PEB1012 – Introduction to the Oil and Gas Industry

& Sustainable Development

INTRODUCTION TO OIL & GAS EXPLORATION

© 2012 INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PETRONAS SDN BHD

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 OUTLINE PEB1012

• Origin of Petroleum
– Rock Cycle
– Sedimentary basins
– Conventional and unconventional reservoirs

• Petroleum System
– Source rock
– Reservoir rock
– Seal Rock
– Overburden rock

• Exploration Techniques
– Magnetic techniques
– Gravimetric survey
– Seismic method

• Exploration and Appraisal Well

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 INTRODUCTION PEB1012

Origin of Petroleum

• Rock cycle
• Sedimentary basins
• Conventional and unconventional reservoirs

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 ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM PEB1012

ROCK CYCLE

o Source : http://www.cotf.edu/ete/mod ules/msese/earthsysflr/rock.h tml

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ROCK CYCLE

•The Rock Cycle is a group of changes. Igneous rock can change into sedimentary rock or into metamorphic
rock. Sedimentary rock can change into metamorphic rock or into igneous rock. Metamorphic rock can
change into igneous or sedimentary rock.

•Igneous rock forms when magma cools and makes crystals. Magma is a hot liquid made of melted minerals.
The minerals can form crystals when they cool. Igneous rock can form underground, where the magma cools
slowly. Or, igneous rock can form above ground, where the magma cools quickly.

•When it pours out on Earth's surface, magma is called lava. Yes, the same liquid rock matter that you see
coming out of volcanoes.

•On Earth's surface, wind and water can break rock into pieces. They can also carry rock pieces to another
place. Usually, the rock pieces, called sediments, drop from the wind or water to make a layer. The layer can
be buried under other layers of sediments. After a long time the sediments can be cemented together to
make sedimentary rock. In this way, igneous rock can become sedimentary rock.

•All rock can be heated. But where does the heat come from? Inside Earth there is heat from pressure and
friction. There is also heat from radioactive decay (the process that gives us nuclear power plants that make
electricity).

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ROCK CYCLE

•So, what does the heat do to the rock? It bakes the rock.
•Baked rock does not melt, but it does change. It forms crystals. If it has crystals already, it forms larger
crystals. Because this rock changes, it is called metamorphic. Metamorphosis can occur in rock when they
are heated to 300 to 700 degrees Celsius.
•When Earth's tectonic plates move around, they produce heat. When they collide, they build mountains and
metamorphose the rock.
•The rock cycle continues. Mountains made of metamorphic rocks can be broken up and washed
away by streams. New sediments from these mountains can make new sedimentary rock.
•The rock cycle never stops.

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 ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM PEB1012

World Sedimentary Basins

Deep water Shallow water - offshore Shallow water - onshore Cratonic areas

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 ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM PEB1012

SEDIMENTARY BASINS
World Sedimentary Basins
•The official definition of a sedimentary basin is: a low area in the Earth’s crust, of tectonic origin, in which
sediments accumulate. Sedimentary basins range in size from as small as hundreds of meters to large parts
of ocean basins. The essential element of the concept is tectonic creation of relief, to provide both a source
of sediment and a relatively low place for the deposition of that sediment.
• Source : https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/earth-atmospheric-and-planetary-sciences/12-110-sedimentary-geology- spring-2007/lecture-
notes/ch11.pdf

•A depression in the crust of the Earth formed by plate tectonic activity in which sediments accumulate.
Continued deposition can cause further depression or subsidence. Sedimentary basins, or simply basins,
vary from bowl-shaped to elongated troughs. If rich hydrocarbon source rocks occur in combination with
appropriate depth and duration of burial, hydrocarbon generation can occur within the basin.
• Source : http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/Terms/s/sedimentary_basin.aspx

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World Sedimentary Basins

CONVENTIONAL AND UNCONVENTIONAL RESERVOIRS

o Source : https://www.croftsystems.net/oil-gas-blog/conventional-vs.- unconventional

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World Sedimentary Basins

CONVENTIONAL RESERVOIRS
•Conventional oil and gas is simply known as the
traditional way to drill for raw natural gas, crude
oil, and petroleum. After a well is drilled, oil and
gas is extracted by the natural pressure from the
wells and pumping operations. Over time, the
well may decrease in production. At this time, a
conventional well will use an artificial lift or
water and gas injections to help increase
production.
•After production gets to a point where the
profits of oil are not enough to cover expenses,
the well will usually stop production. If methods
beyond an artificial lift or classic methods are
used to increase production, then it would be
classified at unconventional oil.

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World Sedimentary Basins

UNCONVENTIONAL RESERVOIRS
•Sometimes unconventional drilling methods are
used due to increasing scarcity of retrieving oil
and gas using conventional methods. Not
always, is the oil and gas available to be
retrieved by drilling and pressure naturally
allowing the flow of gas.
•In this case, unconventional drilling comes in
handy. Unconventional is a method that allows to
drill down, drill horizontally, and fracking occurs.
•This allows oil and gas to be flowing from tight
sands that we normally could not retrieve with
conventional methods of drilling.

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PETROLEUMSYSTEM PEB1012

World Sedimentary Basins

oSource rock
oReservoir rock
oSeal rock
oOverburden rock

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 PETROLEUMSYSTEM PEB1012

SOURCE ROCK
oA rock rich in organic matter which, if heated sufficiently, will generate oil or gas. Typical source rocks, usually shales or
limestones, contain about 1% organic matter andWorld Sedimentary
at least Basins
0.5% total organic carbon (TOC), although a rich source rock
might have as much as 10% organic matter.
oRocks of marine origin tend to be oil-prone, whereas terrestrial source rocks (such as coal) tend to be gas-prone.
Preservation of organic matter without degradation is critical to creating a good source rock, and necessary for a
complete petroleum system.
oUnder the right conditions, source rocks may also be reservoir rocks, as in the case of shale gas reservoirs.

Source : http://spe-sc.ft.ugm.ac.id/w/source-rock-and-kerogen/ INTRO TO OIL AND GAS

 PETROLEUMSYSTEM PEB1012

RESERVOIR ROCK
World Sedimentary Basins
oA reservoir rock is a place that oil migrates to and is held underground. A sandstone has plenty of room inside
itself to trap oil, just like a sponge has room inside of itself to soak up spills in your kitchen.
oIt is for this reason that sandstones are the most common reservoir rocks. Limestones and dolostones, some of
which are the skeletal remains of ancient coral reefs, are other examples of reservoir rocks.
oHere we see what a reservoir rock would look like through a magnifying lens. The yellow objects represent
sand grains that are packed together.
oNotice, however, the purple areas between the sand grains. These areas (also known as "pore spaces") are
where the oil fits into the rock. In a very "porous" rock (one with many pore spaces), oil can move freely
through these spaces.

Source :https://www.priweb.org/ed/pgws/systems
/reservoir/reservoir.html INTRO TO OIL AND GAS
 PETROLEUMSYSTEM PEB1012

SEAL ROCK
oAlso known as cap rock World Sedimentary Basins
oA relatively impermeable rock, commonly shale, anhydrite or salt, that forms a barrier or cap above and around
reservoir rock such that fluids cannot migrate beyond the reservoir. A seal is a critical component of a complete
petroleum system. The permeability of a seal capable of retaining fluids through geologic time is ~ 10-6 to 10-8
darcies.

Source : http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/Terms/s/seal.aspx INTRO TO OIL AND GAS

 PETROLEUMSYSTEM PEB1012

OVERBURDEN ROCK
World Sedimentary Basins
oOverburden rock is the total stratigraphic section above the source rock. The thickness and age of overburden
rock provides a history of the rate of burial of a source rock toward and through the increasing temperature
domains of the basin. This includes the range of temperatures necessary for cracking kerogens into
hydrocarbons.

Source : http://wiki.aapg.org/East_Breaks_overburden_rock INTRO TO OIL AND GAS

 EXPLORATIONTECHNIQUES PEB1012

MAGNETIC TECHNIQUES
World Sedimentary Basins
oThe magnetic method is the study of the distribution of magnetic minerals in the upper 20-30km of the earth's
crust. The magnetic method may also be used to estimate the thickness of the crust or to constrain
temperatures in the crust using the Curie isotherm (the temperatures at which minerals lose their strong
magnetic properties), whichever is shallower.
oMagnetic measurements in geophysical exploration record variations in the magnetic field due to lateral
variability in the magnetization of the crust.
oThe lateral variation may produce anomalous regions which are indicative of structural
or lithological contrasts in the subsurface.
oThese data can be collected at the earth's surface, from the air, the sea or in a borehole environment.
oSource : http://en.openei.org/wiki/Magnetic_Techniques

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GRAVIMETRIC SURVEY
World Sedimentary Basins
oGravimetry was one of the first geophysical methods to be used in exploring for oil and gas. As the name
suggest, this method uses accurate measurements of the Earth's gravitational field to locate horizontal and
vertical variations in the density of subsurface rocks.
oThe precondition is that the geological structures have to be distinguishable through clear differences in
density.
oGravimetric surveys are carried out using extremely sensitive instruments capable of
measuring tiny variations in the gravitational field.
oGeophysical surveys are performed with gravimeters and are always accompanied by a high-precision
topographic survey.
oSource : https://www.dea-group.com/en/technology/exploration/gravimetry-magnetics-
and-electromagnetics

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 EXPLORATIONTECHNIQUES PEB1012

• Gravimetry applications include:

• Regional geological mapping;
World Sedimentary Basins
• Detection of karsts and voids;
• The determination or improvement of terrestrial geoid;
• The oil and gas exploration
• Mineral exploration;
• Measurements of sediment thickness;
• The archaeological surveys.

Source : https://www.dea- group.com/en/technology/exploration/gravime try-

magnetics-and-electromagnetics INTRO TO OIL AND GAS
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SEISMIC METHOD
World Sedimentary Basins
oSeismic ground geophysical methods are techniques based on the study of the propagation of seismic
waves. The techniques outlined below involve variations in data acquisition and processing, the choice of
which will depend on the project goal. Each technique can yield new insights into the subsurface.
o Refraction
o Reflection
o Multi-channel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW)
o Resonance
o Borehole

Source : http://ground.geophysicsgpr.com/en/ground-geophysics-techniques/seismic-ground-
geophysics-methods INTRO TO OIL AND GAS
 EXPLORATIONTECHNIQUES PEB1012

SEISMIC METHOD : Refraction

• The seismic refraction method involves World Sedimentary Basins
measuring the shortest time required for an
induced seismic pulse to travel from the
source location to a series of receivers.
•From this travel time data, seismic velocities
and layer depths can be calculated.
• Seismic refraction remains the preferred
method for accurately mapping the depth to
competent bedrock under most conditions.

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SEISMIC METHOD : Reflection

World Sedimentary Basins
•The seismic reflection method involves inducing a seismic wave into the earth and recording the waves
that are reflected from sub-surface layers. Seismic reflection is ideal for mapping geology at depths
exceeding 50 m.
•Deep seismic reflection surveying is the most advanced technique in geophysics today, thanks to its
application on a huge scale for oil and gas exploration.

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SEISMIC METHOD : Multi-channel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW)

•The Multi-channel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) is a seismic method used to evaluate the shear-wave
velocities of subsurface materials through the analysis of the dispersion properties of Rayleigh surface
waves ("ground roll").
•The data are collected on the surface without the need of borehole. MASW data collection may be
extended to 2D or 3D profiling/imaging.
•The MASW seismic method allows to obtain the shear wave velocity (Vs) distribution in the ground and
bedrock. It can be applied as a 1D sounding or as 2D profiles.

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SEISMIC METHOD : Resonance

•The seismic resonance, or TISAR (Testing & Imaging using Seismic Acoustic Resonance) method is a new
technique based on the frequency analysis of seismic records for high resolution seismic investigation. It
considers the seismic resonance within the signal.
•The method was originally developed for geological sub-surface profiling (1 to 15 m deep); however it has
been shown to be effective or ranges smaller than 0.1 m for testing of concrete/asphalt structures, as well as
for 100 m deep geological investigations.

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SEISMIC METHOD : Borehole

•Borehole seismic surveys can be carried out in several different ways. The Down-hole technique consists of
measuring the arrival of seismic waves emitted from the surface in increments down the borehole.
•The Cross-hole technique uses a seismic source located in an adjacent borehole. The receiver in both cases
is a tri-axial geophone. This enables profiles of seismic velocities from compressional (P) waves as well as
shear
(S) waves to be obtained.
•Accurate 2-D maps of seismic velocity variations between boreholes can be produced by processing the
data using specialised software.
•Borehole seismic techniques include down-hole, cross- hole and seismic tomography methodologies.

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 EXPLORATION AND APPRAISALWELL PEB1012

EXPLORATION WELL

•An exploration well is a deep hole that is drilled into the Earth’s surface with the aim of locating a new source of
hydrocarbons such as oil and natural gas.
•Drilling of an exploration well poses a risk to the company, as it is uncertain how much the company will reap from the
new source. Every new oil well was an exploration well at some point.
•Exploration depends on the technology that is used to detect and determine the amount of
these deposits using exploration geophysics.
•Source : https://www.petropedia.com/definition/6014/exploration-well

APPRAISAL WELL

•An appraisal well is a vertical or deviated well that is drilled so as to understand the potential of a hydrocarbon reservoir
before commercial production of oil from a well can commence.
•The drilling of this well is an important part of the exploration and production activities of an organization. In the
chronology of asset development program, appraisal drilling is performed before starting the commercial production.
•During field appraisal programs, appraisal wells are drilled in order to ensure that the discoveries made during
exploration field have enough hydrocarbons that can last long and give an economic appreciation to the organization
findings.
•Once the appraisal wells are drilled they provide information such as physical extent of hydrocarbons, likely production
rate from the field, flow of fluids and volume of fluids, etc.
•Source : https://www.petropedia.com/definition/4584/appraisal-well
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THANK YOU PEB1012

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