COMPUTATION THEORY

Lecture Two

Asst.Lec. Amal Abdulbaqi Maryoosh

Mustansiriyah University
Collage of Education
Computer Science Department
Second Class
2019 - 2020
Computation Theory Amal Abdulbaqi Maryoosh

Lecture Two

Language Grammar
Are the foundations and principles, through which we can link the vocabulary.
Vocabulary
Letters
Word Grammar Language
sentence

Example: Let the following grammar:

Sentence = Noun Phrase (NP) + Verb Phrase (VP) + Noun Phrase (NP)
NP = Article (Art) + Noun (N)
Art = a or an or the
Noun = Man, Car, House, Dog, …
VP = eat, kill, write, read, …
“The Man hits the dog”
NP VP NP

Sentence

NP VP NP

Art N hits Art N

The Man the dog

Phrase Tree

‫ لذلك فأن هذه الجملة صحيحة‬،‫ في المثال اعاله الجملة مكونة من مفردات وقواعد تنتمي الى نفس اللغة‬
.(Accept) ‫ووفق قواعد هذه اللغة هي مقبولة‬

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Computation Theory Amal Abdulbaqi Maryoosh

Example: “The dog eats the house”

NP VP NP
‫ من هذا نستنتج ان الجملة‬.‫ الجملة اعاله وفق القواعد صحيحة لكن من ناحية المعنى ليس لها معنى‬
.(semantic) ‫( والمعنى‬syntax) ‫يجب ان تتكون من جزئين مترابطين هما القواعد‬
Terminal Symbol (T): The words that cannot be replaced by anything are called
terminals.
Non-terminal Symbol (N): The words that must be replaced by other things we
call non-terminals.

Grammars

A grammar is a set of rules which are used to construct a language (combine

words to generate sentences).
Grammars are containing four things:
1- A finite set of Nonterminal Symbols (N).
2- A finite set of Terminal Symbols (T).
3- A finite set of production rules (P) of the form u → v ; (u, v) ∈ (N ∪ T)*
4- Starting symbol (S).

G(L) = (N, T, P, S)
Grammar Starting symbol
Language Non terminal Terminal Production rule

Example: Let G(L) = ({S, A, B}, {a, b}, P, S) where P denoted as:
S → aA | bB | a | b
A → aA | a
B → bB |b
1- Is the string “aa” Accept or not?
S → aA (by using S → aA)
→ aa (by using A → a)
The string is Accept

2- Is the string “bbb” Accept or not?

S → bB
→ bbB
→ bbb
The string is Accept

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Computation Theory Amal Abdulbaqi Maryoosh

3- Is the string “aaba” Accept or not?

S → aA
→ aaA The string is not Accept

Example: Let G(L) = ({S, B, C}, {a, b, c}, P, S) where P denoted as:
S → aSBC | aBC
CB → BC
aB → ab
bB → bb
bC → bc
cC → cc
1- Is the string “abc” Accept or not?
S → aBC
→ abC
→ abc The string is Accept

2- Is the string “a2b2c2” Accept or not?

S → aSBC
→ aaBCBC
→ aaBBCC
→ aabBCC
→ aabbCC
→ aabbcC
→ aabbcc The string is Accept

Homework: Let G(L) = ({S, B, C}, {a, b, c}, P, S) where P denoted as:
S → aSBC | aBC
CB → BC
aB → ab
bB → bb
bC → bc
cC → cc
1- Is the string “a3b3c3” Accept or not?
2- Is the string “a3b2” Accept or not?

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Computation Theory Amal Abdulbaqi Maryoosh

Regular Grammar
The grammar that contain:
N ⟶ t | tN - Right regular
or
N ⟶ t | Nt - Left regular

Example: Derived a4 from the following grammar:

A ⟶ aA | a
A ⟶ aA
⟶ aaA
⟶ aaaA
⟶ aaaa
⟶ a4
،‫ نالحظ في هذه القواعد بأنه يمكن التكرار بأي عدد من الخطوات والتوقف في اي مرحلة من االشتقاق‬
:‫والصيغة العامة للكلمات الناجة من هذه القواعد‬
n
{a , n ≥ 1 by n steps}

Phrase Structure Grammar (PSG)

‫وهي القواعد التي ظهرت في الشكل الشجري بشكل العقد الوسطية التي تتحول في النهاية الى الرموز‬
PSG = (N, T, P, S) ‫ وتتكون ايضا ً من اربعة مجاميع‬،Terminal ‫النهائية‬

Trees
We can represent the grammar of any language through tree that contain:
1- Root: it is a start symbol.
2- PSG: are a Nonterminal symbol.
3- Leaves: are a terminal symbol.
4- Links: collection of connections.

Tree is called syntax tree or parse tree or generation tree or production tree
or derivation tree.

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Computation Theory Amal Abdulbaqi Maryoosh

Left Most Derivation

Example: Let G(L) = ({S}, {a, b, c}, P, S), where P is:
S → SbS | ScS | a
Find the string “abaca”
S → SbS S → ScS
→ abS → SbScS
→ abScS → abScS
→ abacS → abacS
→ abaca Accept → abaca Accept

S S

S b S S c S

a S c S S b S a

a a a a

Right Most Derivation

S → SbS S → ScS
→ SbScS → Sca
→ SbSca → SbSca
→ Sbaca → Sbaca
→ abaca Accept → abaca Accept
S S

S b S S c S

a S c S S b S a

a a a a

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‫‪Computation Theory‬‬ ‫‪Amal Abdulbaqi Maryoosh‬‬

‫‪ ‬في المثال السابق نالحظ ان الحل الثاني هو نفس جهة الحل االول‪ ،‬متكون من اشتقاق من جهة اليمين‬
‫واشتقاق من جهة اليسارولهُ نفس الشجرة‪.‬‬
‫نستنتج من ذلك عندما يوجد اكثر من حل من جهة اليسار او اكثر من حل من جهة اليمين تسمى القاعد‬
‫غامضة ‪.ambiguous‬‬

‫‪Ambiguous and Unambiguous Grammar‬‬

‫‪Ambiguous Grammar‬‬
‫)‪ ∀X: X ∈ L(G‬يوجد اشتقاقين متميزين من جهة اليمين او اشتقاقين متميزين من جهة اليسار عندها‬
‫تسمى القاعدة غامضة‪.‬‬

‫‪Unambiguous Grammar‬‬

‫)‪ ∀X: X ∈ L(G‬يعطي نفس االشتقاق الشجري سواء من اليمين او اليسار‪.‬‬

‫‪Example: Let G(L) = ({S, A}, {a, b}, P, S), where P is:‬‬
‫‪S → AA‬‬
‫‪A → AAA | bA | Ab | a‬‬
‫?‪- Is the string “bbaaaab” Accept or not‬‬
‫?‪- Is the grammar ambiguous or not‬‬ ‫‪S‬‬

‫‪(Left) S → AA‬‬
‫‪A‬‬ ‫‪A‬‬
‫‪→ bAA‬‬
‫‪→ bbAA‬‬
‫‪→ bbAAAA‬‬ ‫‪b‬‬
‫‪b‬‬ ‫‪A‬‬ ‫‪A‬‬
‫‪→ bbaAAA‬‬
‫‪→ bbaaAA‬‬
‫‪→ bbaaaA‬‬ ‫‪b‬‬ ‫‪A‬‬ ‫‪a‬‬
‫‪→ bbaaaAb‬‬
‫‪→ bbaaaab Accept‬‬
‫‪A‬‬ ‫‪A‬‬ ‫‪A‬‬

‫‪a‬‬ ‫‪a‬‬ ‫‪a‬‬

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Computation Theory Amal Abdulbaqi Maryoosh

(Left) S → AA S
→ AAAA
→ bAAAA A A
→ bbAAAA
→ bbaAAA
→ bbaaAA A A A A b
→ bbaaaA
→ bbaaaAb
→ bbaaaab Accept b A a a a

The grammar is ambiguous

b A

Example: Let the following grammar:

S ⟶ (S) | S⊃S | ~S | p | q
- Is the string “ (~ ~P ⊃ (P ⊃ ~ ~ q)) ” Accept or not?
- Is the grammar ambiguous or not? H.W

(left) S ⟶ (S)
⟶ (S⊃S)
⟶ (~S⊃S)
⟶ (~ ~S⊃S)
⟶ (~ ~P⊃S)
⟶ (~ ~P⊃(S))
⟶ (~ ~P⊃(S⊃S))
⟶ (~ ~P⊃(P⊃S))
⟶ (~ ~P⊃(P⊃~ ~S))
⟶ (~ ~P ⊃(P ⊃ ~ ~ q)) Accept

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Computation Theory Amal Abdulbaqi Maryoosh

Example: Let the following grammar:

S
S → S +S | S ∗ S | digit
- Is the string “ 3 + 4 ∗ 5 ” Accept or not?
S + S
- Is the grammar ambiguous or not?

(Left) S ⟶ S + S 3 S S
*
⟶3+S
⟶3+S∗S
⟶3+4∗S
4 5
⟶ 3 + 4 ∗ 5 Accept
a

(Left) S ⟶ S ∗ S S
⟶S+S∗S
⟶3+S∗S
S * S
⟶3+4∗S
⟶ 3 + 4 ∗ 5 Accept
S + S 5
The grammar is ambiguous

3 4

Homework: Let the following grammar:

S → aSa | bSb | a | b | ∧
- Is the string “aabaa” Accept or not?
- Is the grammar ambiguous or not?

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