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AGRICULTURE
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AGRICULTURE
TEXTBOOK
SENIOR ONE

LOWER SECONDARY
CURRICULUM
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AGRICULRURE
TEXTBOOK
SENIOR ONE

LOWER SECONDARY
CURRICULUM
Published 2020

This material has been developed as a prototype for implementation of the revised
Lower Secondary Curriculum and as a support for other textbook development interests.

This document is restricted from being reproduced for any commercial gains.

National Curriculum Development Centre

P.O. Box 7002,
Kampala- Uganda
www.ncdc.co.ug
 AGRICULTURE
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Contents
Preface ....................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgements................................................................................................... vi
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................ 1
Introduction to Agriculture .................................................................................... 1
Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1
Historical Background to Agriculture in Uganda ................................................ 2
The Value of Agriculture to the Community ...................................................... 3
Understanding Farming Systems in Uganda ...................................................... 5
Importance of Record Keeping in Agriculture ................................................... 7
Keeping Records on the Farm ............................................................................ 8
Activity of Integration ...................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER TWO ......................................................................................................... 12
Farm Tools, Equipment and Implements ............................................................. 12
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 13
Identifying Tools Used on the Farm ................................................................. 14
Conversion of Units in Agriculture ................................................................... 14
Proper Use of Farm Tools and Equipment in Carrying Out Farm Practices ..... 16
Basic Occupational Safety, Health Standards and First Aid during Agricultural
Activities ........................................................................................................... 17
Accidents in Our Lives ...................................................................................... 18
Activity of Integration ...................................................................................... 19
CHAPTER THREE ....................................................................................................... 21
Soil Science........................................................................................................... 21
What is Soil? ..................................................................................................... 22
Soil Formation .................................................................................................. 24
Soil Profile ........................................................................................................ 29
Soil Sampling .................................................................................................... 32
Physical Properties of Soil ................................................................................ 34
Soil Texture ...................................................................................................... 35
Soil Structure .................................................................................................... 36
Types of Soil ..................................................................................................... 39
Plant Nutrients ................................................................................................. 41
Soil Acidity or Alkalinity and Soil pH ................................................................ 42
Fertilizers .......................................................................................................... 44
CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................ 56
Vegetable Growing .............................................................................................. 56
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 57
Value of Vegetables ......................................................................................... 57
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Establishing a Nursery Bed............................................................................... 61

Growing Vegetables in the Garden .................................................................. 62
Controlling Pests in Vegetables ....................................................................... 64
Controlling Diseases in a Nursery Bed ............................................................. 66
Harvest Handling in Vegetables ....................................................................... 67
Post-Harvest Handling ..................................................................................... 67
Marketing of Vegetables .................................................................................. 68
Delivering Vegetables to the Market ............................................................... 70
Packaging of Vegetables .................................................................................. 71
Annex 1: Common vegetables in Uganda ........................................................ 73
Annex 2: Business Model Canvas .................................................................... 74
Glossary ............................................................................................................ 76

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Preface
This Learner’s Textbook has been written in line with the revised subject
syllabus. The knowledge and skills which have been incorporated are
what is partly required to produce a learner who has the competences
that are required in the 21st century.

This has been done by providing a range of activities which will be

conducted both within and outside the classroom setting. The learner is
expected to be able to work as an individual, in pairs and groups
according to the nature of the activities.

The teacher as a facilitator will prepare what the learners are to learn and
this Learner’s Textbook is one of the materials which are to be used to
support the teaching and learning process.

Associate Professor Betty Ezati

Chairperson, NCDC Governing Council

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Acknowledgements
National Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC) would like to express its
appreciation to all those who worked tirelessly towards the production of
this Learner’s Textbook.

Our gratitude goes to the various institutions which provided staff who
worked as a panel, the Subject Specialist who initiated the work and the
Production Unit at NCDC which ensured that the work produced meets
the required standards. Our thanks go to Enabel which provided technical
support in textbook development.

The Centre is indebted to the learners and teachers who worked with the
NCDC Specialist and consultants from Cambridge Education and
Curriculum Foundation.

Last but not least, NCDC would like to acknowledge all those behind the
scenes who formed part of the team that worked hard to finalise the work
on this Learner’s Textbook.

NCDC takes responsibility for any shortcomings that might be identified in

this publication and welcomes suggestions for effectively addressing the
inadequacies. Such comments and suggestions may be communicated to
NCDC through P. O. Box 7002 Kampala or email: admin@ncdc.go.ug.

Grace K. Baguma
Director
National Curriculum Development Centre

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CHAPTER ONE
Introduction to Agriculture

Key Words By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Agriculture • know the historical background of agriculture in
• Nomadic terms of herding, the nomadic way of life, food
• Production gathering and hunting.
• Subsistence • appreciate the value of agriculture to society and
• Commercial human being.
• Activities • know the value of the farm as a production unit.
• recognise the value of various farming systems and
their socioeconomic impact in Uganda.
• realise the importance of keeping records in
agriculture.
• appreciate the requirements of a career in
agriculture and key principles of the labour act on
the living conditions of the farm workers.

Competency: You should be able to understand the agricultural sector

and the different opportunities it provides in Uganda.

Introduction
In this Chapter, you will be introduced to the opportunities and benefits of
engaging in agricultural production activities. This will enable you to
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identify possible careers that will enable you produce enough food and
have enough income to live a comfortable life.
Developing an interest in agriculture can lead to a fulfilling career. Think
about the different activities in agriculture and select those that appeal to
you. For instance,
• Dairy farming • Fish pond • Soil chemist
• Goat racing maker • Agricultural
• Fish farming • Grain grader engineer
• Bee keeping • Soil laboratory • Cocoa making
• Rabbit rearing technician • Coffee brewing
• Horse riding • Fungicide • Cotton ginning
• Poultry farming maker • Tractor driving
• Cheese making • Fertilizer • Agricultural
• Yoghurt making distributer science
• Pet veterinarian • Milk transporter communicator
• Animal health • Livestock feed • Agricultural
inspector maker lawyer
• Meat • Animal breeder • Plant doctor
processing • Artificial • Pasta machine
• Apple growing inseminator operator
• Rice growing • Hoof trimmer • Agricultural
• Banana • Biotechnologist journalist
growing • Genetic • Sausage maker
• Wine making engineer • Irish potato
• Maize growing • Water engineer grower
• Millet growing • Farm water • Flower
• Vegetable supply plumber salesman
growing • Farm structure • Agricultural
• Pesticide electrical waste disposal
applicator technician technician
operator • Farm app • Fruit and juice
• Plant biologist designer processor
• Night herdsman • Farm drone
maker

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Which of these appeal to you?

Engaging in any of these activities will lead you to a discovery of different

opportunities in agriculture. What is the most common commodity people
buy or sell on a daily basis in the market in your community? Have you
ever imagined a day without food?

Historical Background to Agriculture in

Uganda
People must have food to live. There are different ways of getting food. In
Uganda, many years ago people used to get food through hunting and
gathering. With time, people started growing crops and domesticated
animals for a more reliable food supply. Before 1900, shifting cultivation
and nomadic pastoralism were the main forms of agricultural production
in Uganda. These have long been replaced by commercial farming on
large scale production using fertilisers, machines, agrochemicals, and
selling to the market beyond the local community.

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Activity 1.1: Exploring agricultural activities in your

community

You will need a notebook, pen and observation list

In pairs:
1. develop an observation list of agricultural activities and products in
the community.
2. make a plan of your movement in the community.
3. carry out the visit, observe, identify and record agricultural
products produced in your community and suggest their uses.
4. present your findings in class.
5. What do you say about the agricultural activities and products in
your community?
6. compare agriculture and nomadism by completing the table below.

Table 1.1: Comparison of agriculture and nomadism

What you know Examples to Definition

about it show it
Agriculture
Nomadism
7. Extended work in groups: Identify the value of agriculture and the
prospects for the future of agriculture in Uganda, regionally and
globally.
8. Extended work in groups: Investigate the evolution and progress in
development of agricultural activities in your community and other
regions in Uganda.

The Value of Agriculture to the Community

Agriculture is the way of life for most people in Uganda. About 70% of the
population is engaged in agriculture. It contributes about 25% to the
national gross domestic product (GDP). Local agricultural production
contributes 85% of the food consumed in Uganda.

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Activity 1.2: Importance of agriculture to society

You will need a notebook and pen

1. Individually, write the names and occupations of about five family
members within your location. Indicate how what they do for their
income and livelihood directly or indirectly relates to agriculture.

(a) (b)

(b)
Figure 1.2: Products from agriculture

Write in your exercise book the answers to the following questions.

1. a) Study the photographs above and name what you see.
b) What role does agriculture play in relation to what is found in
the photographs?
c) Why is agriculture a main way of life for about 70 percent of the
people in Uganda?
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d) Explain five benefits Ugandan get from agriculture.

2. In groups, collect pictures/labels/samples and make posters

showing the food and other products people get from crops and
animals.
3. In pairs, rearrange the letters in the following table to find the
crops and animals that you might get on farms in your community.
How many other crops and animals can you think of? Write their
names and what we benefit from them.

sowc totocn
srohe aet
scihkcne fefoce
sfhi nabana
ooesg bacebga
ehpes wappwa
hilci
ctuelte
ganom
ecir

Understanding Farming Systems in Uganda

Agriculture can be looked at as a production system where inputs are
changed into products through a production process. The most important
inputs include both natural and manmade sources. Examples of natural
sources include water, sunshine and soil while examples of manmade
sources include seeds, animals, fertilizers, agro chemicals, labour and
machinery. Some operations that are involved in the agricultural
production system include ploughing, digging, sowing, irrigation,
weeding, crop care or protection and harvesting. While the outputs from
the process include crops, wool, dairy, meat, hides, manure and poultry,
among others. Therefore, a farm is a system with inputs, processes and
outputs. A farming system is everything that the farmer does in farming
under the existing climatic, socio and economic conditions of an area.
A farming system is a way of organising a farming enterprise. Systems vary
widely depending on several factors.
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Activity 1.3: The value of farming systems and their

socioeconomic impact on Ugandans

You will need a notebook and pen

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

(f) (g)
Figure 1.3: Different farming activities in Uganda

Table showing a farming system approach

Inputs Processes Outputs
Pastures, dairy cows, water Feeding Milk

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1. In groups, answer the following questions in your exercise book.

i) Study the photographs above and name what you see.
ii) What farming system is shown in each of the photographs above?
iii) Of what value is each of the farming system above?
iv) What is the benefit of each farming system to the people shown in
the pictures?
2. In groups, research on four different farming systems in Uganda
including one used in your community. Take notes and report to the
class on the:
i) reasons for different systems in different regions.
ii) the value of farming systems and their benefits to Ugandans.
3. In pairs or groups, draw a map of Uganda, do library or internet
research and indicate the areas of crop and animal production.

Importance of Record Keeping in Agriculture

Record keeping is the act of writing down or documenting the activities
you are involved in. In the past, people used to keep all their information
in their heads. Today, this has changed because the quantity of
information that needs to be kept is big. So there are special record books
or computer programmes that may be used. Keeping records helps one to
effectively run farm activities. These activities include planning,
budgeting, implementing and evaluation of farm activities.

Figure 1.4: Farm RECORDS OFFICE

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Keeping Records on the Farm

Record keeping is an important aspect in all human activities. We all keep
records of some kind. This is because all of us need to keep track of what
happened. Farm records are essential to good farm management.
Planning decisions rely on information concerning expenditure, use of
stock and productivity. Without records, the farmer has to make decisions
based on guesses. This makes farming activities to be risky. The exact
records kept depend on the farming enterprise or activity.

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Case Study of Porena and Minu

Read the following case study and do the activity that follows
Porena and Minu operated a small scale business. They sold fruits of all varieties:
pineapples, oranges, passion fruit, bananas, watermelons, grapes and many
others. They received their supplies directly from the farmers. To ensure good
operation of the business, they tried very hard to keep good records.
They maintained a supplies book that recorded all the supplies from each supplier.
In the supplies book, they recorded the quantities supplied and the amount of
money the supplies were worth. In addition, they maintained a cashbook that
recorded the cash sales. They recorded any credit given to their customers on small
pieces of paper but recorded all the business expenses in a hard cover book.
Porena and Minu were very happy with the record keeping. One day the pieces of
paper on which they recorded the creditors disappeared. They were not able to tell
how much they owed their creditors. This had taken two seasons. Yet each season
many people carried out business with them. Porena and Minu found it difficult to
recall off their head or memory the exact person they gave credit and the total
amount they owed. So they kept on wondering who was to pay then and how
much.
In 2018, the Uganda Revenue Authority (URA) staff visited Minu and Porena’s
vegetable and fruit business and demanded to see their records. They had no clean
book to present. The data was difficult to understand. On some pages, you could
find phone numbers with names in the column of total amount. Minu and Porena
were surprised to hear that vegetable and fruit sellers were required to maintain
records for inspection by the URA staff. The URA staff gave them one month to
prepare the records. They did not know where to begin.

Activity 1.4: understanding the importance of record

keeping in agriculture

You will need a notebook and a pen

1. Individually or as a group read the case study above.
i) What is it about?
ii) How effective in your opinion are Minu and Porena at record
keeping?

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iii) Identify the records that Minu and Porena should maintain to meet
the requirements of the URA.
iv) If you were Minu and Porena, what methods could you employ to
improve the system they have?
2. In groups, prepare and present a role play of a conversation between
two farmers, one who recognises the importance of keeping records
and one who does not. Who of the farmers is likely to be more
productive? Give reasons for your answer.
3. In pairs, identify and write the kind of information found in each of the
types of record in the table below.

Type of record Information shown

Production records
Financial records
Health records
Breeding records

4. Discuss the importance of keeping each kind of information in the

records above.

Careers in Agriculture
Most young people wonder about their future. They want to be successful
in something they enjoy doing. They want to have enough income to live a
comfortable life. To achieve this, it requires good planning and
preparation.
A career is an occupation undertaken for a significant period of a person's
life and with opportunities for progress. It is the general direction of a
person’s life in terms of employment. A Career may be the sequence of
jobs that a person holds to make a living. This may lead a person to have a
good income and a better standard of living.
Careers in agriculture are grouped into pathways. A pathway is a group of
careers with similar education, training and interests. There are several
career pathways in agriculture including animal, crop, nutrition,
agribusiness, conservation and technical systems.
Since you will probably spend the greater part of your adult life working,
you will need to familiarise yourself with all kinds of career possibilities in
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agriculture for you to realize where your interests lie so as to identify a

career for better life.

Activity 1.5 Available career opportunities in agriculture

You will need a notebook and pen.

1. In groups, investigate and prepare a presentation on the:
i) different agricultural careers and the appeal of each
ii) working conditions of farm workers in relation to the provision of
basic necessities provided within the agricultural sector.
2. Individually recall or go out in your community and identify;
i) one individual doing a career in agriculture.
ii) Find out how he/she made it, and the opportunities and challenges
faced in doing that career.
iii) Are there any other careers in agriculture? if so, list them.
iv) Present your findings to the class.

Activity of Integration
Context
Most young people wonder about their future. They want to be successful
in something they enjoy doing like the great celebrity you know in
Uganda. They want to have enough income to live a comfortable life. They
must have interest in those things that appeal to them. They look at
opportunities and develop plans to achieve their desires. Agriculture has
many such areas.

Support
Pictures of a goat farmer; cheese maker; pesticide applicator worker

Task
Identify a discipline in agriculture that you want to be successful in and
write the opportunities and challenges involved.

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CHAPTER TWO
Farm Tools, Equipment and
Implements

Key Words By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Tools • identify tools used in the farm - garden tools,
• Equipment woodworking tools, metal tools, and the basic
• Implement tools used for fencing, mechanics and farming
• SI units activities.
• Safety • demonstrate the skills of using farm tools and
standards implements for better production.
• Hazard • show skill in using common measurement tools
• Health for length, volume, time and mass/weight.
standards • express basic occupational safety and health
• First aid standards in agriculture.
• Husbandry • explain skills in applying the steps in giving first
practice aid on the farm and during agricultural activities.

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Competency: In order to ensure safety on the farm when carrying out

agricultural activities, you should be able to use properly measurement
tools, crop and animal tools, equipment, machines and implements.

Introduction
In this chapter you, you will be introduced to the farm tools, implements
and machines used in taking measurements and carrying out the routine
husbandry practices in crops and animals.
Once you have chosen a suitable site for your selected crop to grow or
livestock to rear, you need the right tools to make work easy. There is
need to prepare your planting site, restrain your animal, administer drugs,
move materials from one site to another and many more practices. To do
all this, you need to know the right tools, implements and equipment to
use.

(a) (b) C)

(e) (f) (g)

Figure 2.1 Common Farm Tools

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Identifying Tools Used on the Farm

What is the name of the tools in Figure 2.1a and b? Where is each tool
used? Did you know the names of the parts of each tool? Now look at
Figure 2.1c, d, e, f and g. What does each tool do for farmers? You will
realise that tools can be categorised based on the type of work they can
be used for. These tools include garden tools, woodworking tools, metal
tools, and the basic tools used for fencing, mechanics and animal
handling. A wrong tool for the wrong job does not only waste time but
causes irreparable damage both to the tool and work being done.

Activity 2.1: Farm tools

You will need a pen, notebook and drawing pad.

1. In pairs,
i) categorise different farm and measurement tools provided
according to their uses in: the garden; the workshop; animal
husbandry; crop husbandry and building.
ii) discuss how each tool is used. Compile a report to present in class.
2. In groups, visit the school workshop or a nearby farm, then;
i) identify the common tools used.
ii) list the functions of each tool.
3. Extended work in groups:
i) Investigate the reasons for using different tools, equipment and
machines in agricultural activities.
ii) Identify career opportunities in manipulating these equipment and
machines in agriculture.

Conversion of Units in Agriculture

All of us use measurement in some form on a daily basis. Some activities
and professions depend on having competent measurement skills. The
builders, farmers, veterinarians, crop breeders as well as processors and
retailers of agricultural products, among others, need to efficiently
calculate mass, length, time, area, volume and dilutions. A nursery bed
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operator, for example, may need to calculate the length of wood required
for making a seedbed box, the volume of soil to fill it and the amount of
water needed to water the seedlings. Our ability to accurately measure
the length of wood will save money and energy of carrying timber we may
not need to use. However, the timber dealers use their own measurement
and the nursery bed operator applies a different unit. This requires
conversion of units. When you have two units, they must measure the
same thing. For example, when you have "convert 2 metres into
centimetres," both metres and centimetres measure length. If your unit
measures two different things (like length and weight for example 2
metres and 2 grams), you cannot convert them. Only those measuring the
same things can be converted. For example, if a bicycle is moving 10
kilometres per hour, how many metres does it travel in one minute?
Now you can practice conversion of units. Remember, you can only
convert units that measure the same thing. In our example, we have units
that measure length (kilometres and metres), and units that measure time
(hours and minutes). Start with one pair and find the conversion between
them. For example, 1 kilometre =1000 metres and 1 hour = 60 minutes.
The metric system, also called the decimal system, is designed for easy
conversion. To convert from one metric unit to another, you only have to
work with round numbers: 10, 100, 1000, and so on.

Activity 2.2: Conversion of units on farm tools and

equipment

You will need a calculator or computer and conversion table

1. In pairs, convert the following measurements in agriculture as
required.
i) 6290 millimetres into centimetres
ii) 780 centimetres to metres
iii) 53,000 metres into decimetres
iv) 40,000 decametres into kilometres
v) 360 seconds into minutes
vi) 180 minutes to hours
vii) 2.3 kilometres to metres
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viii) 59 centimetres to metres

ix) 1 hour and 10 minute to seconds

2. Individually, practice converting different measurements in agriculture

into the Standard Units (SI units):
i) A vegetable garden of 226 cm by 64 cm
ii) A path to the farm with 25 tiles each 40cm wide
iii) A tractor ploughs an acre of land in 1 hour 20 minutes
iv) Milking a cow in 4 minutes
v) 600
vi) cm3 of milk in a bottle of drinking water to litres

3. In groups:
i) select a tool of your own choice to carry out the tasks assigned to
you by the teacher from the following:
- finding the size of the flower bed;
- finding the length of the science laboratory;
- weighing a bucket of beans;
- finding the amount of water in a watering can;
- finding the size of the hole dug for planting a banana sucker
or mango tree;
- determining the period required to fill a 500ml bottle with
water from a water source
ii) Describe the procedure you followed in carrying out the task to the
class.
iii) What did you learn from the task and presentations?

Proper Use of Farm Tools and Equipment in

Carrying Out Farm Practices
Farm tools are equipment used in agricultural processes such as land
preparation. They include, among others, the hand hoe, rake, slasher, axe
and panga. Farm equipment is any kind of machinery used on a farm to
help with farming. The best known example is a tractor. There are also
many farm implements. How do you use these farm tools and equipment?
Tools and equipment are designed to perform a particular task on the
farm. For instance, a hoe is used to dig soil. Therefore, when choosing a
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tool, make sure you use the right tool for the right job. Farm tools,
equipment and implements should be kept free from rust and free of
slippery oils. There is also need for a budget for replacing broken and
worn out tools.
Rules regarding farm tools, equipment and implements:
i) Organise them in a store, tray, or other system, with each tool
stored in its own place. This way, you can easily see at a glance
which one you might need for a task you want to carry out.
ii) Wipe each tool clean after use.
iii) Never throw tools or equipment into a tool box. Carefully place
each tool or equipment into its proper place in the store or tray.
iv) Never leave tools or equipment lying about, especially on the floor.
v) Record each tool when getting it from the store and on returning it.
Report damaged, broken and lost tools as you return from doing
the task.
vi) Always put tools or equipment away at the end of the activity, even
if you are working in a closed room. They must be maintained and
kept safely.

Basic Occupational Safety, Health Standards

and First Aid during Agricultural Activities
Some of the farm tools, equipment and implements have cutting blades,
sharp edges or piercing ends which may cause harm or danger to the
users. In order to prevent accidents on the farm, it is important to handle
the farm tools, equipment and implements carefully by taking precautions.
Manufacturers always provide information on safe use of tools and equipment
which you must read, understand and put into practice.

Practicing safety precautions during agriculture activities on the farm may

require you to do some of the following:
- Wear protective gear under all circumstances.
- Ensure that you use tools, equipment and implements only when
you are physically and emotionally sound. All your gears should be
worn securely to avoid entanglements with tools and equipment
you are using.

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- Cover sharp edges and piercing ends to avoid causing harm to

yourself and others.
- The right person should use the right tool, equipment and
implement for the right job. For example, as a Farm Equipment
Mechanic and Service Technician, you can do the following tasks:

Farm Equipment Mechanic and Service Technician

a) Record details of repairs made and parts used.
b) Reassemble machines and equipment following repair, testing
operation and making adjustments as necessary.
c) Maintain, repair, and overhaul farm machinery and vehicles,
such as tractors, harvesters, and irrigation systems.
d) Dismantle defective machines for repair, using hand tools.
e) Repair or replace defective parts, using hand tools, milling and
woodworking machines, lathes, welding equipment, grinders,
or saws.
f) Using relevant information and individual judgment to
determine whether events or processes comply with laws,
regulations, or standards.
g) Install and repair agricultural irrigation, plumbing, and
sprinkler systems.
h) Calculate bills according to record of repairs made, labour,
time used, and parts used.

Accidents in Our Lives

Accidents may happen anywhere and at any time. You should therefore be
careful when carrying out agricultural activities. But in case of an accident,
we should be able to give first aid.

First aid is the first assistance given to someone who has had an accident
or injury in order to save life or promote recovery. It is the first the
emergency or immediate care you should provide when a person is
injured or ill until full medical treatment is available.

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Activity 2.3: Administering first aid

1. In groups, imagine a student in your class has got an accident while

using farm tools.
i) Design a role play and act out how you can provide first aid to the
injured.
ii) Make a presentation to be displayed in your school to ensure safety
on the farm.
2. In groups, research on First Aid and the basic occupational safety and
health standards in agriculture by listening to an invited speaker or
using the internet or other resources. Present the group’s findings
about what all agriculture workers should know and be able to do with
respect to paying attention to health and safety plus carrying out First
Aid.

Activity of Integration
Context
If you go out to the community, what do you see? You will see farmers,
fields and farms. Oh! The list continues, and trees, hedges, birds,
insects…It is a long list! Farmers rear animals like goats, poultry, sheep,
cattle and pigs and they grow crops such as maize, millet, bananas, coffee,
sorghum, tea, tobacco, cotton, sugarcanes, fruit and vegetables. They use
tools, equipment and implements. The people wear things like gumboots,
caps, gloves and overall coats.
Farms are wonderful places to visit. You may have been to a farm on a
school visit in your Primary school or on a trip with your parents. Some of
you may even be living on a farm. It is important to remember that farms
are work places and so there might be dangerous objects. You need to
take care.

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Supports

Task
You have been asked to establish a small garden for growing vegetables to
replace the flowerbeds in the school compound. Using the information in
this chapter, make a presentation on what you should do.

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CHAPTER THREE
Soil Science

Key Words By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Soil • show skills in analysing and identifying the
• Rocks different components of soil.
• Weathering • appreciate the different types of weathering
• Nutrients processes and factors influencing soil formation.
• Soil fertility • illustrate skills in distinguishing between the
• Soil pH different soil particles, soil textures, soil
• Fertilizer structure, soil profile horizons and types of soils
• Soil texture as used for agricultural purposes.
• soil structure • recognise the importance of plant nutrients and
• soil sampling soil pH.
• demonstrate soil improvement practices and
understand their effects on plant growth.

Competency: You should be able to comprehend how soil is formed from

rocks through the process of weathering.

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Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn about soil. Soil is the upper layer of the earth
in which plants grow. It is black or dark brown and typically consists of a
mixture of organic remains, clay, rock particles and humus in various
proportions.

What is Soil?
Soil is the material which nourishes and supports growing plants. It
consists of rock particles, water, organic matter and air. Soil gives human
beings the ability to produce food through agriculture. It is where humans
and other animals are held to carry out several activities that support life.

Components of Soil
The four major components of soil are minerals, organic matter, air and
water. Mineral and organic matter are the solid particles in soil, while
water and air fill up the spaces between the particles. Soil also has living
organisms; some are very tinny to be seen with our naked eyes, while
others such as like moles, millipedes and centipedes are big.

Pie chart showing the percentage composition of soil

Figure3. 1: Composition of soil

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3.1 a) Activity: Examining the composition of soil

i) In your group, get three different samples of soil from various

places in your community (garden, near a kraal, from a swamp,
from a forest/tree plantation, school compound, lake shore/river
bank/dam/pond).
ii) Place a given amount of the soil in a jar/measuring cylinder with a
lid.
iii) Add some water so that the jar/measuring cylinder is three quarter
full.
iv) Put the lid firmly and shake the jar/measuring cylinder.
v) Leave the jar/measuring cylinder and its contents to settle for two
days.
vi) Repeat steps ii - v for all your soil samples collected.
vii) Make your observation on how the particles settle.
viii) Describe what you see in the jar/measuring cylinder.

3.1 b) Activity: Investigating the main components of soil

In small groups, carry out the following experiment:

i) Get two dry sample of soil from two areas (on top of a hill (A) and in
the valley (B)) in or around the school. Label the soil samples A and
B.
ii) Get three dry 250ml conical flasks or 100ml measuring cylinders
and label any two A and B respectively.
iii) Stick a strip of graph paper on the side of the conical
flask/measuring cylinder.
iv) Put 70ml of dry soil sample A into the respective conical
flask/measuring cylinder.
v) Put 70ml of dry soil sample B into the respective conical
flask/measuring cylinder.
vi) Measure 100ml of water and pour it into each conical
flask/measuring cylinder containing the soil samples A and B.

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vii) Cover with your hand or lid and shake thoroughly for 2 minutes.
Repeat this for the other conical flask/measuring cylinder.
viii) Allow the conical flask/measuring cylinder to stand for 10 minutes.
ix) Examine the results of your experiment after settling.
x) Estimate the percentage of each type of soil particle using the
formula
Height of the component_______________
Percentage of soil component = total height of all solid matter+ height of organic

Note: During the experiments, at first you will be able to see bubbles come
up in the cylinder as you pour the water. This means that soil contains air.
The things that float on top of water in the cylinder are pieces of dead
plants, dead insects, rotten roots or leaves and small soil particles. The
bigger soil particles will sink to the bottom by size. The colour of the water
in the cylinder will start as brown then clear after 7 days. Humus makes
the soil look dark brown.

Soil Formation
Soil is formed from a mixture of mineral particles, air, water, decaying
plant and animal materials. The mineral particles come from rocks. The
rocks are the solid material forming the earth crust. Thus the crust of the
earth is made of solid rock. But deep inside the earth is very hot. When the
rock inside gets very hot, it melts to form a liquid. The molten rock is
called magma. Magma is a mixture of different minerals. When magma
cools, it forms new rocks. Thus the rocks are classified by the way they are
formed. These rocks differ in their chemical composition and the way they
were formed. They are classified as: igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks.

Activity 3. 2: Investigating the properties of rocks

i) In your group, look at three different rocks (metamorphic, igneous

and sedimentary) given to you by your teacher.

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ii) Write down a list of questions you will need to ask about these rocks
(texture, colour, roughness, crystal size, porous, hard by scratching)
iii) Use a hand lens to examine each of the rocks.
iv) Describe what you see.
v) State four properties of each of these rocks.

Weathering
Rocks do not stay the same forever. They get changed slowly and with
time. Weathering is the breaking or splitting down of rocks. It is the
process by which rocks break down to form soil particles.

Types of weathering
The process of wreathing is either physical or chemical. Sometimes, both
the physical and chemical process of weathers involve a biological
component.

a) Physical weathering

This involves the splitting of rocks into small particles without any change
in chemical composition. The following are the agents of physical
weathering:

i) Force of running water

When water is fast flowing in a river or stream, it carries along with it many
small rocks, stones and other particles. As these materials move, they
knock each other and keep breaking. The small particles that break off
form part of soil.

ii) Glaciations
Sometimes rocks are split by the movement of huge blocks of ice. The
rocks end up knocking each other and splitting into smaller particles.

iii) Freezing of water

This is a when rain water collects in cracks of rocks. When it becomes very
cold, this water freezes and expands. This forces the cracks to widen,
making the rocks to break. This is due the anomalous behaviour of water.
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iv) Wind
When strong wind blows rock particles, they knock each other and split
further into small particles.

v) Temperature
When temperatures are high, the rocks expand and when it becomes cold,
they contract. The expansion and contraction of rocks causes rocks to
crack and split. These changes in temperature weaken the structure of
rocks leading them to split into small particles.

b) Chemical weathering
This involves a change in the chemical composition of the original rock.
The following are the processes involved in chemical weathering:

i) Solution
When water dissolves any soluble minerals found in rocks, this weakens
the structure and changes the form of the resulting rock. Thus the rock
will easily crumble.

ii) Hydrolysis
When weak acids react with minerals found in rocks, they form new
substances that dissolve out and this weakens the structure of rocks.
Examples of weak acids are sulphur dioxide and nitric acid.

iii) Oxidation
When oxygen from air reacts with minerals like iron-and aluminium-
containing rocks, new compounds are formed. These weaken the
structure of rocks.

iv) Carbonation
When carbon dioxide reacts with metals found in rocks to form
carbonates, it weakens the structure of rocks.

c) Biological weathering
i) When heavy animals move over rocks, they set up vibrations that
weaken the structure of rocks.

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ii) The activities of human beings such as stone quarrying, building

construction, dynamiting and mineral extraction lead to rocks
being broken into small particles.
iii) When plants and animals die, they decompose/decay into organic
matter and humus. These are components of soil and contain plant
nutrients.
iv) The activities of burrowing animals such as moles and squirrels
mix rock particles with organic matter.
v) The activities of animals with sharp hooves on rock surfaces will
cause crumbling of rocks.
vi) The roots of plants or mosses create humid conditions which
speed up chemical weathering. Likewise, when plants grow and
expand in cracks of rocks, it leads to the splitting of rocks further.

Factors influencing soil formation

The following factors determine the formation of soil:

Parent material
This the material from which soil develops. These materials include rocks,
stones, in some places peat, and specific minerals. Peat is the decaying
plant matter found in a very wet place.

Climate
The action of wind, temperature and rainfall of an area affects the
weathering process and the movement of rock particles. Strong winds can
move large quantities of particles from one area to another. Also, heavy
rainfall around streams and rivers causes them to fill up and carry
particles to far away distances.

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Activity 3.3: Finding out how microorganisms help in

decomposing of plant remains

i) Gather fresh plant material and cow dung.

ii) Dig a trench or hole.
iii) Put the fresh plant material in the hole and cover it with the cow
dung.
iv) After 7 days, check to find out what is happening to the materials.
v) Find out whether there are any living organisms feeding on the
materials.
vi) Describe what happened to the material.

Living organisms
Microorganisms act on dead plant and animal remains which leads to
decomposition of materials. Decomposition or decay is the process by
which plant and animal materials are broken down to form part of soil.
The part of soil formed from these materials is known as organic matter or
humus. These bacteria and other living organisms in the soil break all
organic materials into smaller particles as they feed.

Topography
Topography is the nature of the land surface. The slope of the land clearly
affects the distribution of soil. Land that slopes will have faster water
runoff and dry out more quickly than flat land. Water running down the
hills picks up soil particles and carries them off, leaving the hill tops with
little amount of soil. Most of the soil particles carried by erosion settle in
the low lying areas and valleys. There areas therefore have huge amounts
of soil and nutrients.

Time
The weathering process is only the beginning of the long journey to form
soil. Soil is known to take many years to mature. It involves distribution of
particles, movement of the rock particles, the addition of organic matter
and the continuing action of soil organisms, rainfall, winds and plant roots
gradually form the soil we see. So the age of a soil or how long it has been
forming determines the nature of the soil in an area.
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Soil Profile
Soil profile is defined as a vertical section of the soil from the ground
surface downwards to where the soil meets the underlying rock. The soil
profile can be as little as 10 cm thick in immature soils and as deep as
several metres in tropical areas where the climate is conducive to rapid
alteration of the underlying rock to form soil. In temperate areas, the soil
profile is often about a metre deep and is somewhat shallower than this in
arid areas.

Soil profile is the vertical cross-section through the soil showing different
horizontal layers soil. The horizontal layers are called horizons. Each
horizon differs in colour, depth, texture and structure.

Activity 3.4: Determining soil profile

i) In groups or as a class, you are going to observe the different layers

of a soil profile.
ii) Select an area in the compound.
iii) Dig it up to about 2 metres deep
iv) How many layers are seen?
v) Observe the layers or colour of soil as you dig deeper.
vi) Draw the layers you see.
vii) Study and mention the characteristics of the layers.
viii) Compare your drawing with the sketch below. What differences do
you see?
ix) Alternatively, go and visit a dug pit latrine site. Ensure that you take
precautions to avoid accidents like slipping into the pit as you
observe the different layers of soil.

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Figure 3.2: Sketch of the locations of soil horizons

How does a soil profile determine the type of crop to

be planted in garden?
There are four identified layers/horizons in a soil profile. The most useful
part of soil for growing crops is found at the top, that is Horizon A. As you
study this, what comes to your mind when you hear the word horizon? Ask
your neighbour before searching for it in the library or internet.
Horizon A
This is also called the top soil. It is covered by a layer of rotting organic
matter. Its soils are friable and have a good crumb structure. Air and water
can move freely which enables many soil organisms and plant roots to
live. Most of the plant nutrients occur in this layer.

Horizon B
This layer, also known as sub-soil, has its soil particles closely packed
together and there is less movement of air and water. It is red-brown in
colour. This is an indication of the accumulation of iron. The layer often
has large quantities of silica and calcium.

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Horizon C
This layer is made up of rocks slowly disintegrating or weathering. It has
coarse rocks, stones and with no or few plant roots. It is also called the
stony or weathering region.

Horizon D
This is the soil rock at the bottom of the soil profile. It is also called the
bed rock. It may collect underground water forming ponds on top of this
rock. It is likely to undergo weathering and in very dry areas some plant
roots may penetrate all the other layers to search for water here.

Activity 3.5: Investigating the things that makes up soil

Work in pairs
You will need a measuring cylinder, dry soil, different layers from dug
pit, water, and a stop clock
i) Get a transparent 250 ml measuring cylinder.
ii) Get dry soil from your compound or gardens.
iii) Pour 100 ml of dry soil into the measuring cylinder.
iv) Add 100 ml of water to the cylinder with dry soil.
v) Record what you see when you have poured all water.
vi) Cover the mouth of the cylinder and shake. Allow the water mix
up with the soil.
vii) Allow the contents of the cylinder to settle for 15 minutes. What
do you see?
viii) Are there materials that sink or float?
ix) What is the colour of the water?
x) Draw the final result and label the components in the cylinder of
the activity after 7 days.

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Importance of the soil profile

A soil with a thick top soil is more fertile and will produce good crops. An
area with a thin top soil layer will not have much fertility and will not
produce large crops. Therefore, farmers need to use practices that keep
the top soil from being lost.

A soil profile will determine which crops or vegetation to grow normally in

an area. Crops with deep roots will need deep soil with a sizeable
thickness of top soil. This is because deep soils have more nutrients and
water to support plant life or thick and vigorous healthy looking
vegetation.

Young soils or heavily eroded areas have thin layers of each of the first
three horizons and is less fertile. This renders such places to naturally
support few plants or little pale vegetation.

Soil Sampling
Soil sampling is the practice of collecting samples of soil from a given area
for detailed study in the soil laboratory. Soil samples are used to
determine whether soils are acidic or alkaline and have enough and
balanced plant nutrient levels. This information is then used to make and
suggest recommendations on fertiliser, lime or phosphate applications for
optimal plant production.

Procedure of soil sampling

1. Remove the top surface (1 to 3 cm) of the area to be sampled. This
part usually contains and a relatively high content of plant and
animal residues (debris) in different stages of decomposition.
These do not form part of soil and will most likely introduce error.
2. Take what is known as top soil, which is the soil that is up to 30 cm
deep from the top surface. A tool widely used for soil sampling is
an auger (see pictures), which works in an analogous manner to a
cork screw. It is inserted into the soil by applying a downward force
while rotating it, and fills as it goes deeper into the soil. Once filled

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at the correct depth, the auger is then removed and the top soil
placed into a clean, dry container marked “top soil”. If no auger is
available, a simple spade will do just as well.
3. Then take a sub-soil, which is a further 30cm deeper into the soil. In
other words, a depth of up to 60cm of soil is taken from the same
sampling spot. The sub-soil is then placed into another container
marked “sub-soil”.
4. Finally, ensure that both the top and sub soils are representative of
the whole area that is being sampled by repeating the three steps
above several times at other randomly chosen spots (the more
replicate samples collected the higher the likelihood that the area
will be well represented). The top soils should then be well mixed
together to form a composite top soil. The same must be done for
the sub-soils. The two composite samples must never be mixed
together to form a unit sample, but, from each composite, a
laboratory sample weighing about 1.5 kg must be obtained. The
two laboratory samples (labelled “top soil” and “sub-soil” in their
respective clean, dry containers) are then sent in for analyses.

Figure 3.3: Soil auger for soil sampling

There are two main methods of soil sampling: Transverse and Zigzag.
Check for the meaning of the two methods in the library or using internet.
After soil sampling, then you can study more about soil to determine the
physical and chemical properties in the coming section.

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Physical Properties of Soil

Farmers need to know the physical properties of soil. These include size,
colour and shape. The characteristics of soil depend on the parent
material, amount of organic matter available and weathering process that
were in action. Thus the type of soil particles determines the physical
nature and characteristics of the soil in a given area.

Activity 3.6: Mechanical analysis of soil particles

You will need a sieve mesh set, dry soil samples, tray and dishes
Either Part 1: Using a sieve mesh
i) Get a set of sieves with different hole sizes.
ii) Get a dry amount of garden soil from your area.
iii) Place the sieve with the smallest hole diameter in the sieve holder.
iv) Place a collecting tray below the sieve holder.
v) Place 200 gms of dried soil in the sieve.
vi) Collect the soil particles that fall through the first sieve to obtain the
first fraction.
vii) Repeat the process above with a new sieve of a bigger diameter
until all sieves are done.

The soil that is collected one by one in order of increasing diameter size
will be helping you to separate the soil particles into fractions of the
similar size. The percentage of the whole soil sample (200 gm) that each
fraction will be representing will be calculated by weight/mass or volume.

Or Part 2: Using a measuring cylinder

You will need a measuring cylinder, dried soil samples, water,
beakers, hand gloves, a stop clock, a weighing scale, a sheet for
recording your findings and safe place to keep the experimental set up
for 7 days

i) Get three 250 ml measuring cylinders which are clean and dry.
ii) Measure about 50 gm of dried soil.
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iii) Place the measured dried soil in the measuring cylinder.

iv) Using another cylinder, get 100 ml of water.
v) Pour the measured volume of water into the cylinder with soil.
vi) With one hand in gloves put over the mouth of the cylinder,
shake it vigorously for 3-5 minutes.
vii) Allow the cylinder to stand for 20 minutes, 60 minutes, 120
minutes, 240 minutes and 7 days.
viii) Record what you see each of the times above
ix) Draw what you see in the measuring cylinder after shaking up
with the dry soil and allowing it to stand for 120 minutes and for 7
days.
x) Do you notice any difference?
xi) What does it tell you about soil?

Note: Mechanical analysis is a process of separating soil particles

according to their size. In the case of a measuring cylinder, the particles
will settle in order of their size, the heaviest first. Thus big stones or coarse
particles will be found at the bottom of the cylinder. Organic matter or
plant and animal remains will float on top. The volume of each fraction
can be read off the scale of the cylinder. Sometimes it is called soil
sedimentation.

Soil Texture
Soil texture is the size distribution of different particles that make up soil.
It is the proportion of clay, silt and sand in a given sample. Soil texture
determines the size of the spaces between the particles, which are
occupied by the air or water you find in the soil. This will influence the
living organisms that can be found and the movement of water through
the soil particles.
For instance, the large particles of sand do not fit closely together. Thus
they have large air spaces between them and water easily passes through
them. This means that sand soils cannot hold water for a long time.
Clay particles are very small and which allows them to stick together very
closely. These particles have no or little air spaces between them and
water does not easily pass through. Consequently, clay soil particles hold
water for long and are known to be poorly drained.
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Soil Structure
Soil structure is the way soil particles are arranged together to form an
aggregate or lump. It is the way the soil particles stick together and hold
our plants.

Figure 3.4: Examples of soil structures

In summary, there are five types of soil structure namely:

i) Crumb or granular structure has porous granules with high
amounts of organic matter, subject to wide and rapid changes
ii) Platy/plate-like structure is arranged as horizontal plates and
found in virgin lands.

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iii)Blocky structure has irregularly six-faced cubes or rectangles found

in the sub soil.
iv) Prismatic are pillar like aggregates with a prism shape found in the
sub-soil.
v) Columnar structure has round pillar-like aggregates found in the
sub-soil.

Importance of soil texture and structure

For plants to grow successfully, they require air and water. Soil texture
and soil structure play a role in determining how much space is available
for air and water to occupy. The best soil for crop production is loam soil
which has a balanced amount of sand, silt and clay particles. Loam soils
have a good soil texture and soil structure with the following advantages
for plant growth:
i) Loam soil is porous. It has enough space between the particles to
allow water pass through easily and at the same time holding
sufficient amounts for plant use. Clay soil has only very small
particles and gets waterlogged during rainy seasons as the space
between its particles get filled with water. Clay soils are not porous.
There is no air because the particles get closely packed together.
Sandy soils are very porous, which allows water and nutrients to be
washed away easily. Sandy soils also dry out quickly on exposure to
drought or heat.
ii) A good soil texture and structure allows good circulation of air in and
around the soil particles. This is essential in plant growth and
existence soil organism. Plants and soil organisms are well supplied
with oxygen to carry out their life processes.
iii) It allows plant roots to grow and extend to greater heights in the soil
profile without much obstruction or barriers.
iv) It helps in controlling soil temperature as warm air will carry away
heat from the soil particles.
v) The soils are easy to cultivate or plough using a tractor as they easily
break up.

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Activity 3.7a: Experiment to show the

relative porosity of soils

You will need 6 measuring cylinders (50 or 100 ml), 4 funnels, beakers
or conical flasks, pestle, mortar, filter papers/cotton wool, water,
retort stand, weighing balance, a graph paper and a stop clock.
i) In pairs, get dry samples of clay, silt, sand and loam soils and grind
them into powder.
ii) Set up four measuring cylinders with a funnel and a filter paper as
shown below.

Figure 3.5: Relative porosity experimental setup

iii) Weigh 50 gm of dry soil particles from each sample.

iv) Put the 4 soil samples in the four funnels of equal size. The end of
each funnel is blocked with cotton wool or a filter paper.
v) Measure 50 mls of water; for each in its own beaker/conical flask.
vi) Start the stop clock as you pour the volume of water on the funnel
filled with the first sample. Record the time the first drop of water
comes out and the volume collected after 10 seconds, 20 seconds,
30 seconds, 60 seconds, 90 seconds, 120 seconds, 180 seconds, 240
seconds and 360 seconds. Repeat the above task for the remaining
funnels.
vii) Plot a graph of the volume collected against time.
viii) Display the graph in a learning station or classroom notice
board/wall.
ix) Describe what you learn from this experiment.

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Activity 3.7b: Investigating the water-holding capacity of

different soils

You will need dry samples of clay soil and sandy soil, two funnels,
three measuring cylinders of 100 mls each, a beaker of 250 mls to hold
water, stop clock and filter paper or cotton wool.
i) Set up two measuring cylinders with a funnel and filter paper or
cotton wool inside the funnel.
ii) Place 25 gm of dry soil into the funnel. Label the first one A (with
sandy soil) and B (with clay soil).
iii) Pour 100 ml of water over each sample as you start the stop clock.
iv) Record the time when the first drop appears.
v) Record the volume of water collected every after 5 minutes until all
water has drained through. Calculate how much water has been
retained by the soil.
vi) Work out how much water would be retained by 100 gm of soil. This
is the water holding capacity of that soil.
vii) Draw the experimental setup on a large sheet of paper. Display your
work in one corner of the class.

Types of Soil

Figure3.6: The different soil particle sizes

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At the start of this chapter, you learnt that soil is made up of mineral
matter, organic matter, living organisms, water and air. You also learnt
about the different soil particles sizes and how the particles arrange
themselves into soil aggregates or lumps. This means that the soil one
finds in one area cannot be exactly the same.
There are three basic types of soil: sandy, silt and clay. But most soils are
composed of a combination of three types. How they mix will determine
the texture of the soil, or, in other words, how the soil looks and feels.
You can identify the different soil types using colour. For instance, soils
containing much iron will appear red/ brown or yellow. While fertile loam
soils are dark in colour because of the amount of humus content they
carry. There are other ways you can use to determine the soil type. These
are examination of the soil profile, chemical analysis, mechanical
analysis/soil sedimentation and estimation of humus content.

Table 3.1: Soil types

Soil type Properties Challenges

Loam soil Well drained; friable; fertile; has

a good proportion of sand, clay
and silt; easy to work; forms
crumb structure

Silty soil Has fine particles larger than

clay, fairly draining

Clay soil Has very tiny particles of soil; is Can be water

compacted; has little air space logged, difficult to
and holds water for long time cultivate, requires
thus poorly drained; becomes lime to flocculate
hard like a stone in dry season

Sandy soil Has big and coarse particles, is Has less ability to
well drained and cannot hold hold water for crops
water

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Plant Nutrients
These are the chemical elements that are necessary for plant growth.
These chemical elements are divided into two major categories: the
macro nutrients and micro elements.

Macro nutrients are the chemical elements that are needed in large
quantities by plants and are necessary for plant growth. Table below lists
the major nutrients needed by plants.

Table 3.2: Examples of macro nutrients and their deficiency symptoms

Element Uses Symptoms of deficiency

Carbon (C) No growth
Hydrogen (H) No growth
Oxygen (O) No growth
Nitrogen (N) Chlorophyll formation, Stunted growth (short but aged),
vegetative growth, protein yellowing of leaves
formation
Phosphorous (P) Root formation and Poor root system, no tubers, leaves
development, quick maturity are grey or purple
Potassium (K) Formation of proteins and Browning of leaf edges
carbohydrates
Calcium (Ca) Young leaves die-back at the tips
and margins
Magnesium (Mg) Leaves curl upwards
Sulphur (S) Delay in flowering and fruiting

Micro nutrients are the chemical elements or substances required in small

or trace amounts for the normal growth and development of plants. There
are about seven nutrients essential to plant growth and health that are
only needed in very small quantities. Though these are present in only
small quantities, they are all necessary as seen below:
i) Boron is involved in carbohydrate transport in plants
ii) Chlorine plays a role in photosynthesis.
iii) Copper is a component of some enzymes.
iv) Iron is essential for chlorophyll synthesis.
v) Manganese activates some important enzymes involved in
chlorophyll formation.

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vi) Molybdenum is essential to plant health. Molybdenum is used by

plants to reduce nitrates into usable forms.
vii) Zinc participates in chlorophyll formation, and also activates many
enzymes.

Table 3.3: Example of micro nutrients and their deficiency symptoms

Element Symptoms of deficiency

Iron (Fe) Yellowing of leaves
Manganese (Mn) Leaves have spots
Zinc (Zn) Leaves are mottled or thickened; low starch and seed formation
Copper (Cu) Leaves are pale green, low nitrogen fixation
Boron (B) Growing points of shoot and root die off, poor cell division
Chlorine (Cl)
Cobalt (Co)
Molybdenum Leaf curling
(Mo)

Soil Acidity or Alkalinity and Soil pH

Soil pH is a way of expressing the acidity and alkalinity of soil. This
measure of the acidity or alkalinity of soil solution or soil water employs
the use of a pH scale. This scale measures the number of ions in a solution.
Hydrogen exists in the soil or solutions as an electrically charged particle
called hydrogen ions (H+). The positive sign shows that the ion is positively
charged. Therefore, soil pH is the measure of the concentration of
hydrogen ions in the soil.

When there are many hydrogen ions in the soil, then it is acidic. If the soil
is too acidic, some nutrients such as phosphorus will not be available. This
is very common in poorly drained soils. Therefore, only a few crops like tea
may be supported. On the other hand, soils that are too alkaline will not
have iron and potassium available to plants. Soil alkalinity or salinity is a
condition that results from the accumulation of soluble salts in soil. The
most extensive occurrences of alkaline soils are in arid regions, and in low-
lying areas where evaporation concentrates the salts received from more
elevated locations in surface water, ground water, or irrigation water.
Since low-lying areas are most easily cultivated and irrigated, they have
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the greatest agricultural value. The degree of alkalinity of a soil is

conveniently expressed in terms of pH values.

The pH scale is divided into 14 divisions or pH units numbered from 1 to

14. Soils with a pH of 7 are neutral. Soils with pH values below 7 are acid or
"sour" and soils with pH values above 7 are alkaline or "sweet". A pH of 9
is ten times more alkaline than a pH of 8 and a pH of 10 is ten times more
alkaline than a pH of 9. Thus, a soil with a pH of 10 is 100 times more
alkaline than a soil with a pH of 8.

The pH value of most soils falls in the range between 4 and 8. Most crop
plants grow and produce best on slightly acid or neutral soils. There are
exceptions, however, such as some berries which do best on strongly acid
soils. Saline conditions are caused by high concentrations of the following
ions: sodium, calcium, magnesium, chloride and carbonates. Alkali
conditions are caused primarily by a high concentration of sodium
carbonate. This reduces uptake of calcium, breakdown of the soil
structure and makes soil particles to hold plant nutrients strongly.

Activity 3.8: Determining soil pH

You will need dry samples of soil from different locations (crop
garden, anthill, freshly burnt bush area, along the road), universal
indicator, litmus paper, Munsel chart, soil test kit, water, test tubes,
measuring cylinder (25 mls or 50 mls), pipette or dropper

i) In pairs or individually, collect the dry soil sample and label it.
ii) Put about 5 mls of the dry soil particles into a test tube.
iii) Add about 10 mls of water to each test tube containing the soil
samples.
iv) Shake the mixture while covering completely the mouth of the test
tube for 5 minutes and allow it to stand for 5 minutes or 10
minutes.
v) Add 3 drops of universal indicator to the solution in the test tube;
above the settled soil particles.
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vi) Observe the colour and compare it with the standard range of
colours, matched to the pH values.
vii) What do you say about each soil sample?

Figure 3.7: Munsel Colour Chart

Fertilizers
Fertilizers are any substance used to provide plant nutrients. This is
because crops need nutrients to grow and bear fruits. Good crop yield will
require adequate supply of nutrients. Fertilizers may occur in a dry or
liquid form. The dry fertilizers are usually packed in bags or containers as
pellets or granules, while liquid fertilizers are normally materials that have
been dissolved in water at certain concentration. There are two major
forms of fertilizers namely organic (manure) and inorganic (fertilizers).

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Organic fertilizers
These are plant and animal residues which the farmer can use to maintain
soil fertility. There are four forms of organic fertilizers: compost manure,
farm yard manure, green manure and mulch.

1. Compost manure
This consists of crop residues, weeds, kitchen or household wastes and
animal remains that have been rotted and decomposed as material to
supply plant nutrients. This type of manure is normally got from decaying
household waste like food peelings, slashed grass, leaves of trees, kitchen
waste, plant or animal remains, ash from cooking stove and rubbish from
the compound. All these are put in compost pits or piles to rot. After 14
days, the heap is turned over. After another 14 days, the heap is turned
over again for 2 more rounds before it is ready for use.

Picture of compost pit Picture of stack of compost

Figure 3.8: Procedure for making compost manure

Activity 3.9: Making compost manure

a) Traditional method
You will need hoes, shovel, spade, rake, wheel burrow, panga, tape
measure and ruler.
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i) Choose a site near your crop garden for making compost.

ii) Get the materials, tools and equipment.
iii) Clear away the vegetation.
iv) Measure a 1 m x1 m area.
v) Dig two or more holes of 1 m x 1 m and 1 metre apart. Each
hole/pit should 1 m deep.
vi) Begin by putting your household wastes, dry grass, weeds,
banana peelings and wastes into the first hole.
vii) Remove big braches, plastic materials, and glass or metallic
objects.
viii) When the materials are 25 cm high, add some soil or dung/ farm
yard manure.
ix) Put another layer of material to 50 cm high then add some ash
and dung/ farm yard manure.
x) Sprinkle some water because wet things rot faster.
xi) Allow this material to rot for 2 weeks and transfer it to the second
pit. This will make the material on top to be placed at the bottom
and have even rotting.
xii) Erect a shade over your pit to prevent rain and excess heat.
xiii) After 8 weeks, the material should be ready.
xiv) Start preparing compost in March for use in May.
xv) Suggest your own method of making compost manure.

b) Innovative way of making compost manure

i) Get the materials like cow dung/ poultry droppings, green plant
materials, dry plant material and water.
ii) Clear the ground where you are going to make your compost
from.
iii) Chop the green plant materials and dry plant materials in the
ration 2:3.
iv) First put three buckets of dry plant material spread in a diameter
of 1 metre then sprinkle a bucket of water.
v) This is followed by two buckets of green plant material and one
bucket of cow dung.
vi) Repeat the above two steps 6 times to complete making a heap
and cover it.
vii) Temperature will increase to 550 - 700C.

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viii) You need to turn over the materials 8 times and every time
squeeze the material to do a moisture test. If there is low
moisture, add green plant material and if there is high moisture
content, then add dry plant material.

2. Farm yard manure

This is the straw, food remains and animal beddings mixed with urine and
faeces allowed to rot and decompose to be used as fertilizers. It is a
mixture of rotten beddings and animal wastes. It normally made by
people who keep animals and put dry grass on the floor or ground where
animals are kept. The grass materials absorb the urine and faeces. After
sometime, these animal beddings are collected with the food remains and
are put in a heap to be allowed to rot and decompose.

The composition and quality of farm yard manure) varies or depends on:
i) the type of animal kept: poultry, pigs, goats, sheep usually produce
farm yard manure which is high in nutrients than horses and cattle.
ii) the age of the animal
iii) the diet of the animal
iv) the type of bedding used
v) the time given for rotting and decomposition

3. Green manure
This is manure made by cutting or ploughing growing crops into the soil
just before flowering to provide soil nutrients. Any fast growing green
crops are used in making green manure. The most effective green manure
crops are legumes. This family of plants has nodules on their roots in
which the Rhizobia bacterium lives. These bacteria have the ability to fix
nitrogen of the air into the soil. They use nitrogen gas for their own
chemical processes but as a result convert it into nitrates. Legumes such
as cowpeas, beans, soya, peas, and groundnuts or Lablab, Sesbania,
Mucuna and Caliandria are mostly used.

4. Plant mulch
This is the dry plant material or dry grass applied to the surface of the soil
which is then allowed to rot and decompose to provide nutrients.

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Biological Tea as an innovative way to supply plant

nutrients
This is where plant material is prepared into a solution so that you can
extract nutrients from it. The extracted liquid is applied to growing crops.
There are two kinds of plant material used to make biological tea namely
compost and animal manure.
Preparing biological tea
i) Get a drum, bag/sack, wood ash, sticks and vegetative/plant
material.
ii) Put the wood ash and plant material into the bag. The bag should
be half full.
iii) Put the stick through the bag near the mouth or tie it with ropes.
iv) Place the drum under a shade to protect it from sunshine and rain.
v) Hang the bag in the drum filled with water to three quarter volume.
vi) Allow the bag to hang in the drum for 3 or 4 weeks.
vii) Remove the bag from the drum.
viii) The remaining liquid is liquid plant tea.

The process of making manure tea is the same as above only that you use
animal manure instead of plant material.

Figure 3.9: Picture of a drum with a bag hanged in with cross bar

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Inorganic fertilizer
These are chemical or rock material specifically prepared and
manufactured for agricultural use. Their compositions are known and are
used in small quantities to provide plant nutrients. Inorganic fertilizer
refers to manmade or chemical fertilizers or soil amendments. Soil rarely
contains all the nutrients needed to support optimal plant growth. That
means that organic or inorganic fertilizers must be added to improve soil
quality. Inorganic fertilizers are quick-release formulas that make the
necessary nutrients almost instantly available to the plants. Inorganic
fertilizers enrich the soil with specific nutrients which may be lacking.
There are two ways of categorizing the inorganic fertilizers as shown
below:

i) Straight fertilizers
These contain only one nutrient element. For example, nitrogen (N),
phosphate (P) or potassium (K) and sulphate (S). These can include urea
(46-0-0), ammonium nitrate (34-0-0), calcium ammonium nitrate - (CAN),
single super phosphate - (SSP), etc. Rock phosphate is an inorganic
fertilizer type that provides phosphorus to the soil. Sodium nitrates are
also referred to as ciliates or Chilean nitrate. These fertilizers contain
amounts of nitrogen of up to 16 percent. They make nitrogen, the most
important component in plant growth, immediately available to plants.
Sodium nitrates are considered a valuable source of nitrogen and are
commonly added to the soil as a top and side dressing, especially when
fertilising younger plants and garden vegetables. Sodium nitrate fertilizers
are especially useful in acidic soils.

ii) Compound fertilizers

These contain at least two or more fertilizing agents or nutrient elements.
For example, DAP, NPK - 25:5:5. Sulphate of potash is the inorganic
fertilizer which supplies the third-most needed nutrient, potassium, to the
soil. Those who sell fertilizers must be able to tell you the amount of each
nutrient in the fertilizer. For example, single superphosphate contains 20
percent P2O5 and about 11.9 percent S. Then buy the right fertilizer to give
you the nutrients needed. Calculate the amount of fertilizer to give the
amount of nutrient.

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While NPK - 10:10:20 means that this fertilizer contains 10 kg of nitrogen

(N), 10 kg of phosphorous (P) and 20 kg of potassium per 100 kg bag or for
every 100 kg. Therefore, a bag of 50 kg will have 5 of nitrogen, 5 of
phosphate and 10 of potassium. While with 2:1:1 (24) this number in
brackets indicates that 24 percent of the material in the bag is the fertilizer
elements and 76 percent is the carrier material. So you can compute the
amount of in 50 kg bag as 24%. This will be only 12 kg of the fertilizer
elements. Hence 2/4 x 12 = 6 kg is nitrogen, ¼ x 12 = 3 kg of phosphate and
¼ x 12 = 3 kg of potassium.

Methods of applying fertilizers

Fertilizers must be placed where the plants can get it in the soil. Proper
placement means that the fertilizer is close enough for roots to get it but
not so close to damage the plant roots or leaves. Fertilizers should
therefore be applied during the following times:

i) Pre planting/before planting (broadcasting - scattered on the soil

surface)
ii) At planting (drill-put in the planting hole, band-put in rows along
the holes)
iii) Post planting (applied when the plant is growing through top or
side dressing – placed 15 cm from the root area of the plant; ring
placement – fertilizer is applied in a ring around the plant; spraying
on the soil surface or leaves of the growing plants (in case of
copper or zinc deficiency).

The methods of applying fertilizers include:

a) Broadcasting: This is where the fertilizer material is scattered or
spread all over the garden or soil surface. This can be done before or
during planting.
b) Ring method: This is where the fertilizer material is applied in circle of
radius 60-90 cm around the plant.
c) Drill method: This is where the fertilizer material is applied in the
planting hole before the planting material has been put.
d) Spraying: This is where the fertilizer material is made into a solution
and applied in form of sprays on the plant or garden.
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e) Top dressing: This is where the fertilizer material is applied over the
ground where the crop is growing. Here it is expected that rainfall or
dew will dissolve the fertilizer material and it will get soaked into the
soil.
f) Side dressing: This is where the fertilizer material is applied along the
sides of the rows of growing crops. This is about 15-30 cm away from
the root zone.

Factors to consider when applying fertilizers

i) The nutrients which are deficient or missing in the soil and the
degree of deficiency. It is important to find out which nutrients
are missing in the soil before applying any fertilizer. This will help
you determine the kind of nutrients requires and thus the fertilizer
to be used.

ii) Methods of application: Phosphorous is most effective when

drilled with or near the seeds since it takes time to dissolve.
Placing a band of phosphate fertilizer near developing roots of
annual crops is the most effective way.
Phosphates should not be broadcast in pastures or forages as it
will delay response owing to its slow movement into the root
zones. Nitrogen fertilizers can be broadcasted as they quickly
dissolve in water and move readily in moist soil. They can,
however, be leached to deeper layers where they will not be
available to crops. So placement with or very near the seed is not
necessary. Therefore, apply nitrogen fertilizers by broadcast, side
band, top dressing or row.
iii) The estimated response of the crop to a given level of fertilizer
application. Different crops respond differently to the same
amount of fertilizer. The most accurate way to determine crop
response is by a soil test. Note that the presence of weeds in the
garden and late planting will lower the crop response to fertilizers
and the yield potential of the crop. The weeds will compete for the
fertilizer that is applied. Crops with high yield potential generally
respond better to higher nitrogen fertilizer application.

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The assessment of economic returns from the use of fertilizer.

In some instances, the cost of the fertilizer cannot be recovered
from the profit gained by the sale of the crop products. So it does
not make sense to apply the fertilizers. For example, crops grown
in an area which has been under fallow will often require little or
no additional nitrogen. On the other hand, non-legume crops can
give profitable returns if you apply 250 kg of nitrogen fertilizers per
acre. This is because there are three main sources of nitrogen to
non-legume crops namely: that stored in the soil particles; that
released from soil organic matter or crop residues and manure;
through application of nitrogen fertilizers.
Type of fertilizer. Plants need a large amount of the major
nutrients and very small amount of trace elements. Therefore,
chemical analysis of the soil will tell you whether there is too much
or too little nutrients. This information will help to tell you the type
of fertilizer to apply. Very often the soil cannot provide enough
nutrients as plants are harvested and carried away with plenty of
nutrients. When this happens, then nutrients must be provided by
buying and applying the right type of fertilizers. Buy the right
fertilizer to give the nutrient needed or lacking in the soil.
iv) Amount of fertilizer. Those who sell or use fertilizers must be able
to tell you the amount of each nutrient found in a given fertilizer.
For example, single super phosphate (SSP) contains 20 % P2O5.
while triple super phosphate contains 43% P2O5. So you will need
twice as much single super phosphate (SSP) as you can get from a
given amount of triple super phosphate to give the same quantity
of P2O5. Further you will need 65 gm of SSP per plant.

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Figure 3.10: Bag of Fertilizers with its analysis

Safety, health and environmental protection

measures when handling fertilizers
There are many set out guidelines on the safe handling of fertilizers on the
farm. Among them include the following:
i) Ensure personal safety when handling fertilizer products.
ii) Ensure good housekeeping practices for indoor and outdoor
storage.
iii) The need for security when storing fertilizers as follows:
- Do not store fertilizers where there is public access.
- Do not leave fertilizers or unused fertilizer in the field/garden
overnight.
- Do not store fertilizers near or visible to the children and public
roads or highways.
- Do not buy ammonium nitrate fertilizer without the proper
certificate. It is an offence.
- Purchase fertilizer from approved suppliers and outlets.
- Retain and file in your records all fertilizer delivery notes or
purchase receipts.
- Store all your agrochemicals including fertilizers under key and
lock building.

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- Make regular checks on stocks.

- Report any stock discrepancy or loss of fertilizer material to the
police.
iv) Knowledge of how to minimize environmental impact during
storage and use.
v) The importance of following instructions, reading of product
labels and manufacturers safety information.
vi) The proper care required along the whole fertilizer value chain
right from product development, purchase and handling of raw
materials, the process of manufacturing, packaging, storage and
transportation right up to the end delivery, application, use and
disposal of unwanted materials on the farm.
vii) Wear protective gear including gloves, gumboots, mouth and
nose.
viii) Wash thoroughly your body after handling fertilizer.
ix) Clean the applicators and other equipment.

Activity3.10: Identifying inorganic fertilizers

Individually or in pairs, you should identify inorganic fertilizers

You are provided with sample of fertilizers A, B and C. Study them carefully
when wearing protective gears and answer the questions that follow.

1. List down three observable characteristics of fertilizers.

Fertilizer A Fertilizer B Fertilizer C

2. What are the four characteristics of a good fertilizer?

3. Enumerate five advantages and disadvantages of artificial
fertilizers.

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4. Extended work in groups: “Carry out integrated soil fertility

management and demonstrate how it caters for environmental
protection”.

Activity of Integration
Context
The Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries developed the
Kumi Wetlands Fish Farming Project which was seeking to promote the
conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands and wetland
resources in Kumi District. The Ministry encouraged improvement of
nutritional intake and widening the income base of the rural communities.
The major activities include developing training on soil for fish pond
construction and management. But the soils used to construct ponds in
wetlands are not firm and they allow water to seep across the pond banks
and through the bottom. Therefore, the lime applied is continuously lost
through seepage and more lime is continuously required to keep the acid
levels low.

Supports

Task
Make a presentation to members of one community in Kumi about how
they should go about pond construction in the wetland available to them
so that they can start reaping from fish farming.

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CHAPTER FOUR
Vegetable Growing

Key Words By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Seedbed • identify a range of vegetables grown locally and
• Nursery understand their value in both nutritional and
• Harden off financial terms.
• Mulching • appreciate how to select an appropriate
• Transplanting vegetable for growing locally.
• Seedlings • establish a nursery; apply good practice of
• Thinning vegetable growing.
• Weeding • demonstrate skills in preparing pesticides and
• Pest plant derivatives.
• Pathogens • handle vegetables during and after harvest in
• Pricking out order to maintain quality.
• Staking • market vegetables effectively.
• Pruning • follow food safety guidelines for harvested fresh
• Nutrient vegetables.
• Derivatives
• Soil media

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Competency: You should be able to select a suitable vegetable for a

locality and carry out all the processes required in order to grow and
market the vegetable.

Introduction
In Uganda, most people grow crops such as vegetables, fruits, grains and
root crops for food and the market. Producing crops when, where and
how we want them requires a lot of skill. We need to know how they grow
and what makes them grow better if we are to get good yields. The most
important requirements are good variety, good soil management and
proper agronomic practices.

Growing vegetables using appropriate methods and tools can lead to

sustainable community welfare. Vegetables are crops that take a short
period to grow and can be grown in various climatic conditions. They can
be classified into root, leafy, fruit, flower and bulb vegetables depending
mainly on the parts eaten. Vegetables are eaten as part of a balanced diet.

Value of Vegetables
A vegetable is an edible part of a plant rich in vitamins and minerals.
Some vegetables grow on their own while others are grown by people in
their homes. Even those growing on their own can be planted to ensure a
regular supply in large quantities.

Activity 4.1 Vegetables and their value in my community

1. In groups, answer the following questions:

i) What vegetables are found in your community?
ii) Which parts of these vegetables are commonly eaten?
iii) Vegetables are grouped as shown in Table 3.1. Copy the table into
your exercise books and fill in the blank columns.

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Table 3.1: Categories of Vegetables

Group Names of the Other examples in my
Example community

Leafy

Fruit

Root

Bulb

Legumes

Flower

iv) Why are vegetables important in your diet?

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2. Think-pair-share, to identify the common vegetables in your locality;

discuss the value of vegetables in the diet; and as a commodity,
present conclusions using drawings and/or a written report.

Activity 4.2: Selecting a vegetable to grow

It is important to carefully select the vegetable to grow since you cannot

grow all kinds of vegetables at once. How do you select the vegetable to
grow? Your choice may depend on whether you are growing vegetables for
food or for sell. Vegetables from home gardens can be eaten or sold in the
market. By selling vegetables, you can earn money. Before you choose
which vegetable you are going to grow, you need to find out the ones that
are grown locally and most preferred in the area.

1. As a class, discuss and write the questions that will guide you to
find out the locally available vegetables in your community.
2. In groups, go out in your community and find out the locally
available vegetables using the questions (a survey tool) you made.

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Sheila’s Market Survey

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Definition of a market and a market survey

Activity 3.2: Vegetables grown in the community

1. As a class, design a survey tool to use in collecting data on

vegetable growing in the locality.
2. In groups, develop and conduct a survey; visit the local market or
farmers to see the vegetables available; hold interviews with
appropriate groups of people to find out why they are growing or
selling those particular vegetables; collect data on vegetables so as
to select one for growing. Prepare a presentation of your findings.

Establishing a Nursery Bed

Vegetables are planted in different ways. Some are first planted in a
nursery bed and others are sown directly in the garden. A vegetable
nursery is a place for raising young vegetable seedlings until they are
ready for more permanent planting. Making a vegetable nursery bed, like
any other activity, involves spending money. Therefore, it is important to
monitor the expenses in making your nursery bed. The things normally
budgeted for include, tools, labour and construction materials. The
following are the reasons for growing vegetables in a nursery bed:
i) To be able to look after the ‘young’ seedlings with care
ii) To provide favourable germination and growth conditions
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iii) To easily control weeds, pests and diseases

iv) To have a uniform vegetable crop
v) To have a good start for higher yields
vi) To have a shorter growing season
vii) To accurately predict the harvest date.

Activity 4.3: How to establish a vegetable nursery bed

You will need; soil, garden tools, notebook, pen, protective gear
1. As a class, develop and document a budget for constructing a nursery
bed, buying materials, establishing a nursery bed and raising
vegetable seedlings
2. In groups, select one vegetable of your choice and establish a fixed or
portable nursery following the given practices:
i) Selecting the type of nursery to use
ii) Selecting a site for a nursery bed
iii) Budgeting for materials for making the nursery
iv) Preparing a good soil for the nursery bed
v) Sterilizing soil for the nursery seedbed
vi) Levelling the soil and making furrows
vii) Sowing seeds in a seedbed
viii) Constructing a nursery bed
ix) Pricking out
x) Weeding
xi) Applying fertilizers (organic and inorganic)
xii) Pest control
xiii) Controlling disease s
xiv) Hardening off

Growing Vegetables in the Garden

When vegetable seedlings are ready for transplanting, they are taken to
the main garden. This will involve planting, proper spacing, fertilizer
addition as well as pest and disease control. Pesticides are substances
that are used to control insects and disease-causing organisms that
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damage vegetables. Unfortunately, many farmers cannot afford them. As

a result, some farmers have found organic pesticides from native and
exotic plants which are suitable for small holder use. Pesticides that
naturally control caterpillars include neem oil and bacterial sprays. Neem
tree seeds are naturally insecticidal, and proprietary neem-based
pesticides are formulated using extracts from the seeds. Bacterial sprays
contain bacteria that attack the pest but aren't harmful to humans.
Some of these plants are just grown side by side with the crops. They
usually send off a bad smell to drive away the insects or disease causing
organisms.

Activity 4.4: Managing vegetables in the garden

You will need; garden, garden tools, pesticides and a market

1. In groups, draw a vegetable business model as below. Complete it with
informations required as you provide answers to the 9 questions in the
model.

Table 3.2: Business Model Canvas for Vegetables

2. In groups, grow, care for and manage vegetables through to maturity.

3. In groups as a project, prepare bio pesticides and plant derivatives
from locally available materials like tephrosia, Black Jack, neem tree,

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tick berry leaves, hot pepper/chili, pawpaw leaves and seeds and
research the uses of each. Apply as appropriate to growing vegetables.

Watering
Seedlings in a nursery bed need water. Water is important because it helps
in dissolving nutrients in the soil.

Pricking out
When your seedlings have germinated find out if they are overcrowded.
Some seedlings will need to be removed from the seedbed to another one.
This will avoid overcrowding and will create spaces for the seedlings to
grow well. The removed seedlings can be replanted in anew seedbed, fed
to livestock or used to make compost manure. The process of separating
and removing seedlings in the nursery bed is called pricking out. Pricking
out is best done when seedlings and their roots are still small.

Weeding
Many times you find unwanted plants in your nursery bed. These
unwanted planted are called weeds. Removing weeds and the soil around
young seedlings is important. If weeds are not removed and controlled,
they will compete with the seedlings for nutrients, water, and growing
space. Weeds also can bring disease causing organisms and pests. So keep
checking your seedlings to see if weeding is required.

Controlling Pests in Vegetables

Vegetables are attacked by different pests, which can be in form of insects,
birds, snails or animals. Pests will spoil your vegetables if you do not keep
them away. Keeping pests away from your crops is called pest control.

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Figure 3.2: Caterpillars on some vegetable leaves

The most common vegetable pests are the caterpillars, which can do great
damage particularly to cabbage, pumpkins, kale, collards, broccoli, and
cauliflower. It is important to remove and destroy all caterpillars and their
eggs from your vegetable plants. Caterpillars are the larval stage of
butterflies and moths. After mating, butterflies and moths lay eggs on
their host plant, often on the underside of the leaves. If you check your
plants on a daily basis, you can often spot a caterpillar or pest infestation
before it gets out of control.

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Remove all the visible caterpillars or pests, and either squash or drop them into
a bucket with soapy water. Crush all the eggs or pick off the whole leaf with the
insect eggs and destroy it. Repeat the process on a daily basis.

Controlling Diseases in a Nursery Bed

Figure 3.3: Diseased tomato fruit and leaves

Vegetables diseases make the vegetables to curl, dry up or start to rot. Probably you
might have seen these signs on vegetables before. These are the symptoms of diseases
that attack vegetables. The diseases are caused by organisms called pathogens.
Examples of pathogens include bacteria, fungi, viruses and nematodes. These
pathogens make your vegetables to rot, wilt, get deformed or die. This sometimes
leads to total loss of the crop.

Control measures of pests and disease in vegetables

You can control pests and diseases using the following methods:
Table 3.3: Examples of the control measures
Method of control Description Examples
Cultural Using ordinary agronomic Crop rotation, early planting,
practices to prevent pests disease free planting
and diseases materials, quarantine, field
hygiene
Mechanical Using equipment, tools and Net, hand hoe
machines to control pests
and diseases
Biological Using other living plants and Tagetes minuta, Ladybird
animals to control pests beetle, wasps

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Method of control Description Examples

Chemical Using chemicals or Fungicides, pesticides
manufactured inorganic
materials to control pests
Plant derived pesticides or Using a collection of Red pepper, tobacco, wood
Organic pesticides materials extracted from ash, Tithonia spp, Botanical
plants or animals to control tea
pests

Pesticides
Pesticides are substances that are used to control insects and disease causing
organisms that damage vegetables. Many pesticides are poisonous to humans.
Therefore, all the safety measures given by the manufacturer must be followed
strictly when using them. Several plants have substances in their leaves, roots,
wood or fruits and seeds that can be used to protect crops from being
destroyed by pests. Pesticides that naturally control caterpillars include neem
oil and sprays. Neem tree seeds are naturally insecticidal, and neem-based
pesticides are formulated using extracts from the seeds. Many neem products
are concentrates, which you must dilute before using. We can make pesticides
from these plants. These are also called plant derived pesticides.
Bacterial sprays contain bacteria that attack the pest but are not harmful to
human beings.

Harvest Handling in Vegetables

Harvesting is the process of gathering ripe crops. When vegetables mature, they
are picked from the garden. Before you harvesting, you need to prepare by
lining up sufficient labour, supplies (containers and packaging items), cleaning
the grading/ packing shed, and determining if all equipment is operable. Any
delay in harvesting after the vegetables have shown signs of maturity can result
into loss in quality and nutritive value.

Post-Harvest Handling
Post-harvest handling includes all steps involved in moving a commodity from
the producer to the consumer including harvesting, handling, cooling, curing,
ripening, packaging, storing, shipping, wholesaling, retailing, and any other
procedure that the product is subjected to. Because vegetables can change

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hands so many times along the value chain, a high level of management is
necessary to ensure that quality is maintained.

Figure 3.4: Mature tomatoes ready for harvest

Activity 4.5: Harvesting of vegetables

1. In pairs, identify how different vegetables appear when they are ready
for harvest.
2. In groups, explain the harvesting procedure you will use on the
vegetable you are growing.

Marketing of Vegetables
Have you ever gone out to buy vegetables and did not find any? What did you
do? You had little choice. It could have been possible that you had your meals
without vegetables. Although the reason for vegetable shortage may not be
obvious, several things could have happened. The following are some of the
reasons for vegetable shortage: transporting the vegetables to the right place,
in the right form and at the right time; marketing. Marketing is the process of
getting goods and services that consumers want in the forms they want them. It
links the farmers with the people who use the farm products and services.

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Figure 3.5: A vegetable stall in the market

Activity 4.6: Finding out about the vegetable market

1. In pairs, discuss the possible reasons why you may not find vegetables to
buy when you need them. Suggest things you can do to have vegetables
whenever you need them.
2. In groups, develop and apply a marketing strategy for your vegetables.
3. In pairs, brainstorm and research on the food safety guidelines for
harvested fresh vegetables. Design a set of criteria to explain the guidelines
to the community.

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Delivering Vegetables to the Market

Once the right decisions are made, the farmer will proceed to deliver the
vegetables to the consumers.

Figure 3.6: Vegetable stall on the roadside shade

Activity 4.7

In groups:
i) Study the picture above and identify the different vegetables being sold.
ii) Suggest materials where vegetables are kept before sale.

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iii) Assuming you were among the vendors, how different could you
increase the life of vegetables in your stall?
iv) Present your work for a gallery walk by the class.

Packaging of Vegetables
Good postharvest handling should be accompanied with good cold chain
management in keeping your vegetables fresh and wholesome. Temperature
control is particularly important in governing the postharvest quality of fresh
vegetables.
But what do you see in the vegetable value chain. There is poor handling and
improper packaging which often generates up to 30% wastage. This wastage
leads to a substantial loss of valuable food resources and is a threat to the
farmers’ income and Uganda’s food security. What should be done?

We should improve on the way the vegetables are handled by, among others,
improving on their packaging. Vegetables should be packed in baskets, sacks,
gunny bags, plastic buckets, 3-Ply or 5-Ply wooden boxes with ventilation
holes. The capacity of the boxes should vary from 5 kilograms to 10 kilograms.
Packing in sacks, as it is being done in your community today, makes it difficult
to tell the weight of the sack.

Activity 4.8: Packaging of vegetables

In groups:
i) Draw a packing flow activity chart for vegetables. Display it in the class
ii) Design a package for your vegetable.
iii) What will it contain to be able to attract the attention of buyers?
iv) Suggest how you could attract more people to know and buy your
vegetable and present it to the class.
v) From the work of others, what do you learn that you have included or
not included and why?

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Activity of Integration
Context

In your community, it is reported that army worms (black caterpillars) have

attacked and are destroying farmers’ crops. The army worm eats all green parts
of the vegetable and other plants. You want to help your community that is
growing vegetables to face this problem and find solutions.

Support

Figure 3.9: Mulched vegetable gardens

Task
• Prepare a presentation you will use to inform the vegetable farmers on
how to supply safe and healthy vegetables to the market after
controlling weeds, pests and pathogens.

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Annex 1: Common vegetables in Uganda

Scientific Name Common Name Part Used

VEGETABLES
Amaranthus dubius Amaranthus spinach Leaves
Phaseolus lunatus Lima beans Seed
Phaseolus vulgaris French beans Leaves and seed
Vigna unguiculata Cow peas Leaves, seeds
Gynandropsis gynandra African spinderherb Leaves
Lagenovia siceraria Calabash gourd Leaves
Solanum nigrum Katunkuma Leaves
Cucurbita maxima Pumpkin Leaves and fruit
Zingiiber officinalis Ginger Stem
Capsisum frutescens Chillis Fruit
Solanum indicum Bitter berries Fruit
Colocasia schimperi Cocoyam Leaves
Oxytenanthera abyssinica Bamboo shoots Stem
Amaranthus lividus Ebugga Leaves
Gynandropsis (Cloeme) gynandra Ejjobyo Leaves
Solanum indicum Katukuma Fruits
Solanum gilo Entula Fruits
Solanum aethiopicum Nakati Leaves

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Annex 2: Business Model Canvas

Partners Activities to be Kind of The kind of Who are
done vegetable or its relations you will different
product needed have with customers you
in the market customers can sell to?
Materials and How best you
external make the
resources customers
needed get/sell your
vegetable as and
when they need
How much money is ivolved What amounts of money will your vegetable garden
in growing and managing a bring?
vegetable?

Context
Balances are commonplace in markets. They are used to weigh fruit and
vegetables from as little as 100 g to more than 5 kilos. They are of many types.
Some use weights and others a pan.
A customer looks at the position on which the balance is put. He is wondering
what is going on in this vegetable market. Is the balance accurate? Are they
being used accurately by the sellers?

Support

Task

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How would you promote the vegetable market standard in this community?
Write a message for sellers to convince buyers that use of balances is the way to
go.

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Glossary
Agriculture is the growing of crops and rearing of animals to produce food,
fibre and fuel for human beings
Botanical name is the scientific name indicating both the genus name and
species name
Combustion means burning
Cotyledons are the structures found inside a seed which stores food for the
young embryo
Embryo is the very young, new organism which has developed from a zygote
Fertile is the land which is able to produce good crops
Prepare is getting ready
Planning is making an outline of what you want to do
Nutrients is the plant food in the growing medium like soil or water
Soil is the natural material on the earth surface in which plants grow
Weeds are unwanted plants growing in a garden

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 National Curriculum
Development Centre,
P.O. Box 7002, Kampala.
www.ncdc.go.ug