UNIT TWO

“The aim of education should be to teach us rather how to think, than what to think – rather to improve our
minds, so as to enable us to think for ourselves, than to load the memory with the thoughts of other men.”

Bill Beattie

“We commit a fraud on students when we tell them that because they learn facts like dates, names and places,
they have acquired something worth knowing.”

J. Henze

CURRICULUM FOUNDATIONS

Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Explain what curriculum foundations are.

 Demonstrate an understanding of how curriculum foundations influence the curriculum development
process.
 Explain each of the components of the philosophical, psychological and sociocultural curriculum
foundations.
 Identify culturally induced biases in your society that affects the curriculum.

The Role of Curriculum Foundations

One of the most important questions that you may ask yourself is that; from where do curriculum developers obtain
their basic understanding of education and curriculum? Remember that developers’ thinking does not exist in a
vacuum, nor does the curriculum development of which they are an integral part. There exists a common pool of
information from which people draw their requirements and this database then becomes the foundation upon which
curriculum conceptualization is built. Thus, curriculum foundation may be defined as those basic forces that
influence and shape the minds of curriculum developers and hence the content and structure of the subsequent
curriculum.

SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS

The Sociological Foundation refers to issues from society that has an influence on curriculum.
Since the school exists within a given society; and the fact that the ‘products’ of the school i.e.
the ‘graduates’ go back to the society, makes the latter an inevitable determinant of the
curriculum.

IT IS CRYSTAL CLEAR THAT THE CURRICULUM CANNOT BE SEPARATED

FROM SOCIETY, SINCE THE SOCIETY IS NOT STATIC; THE CURRICULUM
CANNOT BE STATIC IF THE LEARNERS ARE TO KEEP PACE WITH THE
DYNAMIC NATURE OF THE SOCIETY.

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There are many aspects of the society that need consideration in curriculum making. These
include: Changes occurring in societal structures; Transmission of culture; social problems as
issues for Curriculum and Economics issues.

Societal changes

Changes that occur in the wider society and culture have an influence on curriculum. Changes
include:

 Family life disintegration in many of our African countries and globally; which forces the
schools to take on more responsibilities previously assumed by the family.

 Movements of the population, for instance, rural-urban migration.

These issues need consideration in curriculum development. Also, some of these issues affect
formal schooling for some people; necessitating the need for other modes of education, such as
distance education.

Let us now discuss some of those issues, starting with culture.

Transmission of Culture

Culture in any society incorporates valued traditions. In this context, curriculum can be
considered to be a reflection or a piece of the culture. These traditions include those in the wider
society as well as traditions upheld in the school system.

Influence of various Interest Groups.

Certain groups who have an influence on school curriculum include: Parents, religious groups
such as churches, Donors, Trade Unions, Boards of Governors and the media. Each of these
groups has certain values that they would want incorporated into the curriculum. As much as
possible, their inputs should be considered to ensure their support in curriculum implementation.

Social Problems as issues for curriculum

Every society battles with certain issues that have an influence on curriculum. These include:

 Equality and Equity issues; such as class systems in society; racial or ethnic issues;
Gender; issues of access to education and equality of opportunity. Factors that affect
equality of opportunity include financing of education, fees payments and distances to
schools.

 Crime, Delinquency and Security issues: The curriculum would need to focus on
knowledge, fairness and avoidance of the issues raised.

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  Health Issues: Health challenges in many parts of the world currently include HIV/Aids,
Drug abuse, pollution and other environmental issues, family life education including
Birth control and family planning. HIV/Aids has in many African countries wrecked
havoc leaving many learners as orphaned and vulnerable. Curriculum planning must take
that issue into consideration.

 Economic Issues. There is need to incorporate in the curriculum knowledge, skills and
attitudes that would facilitate economic growth at a personal and national level.

Political Dimension of Curriculum

It is important to acknowledge that education is essentially a political activity. The political

climate prevailing in a country is very important and significant in determining the type of
schooling and curriculum for the young. Education also has a political function; in that it
promotes ideologies which influence the power structure within society. It is noteworthy also
that political forces, the most powerful of which are associated with the government of the time,
are responsible for allocation of resources that are necessary to support a curriculum. Hence, the
need to take the politicians views into consideration in curriculum planning. In addition, a
curriculum worker is also likely to have a political and ideological stand in life that would
influence his/her decision making process in curriculum matters. (Shiundu & Omulando, 1992:
57).

HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

Historical foundations of curriculum refer to factors and issues from the past that have an
influence on the curriculum at present. For instance, the nature of the present curriculum in any
school system of education is influenced by the nature of the curriculum in the past. Both the
content and pedagogical practices are outgrowths of specific historical conditions. Additionally,
the various historical movements in education influence the current curriculum to some degree.

Some of the major forms of education in the past that are recognized globally in education
include:

 Traditional Education
 Ancient Education which includes: Greek Education, Roman education and Christian
Education
 Early Modern Era, which includes: Renaissance, Reformation and Enlightenment (Age of
Reason)
 Modern Era including: Progressivism Within the African context, education systems and
practices during the colonial era (for most of Africa) would have an influence on current
curriculum.

We shall now briefly highlight aspects of some of these types of education.

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Traditional Education

In all societies, traditional education was aimed at learning the ways of the parents. It was, and
still is in some communities, a very conservative form of education and emphasizes on
maintaining the status quo in society. The culture, traditions and practices of the people are
passed on from one generation to the next in methods that do not change much over the years.

In Zambia, for example, have communities that uphold traditional education dearly.

Ancient Era

The ancient era is often considered as being that of the Greek, the Roman, the Hebrew and the
Christian periods. The Greek education, which has influenced the current world systems of
education, is credited to the work of Socrates and other Greek scholars such as Aristotle. The
main aim of Greek education was

Good citizenship for the populace, who would support and defend the state and its laws;
development of a rational mind; and creativity.

The Roman Education in turn emphasized on equipping the citizenry with knowledge and skills
to defend the state; respect tradition; and highlighted the value of practical skills among other
aims of education. On the other hand, the Christian Education was focused on moral education
and character building.

Progressivism

With regard to progressivism, the emphasis was on a child – centred curriculum, which
necessitates a flexible broad curriculum. There was also an emphasis on practical skills.

In general, it is possible to identify elements of past education in the present day curricula in
many education systems within Africa and the rest of the world, depending on the past history.
For example, the colonial periods (where applicable) had a major influence on curriculum during
and post the colonial era.

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 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

Welcome to this section on psychological foundations of curriculum The Psychological

Foundations focus on insights gained from the field of psychology that have a bearing on the
learning process, and consequently on the curriculum.

Psychology of learning

Helps us to know:

 whether the children have developed adequately to be able to understand certain

concepts. i.e. Ed. Psychology enables us to follow the development of children e.g. lower
primary – children are at concrete stage.
 Methodology should be such that you have to use real objects to help them understand.

Abstract thinking and interpretation would need to come later.

Use of Psychology of learning in selecting objectives:

 Helps to identify and select those goals that are feasible from those that will likely take a
very long time – and are almost impossible to attain depending on the age level.
 Enables us to determine the length of time required for the attainment of a particular
objective and the age levels at which learning will take place most efficiently;
considering also the students.
 To determine the conditions necessary for the learning of certain types of objectives.
 Helps us to realize that most learning experiences produce multiple outcomes.
 Learning which are consistent with each other, which are in that sense integrated and
coherent, reinforce each other.

There are a variety of theories in the field of psychology. The most commonly used theories in
most educational systems are the cognitive theories, though they have their limitations. Let us
therefore examine some these in some detail.

Cognitive Theories

These are sometimes referred to as simply cognitive development theories or even human
development theories. These theories recognize that most of the learning in schools concentrates
on the cognitive dimension of learning. Jean Piaget (1896 – 1989), a Swiss psychologist, is
considered to be the hero of the human development theorists. He provided a comprehensive
view of cognitive growth and development of children as occurring in progressive stages; with a
fixed sequence and hierarchy of steps.

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These are:

1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to age 2 years)

Child progresses from reflex operations to complex sensorimotor actions in relation to the
environmental patterns. E.g. establishing simple relations between similar objects.

2. Pre-operational Stage (ages 2 to 7 years)

At this stage objects and events begin to take on symbolic meaning; e.g. a chair for sitting,
clothing is what we wear, oranges and bananas are fruits; etc.

3. Concrete Operations Stage (ages 7-11 years)

Here the child begins to organize data into logical relationships; and begins manipulating data in
problem – solving situations. Learning occurs only if CONCRETE objects are available; or
drawing from actual past experiences.

4. Formal Operations stage (ages 11-17 years)

Characterized by the development of formal and abstract operations; including:

- Analysis of ideas;

- Logical thinking about abstract data;

- Evaluation of data

- Hypothesizing etc.

Hereditary and environmental factors may speed up or slow down cognitive development; but
not change the sequence. Most curriculum specialists and learning theorists and teachers tend to
be cognitive oriented because:

1. The cognitive Approach constitutes a logical method for organizing and interpreting learning.

2. The approach is rooted in the tradition of subject matter.

3. Educators have been trained in cognitive approaches and better understand them in many
African countries and globally.

Note: Learning in school largely involves cognitive processes. Schools therefore tend to
emphasize the cognitive domain of learning at the expense of other aspects of learning, i.e.
affective and psychomotor. Schools should therefore be more humane places where students can
fulfill their human potential. Hence, let us now examine Humanistic psychology.

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Humanistic Psychology (Humanism)

Humanistic psychology is concerned about the human beings above all else in the universe; it
centers on helping people in various ways. This theory has given rise to a focus on:

 Affective education i.e. education about feelings, attitudes, and self-esteem

 Classification of values for curriculum
 Holistic approach to education
 Top priorities being choice (for students) and responsibility

Thus, the learner should have an awareness of self. That is, the concept we hold of ourselves i.e.
who we are, determines what we do; and the extent to which we learn. In other words, cognitive
performance will be influenced by self-concept. Some of the scholars associated with this theory
include: Maslow (1908 – 1970) and Carl Rogers.

In summary, each of the psychological theories is useful to curriculum planners as they seek
alternative approaches for preparing most useful curricula for learners.

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RESOURCES

Marzano, R. J. (2003). What works in schools: translating research into action [electronic
version]. Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 11, 106-
120.

Brown, J. L. (2004), Making the most of Understanding by design [electronic version].

Alexandria, Va. : Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2, 38-57.

Parkay, F.W, Hass G. (2000). Curriculum Planning: A contemporary Approach. Boston, Ma. :
Allyn and Bacon, 2, 45-93.

Alder, Nora (2006). Secondary Curriculum course pack Virginia Commonwealth University.
Chong, A., Farago, C. (2005). Encouraging Participation in the Multicultural Classroom.
Retrieved September 12, 2006, from University of Colorado: http://www.
colorado.edu/ftep/diversity/div09.html “The existing practice [of curriculum development] is
perplexing; no one knows on what principle we should proceed – should the useful in life, or
should virtue, or should the higher knowledge, be the aim of our training; all three opinions have
been entertained”. Aristotle 128 Brush,

C., Haynes, J. (2005). Developing a Multicultural Curriculum. Retrieved September 14, 2006
from EverythingESL.net http://www.everythingesl.net/inservices/multicultural_curr.php

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 PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES

INTRODUCTION: MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy means “the love of wisdom”. It is a dedicated pursuit of wisdom through a systematic
inquiry into the nature and meaning of the universe and of human life. Philosophy of education is
the study of key philosophical ideas that have influenced educational thought and developments
in the world. This chapter introduces philosophical perspectives on education by discussing five
major educational thoughts or philosophies (Idealism, Realism, Pragmatism, Existentialism, and
Postmodernism) and five main educational theories (Perennialism, essentialism, progressivism,
Reconstructionism, and critical theory). Key concepts and educational implications are
highlighted for each of the educational philosophies and theories. Educational philosophies
originate from general philosophical systems and are comprehensive and in-depth, while
educational theories are specific and formulated to serve the educational needs in the curriculum,
teaching and learning. Educational philosophies refer to complete bodies of thought that present
a worldview of which education is a part, while educational theories focus on education itself
and on schools (Ornstein & Levine, 2003). Table 2.1 shows the connection between the five
educational philosophies and five educational theories:

Table 2.1 Links between Education Philosophies and Education Theories

Educational Philosophy Educational Theory

Idealism Perennialism (rooted in Idealism and Realism)

Realism Essentialism (rooted in Idealism and Realism)

Pragmatism Progressivism (rooted in Pragmatism)

Reconstructionism (rooted in Pragmatism

Existentialism Critical theory (rooted in Postmodernism and

Existentialism)
Postmodernism

FUNCTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Philosophy of education performs various functions. They area discussed below:

A] Determining the aims of education

Philosophy of education provides original ideas regarding all aspects of education particularly
educational aims. It is said that educational philosophy gives different views, but this situation is
not harmful, rather it helps in providing education according to the need of society. The

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difference in view of philosophy of education reflects the multiplicity and diversities of human
life. Philosophy of education guides the process of education by suggesting suitable aims from
the diversities of life and selecting the means accordingly.

B] Harmonizing old and new traditions in the field of education- In the process of social
development the old traditions become outdated for the people. They are replaced by the new
traditions. But this process of replacement is not always smooth. It is faced with lots of
opposition from certain orthodox sections of the society. At the same time it must be kept in
mind that every 'old' is not outdated and every 'new' is not perfect Therefore, there is a need of
co-coordinating the two in order to maintain the harmony between both. This function can be
performed by philosophy of education.

C] Providing the educational planners, administrators and educators with the progressive
vision to achieve educational development: - Spencer has rightly pointed that only a true
philosopher can give a practical shape to education. Philosophy of education provides the
educational planners, administrators and educators with the right vision which guides them to
attain the educational goals efficiently.

D] Preparing the young generation to face the challenges of the modern time:- Social
commentators have given many labels to the present period of history for some it is the
information age and for others it is post modernity, later modernity, high modernity or even the
age of uncertainty. One more addition to this list may be that 'present age is an age of
Globalization as a phenomenon arrived on the economic scene in the 1990 in India. This
watchword has had its implications in the social political, economic fabric of the country of
which education is a part. Philosophy of education is a guiding, steering and liberating force that
helps young people to and society at large to face the challenges of the modern time.

FIVE PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION

(1) IDEALISM

The educational philosophy of Idealism is one of the oldest educational philosophies, going back
to Socrates and Plato in ancient Greece. Other proponents include Rene Descartes, George
Berkeley, Immanuel Kant, Georg W. F. Hegel, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David
Thoreau.

Idealism teaches that ideas are the only true reality, and that truth and values are absolute and
universal. Idealists argue that the aim of education is to develop the intellectual capacity of the
students by helping them to appreciate broad and enduring ideas and principles.

The school is seen as an intellectual institution for students to explore and discover truth. The
emphasis is on cognitive development, not vocational training. In terms of curriculum, subjects
should be taught with an emphasis on abstract principles, holistic learning and interdisciplinary

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approach. Teaching and learning should be done in stages with the purpose of preparing students
to see the ideas that underpin reality. This means that at the elementary level, students should
learn basic skills such as the 3 Rs – reading, writing, and arithmetic, acquire desired habits of
mind such as the passion to learn, open-mindedness and perseverance.

From the secondary level onwards, the curriculum should focus on subjects that introduce
enduring concepts to students. Great works in philosophy, history, literature, politics and culture
are especially valued. While mathematics and science should be taught, the aim is to help
students grasp the abstract mathematical principles and scientific theories so that students can
understand the ideas that underlie the various disciplines. Believing that everyone should know
reality through a study of true ideas, the Idealists advocate that everyone should attend school.
However, the emphasis on the intellectual development of students means that not everyone is
capable of achieving the intellectual standards set by the Idealists. One criticism of Idealism is
that it promotes intellectual elitism where only a gifted minority of intellectuals are valued in
society (Ornstein & Levine, 2003). This in turn may lead to a neglect of the students’ emotional
and social needs (Ozmon & Craver, 2003).

What are the implications for teachers? For the Idealists, the teacher is one who is respected
for his or her knowledge of the absolute and universal ideas. He or she is able to teach the key
concepts and principles from the classics, patiently guide the students in their search for truth,
and skilfully promote thinking in the students. While the teacher may use a variety of teaching
methods such as lectures, small group discussion and project work, the goal is to encourage the
students to understand the ideas and think for themselves, and not merely regurgitate the
information in order to pass the exams. The Socratic Method is especially suitable for the
purpose of stimulating the learner’s awareness of ideas with the teacher asking leading questions
(Ornstein & Levine, 2003). Teachers should also set good examples by being knowledgeable,
modelling the spirit of inquiry and living out the desirable moral qualities.

As an example of an idealist lesson, consider how a primary school teacher could introduce the
concept of gravity in a science lesson on gravity to his or her students in the classroom. The
teacher could get students to explore the principle of gravity by studying Newton’s experiments
on gravity along with examples of different instances of gravity at work. The aim would be to
encourage the students to reflect on how the principle of gravity works rather than drilling them
with test questions from worksheets. Another example would be a history class in a secondary
school on the principle of change and continuity in historical events. The focus of such a lesson
would not be on the memorization of historical facts, but on grasping the enduring themes in
history. By getting students to read about great civilizations in the ancient world of India,
Southeast Asia and China, the teacher could lead them to explore how the principle of change
and continuity is reflected in these civilizations.

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 (2) REALISM LIKE IDEALISM,

Realism has a long history dating back to Aristotle in ancient Greece. The other well-known
proponents include Thomas Aquinas, Francis Bacon, Alfred North Whitehead, and Bertrand
Russell. The realists posit that reality is found in the physical world that we live in, and that
knowledge is gained through reason and experience. Knowledge obtained from scientific
research and discovery is particularly useful and such knowledge is instrumental for us to survive
and succeed in life. Schools are seen as academic institutions to develop the students’ abilities in
reasoning, observation and experimentation. The function of schools is to train and prepare
professionals and technicians in a society where professionalism and technical skills are highly
prized (Ozmon & Craver, 2003).

The curriculum is systematic, organized and classified under different subject-matter disciplines
such as languages, mathematics, and science. While all students at the elementary level should
learn the basic skills of reading, writing, arithmetic, and moral values, they should subsequently
specialize in various areas of study. Higher ability students should be given a liberal education in
the arts and sciences, while weaker students should be channeled to vocational training (The case
of the 2013 curriculum framework: academic and vocational pathways)

Preferring theory to practice, Realists rate the study of theoretical subjects in liberal education
higher than practical subjects in technical vocational training (Ornstein & Levine, 2003). Realists
believe in using quantifiable yardsticks in assessment. These include various types of diagnostic,
competency and achievement tests for both students and teachers. While Realism has been
credited with promoting a down-to earth form of education that prepares students for a
knowledge-based economy, it has been criticized for valuing cognitive development at the
expense of other forms of development in students. For example, the feelings and emotions of
students are often ignored and undeveloped under the realist model, leading to students being
subservient to the curriculum or to narrowly defined standards of excellence (Ozmon & Craver,
2003).

The Realists see teachers as experts in the various disciplines. Such a teacher knows the subject
thoroughly, is skilful in explaining the content to the students and in assessing the students’
understanding. Such a teacher does not teach what the students are interested in, but what is
essential to develop their reasoning powers so that they can gain knowledge of the world of
nature. Materials should be presented in an orderly and organized manner, and content is based
on facts, reason and practical use. Clearly defined criteria in the various subject matter are taught
to students, and they are formally assessed in standardized achievement tests. For example, a
mathematics teacher in a primary school will teach about multiplication by explaining the rule
and providing examples with the help of pictures or manipulative. He or she then gets the

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students to complete some exercises, and goes through the answers with them. A test is set at the
end to appraise the students’ understanding of multiplication.

(3) PRAGMATISM

Also known as Experimentalism, Pragmatism was introduced by writers such as Charles S.

Peirce, William James, George Herbert Mead, and John Dewey. While Idealists see reality as
residing in true ideas, and Realists view reality in terms of the world of nature.

Pragmatists argue that reality is always changing and is dependent on what we observe and
experience. Knowledge claims and even values are not permanent and absolute, but are tentative
and subject to revision. Rather than searching for universal ideas, it is more pragmatic to focus
on using knowledge to help us achieve our desired outcomes.

In the context of education, schools should help students to grow. Through activities, problems,
resolutions to the problems, and a network of social relationships, students will grow by learning
more effective, meaningful and satisfying ways to deal with a changing reality and to direct the
course of their own lives (Gutek, 2004). To achieve the educational goal of growth, schools
should not be just academic institutions; they are social institutions to prepare students for
democratic living. As a miniature community, the school offers opportunities for teachers and
students to engage in active learning, experiment with new ways of thinking and doing, solve
problems, and build social consensus. Rather than stressing knowledge of traditions and cultural
heritage, the Pragmatists prefer content and activities that are relevant to the students’ interests,
needs and problems.

The curriculum should be inter-disciplinary, integrated and action-oriented, rather than divided
into specialized and theoretical subjects. However, the weakness of a pragmatic form of
education is that it may deprecate the acquisition of knowledge and water down the curriculum
since there is no in-depth exploration of specific disciplines (Ozmon & Craver, 2003). Some
educators are also uncomfortable with the pragmatic claim that all knowledge claims and values
are tentative and changeable. They are concerned that this might lead to a relativistic and
situational approach to life problems (ibid.).

The ideal teacher for the Pragmatists is one who helps the students to grow by empowering them
with the knowledge, skills and dispositions to make intelligent decisions in life. Such a teacher is
not confined to the textbook or a fixed body of knowledge. He or she is able to introduce topics
that students are interested in and can relate to in their lives. Rather than being a dispenser of
knowledge, the teacher is a resource person and facilitator to guide the students in active
learning. The teacher provides a conducive learning environment, encourages openness and

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collaboration among the students, scaffolds the students’ learning, and guides the students in
applying their knowledge to their problems. For example, a social studies teacher in a secondary
school could encourage students to do a project on the problem of racial riots. Students would
adopt a cross-disciplinary approach where they research into the historical, geographical, social,
cultural and economic factors involved in the racial riots that take place. Their investigations
could include literature review, interviews, surveys and other experimental approaches to the
topic. The teacher serves as a facilitator by alerting them to relevant resourcses, providing
suggestions on the project, and giving feedback on their work.

(4) EXISTENTIALISM

As the name implies, Existentialism is concerned with issues relating to one’s existence. Its key
ideas originate from existential philosophers such as Soren Kierkegaard, F. W. Nietzche, Martin
Buber, Karl Jaspers, and Jean-Paul Sartre.

Existentialists reject universal and absolute ideas and hold that reality is constructed by the
individual. The knowledge that one needs to pursue is the knowledge about the human condition
and the personal choices one makes (Ornstein & Levine, 2003). To this end, schools should
recognize that every student is a free, unique, and sentient being with personal fears, hopes and
aspirations. Existentialists are critical of schools that overlook and suppress this individuality in
students and view students as a collective and passive whole to serve the needs of society. Rather
than dehumanizing them, schools should provide a broad education with many options for
students to explore, reflect on and articulate their convictions. There is no fixed curriculum for
the Existentialists; the content and pedagogy is determined by the needs and preference of the
students. However, the humanities and arts are especially useful in drawing the students’
attention to the issues, challenges, dilemmas and problems that human beings face. They also
provide an avenue for students to express their choices in creative ways such as through drama,
drawing and creative writing. By focusing on the individual experiences, however,
Existentialism has been criticised for neglecting the needs of community and society, leading to
selfishness and egoism (Ozmon & Craver, 2003).

The existentialist teacher is one who respects the individual freedom and choice of the student.
Open-minded and reflective, the teacher creates a learning environment where both teachers and
students are free to reflect, ask questions and engage in philosophical dialogue about issues and
moral choices in life. Real-life examples of struggles faced by individuals could be introduced
through a variety of means such as literature, films and music. The teacher does not prescribe
answers to the problems, recognizing instead that the responses vary from individual to
individual, and are contingent on particular contexts, life situations and institutional constraints.
In terms of assessment, the Existentialists eschew standardized testing, viewing it as a rigid,

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inaccurate and tyrannical method that restricts the interpersonal relationship between teacher and
students, and among the students (Gutek, 2004). Instead, the teacher should adopt authentic
assessment where students are free to set their own assessment, and produce creative
assignments such as creative writing, paintings or a portfolio. An example of an existentialist
lesson is a moral education lesson in a secondary school where the teacher shows the film Life is
Beautiful, about a family that was imprisoned by the Nazis during the Holocaust. In order to
protect his young son, the father constructed an elaborate lie to keep the truth from his son. After
watching the film, the teacher could let the students reflect on the choices made by the father in
lying to his young son, and the issues, dilemmas and consequences highlighted in the film. The
learning process could be in the form of individual reflection, journaling, group discussion or
role-play. By reflecting on and discussing the moral dilemma involved in lying, students are
encouraged to make their own moral stand and be responsible for their own actions.

FIVE MAIN THEORIES OF EDUCATION

(1) PERENNIALISM

As mentioned earlier, educational theories are specific and focused on educational components
such as curriculum, teaching and learning. Educational theories are rooted in one or more
educational philosophies. The first educational theory is Perennialism, which is rooted in
Idealism and Realism.

Leading proponents include Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler. The influence of Idealism is
seen in the perennialists advocating that the aim of education is to help students know and
internalize ideas and values which are universal and lasting. The focus is on knowledge that is
perennial – ideas which has endured through time and space. Its realist influence is seen in its
emphasis on cultivating the students’ reason and developing their intellectual powers.

The role of schools, for the perennialists, is to train a group of intellectual elite. They are
expected to be grounded in the classics and the traditions of the community, and charged with
passing this on to a new generation of learners (Ellis, Cogan & Howey, 1991). The great books
and the classics of art, music and literature are especially important as they are seen as capturing
the essence of the human search for what is true, good and beautiful (Gutek, 2004). The
perennialists also favour a subject-matter-based curriculum where the students are incrementally
taught the skills and inculcated with the disposition to appreciate the classics. The teaching
materials, learning activities, and pedagogy are not dependent on the students’ interests, but on
what is necessary to enhance their intellectual capacity. As perennialists believe that all students
should receive a liberal education, they are against streaming where some students receive purely
vocational and technical training.

What are the implications for teachers? A good teacher, for the perennialists, is one who is
liberally educated, knowledgeable, and intellectually and morally exemplary. Students at the
elementary level should be taught basic skills in literacy and numeracy, before proceeding to

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study subjects such as literature, history, science and mathematics. Students should also
understand the underlying ideas and enduring human concerns in all the subjects in an integrated
manner. A perennialists teacher is able to develop the students’ rationality by teaching from great
works of Western civilization using appropriate pedagogical methods. He or she maintains high
academic standards and is skilful in drawing out truths which are timeless and permanent in the
subject-matter. For example, a literature teacher in a secondary school should be well-versed in
the works of Shakespeare and able to teach the text by highlighting the enduring themes of love,
passion and conflict in the characters. Such a teacher would be able to demonstrate his or her
love for literature, and would be passionate about sharing his or her views on these issues that
concern all human beings throughout history.

(2) ESSENTIALISM

The second educational theory, essentialism, shares a number of similarities with Perennialism.
It originated from William C. Bagley and is also rooted in Idealism and Realism. Like
Perennialism, it emphasizes the importance of teaching essential and enduring knowledge
accumulated through the ages and encapsulated in the great works of art, music and literature. As
mentioned, a central feature of Idealism is the emphasis on universal and permanent ideas. The
function of schools for the essentialists is to transmit cultural and historical heritage to students,
with the appropriate skills, attitudes and values (Ellis, Cogan & Howey, 1991). Its Realist
influence is seen in the essentialist accent on the mastery of facts and concepts in order for the
students to understand the surrounding physical world. The curriculum is similar to the
perennialists in being subject-centred. The essentialists oppose interdisciplinary studies such as
language arts and social studies as they prefer differentiated and specialized subjects developed
and organized by experts (Gutek, 2004). The curriculum is determined by the traditions and
heritage that the students need to master, rather than the interests of the students. The essential
skills and subjects will also prepare them for advanced education, the world of work, and
effective social and political participation (Gutek, 2004).

The essentialist teacher, like the perennialists teacher, is an expert in his or her subject field and
an exemplar of intellectual pursuit and moral character. Such a teacher is also able to maintain
discipline, order and control in the classroom, and teach the subject in a systematic and coherent
way, with a focus on the essential facts to be learnt. The teacher sets high academic standards for
his or her students, and is adept at setting appropriate standardized tests to assess the students’
competence. Students in elementary schools are given a good grounding in reading, writing and
arithmetic, and subsequently an in-depth study of core subjects such as the languages,
humanities, sciences and mathematics. Discipline is a key characteristic of essentialism –
students are expected to learn discipline, civility and respect for legitimate authority so that they
can function effectively as members of civilized society (Ornstein & Levine, 2003). The students
are expected to meet high academic standards and are assessed through various competency

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tests. An example of an essentialist lesson is a science lesson where the teacher is able to explain
a scientific concept logically, conduct an experiment to illustrate the scientific principle, identify
the essential truth involved, and assess the students with appropriate test questions. While
Perennialism and essentialism are similar, there are some differences between them. While
perennialists see wisdom originating from human rationality, essentialists see it coming from
tested human experience (Ornstein & Levine, 2003). The primary purpose of education for the
perennialists is the absorption of ideas, with the teacher being an example of values and ideals.
The essentialists, on the other hand, highlight the importance of the absorption and mastery of
facts and skills, and the teacher’s role as a mental disciplinarian and moral leader (Ellis, Cogan &
Howey, 1991)

(3) PROGRESSIVISM

Progressivism is an American educational philosophy used to meet the needs and challenges in
education in the late 19th and early 20th century. Its proponents include Charles S. Peirce,
William James, and John Dewey. It is a distinctively American thought in its emphasis on
preparing students for active participation in a liberal democratic system. Progressivists wanted
to offer an alternative approach to education as they found the prevailing schooling at that time
to be too teacher-centred and rigid, with the students having to study organized body of subjects
that they had no interest in under an authoritarian system. They hold that there are no universal
and unchanging knowledge and values to be passed down through the generations, since
knowledge and values are dependent on human experiences which are contingent. The belief that
reality is always changing and that knowledge and values are relative shows the influence of
Pragmatism. Its Pragmatist roots are also reflected in the progressives’ emphasis on schools
being social agencies to provide the skills and attitudes for students to participate in a
democracy. Students need the wherewithal to interact with an environment that is constantly
changing. Problem-solving skills are especially crucial for the individuals to confront their
personal and social problems. Rather than learning from a fixed curriculum, students should
acquire communication skills, mathematical processes and scientific methods of inquiry (Ellis,
Cogan & Howey, 1991). The curriculum should be interdisciplinary since problems by nature are
multi-dimensional and involve answers from a variety of subject-matter.

The progressive teacher is like a Pragmatist teacher: he or she is a facilitator and guide to help
the students in their problem-solving. The teacher is effective in using a repertoire of learning
activities such as problem-solving, field trips, creative artistic expressions and projects to get
students to work on activities based on their shared experience (Ornstein & Levine, 2003). Such
a teacher plans the curriculum based on the students’ interests and needs rather than on great
works or classics, and creates a flexible, student-centred and creative learning environment with
a stress on collaboration rather than competition. Attention is given not only to the students’
academic learning, but to the holistic development of the whole child – emotionally, physically,
socially and intellectually (Gutek, 2004). An example is an English language teacher in a
primary school who guides his or her students in a group project on environmental protection.
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The teacher could introduce the project topic by using films, newspaper articles and songs on the
environment, or even invite speakers from environmental groups to the school. The students are
encouraged to take the initiative in researching into the topic and presenting the project in
creative ways, with the teacher acting as a resource facilitator. A democratic system is
maintained throughout with the students working collaboratively in groups, sharing ideas, and
resolving differences through dialogue and guidance from the teacher.

(4) RECONSTRUCTIONISM

Like progressivism, Reconstructionism or social Reconstructionism is rooted in Pragmatism. In

fact, it grew out of the progressive movement in education as the constructivists were dissatisfied
with certain aspects of progressivism. Its proponents include George S. Counts and Theodore
Brameld. Its Pragmatist root is seen in its conception of schools as social agencies rather than
mere academic institutions. They are critical of traditional schooling with predetermined
curriculum and instruction that reinforces the status quo. Instead, Reconstructionist and
progressives are united in believing that students should be empowered to solve personal and
social problems. But the Reconstructionist want schools to do more to solve the problems that
plague the world today.

In his 1932 book, Dare the Schools Build a New Social Order? George S. Counts argues that
schools should be the Centre’s for the reconstruction of society and the creation of a new social
order. This can be achieved only when students are aware of global social, economic and
political problems such as poverty, warfare, famine and terrorism, are equipped with the
necessary skills to solve these problems, and are convicted to create a new world order. By
fostering ideals through curricular, administrative and instructional practices, schools will serve
as models for the rest of society by adopting these ideals (Ozmon & Craver, 2003). A
Reconstructionist programme of education critically examines controversial issues, cultivates a
planning attitude in teachers and students, and enlists them in social, educational, political and
economic change as means of total cultural renewal (Ornstein & Levine, 2003). Constructivists
favour multicultural education, believing that students need to go beyond their inherited culture
to construct a larger sense of identity and purpose.

Reconstructionist teachers are similar to Progressivists teachers in their goal to nurture students
who are concerned with personal and global problems, educated and ready to change society. A
multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary curriculum is adopted with the teacher referring to various
disciplines such as history, politics, economics and science. The teacher should be a social
activist who is internationally oriented and humanitarian in his or her outlook, and confident in
engaging students in action projects of all kinds (Ozmon & Craver, 2003). Such a teacher not
only motivates the students to investigate pressing and controversial issues and problems and
provide alternatives to them; he or she also encourages their students to be actively involved in

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community projects. For example, a teacher teaching the topic of terrorism in a citizenship
education lesson could adopt a Reconstructionist approach. The teacher could discuss the threat
and problem of terrorism in Southeast Asia. Drawing on historical, religious, cultural, social,
economic and political perspectives, the teacher could explain the origin and motivations of
terrorist groups such as Jemaah Islamiyah (JI). This awareness would lead the students to discuss
possible ways for countries in Southeast Asia to tackle the problem of terrorism. Students are
also encouraged to carry out social projects such as inviting experts on terrorism to give talks in
schools, and producing brochures to educate the public on terrorism

(5) CRITICAL THEORY

Critical theory is rooted in Existentialism and Postmodernism, with influences also from
Marxism. Leading critical theorists include Henry A. Giroux, Peter L. McLaren, Ivan Illich and
Paulo Freire. Critical theory is “critical” in the sense that it aims to analyses social and
educational conditions in schools and society in order to surface exploitative power relationships,
and introduce reforms that will produce equality, fairness and justice (Gutek, 2004).

Critical theory is predicated on the Marxist premise that human history was a struggle for
economic and social control, and that educational institutions are used by powerful groups to
control those who lack power (Ornstein & Levine, 2003). This conflict over control of
curriculum and teaching, and the need to elevate the status of marginalized groups, echo the
concerns of Postmodernism. Critical theorists share the same belief as the Reconstructionist in
arguing that schools should be Centre’s of social change. Its Existentialist influence is evident in
its emphasis on the students’ own experiences, history, identities and struggles. Drawing from
Existentialism and Postmodernism, critical theorists oppose the transmission of a fixed body of
traditional knowledge, ideas and values, believing them to be the views of those in power. They
are also skeptical of the hidden curriculum which refers to the values, behavior and attitudes
conveyed to and imposed on students through the milieu and practices of the school in a
capitalist consumer-oriented society. Instead, they advocate a flexible and multidisciplinary
curriculum which is based on the students’ own experiences. Such a curriculum includes the
viewpoints of all groups, especially neglected groups such as the oppressed poor, women,
Africans, Asians, gays and lesbians. A good teacher, for the critical theorists, is one who does
not reinforce the traditional way of teaching and learning from a prescribed curriculum. Instead,
he or she selects the teaching materials and corresponding pedagogy and activities with the
students’ life stories as the starting point. A plurality of voices is encouraged with students from
different ethnic, language, class and gender groups offering their perspectives.

The teacher is able to guide the students in exploring various constructions of knowledge from
varied perspectives. He or she also assists the students in achieving their own identity and
working towards greater equality and justice for all. Critical theorists see the role of teachers as
effecting changes for fellow teachers. Giroux and McLaren (1989) identify the following agenda
for teacher empowerment in critical theory (p. xxiii, quoted in Ornstein & Levine, 2003, p. 119):

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 1. fighting for genuine school reform that will give teachers power over teaching and
learning;

2. engaging in collaborative research with other teachers to reconceptualise curriculum

and instruction;

3. studying the culturally diverse peoples in the communities whose children the
schools educate;

4. organizing community Centre’s for collaborative action with community members;

5. engaging in critical dialogues with students about the realities of politics, economics,
and culture;

6. giving more power in schools to teachers; and

7. Involving schools in attempts to solve society’s major problems such as racial or

gender discrimination, drug abuse, teenage pregnancy, illiteracy, poverty, and
inadequate health care.

An example of a lesson based on critical theory is a lesson on social cohesion in a multi-ethnic

countries. The teacher could encourage students of different races (e.g. Chinese, Malay, Indian
and Eurasian) or different religions (e.g. Buddhism, Taoism, Christianity, Islam and Hinduism)
to share what it means to be a member of that race or religion. The focus is not on the superficial
aspects of a race or religion, but on the lived experiences of the students in a setting that is non-
judgmental and empathetic. Students from a minority race or religion should be given the
opportunity to share about their personal, family and community experiences and surface any
form of concerns and problems they face. Through the discussions and dialogues, students would
be able to see the similarities and differences among themselves, and create their own reflections
and representations regarding race or religion.

CONCLUSION: IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATORS

This chapter introduced five major educational thoughts or philosophies (Idealism, Realism,
Pragmatism, Existentialism, and Postmodernism) and five main educational theories
(perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, reconstructionism, and critical theory) .

The salient points and practical implications of these philosophies and theories were also
discussed. An inquiry into the philosophical foundations of education is essential for educators to
be clear about their personal educational philosophy. For teachers, one’s views regarding the aim
of education, the functions of school, the role of teachers, the role of students, the purpose of

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teaching and learning, and the nature of interaction between teachers and students are dependent
on the teacher’s own educational philosophy and thought. For school principals and other school
leaders, their vision and mission for the school or department, the type of curriculum, teaching
materials, pedagogy, and the choice of enrichment activities for the staff and students are also
linked to their educational philosophy and theory. One good exercise for the educator is to reflect
on and write down his or her educational philosophy based on one or a combination of
educational philosophies presented in this chapter. This will help clarify the educator’s
conviction, values and direction in the teaching profession, thereby sustaining his or her passion
to teach and lead. Knowledge of the various educational philosophies and theories can also help
educators analyses and solve current educational issues, challenges and problems. For example,
there have been concerns about the unsatisfactory academic standards in American schools in the
past few decades. Some scholars attribute the cause to the failure of American public schools to
teach students the basic skills and knowledge based on a fixed curriculum.

According to these scholars, the adoption of student-centred learning, interdisciplinary

curriculum, experiential learning, and moral and cultural relativism in schools have led to an
erosion of academic competence in students. What could be the solution to this problem? The
report, “A Nation at Risk”, submitted during the presidency of Ronald Reagan in the 1980s
recommended that all high school students be required to complete a curriculum of “Five New
Basics” comprising four years of English, three years of mathematics, three years of social
studies and one-half year of computer science (Gutek, 2004). The No Child Left Behind Act
passed in 2001, advocated the use of standardized testing to assess the students’ achievements
and teachers’ accountability (Gutek, 2004; Ornstein & Levine, 2003). Readers would recognize
that this is basically the educational philosophy of Essentialism, with an emphasis on a set of
essential skills, knowledge and values taught and assessed through standardized tests.

Schools are seen as academic institutions entrusted with the function of equipping students with
the requisite skills and knowledge for the world of work and life based on a subject-matter
curriculum. The education system is also highly stratified, with higher ability students streamed
into a liberal education in the arts and sciences, and weaker students channeled to vocational
training. However, the recent call for schools to “teach less, learn more” under the “Thinking
Schools, Learning Nation” vision launched appears to signal a shift towards a Pragmatist
approach in teaching and learning. With more changes and reforms in the educational landscape,
teachers and school leaders can expect more educational issues and challenges. An awareness of
the philosophical perspectives on education will go a long way towards helping educators
understand these issues and challenges, and respond to them reflectively and meaningfully.

REFERENCES

Ellis, A. K., Cogan, J. J., & Howey, K. R. (1991). Introduction to the foundations of education
(3rd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

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 Giroux, H. A., & McLaren, P. L. (1989). Schooling, cultural politics, and the struggle for
democracy. In H. A. Giroux & P. L. McLaren (Eds.), Critical pedagogy, the state, and cultural
struggle. New York: State University of New York.

Gutek, G. L. (2004). Philosophical and ideological voices in education. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.

Ornstein, A. C., & Levine, D. U. (2003). Foundations of education (8th ed.). Boston:

Houghton-Mifflin. Ozmon, H. A., & Craver, S. M. (2003). Philosophical foundations of

education (7th ed.). New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.

Gutek, G. L. (2004). Philosophical and ideological voices in education. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon. Ozmon, H. A., & Craver, S. M. (2003). Philosophical foundations of education (7th ed.).
New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.

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