𝑛=1
(Answer)
𝑁

→ ∑ 𝑧 2𝑛−1 = 𝑧(1 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 4 + ⋯ + 𝑧 2(𝑁−1) )

6. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
𝑛=1
𝑁
𝑧 2𝑁 − 1 6.1 First Order Differential Equations
→ ∑ 𝑧 2𝑛−1 = 𝑧 ( ) • Make sure the equation is in the form
𝑧2 − 1
𝑛=1 𝑑𝑦
+ 𝐹(𝑥)𝑦 = 𝐺(𝑥)
Let 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 : 𝑑𝑥
𝑧 2𝑁 − 1 𝑖θ
𝑒 2𝑁𝑖θ − 1 • To determine the integrating factor, use 𝐼 = 𝑒 ∫ 𝐹(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
z( ) = 𝑒
𝑧2 − 1 𝑒 2𝑖θ − 1 • Always multiply through by the integrating factor to
Multiply top and bottom by 𝑒 −𝑖θ gives: get:
𝑁 𝑑𝑦
𝑒 2𝑁𝑖𝜃 − 1 𝐼 + 𝐹(𝑥)𝐼𝑦 = 𝐺(𝑥)𝐼
∑ 𝑧 2𝑛−1 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖θ This equation will then reduce to:
𝑛=1
Note that 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 = 2𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ, we can substitute 𝑑
(𝐼𝑦) = 𝐺(𝑥)𝐼
that into our sum. 𝑑𝑥
𝑁
𝑒 2𝑁𝑖𝜃 − 1
∑ 𝑧 2𝑛−1 = 9231/02/SP/20 Question 10:
2𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 Find the solution of the differential equation
𝑛=1
Convert 𝑒 2𝑁𝑖𝜃 into its real and imaginary part form. 𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑁 𝑥 + 3𝑦 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑁θ + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑁θ − 1 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
π
∑ 𝑧 2𝑛−1 = For which 𝑦 = 0 when 𝑥 = 2 . Give your answer in
2𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑛=1 the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
Take real part since we want to find the sum for its
Solution:
cosine. Make the equation in the suitable form:
𝑁
𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑁𝜃) 𝑑𝑦 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑅𝑒 (∑ 𝑧 2𝑛−1 ) = (Answer) + 𝑦= 2
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑛=1 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

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Now that it is in the correct form, we can find out the 6.3 2nd Order DE: Non-Homogeneous Case
integrating factor: • These type of differential equations will be of the form:
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
3 𝑎 2+𝑏 + 𝑐𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑒 ∫𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
• We find a complementary function in the same way as
→ 𝑒 3 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
above, by making 𝑓(𝑥) = 0
→ 𝑥3 • After finding a complementary function we have to add
Our integrating factor is 𝑥 3 , we will now multiply it a particular integral
• The particular integral we add is dependent upon 𝑓(𝑥)
to the equation:
and the trial solution used:
𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥) Trial Solution
𝑥3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 = x sin x
𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑃𝑥 2 + 𝑄𝑥 + 𝑅
𝑎 sin 𝑏𝑥/𝑎 cos 𝑏𝑥 𝑃 cos 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑄 sin 𝑏𝑥
𝑑 𝑎𝑒 𝑏𝑥 𝑃𝑒 𝑏𝑥
→ (𝑦𝑥 3 ) = 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 • Once we have the trial solution, we equate it to 𝑦 and
differentiate it to find 𝑦′ and differentiate again to find
→ 𝑦𝑥 3 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑦′′, in terms of 𝑃, 𝑄 and 𝑅
• Then substitute these into the initial differential
→ 𝑦𝑥 3 = −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐 equation and solve simultaneously for 𝑃, 𝑄 and 𝑅
• The trial solution with substituted values of 𝑃, 𝑄 and 𝑅
Put our known values to the equation to find 𝑐. becomes the particular integral
0=1+𝑐 • Addition of complementary function and particular
→ 𝑐 = −1
integral gives us the particular solution
Make 𝑦 the subject with the known 𝑐 value
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 1
𝑦=− 2 + 3 − 3
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
(Answer)

6.2 2nd Order DE: Homogeneous Case

• These type of differential equations will be of the form:
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑎 2+𝑏 + 𝑐𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
• First step to solving them is to find the complementary
function by forming an auxiliary equation:
𝑎𝜆2 + 𝑏𝜆 + 𝑐 = 0
• The complementary function formed depends on the
discriminant of the auxiliary function
• Solve the quadratic equation and use the following cases
to work out complementary function
Discriminant Solutions Complementary Function
𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0 𝑚, 𝑛 𝐴𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑛𝑥
𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0 𝑚, 𝑚 (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵)𝑒 𝑚𝑥
𝑝𝑥
𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0 𝑝 + 𝑖𝑞, 𝑝 − 𝑖𝑞 𝑒 (𝐴 cos 𝑞𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 𝑞𝑥)

• The complementary function is also the general solution

and we need to substitute values, find 𝐴 and 𝐵 to get
the particular solution

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 CIE A-LEVEL FURTHER MATHEMATICS//9231
9231/02/SP/20 Question 1: o Use the substitution given and differentiate twice to
Find the general solution of the differential equation reduce the differential equation to a form such as
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2
+4 + 4𝑥 = 7 − 2𝑡 2 𝑎 2+𝑏 + 𝑐𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
• For 1st & 2nd order DE, the general solution or particular
Solution:
solution MUST be in the form of the original variables.
This DE is non-homogeneous, but we still have to find
Example:
the solution when it is homogeneous
Given that
Let 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑛𝑡
1 𝑑2 𝑧 3 4 𝑑𝑧 6 6 4
n2 ent + 4nent + 4𝑒 𝑛𝑡 = 0 2 2
+ ( 2 − 3) + ( 4 − 3 − 2 ) 𝑧 = 5𝑥 − 6
Divide by 𝑒 𝑛𝑡 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑛2 + 4𝑛 + 4 = 0 𝑧
→ (𝑛 + 2)2 = 0 Show that 𝑦 = reduces this differential equation to:
𝑥2
∴ 𝑛 = −2 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
This is a repeated root; therefore, our complementary 2
+3 − 4𝑦 = 5𝑥 − 6
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
function is:
𝐴𝑒 −2𝑡 + 𝐵𝑡𝑒 −2𝑡 Solution:
Now we look for the particular solution, the equation Make 𝑧 the subject in the substitution then
has a quadratic in the RHS so we should use a differentiate wrt 𝑥
quadratic expression and equate coefficients 𝑧 = 𝑦𝑥 2
Let 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡 2 + 𝑏𝑡 + 𝑐 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦
→ = 𝑥2 + 2𝑥𝑦
𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡 2 + 𝑏𝑡 + 𝑐 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 ′ = 2𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏 Differentiate again to get its second derivative
𝑥 ′′ = 2𝑎 𝑑2 𝑧 2
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2
= (𝑥 2
+ 2𝑥 ) + (2𝑦 + 2𝑥 )
Putting them into our DE: 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝑎 + 4(2𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏) + 4(𝑎𝑡 2 + 𝑏𝑡 + 𝑐) = −2𝑡 2 + 7 𝑑2 𝑧 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2
(4𝑎)𝑡 2 + (8𝑎 + 4𝑏)𝑡 + (2𝑎 + 4𝑏 + 4𝑐) = −2𝑡 2 + 7 → 2=𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 2𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
So, we have:
Substitute them in and simplify:
4𝑎 = −2 8𝑎 + 4𝑏 = 0 2𝑎 + 4𝑏 + 4𝑐 = 7
1 2
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 3 4 𝑑𝑦
1 (𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 2𝑦) + ( 2 − 3 ) (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦)
𝑎=− 𝑏=1 𝑐=1 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 6 6 4
Our answer is then: + ( 4 − 3 − 2 ) (𝑦𝑥 2 )
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
1 Note: Have fun
𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 −2𝑡 + 𝐵𝑡𝑒 −2𝑡 − 𝑡 2 + 𝑡 + 1 We will be using 𝑦 ′′ and 𝑦 ′ for simplification purposes
2
(Answer) 4 𝑦 𝑦 4 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
𝑦 ′′ + 𝑦 ′ + 2 2 + 3𝑦 ′ + 6 − 𝑦 ′ − 4 2 + 6 2 − 6 − 4𝑦
• If a term in your complementary function is 𝐴𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
the RHS is 𝑝𝑓(𝑥), then try: Some terms will cancel if you take a look closely,
𝑦 = α𝑥𝑓(𝑥) leaving us with
• If terms in your complementary function are 𝐴𝑥𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑦 ′′ + 3𝑦 ′ − 4𝑦 = 5𝑥 − 6
𝐵𝑓(𝑥) and the RHS is 𝑝𝑓(𝑥), then try: Which is just:
𝑦 = α𝑥 2 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2
+3 − 4𝑦 = 5𝑥 − 6
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
6.4 Substitution method for DEs (Answer)
• For 1st order differential equations
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑦
o The DE will be of the form 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦) or 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 (𝑥 )
o Use the substitution given and differentiate once to
reduce the differential equation to a separable form.
• For 2nd order differential equations

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