Carnatic music terminology

Śruti

Śruti is musical pitch. It is considered equivalent to tonic of western

music. This is the pitch at which the drone is set, which is usually
played by a tambura.

Śruti types

Canonically there are 22 śruti in the octave although systems with

more or fewer śruti have been proposed. Here they are given in
terms of just intonation, although many authors assume schismatic
temperament implicitly.

There are infinite ratios, and therefore kinds of śrutis, in Indian

music as there is full freedom; yet the classical values described are

 Chatuh śruti : 9/8

 Tri śruti : 10/9
 Dwi śruti : 16/15
 Single or Mono śruti : 81/80 which is called pramana śruti.

Furthermore, there are Antar-śruti which give distances within one

śruti and show how distances were formed:

1. 2:1 is taken as distance between same Swar śruti Sa to Sa, Re

to Re Ga to Ga & likewise. this was placed on "4th śruti"
2. 3:2 is distance between Sa & Pa that is ist tone & 5th tone. this
was placed on "17th śruti"
3. 4:3 is taken as distance between Sa & Ma Shuddha this was
placed on "13th śruti"
4. 5:4 is taken as distance between Sa & Ga Shuddha this was
placed on "9th śruti"
5. 6:5 is taken as distance between Sa & Ga Komal which was
called teevra in old ages as moving Ga towards Re makes Re
Suddha
Swaram

Swaram or Swara is a single note. Each swaram defines the position

of note in relation to the Śruti.

The seven notes of the scale (swaras), in Indian music are named
shadja, rishabh, gandhar, madhyam, pancham, dhaivat and nishad,
usually shortened to Sa, Ri (Carnatic) or Re (Hindustani), Ga, Ma, Pa,
Dha, and Ni and written S, R, G, M, P, D, N. Collectively these notes
are known as the sargam (the word is an acronym of the consonants
of the first four swaras). Sargam is the Indian equivalent to solfege,
a technique for the teaching of sight-singing. Sargam is practiced
against a drone. The tone Sa is not associated with any particular
pitch. As in Western moveable-Do solfege, Sa refers to the tonic of a
piece or scale rather than to any particular pitch.

Notation

A dot above a letter indicates that the note is sung one octave
higher, and a dot below indicates one octave lower. Or, if a note with
the same name-Sa, for example-is an octave higher than the note
represented by S, an apostrophe is placed to the right: S'. If it is an
octave lower, the apostrophe is placed to the left: 'S. Apostrophes
can be added as necessary to indicate the octave: for example, ``g
would be the note komal Ga in the octave two octaves below that
which begins on the note S (that is, two octaves below g).

The basic mode of reference is that which is equivalent to the

Western Ionian mode or major scale (called Bilawal thaat in
Hindustani music). All relationships between pitches follow from
this. In any seven-tone mode (starting with S), R, G, D, and N can be
natural (shuddha, lit. 'pure') or flat (komal, 'soft') but never sharp,
and the M can be natural or sharp (tivra) but never flat, making
twelve notes as in the Western chromatic scale. If a swara is not
natural (shuddha), a line below a letter indicates that it is flat
(komal) and an acute accent above indicates that it is sharp (tivra or
tivar). R, G, D, and N may be either shuddha or komal; M may be
either shuddha or tivra. Sa and Pa are immovable (once Sa is
selected), forming a just perfect fifth.

In some notation systems, the distinction is made with capital and

lowercase letters. When abbreviating these tones, the form of the
note which is relatively lower in pitch always uses a lowercase
letter, while the form which is higher in pitch uses an uppercase
letter. So komal Re/Ri uses the letter r and shuddha Re/Ri, the
letter R, but shuddha Ma uses m because it has a raised form-tivra
Ma-which uses the letter M. Sa and Pa are always abbreviated as S
and P, respectively, since they cannot be altered.

The chart below assumes Sa to be at C.

Abbreviated Abbreviated
Full form Full form
form form Western
(Carnatic) (Hindustani)
(Carnatic) (Hindustani)

Shadjam Sa Shadj Sa C

Shuddha Shuddha
Shuddha Ma Ma F
Madhyama Madhyama

Prati Tivra
Prati Ma M'a F#
Madhyama Madhyama

Panchama Pa Panchama Pa G

Swaras in Carnatic music

The swaras in Carnatic music are slightly different in the 12 note

system. There are 3 types each of Rishabha, Gandhara, Dhaivatha
and Nishadha. There are 2 types of Madhyama, while Panchama and
Shadja are invariant.

Position Swara Short name Notation Mnemonic

1 Shadja Sa S sa

2 Shuddha Rishabha Ri R1 ra

3 Chathusruthi Rishabha Ri R2 ri

3 Shuddha Gandhara Ga G1 ga

4 Shatsruthi Rishabha Ri R3 ru
4 Sadharana Gandhara Ga G2 gi

5 Anthara Gandhara Ga G3 gu

6 Shuddha Madhyama Ma M1 ma

7 Prati Madhyama Ma M2 mi

8 Panchama Pa P pa

9 Shuddha Dhaivatha Dha D1 dha

10 Chathusruthi Dhaivatha Dha D2 dhi

10 Shuddha Nishadha Ni N1 na

11 Shatsruthi Dhaivatha Dha D3 dhu

11 Kaisiki Nishadha Ni N2 ni

12 Kakali Nishadha Ni N3 nu

As you can see above, Chathusruthi Rishabha and Shuddha

Gandhara share the same pitch (3rd key/ position). Hence if C is
chosen as Shadja, D would be both Chathusruthi Rishabha and
Shuddha Gandhara. Hence they will not occur in same raga together.
Similarly for two swaras each at notes 4, 10 and 11.

What the Swaras Mean

Each shuddha swara (i.e., Sa, Re/Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha/Da, and Ni) is
traditionally held to have originated in the sound of a different
animal, and some have additional meanings of their own. Also, each
swara is associated with one of the seven chakras of the body. Just
as the swaras ascend through the saptak, so they are mapped onto
the chakras in the body in ascending order. Komal notes are
associated with the left side of each chakra; the left channel, Ida
Nadi, is the side of emotion and intuition. Shuddha and tivra notes
are associated with the right side; the right channel, Pingala Nadi, is
the side of logic. Ragas, therefore, have more or less of an effect on
a given chakra depending on the notes they contain.
Swar Expansio
Meaning Animal Chakra God
a n

mūlādhāra
Shadja
Sa Sagar peacock मल
ू ाधार Brahman
(ष जं)
(anus)

svādhiṣṭhā
Rishabha
Re bull bull/skylark na वािध ान Agni
(िरषभं)
(genitals)

maṇipūra
मिणपरू
Gandhar Rudra
Ga Gagan goat (solar
a (गा धारं ) (Shiva)
plexus and
stomach)

anāhata
Madhya
अनाहत
Ma ma middle dove/heron Vishnu
(म यमं) (heart and
lungs)

viśuddha
Pancham cuckoo/nighting
Pa fifth िवशुद्ध Naarada
a (पंचमं) ale
(throat)

Dhaivata ājñā आज्ञा

Dha Dharti horse Ganesha
(धैवतं) (third eye)

sahasrāra
Nishada outcast/hunt सह ार Surya(Su
Ni elephant
(िनषादं ) er (crown of n)
the head)

In certain forms of Indian classical music and qawwali, when a rapid

16th note sequence of the same note is sung, different syllables may
be used in a certain sequence to make the whole easier to
pronounce. For example, instead of "sa-sa-sa-sa-sa-sa-sa-sa" said
very quickly, it might be "sa-da-da-li-sa-da-da-li" which lends itself
more to a quick and light tongue movement.

Rāgam

A rāgam prescribes a set of rules for building a melody - very similar

to the Western concept of mode. Different combination of swarams
and swaram phrases form different rāgams.

Rāga (Sanskrit, lit. "colour" or "mood"; or rāgam in Carnatic music)

refers to melodic modes used in Indian classical music. It is a series
of five or more musical notes upon which a melody is made. In the
Indian musical tradition, rāgas are associated with different times of
the day, or with seasons. Indian classical music is always set in a
rāga. Non-classical music such as popular Indian film songs or
ghazals sometimes use rāgas in their compositions.

Nature of Rāga

योऽसौ विनिवशेष तु वरवणर्िवभिू षतः ।

र जको जनिच ानां स च राग उदा तः ।।

"That which is a special dhwani, is bedecked with swara

(notes) and varna and is colorful or delightful to the minds of
the people, is said to be rāga" - Matanga in the Brihaddeshi.

The basic mode of reference in modern Hindustani practice (known

commonly as the shuddha - basic - form) is a set which is equivalent
to the Western Ionian mode — this is called Bilawal thaat in
Hindustani music (the Carnatic analog would be Sankarabharanam).
In both systems, the ground (or tonic), Shadja, Sa, and a pure fifth
above, Pancham, Pa, are fixed and essentially sacrosanct tones. In
the Hindustani system, in a given seven-tone mode, the second,
third, sixth, and seventh notes can be natural (shuddha, lit. 'pure')
or flat (komal, 'soft') but never sharp, and the fourth note can be
natural or sharp (tivra) but never flat, making up the twelve notes in
the Western equal tempered chromatic scale (Western enharmonic
pitch equivalences like, for example, A♯ and B♭ do not apply; e.g. Re
tivra may, to a Western musician appear enharmonic to Ga shuddha
in that system, but in practice is not.) A Western-style C scale could
therefore theoretically have the notes C, D♭, D, E♭, E, F, F♯, G, A♭, A,
B♭, B.

The Carnatic system has three versions — a lower, medium, and

higher form — of all the notes except Sa, Ma and Pa. Ma has two
versions (lower and higher), while Sa and Pa are invariant. Rāgas
can also specify microtonal changes to this scale: a flatter second, a
sharper seventh, and so forth. Tradition has it that the octave
consists of (a division into) 22 microtones ("śrutis"). Furthermore,
individual performers treat pitches quite differently, and the precise
intonation of a given note depends on melodic context. There is no
absolute pitch (such as the modern western standard A = 440 Hz);
instead, each performance simply picks a ground note, which also
serves as the drone, and the other scale degrees follow relative to
the ground note. The Carnatic system embarks from a much different
shuddha (fundamental) scalar formation, that is, shuddha here is
the lowest-pitched swara.

By comparison, using the common tonic "C" for a western musician:

Carnatic Hindustani Western E.T.

Sa Sa "C"

Shuddha Ri "Ri 1" Komal Re "D♭"

Chatusruti Ri "Ri 2" Shuddha Re "D"

Shatsruti Ri "Ri 3" (Komal Ga) "D♯"

Shuddha Ga "Ga 1" (Shuddha Re) "D"

Sadharana Ga "Ga 2" Komal Ga "E♭"

Antara Ga "Ga 3" Shuddha Ga "E"

Shuddha Ma "Ma 1" Shuddha Ma "F"

Prati Ma "Ma 2" Teevra Ma "F♯"

Pa Pa "G"

Shuddha Dha "Dha 1" Komal Dha "A♭"

Chatusruti Dha "Dha 2" Shuddha Dha "A"

Shatsruti Dha "Dha 3" (Komal Ni) "A♯"

Shuddha Ni "Ni 1" (Shuddha Dha) "A"

Kaisika Ni "Ni 2" Komal Ni "B♭"

Kakali Ni "Ni 3" Shuddha Ni "B"

Rāgas and their seasons

Many Hindustani (North Indian) rāgas are prescribed a time of day

or a season. When performed at the suggested time, the rāga has its
maximum effect. During the monsoon, for example, many of the
Malhar group of rāgas, which are associated with the monsoon and
ascribed the magical power to bring rain, are performed. However,
these prescriptions are not strictly followed, especially since modern
concerts are generally held in the evening. There has also been a
growing tendency over the last century for North Indian musicians
to adopt South Indian rāgas, which do not come with any particular
time associated with them. The result of these various influences is
that there is increasing flexibility as to when rāgas may be
performed.

Notations

Although notes are an important part of rāga practice, they alone do

not make the rāga. A rāga is more than a scale. Many rāgas share
the same scale. The underlying scale may have five, six or seven
tones made up of swaras. Rāgas that have five swaras are called
audava (औडव) rāgas; those with six, shaadava (षाडव); and with seven,
sampoorna (संपूण)
र् (Sanskrit for 'complete'). Those rāgas that do not
follow the strict ascending or descending order of swaras are called
vakra (वक्र) ('crooked') rāgas.
It is the mood of the rāga that is more important than the notes it
comprises. For example, Rāga Darbari Kanada and Rāga Jaunpuri
share the same notes but are entirely different in their renderings.

Northern and southern differences

The two streams of Indian classical music, Carnatic music and

Hindustani music, have independent sets of rāgas. There is some
overlap, but more "false friendship" (where rāga names overlap, but
rāga form does not). In north India, the rāgas have been categorised
into ten thaats or parent scales (by Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande,
1860-1936); South India uses an older, more systematic
classification scheme called the melakarta classification, with 72
parent (melakarta) rāgas. Overall there is a greater identification of
rāga with scale in the south than in the north, where such an
identification is impossible. Rāgas in north Indian music system
follow the 'law of consonances' established by Bharat in his
Natyashastra, which does not tolerate deviation even at the shruti
level.

As rāgas were transmitted orally from teacher to student, some

rāgas can vary greatly across regions, traditions and styles. There
have been efforts to codify and standardise rāga performance in
theory from their first mention in Matanga's Brhaddesi (c. tenth
century).

Carnatic rāga

In Carnatic music, rāgas are classified as Janaka rāgas and Janya

rāgas. Janaka rāgas are the rāgas from which the Janya rāgas are
created. Janaka rāgas are grouped together using a scheme called
Katapayadi sutra and are organised as Melakarta rāgas. A Melakarta
rāga is one which has all seven notes in both the ārōhanam
(ascending scale) and avarōhanam (descending scale). Some
Melakarta rāgas are Harikambhoji, Kalyani, Kharaharapriya,
Mayamalavagowla, Sankarabharanam and Todi.

Janya rāgas are derived from the Janaka rāgas using a combination
of the swarams (usually a subset of swarams) from the parent rāga.
Some janya rāgas are Abheri, Abhogi, Bhairavi, Hindolam and
Kambhoji. See the full List of Janya Ragas for more.

Each rāga has a definite collection and orders of swaras (the basic
notes). In Carnatic music, there are 7 basic notes of which there are
12 varieties. The seven basic swarams of Carnatic music are: Sa, Ri,
Ga, Ma, Pa, Da, Ni.

Related rāgas

Even though Janya rāgas are subsets of Janaka rāgas in notation and
representation, the differences between the child ragas are clear due
to the differences like

 some notes that figure more in a particular rāga compared to

another, while other notes used sparingly
 some notes may be sung with gamaka, stress, elongation, etc.,
in one rāga compared to other
 specific phrases used and other phrases to be avoided in a rāga
(so as to avoid deviation into another rāga's domain)

The effect of the rāgas are different from each other, even if they
notationally use same swarams (or subset of swarams between each
other) due to above subjective differences related to bhava and rasa
(mood caused in the listener). The artists have to ensure the same
when elaborating on a rāga, as has been followed and expected on
each rāga, without digressing into the phrases of another related
rāga. As we all know, science and notations cannot fully represent
emotions and feelings.

Rāga-rāgini

The rāga-rāgini scheme is an old classification scheme used from the

14th century to the 19th century. It usually consists of 6 'male'
rāgas each with 6 'wives'(rāginis) and a number of sons (putras)
and even 'daughters-in-law'. As it did not agree with various other
schemes, and the 'related' rāgas had very little or no similarity, the
rāga-rāgini scheme is no longer very popular.

Ārōhanam

Ārōhanam of a rāgam is the ascending scale of the rāgam. It

describes the rules for singing ascending notes of a rāgam, including
the swarams to use and swaram patterns that form the rāgam.

Avarōhanam

Avarōhanam of a rāgam is the descending scale of the rāgam. It

describes the rules for singing descending notes of a rāgam.
Melakartā

A Melakartā rāgam is one which has all seven swarams, namely, Sa,
Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni (sampoorna rāgam). The ārōhanam and
avarōhanam of a melakartā ragam are strictly ascending and
descending scales. It is also known as janaka rāgam (parent rāgam),
because other rāgams are derived from it.

Chakra

A chakra consists of a group of 6 Melakartā rāgams, which differ

from each other only in the Dhaivatham and Nishadham.

Janya

A Janya rāgam is one which is derived from a Melakartā rāgam. It

may have (a) a subset of the seven swarams Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha
and Ni (varjya rāgam), (b) an external swaram (anya swaram) not
found in it's parent or (c) vakra prayōgam of swarams in Ārōhanam
or Avarōhanam (zig-zag sequence of notes, instead of strictly
ascending or descending scales).

Tālam

Tālam refers to the rhythm cycle or beat cycle for a particular song.

Tala (Sanskrit tāla, literally a "clap") is the term used in Indian

classical music for the rhythmic pattern of any composition and for
the entire subject of rhythm.

A tala is a rhythmic cycle of beats with an ebb and flow of various

types of intonations resounded on a percussive instrument. Each
such pattern has its own name. Indian classical music has complex,
all-embracing rules for the elaboration of possible patterns, though
in practice a few talas are very common while others are rare.

Carnatic music uses a comprehensive system for the specification of

talas, called the suladi sapta tala system. According to this system,
there are seven families of talas, each of which has five members,
one each of five types or varieties (jati or chapu), thus allowing
thirty-five possible talas.

In Carnatic music each pulse count is called an aksharam or a kriyā,

the interval between each being equal, though capable of division
into faster matras or svaras, the fundamental unit of time. The tala
is defined by the number and arrangement of aksharams inside an
avartanam. There are three sub-patterns of beats into which all talas
are divided; laghu, dhrutam and anudhrutam.

 A dhrutam is a pattern of 2 beats. This is notated 'O'.

 An anudhrutam is a single beat, notated 'U'.

 A laghu is a pattern with a variable number of beats, 3, 4, 5, 7

or 9, depending upon the type of the tala. It is notated '1'. The
number of matras in an aksharam is called the nadai or gati.
This number can be 3, 4, 5, 7 or 9, and these types are
respectively called Tisra, Chatusra, Khanda, Misra and
Sankeerna. The default nadai is Chatusram:

Jati Aksharams in laghu

Tisra 3
Chatusra 4
Khanda 5
Misra 7
Sankeerna 9

The seven families are:

Description of Default length Total Aksharas according

Tala
avartanam of laghu to the Saptha Alankaras
Dhruva 1O11 4 14
Matya 1O1 4 10
Rupaka O1 4 6
Jhampa 1UO 7 10
Triputa 1OO 3 7
Ata 11OO 5 14
Eka 1 4 4

For instance one avartanam of Khanda-jati Rupaka tala comprises a

2-beat dhrutam followed by a 5-beat laghu. An avartanam is thus 7
aksharams long. With all possible combinations of tala types and
laghu lengths, there are 5 x 7 = 35 talas having lengths ranging
from 3 (Tisra-jati Eka) to 29 (sankeerna-jati Dhruva) aksharams.
Chatusra-gati Khanda-jaati Rupaka tala has 7 aksharam, each of
which is 4 matras long; each avartanam of the tala is 4 x 7 = 28
matras long. For Misra-gati Khanda-jati Rupaka tala, it would be 7 x
7 = 49 matra.

In practice, only a few talas have compositions set to them. As in the

table above, each variety of tala has a default family associated with
it; the variety mentioned without qualification refers to the default.
For instance, Jhampa tala is Misra-jati Jhampa tala.

The most common tala is Chatusra-nadai Chatusra-jaati Triputa tala,

also called Adi tala (Adi meaning primordial in Sanskrit). From the
above tables, this tala has eight aksharams, each being 4 svarams
long. Many krtis and around half of the varnams are set to this tala.
Other common talas include:

 Chatusra-nadai Chatusra-jaati Rupaka tala (or simply Rupaka

tala). A large body of krtis is set to this tala.
 Khanda Chapu (a 10-count) and Misra Chapu (a 14-count),
both of which do not fit very well into the suladi sapta tala
scheme. Many padams are set to Misra Chapu, while there are
also krtis set to both the above talas.
 Chatusra-nadai Khanda-jati Ata tala (or simply Ata tala).
Around half of the varnams are set to this tala.
 Tisra-nadai Chatusra-jati Triputa tala (or simply Triputa tala). A
few fast-paced kritis are set to this tala.

Sometimes, pallavis are sung as part of a Ragam Thanam Pallavi

exposition in some of the rarer, more complicated talas; such
pallavis, if sung in a non-Chatusra-nadai tala, are called nadai
pallavis.

Eduppu or Start point

Compositions do not always begin on the first beat of the tala: it may
be offset by a certain number of matras or aksharas or combination
of both to suit the words of the composition. The word Talli, used to
describe this offset, is from Tamil and literally means "shift". A
composition may also start on one of the last few matras of the
previous avartanam. This is called Ateeta Eduppu.
Rarer Carnatic talas

Other than these 35 talas there are 108 so-called anga talas. The
following is the exhaustive pattern of beats used in constructing
them.

Anga Symbol Aksharakala Mode of Counting

Anudrutam U 1 1beat
1 beat + Visarijitam (wave of
Druta O 2
hand)
Druta-
(OU) 3
virama
Laghu
(Chatusra- l 4 1 beat + 3 finger count
jati)
Laghu-
U) 5
virama
Laghu-druta O) 6
Laghu-
druta- OU) 7
virama
A beat followed by circular
movement of the right hand in the
Guru 8 8
clockwise direction with closed
fingers.
Guru-virama (8U) 9
Guru-druta (8O) 10
Guru-druta-
(8OU) 11
virama
1 beat + kryshya (waving the
right hand from right to left) + 1
sarpini (waving the right hand
Plutam ) 12
from left to right) - each of 4
aksharakalas OR a Guru followed
by the hand waving downwards
Pluta-virana U) 13
Pluta-druta O) 14
Pluta-druta-
OU) 15
virama
 1 beat + patakam (lifting the right
Kakapadam + 16 hand) + kryshya + sarpini - each
of 4 aksharakalas)

Compositions are rare in these lengthy talas. They are mostly used
in performing the Pallavi of Ragam Thanam Pallavis. Some examples
of anga talas are:

Sarabhandana tala

8 Ol l O U U)
O O O U O) OU) U) O
U O U O U) O (OU) O)

Simhanandana tala : It is the longest tala.

88 l)l8OO
88 l)l) 8 l
l +

Another type of tala is the chhanda tala. These are talas set to the
lyrics of the Thirupugazh by the Tamil composer Arunagirinathar. He
is said to have written 16000 hyms each in a different chhanda tala.
Of these, only 1500-2000 are available.

Ālāpana

Ālāpana is a preface to a song, which explores the rāgam of the

song, without any lyrics. It is a slow improvisation with no tālam
(rhythm).

An Alapana is defined as the introduction and elaboration of a raga

(musical scale). The flavor of the raga is outlined in the alapana by
rendering the raga's permitted notes in structures and phrases
unique to the raga (known as "raga lakshanam"). Alapana typically
precedes a song that is going to be sung in the same raga.

Alapana is rendered in different speeds, with a gradual increase in

tempo. Likewise, the complexity of the patterns increases steadily as
the alapana progresses.

Alapana is divided into three parts:

  Akshipthika
 Ragavardhini
 Magarini

In Carnatic Music, the alapana is sung in a free-flowing format,

without adherence to a specific beat or taalam. In a Carnatic music
concert, the vocalist or instrumentalist may spend anywhere from 30
seconds to 10 minutes or more on the alapana prior to beginning the
song that is in that raga. Performers and instrumental accompanists
often render the alapana together and individually (for example,
vocalists's phrases shadowed by that of a violinist, as well as
vocalist's rendering followed by that of the violinist).

Niraval

Niraval or Neraval is the repeated singing of one or two lines of a

song, with improvised exposition in each repetition.

Niraval also known as Neraval or Sahitya Vinyasa is considered to be

one of the important features in the extempore improvisation aspect
(Manodharma Sangita) of Carnatic music.

Niraval is essentially the extempore construction, elaboration and

improvisation of swaras for a particular line in the kriti, within the
framework of a talam which brings out the Raga bhava effectively. It
is usually just one line from the charanam part of the kriti and has to
sit within the framework of a tala and highlight every rasa and
bhava singularly.

For example : 4-beat niravals for Shyama Sastri's "sarojadala netri

himagiri putri" set to Adi talam (double) in the Raga
Shankarabharanam can be constructed for the line "sama gana
vinodhini guna" (like this : gpmgrs | s,ndpmgrs) in the charanam of
the song.

Kalpanaswaram

Kalpanaswaram literally means imagined swarams. It is the singing

of swarams of the rāgam of a song, following the completion of the
song. Though many phrases of the swarams may have been
practiced, experienced artists may spontaneously play new phrases
within the rāgam's rules - hence the term Kalpana. It is an
improvisation of the rāgam, by singing the swarams, namely Sa, Ri,
Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni.
In classical music of south India Kalpanaswaram (also called swara
kalpana, svara kalpana, manodharmaswara or just swaras), is raga
improvisation within a specific tala in which the musician improvises
in the Indian music solfege (sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, da, ni) after
completing a composition.

The kalpanaswaram start may start at at any place in the tala, but
the artist must end their improvisation at the first note of the first
phrase of the composition, at the place in the rhythm cycle, where
that note is. To arrive at that note, one has to approach it from the
closest note below.

Kalpanaswaram improvisations increase in intensity the more tala

cycles used. One complete tala cycle is called an avartanam. While
improvising, the musician must abide by the rules of the raga and
should sing kalpanaswaram phrases that have been sung over the
years. Some ragas omit notes and others have zigzagging ascents or
descents. The great musicians develop a vocabulary of phrases in
kalpanaswaram as in an alapana, especially when doing
kalpanaswaram at low speeds, which allow for more gamaka. The
place where the first note of the first phrase of the composition
exists in the rhythm cycle is called the eduppu.

Kalpanaswaram is performed in a Carnatic Concert for the main

song, the singer chooses to perform the Raga Alapana. However in
concerts, artists will choose a difficult raga to perform a
Kalpanaswaram in. Although there are no set rules, there can be
confusion.

Take the Raga Sahana (janya of 28th Melakarta raga Harikambhoji):

 Arohanam : S R G M P M D N S
 Avarohanam : S N D P M G M R G R S

In this raga, when the artist improvises, when ascending in pitch

after the Pa (Panchamam), the Ma (Madhyamam) needs to be sung,
or the raga will be wrong. So with a raga like Sahana or
Anandabhairavi, Purvi Kalyani etc, which have Dhattu (jumping)
swarams in their arohanam and/or avarohanam the Kalpanaswaram
is harder to master and perform.
Rāgamālika

Rāgamālika, which literally means garland of rāgams, is a

composition that has different verses set to different rāgams.
Rāgamālika swarams refers to singing of Kalpanaswarams in
different rāgams.

Rāgam Thānam Pallavi

Rāgam Thānam Pallavi is a rendition of Carnatic music which lends

to total improvisation, in different forms. It consists of Rāgam
Ālāpana (rāgam), Thānam and a Pallavi line. The pallavi line is sung
many times in different speeds, different ranges of the rāgam and
different octaves. This is usually followed by Kalpanaswarams,
sometimes in multiple rāgams (rāgamālika).

Ragam

"Ragam" in the context of "Ragam Thanam Pallavi" refers to ragam

alapana - the first component. In this form of pure melodic
improvisation, the musician starts with a refrain to create the mood
of raga and lays a foundation for composition to follow. Each ragam
thanam pallavi has at least one raga associated with it.

Thanam

Thanam is one of the most important forms of improvisation, and is

integral to ragam thanam pallavi. It is the second component of this
composite form of improvisation. Originally developed for the veena,
it consists of expanding the raga with syllables like tha, nam, thom,
aa, nom, na, etc. Thanam is a rhythmic version of the raga alapana.
Although tanam is often rendered without percussion support, the
element of rhythm is more obvious in this type of improvisation. It is
rendered in medium speed and just before commencing the third
component of this composite form of improvisation; the pallavi.

Pallavi

The word Pallavi is derived from the three syllables Pa - Pada

(words), La - Laya (rhythm) and Vi - Vinyasam (variations). Pallavi
is the equivalent of a refrain in Western music. The Pallavi is usually
a one-line composition set to a single cycle of tala. The tala could
range from the simple to the complex and there may also be
different gatis being employed.
Pallavi has 2 portions to it. The first half of Pallavi is an ascending
piece of notes and the first half of the Pallavi should always end at
the strike of the beginning of the second half of the Talam cycle,
called the Ardhi. Between the first half of the Pallavi and the second
half of the Pallavi there will be a brief pause called as the Vishranthi
and then the second portion of the Pallavi starts. Executing niraval
far a pallavi is unique, as, unlike in a krithi, the artist is not allowed
to change the locations of each syllable in the sahithyam, as this
lessens the innate beauty of the pallavi. The basic style in Pallavi
rendition is to sing the Pallavi in different speeds or Nadai. In most
cases the Pallavi is set to Chathushtra Nadai meaning each beat
carries 4 units. So the singer will then sing the Pallavi in 3 different
speeds, once with each Beat carrying one unit, then 2 units and then
4 units per beat. Once this is completed then they would sing the
Pallavi in a different Nadai called Tisra Nadai meaning each beat now
carries 3 units. Once these aspects are covered, the singer explores
in the Kalpanaswara phase and they would start exploring different
Ragas during the Kalpanaswara.

Pallavi can be sung in 2 different aspects, one called as Prathiloma

and then the Anulomam. In Carnatic music the Talam is always
constant and only the Swaras or the Pallavi set for the Talam can
undergo Nadai bedam.

But in theory if you sing Pallavi without changing any speed but
increase the Talam cycle in a geometric progression, it would be the
other kind.

The Pallavi challenges the musician's ability to improvise with

complex and intricate patterns. The whole exercise is very
demanding, both technically and musically, since all the artiste's
musicianship is put to test.

Viruttam

Viruttam is a devotional verse or phrase sung in an impromptu

choice of rāgam or rāgamālika usually before a song. The rāgam (or
last rāgam in case of rāgamālika) is usually the same as that of the
song that follows.

Viruttams do not have talas and are mainly improvised using one or
more ragams. It is one of the different forms of manodharma
(spontaneous improvisations) in Carnatic music.
A viruttam usually precedes rendition of a song. In most cases, it is
sung in the same ragam as the song that follows it. Occasionally,
viruttam of multiple verses are sung in different ragams, followed by
a song in the same ragam as the last sung ragam of the viruttam.

The artist may also sing the same verse in different ragams in
different concerts.

Manōdharma

Manodharma is a form of improvised music and is created on spot

during the performance, but within the confines of strict grammar of
music. It can be likened to speakers resorting to impromptu speech
while reading from their prepared texts. It serves as an important
aspect of Carnatic music. There are many types of improvisations,
like Rāgam Ālāpana, Thānam, Niraval, Viruttam and Kalpanaswaram.

Arising out of Manodharma, Individual styles are developed. There is

ample scope for manodharma while rendering raga alapana, tanam,
neraval, pallavi, swaram and also kritis. The manodharma is
cultivated after several years of constant learning and experience in
rendering various set compositions like varnams, kritis, javalis, etc
and also by listening to consummate artistes. Manodharma plays
such a significant role that a capable artiste may never render a raga
the same way twice. To bring out the quintessence of a raga, one
has to resort to the exclusive and distinct raga prayogas of the raga
which are mostly taken from the 'set compositions' like varnams,
kritis etc. Unless, these prayogas are brought out in the raga
alapana, the bhava (identity) of the ragam can seldom be
established. For a beginner to identify a raga, these "exclusive"
prayogas are of immense assistance. Keeping in mind, the
"lakshana" (swarupa) of the raga, its jeeva swaras and also the
special prayogas, the artistes develop the raga, weaving patterns
after patterns, using various combinations of swaras.

The caliber and finesse of a musician is often judged by his/her

ability to bring out the excellence of a raga. Many musicians of the
recent past, such as G. N. Balasubramaniam, Madurai Mani Iyer,
Rajarathnam Pillai, Karaikkurichi Arunachalam, excelled in their
application of manodharma bringing in many a sweet combination of
notes of melodies, while limiting themselves to the confines of the
raga concerned, embellishing the raga with their ability to produce
melodic prayogas.
Kalpita sangeetam

Kalpita sangeetam is music that is already composed, learnt and

practiced. It is opposite of Manodharma sangeetam, which
complements Kalpita sangeetam.

Swarams

The seven swarams in Carnatic music, then followed by other terms

related to swaram.

Shadjam

The first swaram in the scale is Shadjam (Sa). It is invariant and is

always included in all ragams.

Rishabham

The second swaram in the scale is Rishabham (Ri). It has three pitch
possibilities, namely Suddha, Chathusruti and Shatsruti.

Gāndhāram

The third swaram in the scale is Gāndhāram (Ga). It has three pitch
possibilities, namely Suddha, Sādhārana and Antara.

Madhyamam

The fourth swaram in the scale is Madhyamam (Ma). It has two pitch
possibilities, namely Suddha and Prati.

Panchamam

The fifth swaram in the scale is Panchamam (Pa). It is invariant.

Dhaivatam

The sixth swaram in the scale is Dhaivatam (Dha). It has three pitch
possibilities, namely Suddha, Chathusruti and Shatsruti.

Nishādham

The third swaram in the scale is Nishādham (Ni). It has three pitch
possibilities, namely Suddha, Kaisiki and Kākali.
Anya swaram

Anya swaram in a janya rāgam is a swaram that is not found in its

parent rāgam (melakartā rāgam). Anya means outside the set/
group.

Sthāi

Sthāi refers to an octave of music. There are 5 sthāis in Carnatic

music, namely, Anumandra (lowest), Mandra (literally means chant,
which means lower), Madhya (literally means middle), Tara (means
higher) and Athitara (meaning very high). Most artists sing over two
octaves or two and a half octaves range (within Mandra, Madhya and
Tara sthais). Very few can sing well in bigger range of 3 or more
octaves.

Anga

Anga means part. In the context of a rāgam's scale, the terms

poorvanga (meaning former part, in this case first-half) and
uttaranga (latter part, or second-half) are used. Sa, Ri, Ga and Ma
notes in a scale are referred are poorvanga, while Pa, Dha and Ni are
referred as uttaranga

Gamaka

Gamaka is the term used for variations of the swarams in a scale. It

can refer to the shake of the note, grace around the note, decoration
or embellishment of the swaram. It is an integral part of most
rāgams, as it is not arbitrary but is essential part of the structure/
scale.

Vādi

Vādi swaram in a rāgam is the main/ primary swaram of importance

in it. A vādi swaram is repeated quite often in a rendition.

Samvādi

Samvādi swaram in a rāgam has a concordant effect with the vādi

swaram. It has a good effect to the ear (melody or pleasing) along
with the vādi. In western music it is equivalent of the consonant.
Vivādi

Vivādi swaram in a rāgam has a discordant effect with the vādi

swaram in it. It may not have a pleasing effect when sounded
together, but composers use appropriate phrases so that such
discordant effect is skipped or avoided. In western music it is
equivalent of the dissonant.

Anuvādi

Anuvādi swaram in a rāgam has neither concordant nor discordant

effect with the vādi swaram.

Janya rāgams

Prayōgam

A musical notes phrase of a rāgam (series of swarams sung in a

particular rāgam) is known as Prayōgam.

Vishesha Prayōgam

Vishesha means special. Hence, important phrases of a rāgam are

known as Vishesha Prayōgams.

Varjya

Missing swarams in a janya rāgam, when derived from a melakartā

rāgam are referred as varjya. For example, Rishabham and
Panchamam are varjya in Hindolam when derived from Natabhairavi.

Natabhairavi (sanskrit नठभैरिव, tamil நடைபரவி) is a rāgam in

Carnatic music (musical scale of South Indian classical music). It is
the 20th melakarta rāgam in the 72 melakarta rāgam system.

In the Muthuswami Dikshitar school this rāgam is called

Nārirītigowla. Natabhairavi is known to be a rāgam that incites
feelings of grandeur and devotion in the listeners.

Structure and Lakshana

It is the 2nd rāgam in the 4th chakra Veda. The mnemonic name is
Veda-Sri. The mnemonic phrase is sa ri gi ma pa dha ni. Its ārohaṇa-
avarohaṇa structure is as follows (see swaras in Carnatic music for
details on the notations used):

 ārohaṇa : S R2 G2 M1 P D1 N2 S
 avarohaṇa : S N2 D1 P M1 G2 R2 S

(this scale uses the notes chathusruthi rishabham, sadharana

gandharam, shuddha madhyamam, shuddha dhaivatham, kaisiki
nishadham)

It is a sampoorna rāgam - rāgam having all 7 swarams. It is the

shuddha madhyamam equivalent of Shanmukhapriya, which is the
56th melakarta.

Janya rāgams

Natabhairavi has a number of popular janya rāgams (derived scales)

such as Bhairavi, Anandabhairavi, Saramati, Jonpuri, Hindolam
(sometimes Hindolam is also assosciated as a Janya of Hanumatodi)
and Jayanthasree. See List of janya rāgams for a full list of
Natabhairavi's janya rāgams.

Popular compositions

Sri Valli Devasena pathe is a popular composition in Natabhairavi,

composed by Papanasam Sivan. Parulaseva by Poochi Srinivasa
Iyengar is another well known composition in this rāgam.

Related rāgams

The theoretical and scientific aspect of this rāgam.

Natabhairavi's notes when shifted using Graha bedham, yields 5

other major melakarta rāgams, namely, Kalyani, Sankarabharanam,
Hanumatodi, Kharaharapriya and Harikambhoji. For further details
and an illustration of Graha bedham of this rāgam refer Graha
bedham on Sankarabharanam.

Even though Natabhairavi has quite evenly spaced swara sthanas

(pitch positions, notes) like the other 5 in this group, it has not
found as much importance in concerts. One is likely to find Kalyani,
Todi, Sankarabharanam and Karaharapriya as the main ragam in
concerts, more often than Natabhairavi by a big count.
Vakram

Swarams are said to be vakram in a rāgam, if either the Ārōhanam,

Avarōhanam or both, do not follow a strictly ascending or
descending order. They go up and down (example, 2 steps forward
one step back). In such a rāgam, these swarams should always use
the same order in order to give the unique melody of the rāgam.

Upānga

A janya rāgam is Upānga if all the swarams in its scale are strictly
derived from its melakartā rāgam (parent). There are no anya
swarams (external swarams).

Bhāshānga

A janya rāgam is Bhāshānga if an anya swaram is introduced in its

scale, when derived from its melakartā rāgam (parent).

Nishādhāntya

A janya rāgam is Nishādhāntya if the highest note that can be played

is the Nishādham. The rules for such rāgams are that they should be
played or sung within the single octave - Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha,
Ni. Examples are Nadanamakriya and Punnāgavarāli rāgams.

Dhaivatāntya

A janya rāgam is Dhaivadhāntya if the highest note that can be

played is the Dhaivatam. The rules for such rāgams are that they
should be played or sung within the single octave - Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri,
Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha. Example Kurinji rāgam.

Panchamāntya

A janya rāgam is Panchamāntya if the highest note that can be

played is the Panchamam. The rules for such rāgams are that they
should be played or sung within the single octave - Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa,
Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa. Example Navroj rāgam.
Madhyama sruti

Tuning the sruti (tonic note) to Ma (and also changing Pa string of

Tambura to Ma) is called Madhyama sruti. It is usually set for
Panchamāntya, Dhaivadhāntya and Nishādhāntya rāgams.

Tambura

The tambura (Devanagari: त पूरा) is a long necked plucked lute that

derives its name from the Persian Tanbur, a stringed instrument
found in different versions in different places. The tambura (South
India), tamburo (Gujarati), or tanpura (North India) in its bodily
shape somewhat resembles the sitar, but it has no frets, as only the
open strings are played as a harmonic accompaniment to the other
musicians. It has four or five (rarely, six) wire strings, which are
plucked one after another in a regular pattern to create a harmonic
resonance on the basic note (bourdon or drone function).

Tanpuras come in different sizes and pitches: bigger "males" and

smaller "females" for vocalists and yet a smaller version that is used
for accompanying sitar or sarod, called tamburi or tanpuri. Male
vocalists pitch their tonic note (Sa) to about C#, female singers
usually a fifth higher. The male instrument has an open string length
of approx. one metre, the female is sized down to 3/4. The standard
tuning is 5881, sol do' do' do, or in Indian sargam: PA sa sa SA. For
ragas that omit the fifth, the first string will be tuned down to the
natural fourth: 4881 or Ma sa sa Sa. Some ragas require a less
common tuning with shuddh NI (semitone below octave sa) : NI sa
sa SA. With a five-string instrument, the seventh or NI (natural
minor or major 7th) is added: PA NI sa sa SA (57881)or MA NI sa sa
SA (47881). The name 'tanpura' is probably derived from tana,
referring to a musical phrase, and pura which means "full" or
"complete". Both in its musical function and how it works, the
tanpura is a unique instrument in many ways. It does not partake in
the melodic part of the music but it supports and sustains the
melody by providing a very colourful and dynamic harmonic
resonance field based on one precise tone, the basic note or key-
note. The special overtone-rich sound is achieved by applying the
principle of jivari which creates a sustained, "buzzing" sound in
which particular harmonics will resonate with focused clarity. 'Jiva'
refers to 'soul', that which gives life. What is implied is that an
'animated' tone-quality is the idea which the tanpura embodies. The
principle of jivari can be likened to the prismatic refraction of white
light into the colours of the rainbow, as its acoustic twin-principle at
work.

To achieve this effect, the strings pass over a wide, arched bridge-
piece, the front of the bridge sloping gently away from under the
strings. When the string is plucked, it will have an intermittent
periodical contact with the bridge at a point close to the front edge.
This intermittent grazing of string and bridge is not a static process,
as the points of contact will gradually shift, being a compound
function of amplitude and the curvature of the bridge and string
tension. When the string is plucked it has a large amplitude, moving
up and down and contacting the bridge on the down-phase. As the
energy of the string's movement gradually diminishes, the contact
point of the string with the bridge slowly creeps up the slope to the
top of the bridge toward point zero when the string has finally come
to rest. (depending on scale and pitch, this can take between 3 and
10 seconds) This dynamic sonic process can be fine-tuned using a
cotton thread between string and bridge. By shifting the thread
minutely, the whole dynamic process of the grazing contact is also
shifted to a different position on the bridge, thus changing the
harmonic content. Every single string produces its own cascading
range of harmonics and at the same time builds up a particular
resonance. Evidently, this generates a diversity of harmonic
possibilities. According to this refined principle tanpuras are most
attentively tuned to achieve a particular tonal shade in function of
the intonation-related qualities of the raga.

These more delicate aspects of tuning are directly related to what

Indian musicians call 'raga svaroop', which is about how very
characteristic intonations strengthen the tonal impression of a
particular raga. The particular set-up of the tanpura with the
adjustable sonic-prismatic function of curved bridge and thread
made it possible to explore a multitude of harmonic relations
produced by the subtle harmonic interplay of four strings.
Theoretically, at least, this is what the instrument was designed to
do. However, it seems that this degree of artistry is slowly being
eclipsed by the common use of the readily accessible electronic
tanpura, which is not capable of this natural diversity as it produces
one 'standard' sound per setting.

Tanpuras are designed in three different styles:

 Miraj style: the favourite form of tanpura for Hindustani

performers. It is usually between three to five feet in length,
 with a well-rounded resonator plate (tabli) and a long, hollow
straight neck. The round lower chamber to which the tabli, the
connecting heel-piece and the neck (dandh) are fixed is
actually a selected and dried gourd (tumba). Wood used is
either tun or teak, bridges are usually cut from one piece of
bone.
 Tanjore style: this is a south Indian style of tambura, used
widely by Carnatic music performers. It has a somewhat
different shape and style of decoration from that of the Miraj,
but is otherwise much the same size. Typically, no gourd is
used, but the spherical part is gouged out of a solid block of
wood. The neck is somewhat smaller in diameter. Jackwood is
used throughout, bridges are usually cut from one piece of
rosewood. Often two rosettes are drilled out and ornamented
with inlaywork.
 Tamburi: small-scale instruments, used for accompanying
instrumental soloists. It is two to three feet long, with a flat
bed-pan type wooden body with a slightly curved tabli. It may
have from four to six strings. Tamburi are tuned to the higher
octave and are the preferred instruments for accompanying
solo-performances by string-playing artists, as the lighter,
more transparent sound does not drown out the lower register
of a sitar, sarod, or sarangi.

Swaram counts

The following terms are applicable to ascending scale (ārōhanam) of

a rāgam, descending scale (avarōhanam) of a rāgam, or the rāgam
as a whole.

Sampūrna rāgam

Sampurna rāgam is a rāgam that has all seven swarams, namely, Sa,
Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni.

Shādava rāgam

Shādava rāgam is a rāgam that has only six of the seven swarams in
its scale.

Owdava rāgam

Owdava rāgam is a rāgam that has only five of the seven swarams in
its scale. It is a pentatonic scale.
Svarantara rāgam

Svarantara rāgam is a rāgam that has only four of the seven

swarams in its scale.

Tālam components

Jathi

Jathi of a tālam specifies beat count of the rhythm cycle. It

specifically applies to lagu component(s) of the tālam and not
necessarily to the entire tālam. The different jathis are tisra (three
beats in lagu), chathusra (four), khanda (five), misra (seven) and
sankeerna (nine).

Gati

Gati of a tālam specifies sub-divisions of a beat in a composition. It

is also referred as Nadai. Chathusra gati is the most common (four),
followed by Tisra (three). Others are Khanda, Misra and Sankeerna.

Lagu

Lagu is the component of a tālam which is the variant part. Its beat
count is dependent on the jathi of the tālam. The action for counting
includes a tap / clap, followed by a count of sub-beats of the full
rhythm cycle. Note that a tisra jathi lagu is actually 1 clap and 2
counts = 3 beats.

Dhrutham

Dhrutham is the component of a tālam which is invariant and

includes only two beats. Its action includes a tap / clap, followed by
a veechu (wave).

Anudhrutham

Anudhrutham is the component of a tālam which is invariant and

includes only one beat. Its action is a tap / clap.

Āvartanam

Āvartanam of a tālam refers to one cycle of the tālam. Most tālams

have at least 1 lagu, except for the rare tālams
Eduppu

Eduppu, from Tamil, means start. Eduppu denotes the point within
the Āvartanam of a tālam when a composition or stanza in a
composition begins. Onru (one beat later, meaning second beat),
Onrarai (one and half beat later, meaning between 2nd and 3rd
beat) are common, other than Samam (meaning equal) which starts
in synchronization with the beginning of a tālam.

Tālams

Rūpaka tālam

Rūpaka tālam refers to the group of tālams that consist of 1

dhrutam, followed by 1 lagu. Rūpaka tālam also refers to chathusra-
jathi rūpaka tālam as a default (2 + 4 = 6 beats in an āvartanam).
This is considered equivalent of 3/4 of western music or the Waltz
rhythm.

Triputa tālam

Triputa tālam refers to the group of tālams that consist of 1 lagu,

followed by 2 dhrutams. Triputa tālam also refers to tisra-jathi
triputa tālam as a default (3 + 2 + 2 = 7 beats in an āvartanam).

Dhruva tālam

Dhruva tālam refers to the group of tālams that consist of 1 lagu,

followed by 1 dhrutam, followed by two lagus. Dhruva tālam also
refers to chathusra-jathi dhruva tālam as a default (4 + 2 + 4 + 4 =
14 beats in an āvartanam), unless a different jathi is specified.

Matya tālam

Matya tālam refers to the group of tālams that consist of 1 lagu,

followed by 1 dhrutam, followed by 1 lagu. Matya tālam also refers
to chathusra-jathi matya tālam as a default (4 + 2 + 4 = 10 beats in
an āvartanam).

Jhampa tālam

Jhampa tālam refers to the group of tālams that consist of 1 lagu,

followed by 1 anudhrutam, followed by 1 dhrutam. Jhampa tālam
also refers to misra-jathi jhampa tālam as a default (7 + 1 + 2 = 10
beats in an āvartanam).

Ata tālam

Ata tālam refers to the group of tālams that consist of 2 lagus,

followed by 2 dhrutams. Ata tālam also refers to khanda-jathi ata
tālam as a default (5 + 5 + 2 + 2 = 14 beats in an āvartanam).

Eka tālam

Eka tālam refers to the group of tālams that consist of 1 lagu only.
Eka tālam also refers to chathusra-jathi eka tālam as a default (4
beats in an āvartanam).

Ādhi tālam

Ādhi tālam refers to chathusra-jathi triputa tālam (4 + 2 + 2 = 8

beats in an āvartanam), which is very common in Carnatic music.
This is the equivalent of 8 beat / 16 beat of Western music.

Khanda chāpu tālam

Khanda chāpu refers to a tālam with 10 beat āvartanam (Khanda

literally means 5) which does not fit into above classification of
tālams.

Misra chāpu tālam

Misra chāpu refers to a tālam with 14 beat āvartanam (Misra literally

means 7) which does not fit into above classification of tālams.

Desādhi tālam

Desādhi refers to ādhi tālam with (8 beat āvartanam), where the

eduppu is one and a half beats from beginning of āvaratanam
(onrarai).

Kalai

Kalai refers to the speed of the tālam during a rendition of song.

Learning exercises

Learning Carnatic music involves learning most of the following

exercises, mostly in the order listed below.

Sarali varisai

Sarali varisai is used to learn the swarams in the octave, usually in

Māyāmālavagowla ragam. It is learnt in simple straight ascending
and descending fashion and a few variations. It is also learnt in
multiple speeds (kalams).

Swarāvali

Avali means row or arrangement. Swarāvali are exercises with

different arrangements of swarams. It is shortened and referred as
Sarali, as in Sarali varisai described above.

Jhanta varisai

Jhanta varisai are exercises used to learn the swarams in the octave
in twin fashion (sa sa ri ri ga ga and so on) and a few other
combinations. It is also usually learnt in Māyāmālavagowla rāgam.

Dhāttu varisai

Dhāttu literally means jump. Dhāttu varisai are exercises used to

learn the swarams in zig-zag fashion, so that more control of the
notes and different combinations are achieved. Example, sa ma ri ga,
sa ri ga ma, and so on. Each of these exercises are set to different
tālams, so that different rhythm aspects are learnt.

Alankāra

Alankāra means decoration. These exercises are groups or patterns

of swarams, each of which are set to seven main tālams, so that
rhythm aspect is also learnt together with different rāgams.

Types of composition

Geetham

Geetham, the simplest music form in Carnatic music, was created by

Purandara Dasa in order to introduce talas with sahithya (lyrics).
Structure

Though Geethams have no absolutely defined divisions of pallavi,

anupallavi or charanas, they may be observed in some cases. Some
Geethams contain sections rather than the defined divisions (pallavi
etc). They often have no sangathis or variations, with each swara
taking one syllable of the sahithya. The Geetham is sung without
repetition from beginning to end. However most Geethams are
concluded by repeating a portion of the opening part. Geethams are
set in medium tempo and contain no Sangathis or variations and the
flow of the music is natural. The theme of the Sahithyam (lyrics) is
to praise God. Students learn these Geethams after a course in the
preliminary Sarali exercises and Alankaras.

Types

There are three types of Geetams: Sanchari or Samanya Geethams,

Lakshana Geethams, and Suladi Geethams. Samanya Geethams are
the simple ordinary Geethams and are called by other names such as
Sadharana Geetham or Sanchari Geetham. In Lakshana Geethams,
the sahithyam (lyrics), instead of praising God, enumerates in so
many words, the Lakshana of the Raga, in which it is composed-
giving amongst other details, its Vakra Swaras, Graha, Nysa, Amsa
Swarams and lastly its parent Raga (Melakarta raga). Most Lakshana
Geethams have been composed by Purandara Dasa.[1]

Common Geethams

Some of the most common Geethams have been composed by

Muthuswami Dikshitar.

1. Vara Veena in Mohanam Raga (Janya of 28th Mela

Harikambhoji) - Chatusruthi Jathi Rupaka Tala
2. Sree Gananatha (Lambodara) in Malahari Raga (Janya of 15th
Mela Mayamalavagowla) - Chathusruthi Jathi Rupaka Tala
3. Analekara in Shuddha Saveri Raga (Janya of 29th Mela
Sankarabharanam) - Tisra Jathi Triputa Tala
4. Kamala Jadala in Kalyani Raga (65th Melakarta Raga)- Tisra
Jathi Triputa Tala
Swarajati

Swarajati is a form in Carnatic music, which is helpful before

learning a varnam. It has pallavi, sometimes an anupallavi, and at
least one charana. The themes of swarajathis are usually either
bhakthi, love or courage. It is a composition which usually has a
pleasing melody and are suitable for singing in early lessons,
musical concerts and dance concerts

Varnam

Varnam is a form of song in the Carnatic music repertoire. A varnam

is a relatively long piece and can range from 30 minutes to up to an
hour. It is usually set to Aadi or Ata tala. It is the center piece in a
recital of music or dance. The lyrics are simple and consist mostly of
long syllables and swara phrases of various lengths which bring out
the essential features of the raga. It has two types: Taana varnam
and Pada varnam.

Varnams are considered vocal exercises in a particular raga. The

patterns in a varnam are considered to be characteristic patterns of
a particular raga or scale. Varnams are considered the most complex
of the vocal exercises in Carnatic Music. They are designed to help
develop voice culture and proper control of rhythm. Indeed, varnams
are often practiced in double and triple speeds and proper rhythmic
control (tala) must be kept.

Type of varnams

Named for it's thanam-like rhythmic qualities, tana varnams only

have lyrics for the pallavi, anupallavi and charanam.[1]

With rhythmic elements like a padam, pada varnams are generally

sung to accompany South Indian classical dance, including
bharatanatyam. Unlike the tana varnam which only has lyrics for the
pallavi, anupallavi and charanam and swarams for the rest of the
sections a pada varnam also have lyrics that correspond to the
muktayi and chitta swaras of the varnam, so generally, pada
varnams contain more lyrical content than a tana varnam. The
swaras in this type of varnam are suitable for intricate footwork.
Padajathi varnams are simply pada varnams that also contain jatis in
it, making it again more suitable for South Indian classical dance.
Contents of a Varnam

The varnam is subdivided into several sections:

 Pallavi: The first section of the Varnam, sung with lyrics or

sahithyam.
 Anupallavi: A sort of recapitulation, sung with lyrics or
sahithyam also.
 Mukthaayi Swaram: Sung completely with syllables -- or
swaras -- (like sa ri ga ma pa da ni sa). In Pada Varnas it is
known as Mukthaayi Swaram-Sahithyam.
 Charanam: Sung with lyrics
 Chittai Swarams: Sung completely with syllables. In a Pada
varnam, there are lyrics which correspond to the Charanam
swaras. The swaras occur in several groups or stanzas.

Generally, a varnam is sung as follows:

 Pallavi
 Anupallavi
 Muktayi Swaram
 Pallavi (in double speed)

Repeat, then Pallavi sung in triple speed, or in original speed.

 Charanam
 Charanam Swara Group 1
 Charanam
 Charanam Swara Group 2
 Charanam
 Charanam Swara Group 3
 Charanam
 Charanam Swara Group 4
 Charanam

There are generally 3-5 swara groups in every varnam. In a concert,

the entire charanam section is sung at approximately 1.5 speed.
Sometimes when repeating the Pallavi the Annupallavi and Muktayi
Swarams are repeated in double or triple speed.

Varnams are generally sung in 2 varieties of talas, or metric

systems, Adi Tala (8 beat cycle) and Ata Tala (14 beat cycle), where
Ata Tala varnams are generally more complicated and advanced. In
most of the Adi Tala Varnams the tala is placed in the 2 kalai
version. So therefore each beat and finger count is placed twice.

Famous Varnams

Famous Adi Tala Varnams include:

 "Sami Ninne" in Sree Ragam composed by Karur Devudu Iyer

 "Ninnukori" in Mohanam ragam by Poochi Srinivasa Iyengar
 "Evvari Bodhana" in Abhogi ragam by Patnam Subramania Iyer
 "Valachi Vacchi" in Navaragamalika (9 ragas, similar to
Ragamalika which literally translates to a garland of ragams.

Famouns Ata Tala Varnams include:

 "Viriboni" in Bhairavi ragam by Pacchimiriam Adiyappa

 "Nera Nammithi" in Kaanada ragam by Poochi Srinivasa
Iyengar
 "Chalamela" in Sankarabharanam by Swati Tirunal

The Arabhi ragam varnam is supposed to be the only longest piece

with jantai and tattu prayogas.

Keerthanam/ Kriti

Keerthanam or Kriti is the category of most compositions in Carnatic

music. A concert consists mainly of Keerthanams with zero or one of
Varnam, Rāgam Thānam Pallavi and Thillānā included in appropriate
order.

Thillana

Thillana (also called tillana) is a rhythmic piece, generally performed

at the end of a concert and widely used in dance performances. A
thillana uses taal phrases in the pallavi and anupallavi, and lyrics in
the charanam.

Parts of a composition

Pallavi

Pallavi is the thematic line of a song. It is usually one cycle long and
repeated twice or thrice in order to give the percussionist the idea of
the chosen taalam. Sometimes it is repeated a few more times using
different phrases of the Rāgam to which the song is set.

The life of the song, the word pallavi consists of a wide range of
items that are considered as a single item:

 pa is derived from padam which means word or phrase;

 lla comes from layam which means poetry or rhythm;
 vi is from vinyasam which means imagination

In Carnatic music, pallavi also forms a part of a special type of

rendition called Rāgam Thānam Pallavi. Rāgam in this context is the
initial ālāpana of chosen rāgam (elaboration and exploration of its
scale). Thānam is elaboration of the rāgam using percussion
syllables. Pallavi, a single line of one tālam cycle duration, is chosen
for further elaboration of the rāgam in different speeds, octaves,
rāgam phrases, etc.

Anupallavi

In Carnatic music, the anupallavi comes after the pallavi and is

usually the second section of any composition. It is then followed by
one or more charanams. The anupallavi is optional. In such
compositions pallavi is followed by one or more charanams.

Charanam

Charanam (meaning foot) in Carnatic music (South Indian classical

music) is usually the end section of a composition which is sung
after the anupallavi. There may be multiple charanams in a
composition which make up different stanzas, but in compositions
that do not have an anupallavi, there often exists a samraashti
charanam that combines both the anupallavi and charanam of the
composition which directly follows the pallavi.

The charana swaras are grouped in four different ways:

 1st - one tala cycle.

 2nd - one tala cycle.
 3rd - two long tala cycles
 4th - four long tala cycles
Chittaswaram

In Indian classical music, chitta swaras are a set of solfa passages

(phrases of swaras). These are sung after the anupallavi and
charanam, in the krithis which enriches the beauty of the
composition. This is usually done by the performers and not by the
composers and in Carnatic music is an important improvisation
aspect (manodharma music).

Muktāyi swaram

Muktāyi swarams are the swaram phrases sung as swaram syllables

as part of a rendition, which does not have a corresponding lyrical
verse. This is more related to the songs for dance performances, like
Bharatanatyam.