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Sauces, spices, and condiments: definitions, potential benefits,

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 Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. ISSN 0077-8923

A N N A L S O F T H E N E W Y O R K A C A D E M Y O F SC I E N C E S
Issue: Fortification of Condiments and Seasonings with Vitamins and Minerals in Public Health II

Sauces, spices, and condiments: definitions, potential

benefits, consumption patterns, and global markets
Maria Nieves Garcı́a-Casal,1 Juan Pablo Peña-Rosas,1 and Heber Gómez-Malavé2
1
Evidence and Programme Guidance, Department of Nutrition for Health and Development, World Health Organization,
Geneva, Switzerland. 2 Department of Sociology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland

Address for correspondence: Maria Nieves Garcı́a-Casal, Ph.D., Evidence and Programme Guidance, Department of
Nutrition for Health and Development, World Health Organization, Avenue Appia 20, Geneva, GE 1211, Switzerland.
mngarciacasal@gmail.com

Spices and condiments are an important part of human history and nutrition, and have played an important role in
the development of most cultures around the world. According to the Codex Alimentarius, the category of salts, spices,
soups, sauces, salads, and protein products includes substances added to foods to enhance aroma and taste. Spices
have been reported to have health benefits as antioxidant, antibiotic, antiviral, anticoagulant, anticarcinogenic,
and anti-inflammatory agents. Health claims about the benefits of condiments for disease prevention or health
improvement need to be science based and extensively supported by evidence; data on their preventive or protective
potential in humans are currently limited. The condiments market has been growing continuously over the last few
years, with the quantity of products sold under the category of sauces, dressings, and condiments during the period
2008–2013 increasing from 31,749,000 to 35,795,000 metric tons. About 50 of the 86 spices produced in the world
are grown in India. From 2008 to 2013, the United States was the largest importer of spices, followed by Australia,
the United Kingdom, Canada, and Russia. The main buyers of fish sauce are Vietnam and Thailand, with purchases
of 333,000 and 284,000 metric tons in 2013, respectively. The sauces and condiments category is dynamic, with large
differences in consumption in habits and practices among countries. This paper aims to establish definitions and
discuss potential health benefits, consumption patterns, and global markets for sauces, spices, and condiments.

Keywords: sauces; spices; condiments; consumption; global markets

Introduction Christopher Columbus was a spice seeker, as were

Vasco de Gama and his Portuguese mariners who
Spices and condiments are an important part of
were inspired by pepper to find a route to India.
human history and nutrition and played an impor-
Condiments and spices are terms that need exam-
tant role in the development of most cultures
ples included as part of their definition. According
around the world. The use of curry was documented
to Collins English Dictionary, a spice is defined as any
in 2000 B.C.E. in India, and Egyptians used gar-
of a variety of aromatic vegetable substances, such
lic, cumin, coriander, and other species at least
as ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg, used as flavorings.1
since 1500 B.C. The use of spices was also com-
In Webster’s New World College Dictionary, a spice
mon in ancient Greece and Rome. The travels of
is defined as a pungent or aromatic vegetable sub-
Giovanni da Pian del Carpini, William Rubruck,
stance, such as pepper or cinnamon, used to season
and Marco Polo in the 13th century opened Euro-
food,2 and The American Heritage Dictionary of the
pean trade with Central Asia and China, and the
English Language defines a spice as any of various
travels and cultural contacts of other Western visi-
pungent, aromatic plant substances, such as cinna-
tors inspired by Marco Polo, as well as the European
mon or nutmeg, used to flavor foods or beverages.3
colonization of America, Africa, and Asia during
The definitions of condiments in these three dictio-
the 15th–17th centuries, spread and diversified the
naries are, respectively, any spice or sauce, such as
use of spices and condiments around the world.
doi: 10.1111/nyas.13045
Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1379 (2016) 3–16 
C 2016 New York Academy of Sciences. 3
Consumption and markets of condiments Garcı́a-Casal et al.

salt, pepper, or mustard;1 something used to flavor dry cures or rubs that are applied to external sur-
food, such as mustard, ketchup, salt, or spices;2 and faces of meat or fish. Seasonings and condiments
a substance, such as relish, vinegar, or spice, used to include seasonings, such as meat tenderizers, onion
flavor or complement.3 salt, garlic salt, Asian seasoning mix (dashi), a top-
Other definitions of spices differentiate between ping to sprinkle on rice (furikake containing e.g.,
culinary herbs and spices. The leaves of a plant used dried seaweed flakes, sesame seeds, and seasoning),
in cooking are denominated as culinary herbs, while and seasoning for noodles. The term “condiments”
any other part of the plant is known as a spice. as used in the Food Category System in the Codex
Spices can be leaves (e.g., bay leaf), buds (e.g., clove), Alimentarius does not include condiment sauces
barks (e.g., cinnamon), roots (e.g., ginger), berries (e.g., ketchup, mayonnaise, mustard) or relishes.
(e.g., grains of pepper), seeds (e.g., cumin), or even
Vinegars
the stigma of flowers (e.g., saffron).4 The concept
Vinegars are the liquids produced from fermenta-
of condiments is wider, since it includes spices (as
tion of ethanol from a suitable source, such as wine
herbs or spices) but also salt, bouillon cubes, soy
or cider. Examples include cider vinegar, wine vine-
sauce, fish sauce, or ketchup used for the purpose of
gar, malt vinegar, spirit vinegar, grain vinegar, raisin
adding flavor to foods.
vinegar, and fruit (wine) vinegar.
Codex Alimentarius
Mustard
According to the Codex Alimentarius, the cate- Mustard is a condiment sauce prepared from
gory of salts, spices, soups, sauces, salads, and pro- ground, often defatted, mustard seed that is mixed
tein products includes substances added to food to into a slurry with water, vinegar, salt, oil, and other
enhance aroma and taste.5 They are categorized as spices, and refined. Examples include Dijon mus-
salt and salt substitutes (12.1); herbs, spices, season- tard and hot mustard (prepared from seeds with
ings, and condiments (12.2); vinegars (12.3); mus- hulls).
tards (12.4); soups and broths (12.5); sauces and
Soups and broths
like products (12.6); salads (e.g., macaroni salad,
With respect to soups and broths, the finished prod-
potato salad) and sandwich spreads (12.7); yeast
ucts may be water (e.g., consommé) or milk based
and like products (12.8); soybean-based seasonings
(e.g., chowder): (1) ready-to-eat soups and broths,
and condiments (12.9); and protein products from
including canned, bottled, and frozen, are water- or
sources other than soybeans (12.10). Each of these
milk-based products consisting of vegetable, meat,
categories includes a variety of substances, as further
or fish broth with or without other ingredients (e.g.,
discussed below.
vegetables, meat, noodles). Examples include bouil-
Salt and salt substitutes lon, broths, consommés, water- and cream-based
The salt and salt substitutes category includes, as salt, soups, chowders, and bisques; and (2) mixes for
primarily food-grade sodium chloride, plus table soups and broths: concentrated soup to be recon-
salt, iodized and fluoridated iodized salt, and den- stituted with water and/or milk, with or without
dritic salt; and includes, as salt substitutes, season- addition of other optional ingredients (e.g., veg-
ings with reduced sodium content intended to be etables, meat, noodles). Examples include bouillon
used on food in place of salt. powders and cubes, powdered and condensed soups
(e.g., mentsuyu), and stock cubes and powders.
Herbs, spices, seasonings, and condiments
Herbs, spices, seasonings, and condiments include Sauces and like products
items whose use is intended to enhance the aroma Sauces and like products include ready-to-eat
and taste of food and that are usually derived from sauces, gravies, and dressings, and mixes to be
botanical sources, and may be dehydrated and either reconstituted before consumption. The ready-to-
ground or whole. Examples of herbs are basil, eat products are divided into subcategories for
oregano, and thyme, and examples of spices are emulsified and nonemulsified products, whereas the
cumin and caraway seeds. Spices may also be found mixes are divided into subcategories that encompass
as blends in powder or paste form, for example, chili both emulsified and nonemulsified sauce mixes:
seasoning, chili paste, curry paste, curry roux, and (1) emulsified sauces and dips (e.g., mayonnaise,

4 Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1379 (2016) 3–16 

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Garcı́a-Casal et al. Consumption and markets of condiments

salad dressing, onion dips), such as sauces, gravies, be used in the preparation of soups or dress-
dressing-based sauces and dips, at least in part, in ings or as a seasoning. Soybean sauce is a liquid
a fat- or oil-in-water emulsion—examples include seasoning obtained by fermentation of soybeans,
salad dressing (e.g., French, Italian, Greek, ranch nonfermentation (e.g., hydrolysis) of soybeans, or
style), fat-based sandwich spreads (e.g., mayon- by hydrolysis of vegetable protein. Soybean sauces
naise with mustard), salad cream, and fatty sauces include (1) fermented soybean sauce, which is a
and snack dips (e.g., bacon and cheddar dip, onion clear, nonemulsified sauce made of soybeans, cereal,
dip); (2) nonemulsified sauces (e.g., ketchup, cheese salt, and water by the fermentation process; (2)
sauce, cream sauce, brown gravy) include water, nonfermented soybean sauce, also known as non-
coconut milk, and milk-based sauces, gravies, and brewed soybean sauce, which may be produced from
dressings, such as barbecue (BBQ) sauce, tomato vegetable proteins, such as defatted soybeans that
ketchup, cheese sauce, Worcestershire sauce, Asian are acid hydrolyzed, neutralized, and filtered; and
thick Worcestershire sauce (tonkatsu sauce), chili (3) other soybean sauce—a nonemulsified sauce
sauce, sweet and sour sauce, and white sauce (milk- made from fermented and/or nonfermented soy-
based sauce, with little added fat and flour); (3) bean sauce, with or without sugar, and with or with-
mixes for sauces and gravies are concentrated prod- out the caramelization process.
ucts, usually in powdered form, to be mixed with
Protein products from sources other than
water, milk, oil, or other liquid to prepare a fin-
soybeans
ished sauce or gravy, including mixes for cheese
Some protein products are derived from sources
sauce, hollandaise sauce, and salad dressing (e.g.,
other than soybeans, such as milk protein, cereal
Italian or ranch dressing); and (4) clear sauces (e.g.,
protein, and vegetable protein analogues or substi-
fish sauce) include thin, nonemulsified clear sauces
tutes for standard products, like meat, fish, or milk.
that may be water based and used as condiments or
Examples include vegetable protein analogues, fu
ingredients rather than as finished gravy. Examples
(a mixture of gluten and flour that is sold baked
include oyster sauce and Thai fish sauce (nam pla).
or raw and is used as an ingredient in miso soup
Salads and sandwich spreads and other dishes), and proteinaceous meat and fish
Salads (e.g., macaroni salad, potato salad) and substitutes.
sandwich spreads, excluding cocoa- and nut-based Food additives
spreads of food categories, include prepared sal- A food additive refers to any substance not nor-
ads, milk-based sandwich spreads, nonstandardized mally consumed as a food by itself or used as a
mayonnaise-like sandwich spreads, and dressing for typical ingredient of the food, whether or not it
coleslaw (cabbage salad). has nutritive value, that is intentionally added to
Yeast and like products food for a technological purpose in the manufac-
Yeast and like products include baker’s yeast and ture, processing, preparation, treatment, packing,
leaven used in the manufacture of baked goods and packaging, transport, or holding of food, resulting
the Asian product koji (rice or wheat malted with in the additive becoming a component of such foods.
Aspergillus oryzae) used in the production of alco- The use of food additives is justified only when it
holic beverages. is advantageous, does not present an appreciable
health risk or mislead the consumer, and serves one
Soybean-based seasonings and condiments or more of the following technological functions:
Soybean-based seasonings and condiments include (1) to preserve the nutritional quality of the food;
products that are derived from soybeans and other (2) to provide necessary ingredients or constituents
ingredients intended for use as seasonings and for foods manufactured for groups of consumers
condiments, such as fermented soybean paste and with special dietary needs; (3) to enhance the keep-
soybean sauces. Fermented soybean paste (e.g., ing quality or stability of a food or to improve its
miso) is made from soybeans, salt, water, and organoleptic properties, provided that this does not
other ingredients using the process of fermenta- change the nature, substance, or quality of the food
tion and includes dou jiang (China), doenjang so as to deceive the consumer; and (4) to aid in the
(Republic of Korea), or miso (Japan), which may manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment,

Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1379 (2016) 3–16 

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Consumption and markets of condiments Garcı́a-Casal et al.

packing, transport, or storage of food, provided for use. The forms of presentation may be as ready-
that the additive is not used to disguise the effects to-use bouillons and consommés to be consumed
of the use of faulty raw materials or of undesir- with or without heating; condensed and concen-
able (including unhygienic) practices or techniques trated bouillons or consommés presented as liq-
during the course of any of these activities. In the uid, semiliquid, or paste-like products, which, after
Codex General Standard for Food Additives, there the addition of water according to the directions
is a list of additives approved for use in sauces and for use, yield regular bouillons or consommés; and
condiments.6 dehydrated bouillons and consommés, which are
dry products that, after reconstitution with water
Codex Committee on Spices and Culinary
according to the directions for use with or without
Herbs
heating yield the regular hydrated product.9
The 36th Session of the Codex Alimentarius Com-
mission in 2013 agreed to establish a Codex Com- Chili sauce
mittee on Spices and Culinary Herbs (CCSCH), of Chili sauce is a product intended for use as a season-
which the first meeting was held in February 2014, ing and condiment, prepared from the edible por-
in India. The Committee has to formulate standards tion of sound and clean fresh chili (Capsicum spp.)
on various spices and culinary herbs, prioritizing or processed chili, such as chili that has been powder
the work that takes into consideration the follow- roasted, ground, or preserved in vinegar or brine. It
ing factors: (1) volume of production and trade, (2) also may contain mango, papaya, tamarind, tomato,
consumer protection, (3) intended use of the com- garlic, onion, carrot, sweet potato, other spices and
modity, (4) existing standards that are already in herbs, and other edible ingredients.10
place, (5) international or regional market poten-
Cumin
tial of the commodity, and (6) need for scientific
Cumin is the seed of a small umbelliferous plant
advice.7 Some of the activities of international orga-
from the Apiaceae family, commonly known as the
nizations relevant to the work of CCSCH are related
parsley family, composed of aromatic plants with
to safety and quality of food in international trade
hollow stems. Cumin grows in India, North Africa,
in order to protect consumer health.
China, and the Americas and is consumed dried or
Some commonly used spices, condiments, ground to a brownish-green powder. Cumin it is not
and sauces a traditional European spice.11,12
Barbecue sauce Curry paste
BBQ is a flavoring sauce or condiment ranging in Curry paste is a combination of spices and herbs, and
consistency from watery to very thick, with the most its composition varies between regions and some-
common ingredients being ketchup, vinegar, sugar, times depends on the protein dish that is going to
garlic, onion, and mustard. BBQ sauce is thought to be prepared (e.g., goat, beef, chicken, sheep). For
have been invented in the United States around the example, in Thailand, the hot and spicy curry paste
1600s to mask harsh flavors new to the colonial set- khua-kling used by Thai Buddhists does not contain
tlers. Other accounts trace the origins of BBQ sauce strongly flavored spices, such as cumin, cinnamon,
to the end of the 15th century, when Christopher nutmeg, and star anise, but that used by Thai Mus-
Columbus brought with him a sauce from Spain.8 lims does contain these spices.13 In India, curry is
freshly ground each day and comes in standard and
Bouillons and consommés
Madras (hot) versions.
Bouillons and consommés are thin, clear liquids
obtained either (1) by cooking of suitable protein- Fenugreek
rich substances or their extracts and/or hydrolysates Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) grows sim-
with water, with or without the addition of season- ilarly to peas, with a thick stem, yellow sweet-pea–
ings and/or flavoring substances, edible fats, sodium like flowers, and long horn-shaped seed pods that
chloride (salt), spices and their natural extracts or contain square yellow seeds. The seeds must be
distillates or other foodstuffs to improve their taste, ground to release their maple–curry–nutty flavor.
or (2) by reconstitution of an equivalent mixture of Fenugreek sprouts and leaves have a similar but
dehydrated ingredients according to the directions sweeter flavor than the seeds and are eaten as a

6 Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1379 (2016) 3–16 

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Garcı́a-Casal et al. Consumption and markets of condiments

vegetable and mixed into dough, beans, and stews. cally consumed as a fresh paste, dried powder, slices
The leaves, seeds, and flowers are used dried, and preserved in syrup, candy (crystallized ginger), or as
the herb is used extensively in alpine cheeses and tea flavoring.21
breads.11
Pimento
Fish sauce Jamaican pimento derives from the pimento tree
Fish sauce is a translucent, not turbid, liquid prod- (Pimenta dioica), which was found growing in
uct with a salty taste and fish flavor obtained from Jamaica by early Spanish explorers who were
fermentation of a mixture of fish and salt. The prod- impressed by the taste and aroma of the berries
uct is prepared by mixing fish (sound and whole- and leaves. The name pimento originated from the
some fish or parts of fish in a condition fit to be Spanish word pimienta. To most English-speaking
sold fresh for human consumption) with salt and people, the tree is referred to as pimento and the
is fermented in covered containers or tanks. Gen- berries referred to as allspice. Pimento trees were
erally, the fermentation process takes not less than later discovered in Cuba and were presumed to have
6 months. Subsequent extractions may follow by been taken there by migratory birds that had eaten
adding brine to further the fermentation process, in the berries. They have also been found in Mexico,
order to extract the remaining protein, fish flavor, but it is in Jamaica where they have had the longest
and odor. Other ingredients may also be added to history, having been in continuous production since
assist the fermentation process.14 the tree was identified in approximately 1509.22 In
1601, the use of pimento was reported in London.
Garlic Berries from the pimento tree are called allspice
Garlic (Allium sativum) is a member of the fam- berries, since they combine the taste and aroma of
ily Liliaceae. Allium is the Latin name for garlic, many other spices, such as pepper, cloves, nutmeg,
derived from the Celtic word al, meaning pungent ginger, and cinnamon.23
or burning,15 and has been used as a condiment and
medicament for more than 4000 years. Probably Ketchup
originating in Central Asia, it was used by Sumeri- The use of ketchup began as a Chinese fish sauce
ans, Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, reaching mod- called ke-tsiap and was originally tomato free. The
ern Europe and the United States, and is widely name was gradually changed to ketchup, and in
used today.16 Besides its taste and aroma, garlic is Britain other ingredients instead of fish were added.
also associated with inhibition of lipid peroxidation The sauce was more similar to soy sauce or Worcester
and improvements in the functioning of the cardio- sauce than to the tomato ketchup. During the 19th
vascular system, and is thought to have antiviral, century, ketchup was prepared from oysters, mus-
antifungal, antimicrobial, and antitumorigenic sels, mushrooms, walnuts, lemons, celery, and even
properties. These effects seem to be mediated fruits, such as plums and peaches. Usually, com-
through sulfur-containing compounds.15 ponents were either boiled down into a syrup-like
consistency or left to sit in salt for extended periods
Ginger of time. Both of these processes led to a highly con-
Ginger (Zingiber officinale), originally from South- centrated end product: a salty, spicy flavor bomb.
east Asia, has been introduced to many parts of the Tomatoes were included in ketchup around 1700,
world and is one of the most used spices, includ- and modern ketchup contains tomatoes, onions,
ing for medicinal purposes.17 The dietary habits of vinegar, sugar, and spices.24,25
people living in China, India, and Southeast Asia
are very diverse with respect to traditions, food pat- Mayonnaise
terns, and culture, but in all of these cultures, gin- Mayonnaise is a thick, creamy sauce or dressing that
ger is widely used. Ginger use has been widespread is made of oil, egg yolks, lemon juice or vinegar,
around the world since the Medieval period,18 and seasonings. It is an emulsion made by slowly
and ginger is regularly consumed in other tropical adding one ingredient to another that normally
countries, such as Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Indonesia, cannot be combined, by fast and uniform mixing.
Bangladesh, Australia, Fiji, Jamaica, Nepal, Haiti, In this way, droplets of one liquid are suspended
Mexico, and Hawaii.19,20 Ginger rhizome is typi- within the other. There are reports on the origins of

Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1379 (2016) 3–16 

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Consumption and markets of condiments Garcı́a-Casal et al.

mayonnaise in 1756, during the French naval assault removed by soaking the berries in water until the
on Minorca, a Mediterranean island with a port shell falls off, or they are held under flowing spring
named Mahon. Some historical accounts indicate water, yielding a whiter, cleaner pepper. Green pep-
that mayonnaise was invented by Duke de Riche- percorns are from the same fruit as black and white
lieu’s chef to celebrate the victory, while others indi- peppercorns, but are harvested before they mature.
cate that part of the assault was planned to steal Instead of being dried in the sun, they are quickly
the sauce.26 In 1905, the first ready-made mayon- dehydrated so that they retain their bright green
naise was sold at Richard Hellman’s New York deli. color and mildly spicy flavor. Pink pepper, which is
In 1912, mayonnaise was mass marketed and called not a vinous pepper, comes from the French island
Hellman’s Blue Ribbon Mayonnaise.27,28 Réunion. Pink peppercorns have a brittle, papery
pink skin enclosing a hard, irregular seed, much
Mustard
smaller than the whole fruit.11
Mustard is a member of the Brassica genus of plants,
which bears tiny, round, edible seeds, as well as Salt
tasty leaves. During the Roman Empire, mustard Since the beginning of civilization, condiments have
was actively used and Romans spread its use in their been used to enhance the flavor of food. The first
colonies. Mustard was reported as being popular in condiment was salt, and the history of humanity
the Middle Ages in Europe. There are three major begins with salt. The history of the world in rela-
types of mustard seeds: white, brown, and black, tion to salt is simple: animals wore paths to salt licks
with the brown variety most commonly used in that humans followed. Trails became roads, and set-
ballpark mustard and in pickling. White and brown tlements grew beside them, because water was also
seeds are blended to make English mustard, and present there. When the human menu evolved to
powdered mustard is simply finely ground mus- cultivars of vegetables and cereals, more salt was
tard seed. Originally, mustard was called sinapis. It needed to supplement the diet. But the underground
has been claimed that, during the Roman Empire, deposits were beyond reach, and the salt sprinkled
the word sinapis started to be replaced by words over the surface was insufficient. Scarcity kept the
such as mustum, mustarum, and mustardum as new mineral precious, and salt became one of the world’s
wine, or “must,” was mixed with mustard seeds to principal trading commodities.31 Salt has been used
make a paste.29 Other accounts claim that its English as a preservative and to enhance the flavor of food,
name, mustard, is derived from a contraction of but also has had many uses and connotations dur-
the Latin mustum ardens, meaning burning must.30 ing history: it was used as an antiseptic, as trad-
More recently, it has been proposed that the Duke ing currency, for paying taxes, for sorcery, and even
of Burgundy gave the town of Dijon a coat of arms to determine the social rank of people in a power
in 1382 with the motto moult me tarde, which was group.
adopted by the town’s mustard makers, who even-
Soy sauce
tually shortened it to moul-tarde (to burn much).29
Soy sauce was invented in China and reached Europe
Pepper in the 17th century, and by the mid-18th century,
Pepper, one of the world’s most popular spices, it was popular in Britain. Since 1998, there has
is a member of the botanical family Piperaceae. been a lot of controversy about the definition of
The pepper vine (Piper nigrum) grows in tropical soy sauce and whether to include fermented soy
regions, close to the equator. It is a climbing vine sauce. The International Association of Consumer
native to India and Indonesia and, in its natural jun- Food Organizations stated that “if a product pur-
gle habitat, climbs up trees 20 ft high. It has thick, porting to be soy sauce is not produced using the
broad, dark green leaves and small white flowers that traditional method, that product should not be
grow in clumps and mature into berries that ripen labeled simply as ‘soy sauce.’ Doing so would mis-
from green to orange to red. In the case of pepper, lead consumers.”32 A draft from a joint group from
the spice is the fruit, called peppercorns. Black pep- Codex Alimentarius tried to include all variants of
per is the dried, unripe berry. White pepper initially soy sauce, but in 2005 the joint work ended for
develops the same as black pepper, but is allowed to some of the participants, for example, in Japan.
ripen more fully on the vine. The outer shell is then According to the proposed draft Codex Standard

8 Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1379 (2016) 3–16 

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Garcı́a-Casal et al. Consumption and markets of condiments

for Soy Sauce,33 soy sauce is a liquid seasoning ments began to be mass produced in factories.34
obtained by fermentation of soybeans and/or soy- Of the sweet spices, cinnamon, anise, cardamom,
beans and cereal grains. Brewed soybean sauce is cloves, nutmeg, and mint are in common use
the product obtained by the culture of A. oryzae around the world. Honey and sugar, although not
and/or Aspergillus sojae, as a starter, in either soy condiments but foodstuffs, have been considered
beans or soybeans and cereal grains; or by the cul- as fortification vehicles because of their widespread
ture of bacteria and/or molds and/or yeasts in either consumption.
soybeans or soybeans and cereal grains; or by the
mixing of food-grade enzymes with either soybeans Vinegar
or soybeans and cereal grains. This product could Another ancient condiment is vinegar. There is
also be aged with brine and/or combined with other evidence for the use of vinegar by Babylonians
ingredients. 5000 years ago. Its name is probably derived
The addition of enzymes should be allowed for from the French words vin aiger, meaning sour
brewed soy sauce. In traditional soy sauce manu- wine.35 It was only in 1865 that Pasteur solved the
facturing, microorganisms are added for the sole mystery surrounding vinegar through his research
purpose of producing enzymes that hydrolyze soy on fermentation and the role of microscopic
proteins for the development of the characteris- organisms, uncovering the process of acetification.
tic taste attributes of soy sauce. Whether produced Diluted vinegar has been used as a strengthening
traditionally or added directly, enzymes carry out and energizing tonic by the military throughout
the same function. In addition, mixed soy sauce time. Roman soldiers called this refreshing drink
is the product obtained by brewed soy sauce and “posca” and used it regularly, as did the Japanese
hydrolyzed vegetable protein. The proportion added samurai.36 Although, initially, vinegar was made
by brewed soy sauce should not be less than 50%. from wine, it can be made from any plant material,
fruits, cereals, sugar cane, and rose petals.
Turmeric
Worcester sauce
Turmeric is an ancient spice and a native rhizome
Worcester sauce—a traditional English condiment
of Southeast Asia, used since antiquity as a dye and
with an intense flavor and composed of a mix-
a condiment. It is cultivated primarily in Bengal,
ture of ingredients, including soy sauce, garlic,
China, Taiwan, Sri Lanka, Java, Peru, Australia, and
onion, molasses, and anchovies—was invented in
the West Indies, and its use dates back nearly 4000
Worcester in 1835 by John Lea and William Per-
years to the Vedic culture in India, where it was
rins. According to Bottone, in 1835 Lord Mar-
used as a culinary spice and had some religious sig-
cus Sandys, an ex-governor of Bengal, approached
nificance. The name derives from the Latin terra
Worcester chemists/grocers John Lea and William
merita, meaning “meritorious earth,” and in many
Perrins to replicate his favorite sauce. They made the
languages turmeric is simply named “yellow root.”
sauce, but Sandys hated it, and the excess sauce was
It is usually available in a ground form, as a bright
stored in a basement. After a year, the sauce, when
yellow, fine powder. Turmeric is one of the least
tasted, had mellowed and hate became love and big
expensive spices.11
business.37

Various sauces Za’atar

In the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, various sauces Za’atar refers to a blend of herbs and spices, such
and condiments were invented. For example, pesto as thyme, oregano, savory, and often sumac and
sauce was invented in 16th century Italy; béchamel, sesame. It is often mixed with olive oil and spread on
chasseur, and chutney were first used in the 17th bread, but it is also used as seasoning for vegetables,
century; and the use of hollandaise sauce was first salads, meatballs, or kebabs. The word za’atar has
recorded in the mid-18th century. Sauces similar to been used to mean a spice blend from Jordan, Syria,
tartar sauce were made in the Middle Ages, but mod- or Lebanon, a variety of thyme plant in Egypt (then
ern tartar sauce was first made in the 1800s. In the called saem). Another variety of za’atar includes
19th century, with the Industrial Revolution, condi- Majorana syriaca as the main ingredient.38

Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1379 (2016) 3–16 

C 2016 New York Academy of Sciences. 9
Consumption and markets of condiments Garcı́a-Casal et al.

Potential beneficial effects of spices compound in the spices, especially related to size,
and condiments number of charges, and the degree of hydroxylation
and methylation.41–44 Some active ingredients from
There are numerous reports on the beneficial
the most widely used spices are discussed below.
effects of spices on health, including as antioxi-
dants, antibiotics, antivirals, anticoagulants, anti-
carcinogenics, and anti-inflammatory agents, hav- Gingerol
ing potential effects on infection, cancer, diabetes, The rhizomes of ginger contain [6]-gingerol
hypertension, coronary diseases, cataract, neurode- (1-[40-hydroxy-30-methoxyphenyl]-5-hydroxy-3-
generative disease, digestive problems, and ulcera- decanone) and its homologs as pungent ingredients
tive lesions. While data in cultured cells and animal that have a wide array of pharmacological and
models confer enthusiasm about these phytochem- physiological activities, including antioxidant and
icals, clinical or epidemiological data supporting anticancer properties.18,45,46
their chemopreventive potential in human popu-
lations are limited.4,39 Curcumin
Claims about the health benefits of condiments Curcumin ((1E,6E)-1,7-bis (4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-
for disease prevention or health improvement need phenyl) -1,6-heptadiene-3,5-dione), a yellow pig-
to be based in science, extensively supported by evi- ment from the roots of turmeric (Curcuma longa
dence, and standardized. In many cases, purification Linn.), possesses antioxidant, anti-inflammatory,
procedures vary, identification and nomenclature of and antitumorigenic properties in vitro and in ani-
active ingredients are not completely standardized, mal studies. Curcumin, as well as other related com-
and results on bioactive compounds and chemical pounds present in turmeric, have shown inhibition
composition are not always comparable.40 In vitro of lipid peroxidation, through interaction with iron,
and animal models are very valuable but have lim- quenching of free radicals, and an increase in antiox-
itations when extrapolating to humans. The speci- idant enzymes.47–51
fications for spice-related health claims are unclear
for some compounds, in spite of a large body of
work. The use of in vitro models allows for the Capsaicin
use of concentrations, purified products, and con- Capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-trans-6-nonena-
ditions that do not necessarily resemble the real use mide), the principal pungent and irritant con-
of compounds on a routine basis for human con- stituent of hot red and chili peppers, has been
sumption. Especially in the case of spices, human reported to have antiproliferative and anti-
studies are needed, but should not only focus on inflammatory effects on hepatic stellate cells,
their use as medicines, in which case clinical tri- responsible for early repair of hepatic cell damage.52
als and studies designed as drug trials are needed It was recently observed that 6-gingerol (6-hydroxy-
but should also focus on conducting randomized 1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-3-decanone), the
controlled trials studying the effects on health of most bioactive compound described in ginger and
spices in the amounts and conditions as when used related to capsaicin (chili pepper) and piperine
as condiments. Even if a nutrient or chemical com- (black pepper), effectively protected against DNA
pound has particular health benefits, it does not damage produced by hydroxyl radical generation.53
necessarily mean that the condiment containing However, there have been in vitro reports of
the nutrient or chemical compound will have such capsaicin promoting or preventing carcinogenesis,
properties. depending on the experimental conditions.46,54
One of the most studied effects of spices that The antitumorigenic properties of curcumin, gin-
is used to explain their health benefits is their gerol, and capsaicin have been associated with
antioxidant capacity. This effect could be exerted an anti-inflammatory effect, mediated by nuclear
by chelating metallic ions (especially iron and cop- factor ␬B, that has been linked to proliferation
per), hydrogen donation, scavenging of free radicals, and survival of certain tumor cells and regula-
and by associating with, or acting as, a substrate for tion of the expression of various genes, including
radicals (hydroxyl or superoxide). Their ability to cyclooxygenase-2, responsible for inflammation and
act as such is related to the structure of the bioactive malignant transformation.55

10 Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1379 (2016) 3–16 

C 2016 New York Academy of Sciences.
Garcı́a-Casal et al. Consumption and markets of condiments

Piperine products make the sauces and condiments category

Piperine (1-[5-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-1-oxo-2,4- very dynamic. For example, more than 40 mayon-
pentadienyl]piperidine), the active ingredient of naises entered the market in 2010, and in the United
black pepper, has been reported to act as an antiox- States, mayonnaise is the first in the list of sauces
idant by trapping free radicals and preventing lipid and condiments.
oxidation,56 although some reports indicate that the Mintel values the U.S. market of spices and condi-
use of high concentrations could promote oxida- ments at $5.6 billion. Driven by its core audience,
tion by favoring the Fenton reaction and generating 18- to 34-year-old consumers, that market will swell
hydroxyl radicals.57 to $7 billion by 2015, as new whole-grain mustards,
spicy ketchups, fruit-flavored salsas, blended aiolis,
Alliin and allicin
chutneys, and hot sauces become available at gro-
At least 33 sulfur compounds have been isolated
cery stores.62
from garlic. Alliin (S-allyl cysteine sulfoxide), allicin
India contributes 25–30% of the total world trade
(diallyl thiosulfinate), dialyl sulfides, disulfides, and
in spices. Nine spices—pepper, ginger, clove, cin-
trisulfides are some of them. Alliin, the odorless
namon, cassia, mace, nutmeg, pimento (allspice),
precursor of allicin, inhibits platelet aggregation in
and cardamom—constitute 90% of the total world
human blood. When garlic is chopped or crushed,
trade, and about 50 of the 86 spices produced in the
alliinase acts on alliin to produce allicin, a thermally
world are grown in India.63
unstable antibacterial and antithrombotic agent,
which possesses the characteristic smell of garlic.15 Global trends in sauces, spices,
Allicin also has important lipid-lowering proper- and condiments
ties, as well as antitumorigenic effects in vitro.58–60
When indicated, the data presented were commis-
With respect to the antioxidant properties, compo-
sioned to Euromonitor and were based on a desk
nents in garlic have been reported to increase the
search in each country, accessing sources such as
activity of antioxidant enzymes, such as superoxide
governmental offices, trade associations, industries,
dismutase, and to decrease lipid peroxidation.
broker reports, and online databases. Store checks
Quercetin glucosides were part of the search in each country, as were
The quercetin glucosides 4 -O-␤-glucoside and 3,4 - trade surveys. When necessary, the company com-
O-␤-diglucoside, present in onions, increase the bined the information from industries with sec-
activity of glutathione peroxidase and inhibit lipid ondary sources. Data validation was reviewed at
peroxidation in vitro.39 However, although it con- country, regional, and global levels. Comparative
tains sulfur compounds similar to garlic, the health checks were carried out on per-capita consumption
benefits of onion are less clear.59 and spending levels, growth rates, patterns of cat-
Other condiments that are mixtures of spices, egory and subcategory breakdowns, and distribu-
such as some Indian spices, have also been studied tion of sales by channel.64 According to these data,
as therapeutic agents. In particular, curry and other the use of sauces, dressings, and condiments has
turmeric-containing blends, because of their inclu- been steadily increasing at least for the last 5 years
sion of turmeric and curcumin, have been reported (Table 1). During 2013 and by World Health Orga-
to increase detoxifying enzymes, prevent DNA dam- nization (WHO) region, the highest use of this cat-
age, improve DNA repair, decrease mutations and egory was registered in the Western Pacific region,
tumor formation, and exhibit antioxidant potential followed by the region of the Americas and the Euro-
in animals.61 pean region (Table 2).
The main consumer of spices, sauces, and
World trade of spices and condiments
condiments is China, while the United States is the
The market for condiments has been growing con- largest importer of spices, followed by Australia,
tinuously in the last few years. Condiment sales the United Kingdom, Canada, and Russia. The
grew 9.4% from 2007 to 2009, becoming the second main consumed spice is black pepper and the top
largest category in the specialty foods market, with producer is Vietnam.65 Furthermore, the top three
the largest category being cheese. The permanent buyers of fish sauces are Vietnam, Thailand, and
changes, the new flavors, new influences, and new Myanmar; for bouillon cubes, the top three buyers

Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1379 (2016) 3–16 

C 2016 New York Academy of Sciences. 11
Consumption and markets of condiments Garcı́a-Casal et al.

are China, the United States, and Japan. In some of foods with vitamins and minerals is one of the
cases, there are large differences between countries most cost-effective approaches to combat micronu-
(e.g., the use of soy sauces in China, Japan, and trient deficiencies. Usually programs have been
Indonesia is 5,875,800; 856,000; and 420,000 metric directed to fortify staple foods, but in some sit-
tons, respectively (1 metric ton = 1000 kg = 2205 uations, fortification of condiments or seasonings
lb) (Table 3). (e.g., soy and fish sauces, curry powder, or bouil-
During 2013, China used more bouillon cubes, lon powders or cubes) may be a useful alternative,
monosodium glutamate, oyster sauce, and soy if they are consumed consistently by most of the
sauce than any other country; Vietnam was the population, as is the case in many Asian and African
leader in purchases of fish sauce; and the United countries.66
States in herbs and spices, ketchup, and BBQ There is a significant number of people consum-
sauce. The use of mayonnaise was led by Russia ing spices and condiments worldwide. However,
(Table 4). the consumption of spices varies widely not only
between different countries but also for individu-
Fortification of spices and condiments
als within the same country. For example, a study
A recent consideration about spices, but especially of daily consumption of commonly used spices
condiments, relates to the possibility of their use in India showed important differences in adults—
as fortification vehicles for addition of micronu- consumption of turmeric varied from 0.2 to 4.8 g/
trients. Micronutrient deficiencies are the main day; curcumin, 4–100 mg/day; red pepper, 2.4–
nutritional problem in the world, and fortification 4.1 g/day; capsaicin, 7–120 mg/day; fenugreek,

Table 1. The top 10 countries using the category of sauces, dressings, and condiments during 2008–2013

Salesa
Year 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Countries
China 6823.8 7195.5 7583 7971.8 8403.9 8834.5
United States 4882.1 4939.1 4955.1 4994.9 5014.5 5033.4
Japan 3644.8 3577.5 3509.8 3404.9 3331 3321.2
Russia 1245.6 1256.8 1274.7 1290.5 1313.5 1357.5
Germany 1189.4 1209.3 1213.5 1218.3 1222.5 1226.8
Brazil 941.2 987.7 1043.6 1081.1 1129.6 1176.2
Mexico 938.4 976 1003.9 1036.5 1052.8 1100.7
Indonesia 748.3 792.6 855 924.6 996 1071.8
South Korea 931.4 936.6 947.9 952.3 962.6 972
United Kingdom 828.9 840 847.3 859.9 864.7 867.8
a Metric tons ×1000 (1 metric ton = 1000 kg = 2205 lb).

Table 2. Quantity of producta sold via retailing channels under the category of sauces, dressings, and condiments,
by WHO region during 2008–2013
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Africa region (AFRO) 427.2 446.3 468.4 493.9 516.3 540.6

East Mediterranean region (EMRO) 1080.6 1138.3 1187.6 1189.7 1236.2 1282.2
Southeast Asia region (SEARO) 1699.7 1792.8 1912.3 2037.3 2171.5 2315.3
Europe region (EURO) 7821.3 7894.6 7979.6 8039.8 8113.8 8215.6
Americas region (AMRO) 8162.1 8372.2 8467.7 8599.9 8704.9 8845.8
West Pacific region (WPRO) 12,557.6 12,945.8 13,338.2 13,695.3 14,116.4 14,598.4
Total 31,748.5 32,590 33,353.8 34,055.9 34,859.1 35,797.9
a In metric tons ×1000 (1 metric ton = 1000 kg = 2205 lb).

12 Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1379 (2016) 3–16 

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Garcı́a-Casal et al. Consumption and markets of condiments

300–600 mg/day; garlic, 0–20 g/day; and onion, Table 3. Top 10 buyers of products included in the cat-
0–500 g/day.39 In a study on dietary intake of egory of sauces, dressings, and condiments during 2013,
spices and herbs in Northeast Thailand, using classified by product and country
24-h recall questionnaires, the herbs and spices Metric tons
identified as the most consumed in the region were Product Country (×1000)a
garlic, chili pepper, tamarind, lemongrass, shallot,
Bouillon cubes China 322.7
galangal, kaffir lime leaves, hairy basil leaves, mint,
United States 189.9
bai-ya-nang (a local vegetable herb), and fennel
Japan 97.8
leaves. The quantity of spices in the four most com- Nigeria 74.9
mon dishes (somtum, jaew, pon, and kang-nor- Indonesia 65.7
mai) was 4.9, 26.1, 14, and 11 g, respectively, per Brazil 64.9
meal.67 Thailand 63.0
Another aspect to be considered is the fortifi- South Korea 43.0
cation of condiments that would be used for the Australia 42.3
preparation of processed foods. For example, in Mexico 41.1
the Philippines, the use of iodized salt for prepara- Fish sauces Vietnam 333.0
tion of salted fish at the industrial level would pro- Thailand 284.7
Myanmar 36.7
vide 64–85% of the recommended nutrient intake
Philippines 8.2
(RNI) for iodine for women of reproductive age and
Japan 4.6
107–141% of the RNI for iodine for children aged Cambodia 4.5
1–6 years.68 However, the use of iodized salt in France 3.2
industrialized products needs to be controlled Laos 2.1
and regulated to avoid excess. Also, polyphenols, Canada 1.3
whose high content in spices is responsible for the Netherlands 1.3
their reported antioxidant effects, are also potent Herbs and spices United States 136.3
inhibitors of iron absorption.69 For example, in a India 87.2
study on the effects of six spices (chili pepper, garlic, Russia 33.8
pak kyheng (Thai leafy vegetable), shallot, tamarind, China 33.4
Poland 25.3
turmeric) and one mixture of spices (curry paste)
Ukraine 18.1
on iron availability, a dose-dependent reduction in
Germany 16.6
iron dialyzability was shown for all spices except Malaysia 14.6
for tamarind, which has polyphenol contents of Canada 14.5
0.5–33 mg polyphenol per meal.70 South Korea 12.6
Although salt is classified as a condiment by the Soy sauces China 5875.8
Codex Alimentarius, extensive discussion on salt is Japan 856.0
beyond the scope of this paper. Salt has been used as Indonesia 419.9
a fortification vehicle for iodine for many years and South Korea 192.1
also has been used for double or multiple micronu- United States 175.6
trients (i.e., double-fortified salt with iodine and Philippines 107.0
Vietnam 90.2
iron). The WHO recently released a guideline
Thailand 66.8
on salt fortification to harmonize salt reduction
Myanmar 60.6
policies. Malaysia 33.5
Fortification of condiments and seasonings is a
relatively new strategy that may have several bene- a1 metric ton = 1000 kg = 2205 lb.
fits, including feasibility, cost-effectiveness, sensory
acceptability, targeting of subpopulations, and fre-
quent and consistent use by populations. People in ments, spices, and seasonings overcome monotony
less advantaged groups tend to have little variety in in the diet and become frequently used products,
their diets, and a small number of foods accounts for possibly reaching some people who cannot afford
most of their calories per day. In these cases, condi- other fortified foods.

Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1379 (2016) 3–16 

C 2016 New York Academy of Sciences. 13
Consumption and markets of condiments Garcı́a-Casal et al.

Table 4. Top buyers of products included in the cate- 2014, at the New York Academy of Sciences in New
gory of sauces, dressings, and condiments during 2013, York. This paper is being published individually but
classified by product and country will be consolidated with other manuscripts as a
Metric tons special issue of Annals of the New York Academy of
Product Country (×1000)a Sciences, the coordinators of which were Drs. Maria
Nieves Garcia-Casal, Mireille McLean, Luz Marı́a
Bouillon cubes China 322.7
De-Regil, and Juan Pablo Peña-Rosas. The special
Curry sauces the Netherlands 9.2
issue is the responsibility of the editorial staff of
Fish sauces Vietnam 333.0
Herbs and spices United States 136.3
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, who
Ketchup United States 679.6 delegated to the coordinators preliminary supervi-
Mayonnaise Russia 717.0 sion of both technical conformity to the publishing
Monosodium glutamate China 1185.4 requirements of Annals of the New York Academy
Mustard United States 118.0 of Sciences and general oversight of the scientific
Oyster sauces China 439.6 merit of each article. The workshop was supported
Soy sauces China 5875.8 by the WHO, the Micronutrient Initiative, and the
a1 metric ton = 1000 kg = 2205 lb.
Sackler Institute for Nutrition Science at the New
York Academy of Sciences. The authors alone are
responsible for the views expressed in this paper;
they do not necessarily represent the views, deci-
Final remarks
sions, or policies of the institutions with which they
The category of sauces, spices, and condiments are affiliated or the decisions, policies, or views of the
includes a broad range of substances with different WHO. The opinions expressed in this publication
characteristics and consumption patterns, which are those of the authors and are not attributable to
are in constant evolution, including new flavors the sponsors, publisher, or editorial staff of Annals
and products. The category is very dynamic, with of the New York Academy of Sciences.
enormous volumes of production and with some
countries supporting part of their economies with Conflicts of interest
production for internal use and for trading around
the world. Although spices have been reported The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
as having health benefits with respect to disease
prevention and control, health claims need to be References
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