Chinese Journal of Aeronautics, (2021), 34(11): 48–65

Chinese Society of Aeronautics and Astronautics

& Beihang University
Chinese Journal of Aeronautics
cja@buaa.edu.cn
www.sciencedirect.com

Utilisation of turboelectric distribution propulsion

in commercial aviation: A review on NASA’s TeDP
concept
Mosab ALRASHED *, Theoklis NIKOLAIDIS, Pericles PILIDIS, Soheil JAFARI

Turboelectric Engineering Group, Cranfield Campus, Cranfield University, Bedfordshire MK43 0AL, UK

Received 13 July 2020; revised 16 August 2020; accepted 3 November 2020

Available online 9 April 2021

KEYWORDS Abstract Emissions produced by the aviation industry are currently a severe environmental threat;
Futuristic propulsion sys- therefore, aviation agencies and governments have set emission targets and formulated plans to
tems; restrict emissions within the next decade. Hybrid aircraft technology is being considered to meet
Hybrid aircraft engines; these targets. The importance of these technologies lies in their advancements in terms of aircraft
Numerical modelling and life cycles and environmental benignity. Owing to these advancements, hybrid electric systems with
simulation; more than one power source have become promising for the aviation industry, considering that the
Turboelectric distributed growth of air traffic is projected to double in the next decade. Hybrid technologies have given future
propulsion; hybrid fans and motor-fan engines potential as alternative power generators. Herein, Turboelectric
Turboelectric power Distributed Propulsion (TeDP) is discussed in terms of power distribution and power sources. The
fundamentals of turbofan and turboshaft engines are presented along with their electricity-
generation mechanism. TeDP is discussed from a design viewpoint, with a detailed discussion of
different types of hybrid electric and turboelectric systems. Examples of proposed TeDP aircraft
models and numerical modelling tools used to simulate the performance of TeDP models are
reviewed. Finally, innovative turboelectric systems in which electric power savers and mechanical
gear changers have been discarded for weight optimisation are presented along with other prospec-
tive models, engines, approaches, and architectures. The findings of this review indicate the knowl-
edge gaps in the field of numerical modelling for NASA’s TeDP and its capability to increase the
efficiency by up to 24% with a 50% reduction in emissions relative to those of conventional gas
turbines.
Ó 2021 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier Ltd. on behalf of Chinese Society of Aeronautics
and Astronautics. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: m@dralrashed.com (M. ALRASHED). 1. Introduction
Peer review under responsibility of Editorial Committee of CJA.
Since the advent of aviation, significant advances have been
made in aircraft technology. One primary example of such
an advancement occurred during the Second World War,
Production and hosting by Elsevier
where tubes and wings were developed for the aviation indus-
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cja.2021.03.014
1000-9361 Ó 2021 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier Ltd. on behalf of Chinese Society of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Utilisation of turboelectric distribution propulsion in commercial aviation 49

try. Over the past decade, the need for more efficient, econom- mented in the category of More Electric Aircraft (MEAs)
ical, and environmentally friendly aircraft has led to a series of and not on the individual types of aircraft or proposed pro-
studies on improving aircraft technology. These studies pro- jects, we provide a broad, novel overview. This work will serve
posed several power sources and technologies to harvest higher as the basis for research on TeDP in the fields of electrical and
power density. From the introduction of 12-hp (1 mechanical expansions.
hp = 745.7 W) engines, technology has advanced to such a In the second section of this review, the types of engines
degree that the National Aeronautics and Space Administra- that can be used in distributed propulsion systems and the dif-
tion (NASA) intends to achieve 54400 hp in their N3-X air- ferences between two legacy power engines, Turbofan and
craft in the near future1,2. Turboelectricity is the key to Turboshaft, are discussed. Then, some proposed engines that
generating this massive amount of power, and it has been are still in the research and development stage are discussed.
demonstrated that electric power significantly improves air- These two types of engines were used because of their ability
craft efficiency. to generate electric power while achieving the highest efficiency
From a historical perspective, the introduction of electric in gas fuelling. Furthermore, these types are the most reliable
power systems in aircraft has faced significant challenges and commonly used in commercial aviation.
despite the advantages of these systems. Beginning from their
use in the 1940s and 1950s, electric power systems, such as twin 2. Fundamentals of turbofan power and propulsion engines
28-V Direct Current (DC) power generator systems, have been
shown to boost aircraft power. These systems were fitted with The power generated in the wings and tail of an aircraft is dis-
batteries and inverters to power Alternating Current (AC) air- tributed by a number of turbofan engines located in the wings
craft instruments up to 115 V. Valinat introduced electric land- (one or two engines on both sides) based on aircraft design.
ing gear in the 1950 s, which required four 115-V AC There are several types of turbofan engines, depending on
generators in parallel to provide more control and protection3. the number of shafts in the engine (one, two, or three shafts).
Increasing the use of electric power systems in aircraft has been These engines are designed to merge the thrust from two
shown to be favourable, delivering AC values higher than sources, starting with the inlet and ending with the nozzle10,11.
230 V for the recent passenger aircraft, A350 XWB4. Thrust is generated in the turbofan engine according to the fol-
Alternative power generators in aircraft engines support the lowing principle12:
integration of gas turbines and electric power. This alternative
integration of mechanical and electric power is considered an (1) Air enters the engine from the inlet to the fan.
intelligent propulsion source of power. Furthermore, it would (2) A portion of the flowing air mass is compressed in the
replace legacy gas turbine propulsion systems. The require- compressor, and another portion is compressed in the
ment of optimum power efficiency makes such a source neces- fan nozzle.
sary. Moreover, the full electric distribution of power has (3) High-pressure compressed air enters the combustion
significant drawbacks such limitations in power conservation chamber, which increases air temperature by fuel
technologies, large space required to carry electrical feeds, combustion.
and long charging time. Just-in-time implementation of electric (4) The generated high-temperature and high-pressure air
power systems, which provide the power density needed for the enters the turbine and then the propelling nozzle to gen-
journey, is essential in aircraft. Power can be generated when erate thrust required to propel the aircraft.
required, or it can be supplied from a power storage unit. Both
these methods have their advantages and drawbacks in terms Fig. 1 12 shows a schematic of the stages involved in thrust
of weight, emissions, costs, and power efficiency. generation in the CFM56 engine, which is a typical turbofan
Several review articles have been published regarding Tur- engine. This engine is characterised by a forward-facing fan
boelectric Distributed Propulsion (TeDP). The first article that makes air move by entering the core engine or passing
introducing turboelectric power was published by Lichten- through the bypass duct, from which the bypass ratio can be
berg5 in 1971, who published a comparative study on the ther- determined. The bypass offers the following advantages: (A)
mal efficiency of diesel and turboelectricity for use in railways. a low engine noise and (B) a high thrust at low aircraft speeds.
In 1983, Keszei et al. 6 presented measurement techniques Table 1 13 compares the technical specifications of the conven-
using electronic instruments and discussed the advantages of tional CFM56 turbofan engine and the proposed concept of
the proposed technique. In 2012, Armstrong et al. 7 studied advanced turbofan engines. Thrust and specific fuel consump-
the configuration of and improvements in the N3-X aircraft tion results in the table were calculated using an in-house tool
developed by NASA. Nalianda and Singh8 provided a general developed by Cranfield University (TurboMatch).
overview of the opportunities, benefits, and challenges of Flexibility, efficiency, and performance are the three factors
TeDP. Finally, Brelje and Martins9 discussed the electrical fun- that determine the number of shafts or spools in gas-turbine
damentals and concepts of electric fixed-wing aircraft models. engines. A spool is a rod that delivers power (speed) to all
Currently, there is little information available on the status the attached components. If there are multiple spools, power
of turboelectric power in aircraft, and hence, it is necessary to is divided into multiple rods, which implies more control is
review the fundamentals of TeDP technology and its possible required for different components of the engine rather than
future applications; this is especially necessary to educate one power or speed for all the components. The multiple-
novices with no background in aviation and thermal power. spool design makes the gearbox unnecessary and increases
The focus of this review is to discuss the proposed TeDP mod- the number of stages in gas-turbine engines. For example, in
els and concepts for future advancements. This review also a two-spool engine, the compressor section consists of two
covers aero-engines, numerical simulations, and existing TeDP stages: a Low-Pressure Compressor (LPC) and a High-
technologies. As our focus is on the science of TeDP imple-
50 M. ALRASHED et al.

Fig. 1 Schematic of stages involved in thrust generation in CFM56 turbofan engine with bypass.12

Table 1 Comparison of technical specifications of conventional and proposed advanced turbofan engines.13

Schematic of engine

Name of engine CFM56 gFan gFan+

Type Conventional gas turbine Conventional gas turbine Advanced gas turbine
Airframe SUGAR Free Refined SUGAR SUGAR high
Fan diameter(in)/bypass ratio 61/5 70/9 77/13
Thrust(kN) 120.1 84.0714 84.0714
Specific fuel consumption at cruise flight (g.s/kN) 9.92642 (base) 7.8414718 (
21%) 7.1470224 (
28%)
Weight of propulsion system (kg) 2385 (base) 2907.98 3218.69
Emissions (relative to CAEP/6) (%) 79.2 (base)
58
72
Notes: 1 in = 2.54 cm

Pressure Compressor (HPC); they are arranged in sequence

and connected to different spools9–11. The same concept is
Table 2 Comparison between one-spool, two-spool, and
used for the turbine section, which consists of a High-
three-spool turbofan engines.
Pressure Turbine (HPT) and a Low-Pressure Turbine (LPT)
arranged in sequence. In a three-spool engine, there are three Number of Stages in turbofan engine
stages in the turbine section, viz. (A) HPT, (B) Intermediate- shafts/spools
Pressure Turbine (IPT), and (C) LPT. However, the compres- One Inlet ? Fan ? Pressure Compressor (PC) ?
sor still consists of only two stages (Intermediate-Pressure Combustion Chamber (CC) ? Pressure
Compressor (IPC) and HPC), where the fan shares the same Turbine (PT) ? Nozzle
LPT work instead of the LPC. A comparison between multiple Two Inlet ? Fan ? LPC ? HPC ? CC ?
HPT ? LPT ? Nozzle
spools is presented in Table 2. Fig. 2 14 shows an example of a
Three Inlet ? Fan ? IPC ? HPC ? CC ? HPT ?
two-spool turbofan engine.
IPT ? LPT ? Nozzle
The concept of turbofan engines is crucial not only for cur-
rent baseline aircraft but also for future aircraft. Future air-
craft with increased electric power will use turbofan engines
to generate thrust, electricity, or both. Most TeDP models sug- weight. Moreover, from a technical standpoint, the fan stage
gest using turbofan engines owing to their efficiency and does not appear as a station point when estimating the perfor-
flexibility. mance of the turboshaft engine. Similarly, using multiple
shafts will increase the power of turboshaft engines.
3. Foundation of power from turboshaft engines In Fig. 3, which illustrates the air-mass flow in a turboshaft
engine, it can be seen that air flows through the inlet and then
Removing the bypass duct from a turbofan engine reduces into a compressor. This highly compressed air then enters the
thrust, but it increases engine power while reducing engine combustion chamber, where it is burned along with fuel. The
Utilisation of turboelectric distribution propulsion in commercial aviation 51

power source engines by 2020. There are two main types of

engine models currently undergoing research and develop-
ment: the generator hybrid fan and motor fan engines.

4.1. Generator hybrid fan engines

The state-of-the-art hybrid engines are geared towards MEAs.

As the name implies, hybrid engines consist of baseline engines
and conventional gas turbine engines with an electric genera-
tor. This concept was introduced in several types of designs.
Based on the relationship between power and weight, reducing
the weight of materials needed for the carriage will save more
power and thus improve fuel efficiency. However, it is chal-
lenging to source suitable materials to manufacture light-
weight, yet efficient components. As a result of these
Fig. 2 Schematic of a two-spool turbofan engine (the first spool futuristic technologies, weight was not included in the research
is highlighted in yellow, and the second spool is highlighted in calculations since the significant advances are being made in
dark blue).14 the field of composite materials to reduce the weight as much
as possible. The weight would only be considered to determine
projected power targets. To overcome this limitation, the just-
in-time power generator was introduced for TeDP without any
power storage, resulting in a flexible and controllable power
source.

(1) One of the factors that make just-in-time power genera-

tors promising is that they integrate the design of several
existing engines21,22. Table 3 21 provides details of a
hybrid fan engine proposed by NASA and named gen-
Fan as the amalgamation of generators and fans.
(2) Fuel-cell hybrid engines can be used to increase engine
efficiency; these engines work on the principle of a Pro-
ton Exchange Membrane (PEM)-based fuel-cell stack22.
The ‘fFan’ is a fuel cell gas turbine hybrid device with a
single-spool gas generator. The power generated can be
Fig. 3 Schematic of air-mass flow in a turboshaft engine. delivered to the attached motor fan, batteries, or other
electric propulsion units. This type of engine was devel-
power generated is transferred to the power shaft, which drives oped by Boeing; see Table 4 19 for more details.
the turbine.

4. Future engine designs for increased electric power supply

Several aircraft engines with high electric power have been

proposed for use in the next decade such as NASA’s N3-X (in- Table 3 Concept hybrid genFan engine.21
troduced in 200815), Boeing SUGAR (built-in 201416), and
ESAero ECO-150 (developed in 201517). The two main objec-
tives of such aircraft are to include a power generator as a
hybrid engine or rotating motors as motor-fan engines. The Schematic of engine
relationship between propulsion and power sources should
accomplish one or both of the following goals: convert
mechanical power into electric power (for power generators) Name of engine genFan
or convert electric power to mechanical power. In addition, Type Hybrid gas turbine
power storage should also be included (where necessary), Airframe STARC-ABL
depending on the proposed design for TeDP. This section is Fan diameter(in)/bypass 52/7
focused on several reliable engines, which are expected to be ratio
Thrust 101.33 kN
the next-generation engines in the aviation market. Futuristic
Specific fuel consumption at Not available
engines are being mainly designed and developed by the coop- cruise flight
eration of four organisations, namely NASA, General Electric, Weight of propulsion system 1877.87 kg class
CFM International, and Georgia Institute of Technology2,18– Emissions (relative to To be determined
20
. The realistic engine designs developed at these institutions CAEP/6)
are expected to shift the usage from baseline engines to hybrid
52 M. ALRASHED et al.

Table 4 Concept hybrid fFan engine.19 Table 6 Concept hybrid motor-fan engine.19.

Schematic of engine Schematic of engine

Name of engine fFan

Type Gas turbine-fuel cell hybrid Name of engine hFan
Airframe SUGAR Volt Type Gas turbine-electric hybrid
Fan diameter(in)/bypass ratio 89/10 Airframe SUGAR Volt
Thrust Not available Fan diameter(in)/bypass 89/18
Specific fuel consumption at
15% to
25% class ratio
cruise flight Thrust 113.874 kN
Weight of propulsion system 6803.89–9071.85 kg class Specific fuel consumption
28% (gas turbine mode);
100%
Emissions (relative to CAEP/6) To be determined at cruise flight (all-electric mode)
Weight of propulsion 4751.38 kg
system
Emissions (relative to Better than
72%
CAEP/6)

4.2. Motor-fan engines

These modes can be described briefly as follows:
(1) The ‘eFan’ is an all-electric motor propulsion engine
consisting of an electric motor; depending on the aircraft (1) Mode 1 (complete gas turbine mode): In this mode, the
model, it can be attached to a high bypass fan, which output power is produced in a manner similar to that
can be connected to a gearbox19. The engine runs using followed in a baseline turbofan engine. This means that
an external electric power source, which can be batteries thrust generated for the aircraft is derived solely from
or other alternative electric units, to generate the power fuel combustion.
required for the mission. Table 5 19 shows the specifica- (2) Mode 2 (hybrid mode): In this mode, both Mode 1 and
tions of the all-electric motor propulsion engine, ‘eFan.’ Mode 2 work together and thus, both fuel and electricity
(2) The ‘hFan’ hybrid fan engine is an advanced version of are used as power sources.
the conventional CFM56 gas turbine engine, which has (3) Mode 3 (all-electric mode): In this mode, the engine
a larger fan diameter (by 28 in) and a higher take-off works as a motor-fan engine and external electric power
thrust (by 2600 lb, 1 lb = 0.454 kg) compared to the is required to drive the motor.
hFan engine. The lower thrust of the hFan engine can
be attributed to a higher percentage of power-sharing
between the generator and the turbine. Table 6 19 pre- 5. Comparison criteria for distributed electric propulsion
sents the integration of a Boeing hFan engine in a
SUGAR Volt airframe. The ‘hFan’ is a gas turbine- Different MEA networks provide new concepts and basis for
electric hybrid engine that can work in three different modelling distributed propulsion. These networks primarily
modes, as shown in Fig. 4. consist of four significant parts that differ in their propulsion
methodology. The major components used in different propul-
sion systems are shown in Fig. 5.23
These components are used for all-electric, more electric,
Table 5 Concept of an all-electric motor-fan engine.19 and hybrid distributed propulsion systems. Propulsion systems
differ in the following aspects: (A) the amount of carbon diox-
ide (CO2) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions, (B) output
power generation (which is dependent on mission require-
Schematic of engine ments), and (C) class of the aircraft (which can be megawatts
or kilowatts).
Name of engine eFan
5.1. All-electric distributed propulsion
Type All-electric
Airframe SUGAR Volt
Fan diameter(in)/bypass ratio 90/19 All-electric distributed propulsion can be regarded as a green
Thrust 113.429 kN propulsion system because it results in zero CO2 and NOx
Specific fuel consumption at cruise
100% (based on CFM56) emissions.
flight Fig. 6 shows a schematic of the all-electric distributed
Weight of propulsion system 3175.15 kg class propulsion system. The power source (such as the battery in
Emissions (relative to CAEP/6)
100% (based on CFM56)
the figure) is connected to the motor to rotate the engine
fan. The source should be recharged on the ground prior to
Utilisation of turboelectric distribution propulsion in commercial aviation 53

Fig. 4 Thrust modes of hFan engine.

Fig. 5 Components of distributed electric propulsion23.

Fig. 6 All-electric distributed propulsion.

each mission, and the number of motors is generally dependent

on the type of aircraft. Therefore, the relationship between the Fig. 7 Parallel hybrid distributed propulsion.
number of motors and power sources is a many-to-many rela-
tionship24, which means that many motors can be attached to
many power sources. the baseline engine24. Moreover, the cardinality of the relation-
ship between the batteries and motors can be extended to a
5.2. More electric/hybrid electric distributed propulsion many-to-many relationship, depending on the turbofan engine
of the aircraft. The types of relationships, which illustrate
exchange between model elements, are presented in Table 7
In the current field of energy research, the term ‘hybrid’ implies 23
, considering the number of important concepts that can be
that there is more than one type of power source. As the name
implemented23. X and Y in this table represent element compo-
implies, the term ‘more electric’ provides baseline aircraft with
nents, while the description denotes the number of elements
more electrical energy to increase thrust. There are two types
used relative to the other element.
of hybrid systems: full and partial hybrid systems. In full
hybrid systems, thrust is generated by one or more engines
5.2.2. Series hybrid distributed propulsion
or a combination of engines. Partial hybrid systems have mul-
tiple engines or a combination of engines to generate thrust. Apart from providing hybrid distributed propulsion, the series
Each type of hybrid system (full or partial) can be further clas- hybrid system divides the propulsion thrust into a series rela-
sified as parallel and series hybrid systems, which will be tionship between the motors and the turboshaft engine.
described in the following subsections.
Table 7 Analysis of relationships between two elements.23
5.2.1. Parallel hybrid distributed propulsion
Relationship Description Number of X Number of Y
In parallel hybrid distributed propulsion (Fig. 7), the power
source (such as the battery in Fig. 6) is connected to the electric One-to-one X(1) ? Y(1) 1 1
motor to rotate the engine fan. However, the electric motor Many-to-one X(*) ? Y(1) 2 1
works in parallel with the turbofan as the second source of One-to-many X(1) ? Y(*) 1 2
Many-to-many X(*) ? Y(*) 2 2
thrust. Thus, the motor and turbofan serve as a booster for
54 M. ALRASHED et al.

to examine the advantages and drawbacks of each type. The

comparison evaluated three parameters, namely, efficiency,
emission, and cost. The propulsion systems were evaluated
using the criteria-rated percentage as follows.
2,25,26
(1) Efficiency

(A) Analysis method

All-electric gBattery  gmotor

Parallel hybrid gGas turbine  gBattery  gmotor
Fig. 8 Series hybrid distributed propulsion. Series hybrid gGas turbine  gGenerator  gBattery  gmotor
Series/parallel gGas turbine  gGenerator  gBattery  gmotor
partial hybrid

(B) Assumptions

gBattery = 90%,gmotor = 90%,gGas turbine = 30%,gGenerator = 90%.

25,26
(2) Emission analysis

Fig. 9 Series/parallel partial hybrid distributed propulsion (‘‘s” (A) Analysis method
means more than one motor).

Motors in a series hybrid distributed propulsion system work

All-electric Noise (Number of
as a separate aircraft engine. In addition, there is an electric emissions: 1)
generator that acts as an electric power source to run the Parallel hybrid NOx and noise (Number of
motor or charge the battery in the series connection. Conse- emissions: 2)
quently, when electric power is needed, a part of the work gen- Series hybrid NOx and noise (Number of
erated in the turbofan will be consumed. A full hybrid engine emissions: 2)
uses a turboshaft, and most of the power generated is con- Series/parallel partial NOx and noise (Number of
sumed in the motors24. Fig. 8 shows the concept of series hybrid emissions: 2)
hybrid distributed propulsion and power generation from Conventional Gas CO, CO2, NOx and (Number of
Turbine Noise emissions: 4)
motor engines.

5.2.3. Series/parallel partial hybrid distributed propulsion

As described previously, multiple engines are used to generate (B) Assumptions
thrust in partial hybrid distributed propulsion, and these engi-
nes work simultaneously in parallel. Other series-connected
sources may also be used to generate thrust. Fig. 9 shows the All proposed alternative systems are fuelled by hydrogen.
concept of series/parallel hybrid distributed propulsion. The
decision to use parallel or series hybrid distributed propulsion
(indicated by the blue circle in Fig. 9) depends on whether the 27–35
(3) Cost analysis
battery supplies power to the motors and generator simultane-
ously or separately16,23,24. However, if the battery is not used
(A) Analysis method
as the power source, it is used to charge the generator, which
then supplies power to motors. Even though the number of
motors, generators, and batteries is generally dependent on air-
craft design and model, the concept of partial hybrid dis- All-electric Cost (Battery) + Cost(motor)
Parallel hybrid Cost (Gas turbine) + Cost (Battery) +
tributed propulsion (series or parallel) is similar.
Cost(motor)
Series hybrid Cost (Gas turbine) + Cost(Generator) +
5.3. Quantitative analysis for hybrid distributed propulsion Cost(Battery) + Cost(motor)
Series/parallel partial hybrid Cost (Gas turbine) + Cost(Generator) +
Based on the previous discussion of futuristic distributed Cost(Battery) + Cost(motor)
propulsion systems, a quantitative comparison was conducted
Utilisation of turboelectric distribution propulsion in commercial aviation 55

(B) Assumptions
Table 8 Assessment of alternative distributed propulsion
methods relative to conventional system.

Cost (Battery)* Cost(motor) Cost (Generator) Cost (Gas turbine) DP type Efficiency Emission Cost
=$3.67  108 = $6  105 = $6  105 = $4  106 (%) (%) (%)

* Battery lifetime assumed as 30 years for an average of 3500 h with All-electric +81
75 +91
a speed of 500 mph (1 mph = 1.609344 km/h). Parallel hybrid +24
50 +92
(30  3500  500 = 52500000 mile, 1 mile = 1.609344 km) Series hybrid +21
50 +92
Series/parallel partial +21
50 +92
hybrid

The final analysis results reveal that the series hybrid has the
most disadvantages, whereas the all-electric model exhibited
the most advantages. The series and parallel hybrids achieve transport 300 passengers at a maximum speed of 0.78–0.84
the highest propulsion system power, whereas the all-electric Mach38,39. Previous TeDP aircraft designs had a higher bypass
model performs best with respect to aircraft weight and emis- ratio (hybrid wing-body designs) compared to baseline tube
sion productions. However, in terms of technology and cost, and wing aircraft. In general, the primary difference between
the parallel hybrid and all-electric models exhibited almost different generations of TeDP aircraft is the aircraft design
identical results, which are the lowest among the models. and number of motors, which depends on fan size rather than
Fig. 10 presents these results and the analysis of the different the required thrust. Two types of hybrid TeDP, full and partial
distributed propulsions. From the analysed results, it is evident hybrid TeDP, are discussed in the following sections.
that the all-electric system achieves the highest efficiency. The
emissions levels of this system are 25% of those of conven- 6.1. Full turboelectric distributed propulsion
tional gas turbines, and the cost of this system is 91% greater.
Table 8 lists the data used to quantitatively assess the alter- The TeDP or full TeDP design (Fig. 11) includes a turboshaft,
native distributed propulsion systems. This table and Fig. 10 and most of the thrust is generated by the motors. In theory,
compare different types of proposed systems with the conven- the turboshaft must deliver most of the power to the electric
tional gas turbine system. For example, the all-electric system generator, which means that more electric power is distributed
is 81% more efficient, with 25% of the conventional emissions, to the motors24. The relationship between the turboshaft and
but it costs 91% more than the conventional system, resulting generator is a one-to-one relationship, whereas the relationship
in a total cost of 191%. between the electric generator and motors is a one-to-many
relationship.
6. Advances in turboelectric conceptual designs
6.2. Partial turboelectric distributed propulsion
TeDP design is based on the concept of ‘just-in-time’ energy
generation. This design reduces energy wastage and increases Depending on the baseline engines and thrust, in partial TeDP,
aircraft reliability, particularly in the event of single-engine more thrust or power is generated using electric engines24.
failure. In addition, TeDP reduces battery weight and over- Fig. 12 shows the concept of partial TeDP. The analytical rela-
comes technological limitations to save energy16,24,36,37. Cur- tionship between full and partial TeDP components is similar,
rently available TeDP aircraft designs can be used to and this relationship is dependent on the TeDP design pro-

Fig. 10 Comparison between alternative distributed propulsion system and conventional system.
56 M. ALRASHED et al.

(1) Efficiency2,25,26

(A) Analysis method

Full turboelectric gGas turbine  gGenerator  gmotor

Partial turboelectric gGas turbine  gGenerator  gmotor

(B) Assumptions

Fig. 11 Full turboelectric distributed propulsion.

gmotor = 90% gGas turbine = 30% gGenerator = 90%

(2) Emission analysis25,26

(A) Analysis method

Full turboelectric NOx and noise (Number of emissions: 2)

Partial turboelectric NOx and noise (Number of emissions: 2)

Fig. 12 Partial turboelectric distributed propulsion. (B) Assumptions

All proposed alternative turboelectric systems are fuelled by
hydrogen.
posed for the aircraft. The only difference between full and
partial TeDP depends on the gas engine used. If the turbofan (3) Cost analysis27–35
is attached to the TeDP system, then part of the thrust will be
obtained from the gas turbine engine and the remainder from (A) Analysis method
the motor-fan.

6.3. Quantitative analysis for TeDP

Full turboelectric Cost (Gas turbine) + Cost (Generator) +
Cost(motor)
Based on the data available for each type of TeDP, a quanti- Partial turboelectric Cost (Gas turbine) + Cost (Generator) +
tative analysis was performed for three parameters, namely, Cost(motor)
efficiency, emission, and cost. These results indicate the advan-
tages of each type relative to one another. The evaluation
method established weights for the parameters depending on (B) Assumptions
the model, components, and expected performance. The sys-
tem was evaluated using the criteria-rated percentage as fol-
lows. Fig. 13 illustrates the results of this analysis.
Cost (Gas turbine) = Cost(motor) = Cost (Generator) =
$4  106 $6  105 $6  105

Table 9 lists the data used to assess the different types of

TeDP. The evaluation was performed based on the overall
comparison results while accounting for a standard margin

Table 9 Comparison assessment of alternative turboelectric

distributed propulsion methods.
DP type Efficiency (%) Emission (%) Cost (%)
Full turboelectric +24
50 +30
Fig. 13 Comparison results between two types of turboelectric Partial turboelectric +24
50 +30
full and partial distributed propulsion.
Utilisation of turboelectric distribution propulsion in commercial aviation 57

of error. The result of this analysis shows that the two types of total pressure in the nozzle section by the total pressure in
turboelectric systems are expected to reduce emissions to half the inlet fan section41.
of that of conventional gas turbines with a 30% increase in
cost. In total, the system will be 24% more efficient but its cost 7.1.2. E-thrust concept
is 130% that of conventional gas turbines. The concept of e-thrust (illustrated in Fig. 15 42) is based on
distributed electrical aerospace propulsion; it was developed
7. Examples of proposed turboelectric distributed propulsion jointly by Airbus Group Innovations, Rolls Royce, and Cran-
aircraft models field University42. This concept is based on a hybrid dis-
tributed electric propulsion; it is a 1:6 relationship model,
When discussing TeDP designs, it is essential to include pro- where one power engine runs six smaller motor-fan engines
posed aircraft designs with advanced concepts to show how to generate the required thrust.
each TeDP component fits in the aircraft to deliver an alterna-
tive solution. The TeDP design depends on the class of the air- 7.2. Hybrid wing-body aircraft model with turboelectric
craft and must produce the necessary kilowatt or megawatt distributed propulsion
power for the motor fans.
The Hybrid Wing-Body (HWB) aircraft model is an advanced
7.1. Single-aisle turboelectric aircraft model design, which differs from the tube wing design powered by
TeDP. This advanced design enhances the efficiency of propul-
Among the most reliable models, the one that is closest to sion and reduces emissions, especially acoustic emissions
being ready for commercial use was introduced by NASA owing to a significant drop in the fan pressure ratio.
and developed by Boeing. The main feature of this model is
that the aircraft tube and wing design are retained while some 7.3. N3-X aircraft model with turboelectric distributed
modifications are made to the body; these modifications pro- propulsion
vide an alternative solution for the motor-fan design.
NASA has adopted TeDP technology to meet its emission tar-
7.1.1. STARC-ABL gets by 2050 and develop novel solutions to overcome the chal-
NASA’s Langley Research Centre (LRC) has developed a lenges faced in the development of the N3-X aircraft. The
single-aisle turboelectric aircraft model with aft boundary relationship between TeDP components is 2:16, i.e., two gas
layer propulsion (STARC-ABL). This aircraft can carry more turbine engines work to produce electric power for 16 electric
than 150 passengers for 3500 nautical miles16,21–24,36–40. The motor fans36. Each gas turbine engine has two electric genera-
aircraft design introduces TeDP with twin underwing turbo- tors, each of which serves four spread motors. In the event of
fans and a rear fuselage boundary layer for electric motor fans. engine failure, all 16 motor fans work together to produce
This design is the most suitable for single-aisle class commer- asymmetric thrust using the four allocated motors. Each motor
cial transport. This design aims to reduce fuel consumption is powered by a different electric generator. Two electric gen-
and emissions as compared to the current baseline aircraft erators located at the sides of the wingtip produce the required
model. Fig. 14 shows the STARC-ABL model and the connec- power, and thrust is distributed at the middle rear of the body-
tion network between TeDP components. wing shape. Table 10 summarises the relationship between
Electricity is generated by two underwing turbofans. Rota- TeDP components43, and Fig. 16 shows the HWB concept of
tional power from the turbofan shaft rotates the electric gener- the N3-X aircraft36–44.
ator, which extracts electric current. Fuselage propulsion in the
aircraft tail absorbs electric power from the underwing electri- 7.4. Cambridge-MIT-Institute SAX-40
cal generators and transmits it to the rear electric motor fan.
This fan can operate continuously at 3500 hp and a pressure This concept aircraft was presented by a collaborative project
ratio of 1.25. The pressure ratio is calculated by dividing the conducted by Cambridge and MIT; its novelty was the low

Fig. 14 NASA’s STARC-ABL aircraft design ( model scale is 1:48).

58 M. ALRASHED et al.

Fig. 15 E-thrust concept42.

Table 10 Relationship between TeDP components of N3-X

aircraft43 (M = Motor).
Aircraft Gas turbine engine Generator Motor
N3-X (1) (1) M1, M5, M9, M13
(2) M2, M6, M10, M14
(2) (3) M3, M7, M11, M15 Fig. 17 Concept of SAX-40 aircraft45.
(4) M4, M8, M12, M16

Table 11 Relationship between SAX-40 aircraft propulsion

components (M = Motor).

noise produced. SAX-40 could carry 215 passengers while pro- Aircraft Gas turbine engine Generator Motor
ducing an estimated 63 dBA acoustic noise. The difference SAX-40 (1) (1) M1, M2
between SAX-40 and N3-X with respect to the propulsion is (2) (2) M3, M4
that the gas turbine engine and motor fans reside on the tail (3) (3) M5, M6
of the aircraft. The idea of this concept is to have one gas tur-
bine surrounded by two motor fans inside one collapse intake
and nozzle. In total, this concept comprises three gas turbine
been performed to analyse the collision of an aircraft with a
engines and six motor fans. Fig. 17 45 depicts the aircraft con-
large tank51.
cept. Additionally, Table 11 illustrates the relationship
There are some challenges in implementing numerical sim-
between the propulsion components45–47.
ulations for the proposed models. Future aircraft require the
integration of an increasing knowledge base of electrical phe-
8. Numerical modelling of future aircraft performance nomena with legacy simulations. Electrical parts and networks
influence the performance of hybrid aircraft because they play
Numerical simulations have been conducted on two types of a role in aircraft propulsion. In addition, the size, weight, heat,
engineering models, viz. physical and mathematical. The phys- and resistance of electrical parts affect the overall efficiency to
ical model presents natural phenomena, while the mathemati- a greater extent when compared to the calculated power.
cal model represents the formalism of physical behaviour48. Numerical methods used to model TeDP and MEA require
Due to time and cost constraints, numerical modelling tools a stable, robust, and flexible gas turbine engine simulator. A
are required to facilitate the development of future distributed multidisciplinary simulator commonly used to analyse the per-
propulsion, overcome technical challenges in aircraft models, formance of gas turbine engines is TurboMatch. It was devel-
and analyse the proposed optimal solutions. For example, oped in the 1970s at the Cranfield Institute of Technology
numerical modelling was conducted to estimate the force and (which is now known as Cranfield University) to perform ther-
impulse of Boeing B737-800 aircraft49. Another study provided modynamic simulations of gas turbine engines52. This mod-
an open-source numerical modelling tool to estimate aircraft elling tool was later updated to simulate the performance of
kinematic performance50. Numerical simulations have also different types of powerful gas turbine engines. TurboMatch

Fig. 16 N3-X aircraft concept44

Utilisation of turboelectric distribution propulsion in commercial aviation 59

was written in Fortran IV to simulate the performance of var- X aircraft and its model alternatives. The knowledge base
ious engine designs. The results are presented in the form of developed based on these models illustrates the limitations
characteristic maps of gas turbine components, which facili- and challenges of the superconducting concept.
tates engine performance analysis. Evaluating the methods
used to numerically model future aircraft reveals the limita- 9.3. Failure
tions of an integrated developing environment for assisting
tools. Currently, there is limited information available on the failure
of TeDP components. The available reports considered the
9. Existing studies on TeDP modelling failure of the electric network, superconducting cables, materi-
als, redundancy management, and design methods. For exam-
The number of published studies on TeDP numerical mod- ple, Nolan et al. discussed the effects of superconducting cables
elling is lower than the number of reports on aircraft design on TeDP aircraft performance60. Another study investigated
and physical experimentation. In general, studies on TeDP the challenges and benefits that turboelectric systems can pre-
numerical modelling can be classified as follows: sent for crewless aircraft61.

9.1. Simulator 9.4. Design

Choi et al. from NASA’s Glenn Research Centre (NGRC) 9.4.1. Boundary layer ingestion
introduced a method to simulate TeDP powertrains to deter- Several studies investigated Boundary Layer Ingestion (BLI)
mine the relationship between torque and speed curves53. His fordistributed propulsion to improve future aircraft perfor-
work includes an experimental study to emulate the power dis- mance 62–64. BLI reduces fuel consumption by reducing
tributed through TeDP. The model (closed-loop electric motor propulsive power consumption65,66. Fig. 18 shows the BLI
control drive system) was simulated on MATLAB/Simulink to concept; it produces less wake and jet kinetic energy while
obtain propulsive fan maps. A Propulsion Electric Grid Simu- maintaining the same net force67.
lator (PEGS) is an analytical TeDP model that shows the It is predicted that, in the future, aircraft efficiency will
dynamic characteristics required to control the electric motor increase with a decrease in fuel consumption. NASA expects
drive. This model is still under development, and many electri- to achieve fuel savings of 7%–8% for the N3-X aircraft by
cal components need to be added. Moreover, the performance implementing the BLI concept, despite the considerable num-
of the TeDP model has not been evaluated, and therefore, val- ber of electric components. The fundamental principle of
idation is needed to determine the reliability of the model. BLI is to reduce wasted kinetic energy by splitting thrust
A novel TeDP model was developed in 2016 at Cranfield between the propulsor units68,69. Research on an algebraic sim-
University. This model was simulated using an academic tool ulation has been conducted to optimise the BLI for turboelec-
called the ‘TeDP_SIMULATOR’, which is not a standalone tric aircraft based on the sizing and performance70. This paper
tool. This tool uses an outsourcing tool to simulate turbo gen- presented a more detailed analysis of the conventional config-
erator performance, and another tool was used to simulate the uration. A RANS CFD optimisation simulation done using
propulsor54. There is no synchronisation between these tools, the OpenMDAO framework is shown in Fig. 19 for the BLI
and hence, the TeDP model could simulate only one type of fan71. This study recommended having a lower Fan Pressure
shaft-drive gas turbine engine. Ratio (FPR) and analysing a full aircraft optimisation on the
Yazar developed a design model for TeDP using thermal and aerodynamic side.
MATLAB/Simulink to study the integration of the turboshaft Another modelling study aimed to reach 89.95% of the
in the turboelectric system55. The simulation results were com- total electric efficiency for a single-aisle TeDP by investigating
pared with real data to assess the uncertainty in simulation the development of a power splitter for the fans and simulating
reliability. The author encourages this study to be extended turbomachinery degradation72.
to consider power system design and management. In contrast,
an in-house aircraft sizing tool at Georgia Institute of Technol-
ogy has been used to assess the thermal implementation of
TeDP for the megawatt-class aircraft56. This study focused
on the design of turboshaft engines and did not enhance the
turboelectric performance as one system.
Fig. 18 Boundary layer ingestion concept67.
9.2. Electric architecture

The architecture of an electrical network is as important as the

thermodynamics of the propulsor components. The electric
architecture is related to the overall aircraft efficiency because
the electrical model plays a significant role in determining the
weight, size, heat distribution, generated power, and perfor-
mance of the aircraft. The electric architecture describes the
power generated in gas turbines and the resulting electric
thrust available for aircraft propulsion57–59. Thus far, research-
Fig. 19 NASA’S STARC BLI RANS CFD71.
ers have mostly focused on the electric architecture of the N3-
60 M. ALRASHED et al.

9.4.2. Hybrid Wing Body (HWB) research should consider the impact of fuel requirements on
After NASA introduced the TeDP model for the N3-X air- components such as the fuel tank and batteries.
craft, several researchers attempted to study the N3-X model
to develop novel solutions73. The challenges in the implemen- 10.1.2. Simulation
tation of this new concept design include finding a way to Increasing developments in computer software have made it
reshape 300-passenger-class aircraft with more imaginative air- easier to perform complicated simulations. Preliminary studies
frames. Furthermore, the arrangement of numerous motors in this area recommend implementing authentic and profes-
and generators needs to be distributed within the frame. sional tools to study TeDP and optimise it. The optimisation
techniques include deterministic, stochastic, and artificial intel-
9.4.3. Methods ligence techniques. The thermal reactions between TeDP sys-
A few methods have been reported to model TeDP; these tem elements should also be studied using CFD methods and
methods vary in terms of the components included or the out- applications.
comes needed from the model. Each researcher has used his/
her distinct TeDP modelling method depending on the area 10.2. Manufacture
of investigation43. For example, Liu et al. 54 developed a
method to calculate the power required for electrical propulsor Manufacturing is another promising research area, particu-
units. Moreover, another methodology was developed by the larly with the advent of the fourth industrial revolution. Thus
same author to reduce fuel consumption and noise emission55. far, no TeDP system has been manufactured for commercial
Other published methods for TeDP include a method for speed use. Only a few emulator prototypes have been applied inves-
control that rewarded a 4% reduction in system weight and tigate the performance of TeDP. This is mainly due to the lim-
propellant consumption56 and a method for evaluating TeDP itations of manufacturing materials and operations.
architectures61. A collaborative study between NASA, Rolls-Royce, Geor-
gia Institute of Technology, and the University of Strathclyde
on TeDP architecture, voltage, and components discussed the
10. Promising research areas and future trends importance of manufacturing advancements in aviation
research76.
Based on the literature review, TeDP is a promising area of
research compared with other alternative futuristic propulsion 10.2.1. Material
methods with several research directions. Each part of TeDP Nanomaterials can be used in TeDP due to their high thermal
could be enhanced, simulated, and optimised in stand-alone conductivity. Because of experimental limitations, this research
research. Moreover, the relationship between two or more area lacks data that consider improving efficiency.
components affects the total efficiency. However, achieving a
high efficiency of the total system is still being investigated 10.2.2. Operation
as it is affected by various parameters. The authors identified
promising research areas and directions, including future Building TeDP systems requires strategic plans and operation
trends categorised as four ‘M’s: modelling, manufacture, management to overcome all manufacturing challenges. Exam-
mechatronics and merchandise. ining the methods that can appropriately manufacture TeDP
systems will reduce waste and improve productivity.
10.1. Modelling
10.3. Mechatronics
This area of research and development aims to overcome the
current challenges in aviation with intelligent solutions to sur- The integration of mechanical and electrical components in
mount technical threats in economic and safety risks. Future TeDP systems results in the need for mechatronics research.
trends of scientifically modelling TeDP encompass simulating Th research includes the study of computational mechanics,
the architecture of the system. stability, and control77. The authors believe that the primary
A few studies have been reported which support this over- future directions in TeDP research are control electronics
view. Felder et al. examined the effect of BLI using modelling and electromechanics.
algorithms and simulation tools published in NASA technical
reports. The results of this work indicate that it is desirable to 10.3.1. Control electronics
perform design and modelling by integrating electrical and The area of control electronics is critical in TeDP as it detects
mechanical systems74. Davies et al. studied the fault behaviour and isolates faults. This consists of current, voltage, and power
of superconductors used in TeDP by employing a modelling modes for each component in the grid. Furthermore, it exam-
and simulation. The results indicate the need to have a wide ines the system control strategy for the build-up resistance and
range of sensitivity studies to cover the fault profile75. inductance to optimise the power efficiency.

10.1.1. Architecture 10.3.2. Electromechanics

The TeDP concept and system implementation has been stud- Usage of mechanical power to obtain electricity (generator) or
ied, but the actual design and architecture of each part of the electric power to rotate components using mechanical force
system remains unclear. Detailed research on the structure of (motor) is considered as electromechanics. The research in this
hybrid gas turbine engines, electric generators, electric motors, area aims to reduce the energy conversion losses as much as
and even the airframe of the aircraft, is required. Future possible. Future research on TeDP systems will focus on elec-
Utilisation of turboelectric distribution propulsion in commercial aviation 61

tromechanical systems that are capable of satisfying the torque performance of both systems. Because of the high level of heat
and energy requirements in a timely manner. in the turbine, the performance of the electric generator will be
negatively affected. High Temperature Superconductivity
10.4. Merchandise (HTS) generators also have physical limitations which will
reduce the efficiency of the electric power produced36,82. Fur-
Transforming the proposed technology for commercial use thermore, from a modelling and design viewpoint, there are
needs to be investigated to determine market visibility. challenges when restructuring the generator to fit the shape
Research should analyse the reliability and financial viability of the turbine83. The number of generators to be implement
of TeDP operation. The research in this area is mainly charac- is a development challenge as it may decrease the gas turbine
terised by two aspects: the industrial sector and the supply efficiency.
chain in the aviation market.
A paper published by Birch at Cambridge University 11.3. Electrical motors
reviewed the market drivers in 2020 for TeDP and their impact
on the economy78. This previous publication supports our view There are three main factors that must be considered in the
by indicating the existing challenges in the aerospace industry development of electrical motors for the propulsion system:
are interesting to investigate and require innovative solutions. cost, affordability, and technology. For example, the high cost
of NASA’s N3-X aircraft stems from the large number of
10.4.1. Industry motors used84. The lack of technology development, especially
With the growth in the aviation market and improvements in for aircraft motors, results in such high costs.
the industrial sector, especially with respect to the evolution
of industry 4.0, there is a certain goal that civil aviation must 11.4. Electrical superconductors
achieve. Shareholders in the industry need to be convinced
about the value that TeDP will add to the sector. That is
This technology is related to the three previously discussed
why a major proportion of future research should examine
development possibilities to design aircraft embedded with
the conversion of legacy industry systems to TeDP.
superconducting buses connected to motors and genera-
10.4.2. Supply chain tors36,85. The application of superconducting buses has chal-
lenges with regards to their weight, size, design, and
To ensure adoption of TeDP within the industry, the availabil-
manufacturing material86. Some samples of these semiconduc-
ity of materials and system parts must be investigated. More-
tors have been developed for research and production pur-
over, the supply of spare parts and the use of experts to
poses, but they are not suitable for aerospace use.
facilitate the new integration can result in effective supply
chain management.
11.5. Numerical modelling
11. Analysis of possibilities
TeDP numerical modelling is critical motivation in accelerat-
This section presents the limitations of TeDP based on data ing the research in this area. Offering an authentic tool specif-
availability. A more in-depth analysis of potential solutions ically for academic and research purposes to assess TeDP
is needed to facilitate future development and identify physical systems will provide insights into these systems and optimise
limits. Based on our review, there are several probable avenues the development of TeDP87,88.
to analyse the components in TeDP. These development possi-
bilities are as follows. 12. Conclusions
11.1. Aircraft airframe
The utilisation of electric power in aircraft is revolutionising
As a novel configuration of airframe is needed based on the the aerospace industry. However, the increasing use of electric
concept of turboelectric systems, the distribution of propulsion systems presents significant challenges in the development of
will be divided between the motor fans and turbofans in one aircraft models as well as in the studies conducted to achieve
case, or all propulsion will be directed to the motor fans for the desired outcomes. Research is being undertaken to address
turboshaft engines. This indicates that the current aircraft this issue, and several alternative power sources have been pro-
structures must be redesigned to integrate motor fans79–81. posed to solve future aviation problems, as shown in
Moreover, the challenge of utilising gravity balance, space, Table 12.89–99
and weight should be considered in the development80. One This review considered various solutions, concepts, and
of the projected designs used BLI with the risk of one prime proposed technologies, throughout the history of electric avia-
mover and noise emission55. However, a practical design has tion, with the aim of collating knowledge of different electric
not yet been built or tested for TeDP to the best of the authors’ aviation approaches to facilitate the development of advanced
knowledge. Furthermore, researching, designing, investigating, TeDP architecture. Fig. 20 23,100 presents a summary of this
and validating a novel model is expensive. review; it describes the different aero propulsion power sources
considered and their distribution, including the differences
11.2. Gas turbine engines between models related to TeDP.
Most of the studies in this area have focused on increasing
The implementation of electric generators inside the gas tur- the efficiency of current aircraft configurations. These studies
bine engine is an interesting research prospect for the thermal have yielded a number of methods to integrate hybrid electric
62 M. ALRASHED et al.

Table 12 Proposed alternative power sources for future aviation problems.89–99

Type Full hybrid Partial hybrid Full TeDP Partial TeDP All-electric
Hybridization of power 1 <1 >0 0 1
Hybridization of energy <1 <1 >0 0 1
Average power (kW) 1951 363 67667 67667 2357
Average take-off gross weight (kg) 1637 23117 120667 120667 10493

Fig. 20 Summary of turboelectric aero propulsion systems23,100.

systems with more the one power source into distributed three types of future alternative methods for aircraft propul-
propulsion on a small scale with limited enhancements. sion, namely hybrid, electric, and turbo-electric, that affect
Another apparent research trend is the focus on opportunities the TeDP system used101,103. Opinions on the probable future
and challenges associated with all-electric motors for future of turboelectric power in civilian aircraft lean towards the use
implementation in the aviation sector while considering tech- of TeDP for megawatt-class aircraft with 300 or more passen-
nological limitations. gers. TeDP could also be utilised in smaller aircraft if more
Future trends in the civilian aircraft sector will be domi- research is conducted to overcome challenges with respect to
nated by all-electric and turboelectric motors4,8,35,101,102. Vali- design, weight, and material. The critical element affecting
dation studies have been conducted recently to compare the the integration of TeDP into the aviation sector is the fuel
Utilisation of turboelectric distribution propulsion in commercial aviation 63

required to generate power. For example, if hydrogen is used 12. Saravanamuttoo HIH, Rogers GFC, Cohen H, et al. Gas turbine
as fuel for TeDP, power can be generated with almost zero theory. 6th ed. New York: Pearson Education Inc; 2009.
emissions using a battery-less system (which results in lower 13. PowerWeb. CFM international CFM56 (F108) turbofan engine
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tools must be developed to analyse aircraft performance and present, and future trends. J Eng Gas Turbines Power 2014;136
optimise the proposed distributed propulsion models. These (5) 051201.
tools should be geared towards users working in research 15. Kim HD, Brown GV, Felder JL. Distributed turboelectric
and development and should incorporate implementation propulsion for hybrid wing body aircraft. 2008 international
methods to optimise the configuration of future aircraft. powered lift conference; 2008 Jul 22-24; London, UK. 2008.
As part of future work, the authors of this review intend to p. 1–11.
propose a novel method that provides an integration frame- 16. Bradley MK, Allen TJ, Droney CK. Subsonic ultra green aircraft
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Declaration of Competing Interest mal system integration within the ECO-150:A turboelectric
distributed propulsion airliner with conventional electric
The authors declare that they have no known competing machines. Reston: AIAA; 2016. Report No.: AIAA-2016-4064.
financial interests or personal relationships that could have 18. Bradley MK, Allen TJ, Droney CK. Subsonic ultra green aircraft
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. research: Phase II-Volume III-Truss braced wing design explo-
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19. Bradley MK, Droney CK. Subsonic ultra green aircraft research :
The authors wish to thank Professor Wael Alrashed of Kuwait Phase I final report. Washington, D.C.: NASA; 2011.
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