1

INTRODUCTION

Odour can be defined as the “perception of smell” or in scientific terms as “a sensation

resulting from the reception of stimulus by the olfactory sensory system”. Whether pleasant
or unpleasant, odour is induced by inhaling air-borne volatile organics or inorganics.

With growing population, industrialization and urbanization, the odour problem has been
assuming objectionable proportion. Urbanization without proper sanitation facilities is a
major cause of odour problem. Rapidly growing industrialization has aggravated the problem
through odorous industrial operations. Undesirable odour contributes to air quality concerns
and affect human lifestyles. Odour is undoubtedly the most complex of all the air pollution
problems.

Unlike conventional air pollutants, odour has distinctly different characteristics, which, to an
extent, can be comparable with noise pollution. Similar to noise, nuisance is the primary
effect of odour on people. Some such characteristics are:

 Substances of similar or dissimilar chemical constitution may have similar odour.

Nature and strength of odour may change on dilution.
 Weak odour is not perceived in presence of strong odour.
 Odour of same strength blends to produce a combination in which one or both may be
unrecognizable.
 Constant intensity of odour causes an individual to quickly loose awareness of the
sensation and only noticed when it varies in intensity.
 Fatigue for one odour may not affect the perception of dissimilar odour but will
interfere with the perception of similar odour.
 An unfamiliar odour is more likely to cause complaint than a familiar one.
 Two or more odorous substances may cancel the smell of each other.
 Odour travels downwind.
 Person can smell at a distance.
 Many animals have keener sense of olfaction than man.
 Likes and dislikes often depend on association of the scent with pleasant or
unpleasant experiences.
2
EFFECTS OF ODOUR

Odour affects human beings in a number of ways. Strong, unpleasant or offensive smells can
interfere with a person’s enjoyment of life especially if they are frequent and / or persistent.
Major factors relevant to perceived odour nuisance are:

 Offensiveness
 Duration of exposure to odour
 Frequency of odour occurrence
 Tolerance and expectation of the receptor

Though foul odour may not cause direct damage to health, toxic stimulants of odour may
cause ill health or respiratory symptoms. Secondary effects, in some, may be nausea,
insomnia and discomfort. Very strong odour can result in nasal irritation; trigger symptoms in
individuals with breathing problems or asthma. On the economic front, loss of property value
near odour causing operations/ industries and odorous environment is partly a consequence of
offensive odour.
3
ODOROUS COMPOUNDS

Odorous substances that are emitted from industrial sources include both inorganic and
organic gases and particulate. Many odorous compounds result from biological activity or are
present in emissions from chemical processes. Most of the odorous substances derived from
anaerobic decomposition of organic matter contain sulfur and nitrogen. Some of the odorous
compounds emitted from industrial sources and their volatility & detection thresholds are
given in Table-1. Most of the odorous substances are gaseous under normal atmospheric
conditions or at least have a significant volatility. Usually, lower the molecular weight of a
compound, the higher is its vapor pressure & potential for emission to the atmosphere.
Substances of high molecular weight are normally less volatile and thus normally have fewer
odour. The reduced sulfur compounds, such as the mercaptans and organic sulfides, tend to
be the most odorous, based on their relatively low odour threshold concentrations.

Details of Offensive Odorous Compounds Emitted from Industries

Compound/ Odorant Formula Molecular Weight Volatility at 25°C in ppm Odour Detection Threshold in ppm (v/v) Offensive Odour Description
Inorganic Compounds
Ammonia NH3 17 Gas 17 Pungent, Irritating
Chlorine CI2 71 Gas 0.08 Pungent, Suffocation
Hydrogen Sulphide H2S 34 Gas 0.00047 Rotten eggs
Ozone O3 48 Gas 0.5 Pungent, irritating
Sulphur dioxide SO2 64 Gas 2.7 Pungent, irritating
Acids
Acetic Acid CH3 CO OH 60 Gas 1 Vinegar
Butyric Acid CH3CH2CH2CO OH 88 Gas 0.12 Rancid butter
Propionic Acid CH3CH2CO OH 74 Gas 0.028
Alcohols
Amyl alcohol C5H11OH 88 Gas --- ---
Butyl alcohol CH3(CH2)3 OH 74 Gas 0.1 --
Aldehydes & Ketones
Formaldehyde HCHO 30 Acrid
Acetaldehyde CH3CHO 44 Gas 0.067 Fruit
Butyl aldehyde C3H7CHO 72 Rancid
Acetone CH3COCH3 58 Fruit
Amines
Methyl amine CH3NH2 31 Gas 4.7 Putrid, Fishy
Dimethyl amine (CH3)2NH 45 Gas 0.34 Putrid, Fishy
Trimethyl amine (CH3)3N 59 Gas 0.0004 Putrid, Fishy
Ethyl amine C2H5NH2 45 0.27 Ammoniacal
Diethyl amine (C4H9)2NH 129 0.02
Di-isopropyl amine (C3H7)2NH2 101 0.13 Fishy
Dibutyl amine (C4H9)2NH 129 8,000 0.016 Fishy
n butyl amine CH3(CH2)3NH2 73 93,000 0.08 Sour, ammonia
Mercaptans
Allyl mercaptan 74 --- 0.0015 Disagreeable, garlic
Amyl mercaptan 104 --- 0.0003 Unpleasant, Putrid
Benzyl mercaptan 124 --- 0.0002 Unpleasant, strong
Ethyl mercaptan 62 710,000 0.0003 Decayed Cabbage
Methyl mercaptan 48 Gas 0.0005 Rotten Cabbage
Phenyl mercaptan 110 2,000 0.0003 Putrid, garlic
Propyl mercaptan 76 2,20,000 0.0005 Unpleasant
Sulphides
Diethyl sulphide (C2H5)2S 106 0.02 Ether
Dimethyl sulphide (CH3)2S 62 830,000 0.001 Decayed Cabbage
Dimethyl disulphide (CH3)2S2 94 0.0076 Putrid
Diphenyl sulphide (C6H5)2S 186 100 0.0001 Unpleasant
Organic Heterocycles
Indole C6H4(CH)2NH 117 360 0.0001 Fecal, nauseating
Pyridine C5H5N 79 27,000 0.0001 Pungent, irritating
Skatole C9H9N 131 200 0.001 Fecal, nauseating
Thiocresol CH3C6H4SH 124 --- 0.0001 Rancid
Table:3-1
4
SOURCES OF ODOUR

Most commonly reported odour-producing compounds are hydrogen sulfide (rotten egg
odour) and ammonia (sharp pungent odour). Carbon disulfide, mercaptans, product of
decomposition of proteins (especially of animal origin) phenols and some petroleum
hydrocarbons are other common odorants. Most offensive odour is created by the anaerobic
decay of wet organic matter such as flesh, manure etc. For example, odour originating from
livestock manure is a result of a broad range of over 168 odour- producing compounds.
Warm temperature enhances anaerobic decay and foul odour production, as represented in
Figure 1.

Odour sources can be classified as:

 Point Sources: Point sources are confined emissions from vents,

stacks and exhausts.
 Area Sources: Area sources may be unconfined like sewage treatment
plant, waste water treatment plant, solid waste landfill, composting,
household manure spreading, settling lagoons etc.
 Building Sources: Building sources of odour like pig sheds and hog
confinement chicken.
 Fugitive Sources: In this source of odour, emissions are of fugitive
nature like odour emissions from soil bed or bio-filter surface.

Odour can arise from many sources. Most of the sources are man-made.
Garbage/improper dumping on vacant land are a common phenomenon. It
leads to foul smell due to putrefaction of dumped garbage, which lies
uncollected for days together. Unscientific design of landfill & improper
sewage treatment practices produce unpleasant odour.

Figure: 4-1 Conditions for Potential Foul Odour

Industries such as Pulp & Paper, Fertilizer, Pesticides, Tanneries, Sugar & Distillery, Chemical,
Dye & Dye Intermediates, Bulk Drugs & Pharmaceuticals etc, Large Livestock operations,
Poultry Farms, Slaughter Houses, Food and Meat processing industries and Bone Mills are
among major contributors to odour pollution. Agricultural activities like decaying of vegetation,
production and application of compost etc. also contribute to odour pollution.
In urban areas, improper handling of public amenities like toilets of cinema hall, bus/ railway
stations, hospitals, shopping complex etc. generate pungent odour, which affects the users as
well as neighborhood residents. Congested markets do not allow the escape of odour from
markets, thus causing problems to shop-owners as well as to customers.
Vehicular sector also has its share in odour pollution. Rapidly growing vehicular population as
well as pollutants emitted by them generate harmful and pungent odour that have marked effects
on pedestrians as well as near-by residents.

Some of the important sources of odour pollution, the specific section / sources in the process
and odorous compounds emitted are listed in Table 4-1

Important Sources of Odour Pollution and Odorous Compounds Emitted

Sources Sections Odorous Compounds

Digester CH3 SH
Black Liquor Storage Tank CH3SH, CH3’2S
Evaporator H2S, CH3’2S2, CH3’2S
Pulp & Paper Recovery Boiler CH3SH, CH3’2S
Smelt Dissolving Tank H2S, CH3SH
Lime kiln CH3SH, SO2
NH3, SO2,
Fertilizers Nitrogenos Phosphatic
F2
Pesticides CH3CHO, NH3, H2S
Raw hides and skins storage / waste Purification of Hides & Skins
fleshing
Beam house operation NH3, H2S
Finishing operation Volatile organic compounds
Tanneries ETP: Collection Tanks H2S
ETP: Primary Treatment Units H2S
ETP: Sludge Dewatering System H2S
ETP: Anaerobic Lagoons H2S, CH4
Bio-methanation H2S
Sugar & Distillery
Aeration Tank NH3
Chemical - NH3 H2S, Cl2, Mercaptans &
Phenols
Dye & Dye
- NH3, H2S, SO2, Mercaptans,
Intermediates
Bulk Drugs & Biological extracts and wastes
H2S, SO2, Mercaptans,
Pharmaceuticals spent termination liquors
Waste Water
Anaerobic decomposition H2S & Mercaptans
Treatment Plant
Municipal
Anaerobic decomposition H2S, Mercaptans
Solid Waste
Slaughter Houses By-product / Waste Storage CH4, H2S, Mercaptans
Effluent Treatment Plant
Table: 4-1
5
ODOUR CONCENTRATION AND INDEX

The odour concentration is defined as the dimensionless ratio of the volume of dilution air to
the volume of odour vapour. It is commonly reported as odour units or dilution to threshold
(D/T) values.
The odour index is a standard way to display and provide information on the potential of a
particular compound to cause odour problems under evaporative conditions. Mathematically
odour index is defined as
Odour Index= 10log10 (Odour concentration)
The odour concentration and index of the common compounds are given in Table 5-1

Compound Odour Concentration(D/T) Odour Index

n-butylmercaptan 49,340,000 76.9
Hydrogen sulfide 17,000,000 72.3
Diethylsulfide 14,400,000 71.6
Formaldehyde 5,000,000 67.0
Isobutene 4,640,000 66.7
Acetaldehyde 4,300,000 66.3
Isobutane 3,000,000 64.8
Dimethylsulfide 2,760,000 64.4
Ethylether 1,939,000 62.9
Methylamine 940,000 59.7
Diethylamine 880,000 59.4
n-butylsulfide 658,000 58.2
n-butylamine 395,000 56.0
Dimethylamine 280,000 54.5
Valeric acid 256,300 54.1
Methylchloride 200,000 53.0
Ammonia 167,300 52.2
Propionic acid 112,300 50.5
Ethylene 57,100 47.6
Tert. Butanol 55,900 47.5
Chlorobenzene 52,600 47.2
n-butyric acid 50,000 47.0
Carbon disulfide 44,430 46.5
Skatole 30,000 44.8
Benzylchloride 28,000 44.5
Ethane 25,300 44.0
Benzaldehyde 22,000 43.4
Allylchloride 17,900 42.5
Acetic acid 15,000 41.8
Allylalcohol 13,800 41.4
n-butylether 13,400 41.3
Acetic anhydride 12,800 41.1
Methylamylalcohol 12,650 41.0
n-butylchloride 6,300 38.0
Acrylic acid 4,210 36.2
Isobutylacetate 3,300 35.2
1,3 butadine 2,530 34.0
Diethylketone 1,900 32.8
Ethylacetate 1,900 32.8
n-butylacetate 1,200 30.8
Methylacetate 1,100 30.4
Acetone 720 28.6
Toluene 720 28.6
Carbon tetachloride 540 27.3
n-butane 480 26.8
Propane 425 26.3
Sec. Butanol 400 26.0
Chlorobromomethane 350 25.4
Isobutanol 320 25.1
Benzene 300 24.8
n-butanol 120 20.8
Chloroform 70 18.5
Methanol 22 13.4
phenol 16 12.0
Ethanol 11 10.4
Table: 5-1
6
MEASUREMENT OF ODOUR POLLUTION

Of the five senses, the sense of smell is the most complex and unique in structure and
organization. Sense of smell is accomplished with two main nerves. The olfactometry nerve
(first cranial nerve) processes the perception of chemicals. The trigeminal nerve (fifth cranial
nerve) processes the irritation or pungency (sensation) of chemicals. All olfactory signals
meet in the olfactory bulb where the information is distributed to two different parts of the
brain. One major pathway of information is to the limbic system which processes emotion
and memory response of the body. The second major information pathway is to the frontal
cortex. This is where conscious sensations take place, as the information is processed with
other sensations and is compared with accumulated life experiences for the individual to
possibly recognize the odour and make some decisions about the experiences. The entire
trip, from nostril to signal in the brain, takes as little as 500 milliseconds.

6.1 Terms associated with Odour Measurement

For better understanding of the methods of measurement of odour, definition of following

few terms is required:

a) Odour Detectability or Threshold of Concentration

Odour detectability or threshold of concentration is a sensory property referring to the
minimum concentration that produces an olfactory response or sensation. With odour
intensity at or just above “threshold” odour become difficult to perceive.

An odour detection threshold relates to the minimum odorant concentration required to

perceive the existence of the stimulus, whereas an odour recognition threshold relates to the
minimum odorant concentration required to identify the stimulus. The detection threshold
occurs at a lower concentration than the recognition threshold.

b) Odour concentration
It is measured as dilution ratios and reported as Dilution Threshold (DT) or Recognition
Threshold (RT) for point and area source concentrations and sometimes assign the pseudo-
dimension of odour units per cubic meter.(o.u/m3). For ambient concentrations it is reported
as Dilution to Threshold (D/T).

c) Dilution to Threshold (D/T) ratio

It is a measure of the number of dilutions needed to make the odorous air non-detectable.

d) Odour unit
It is the concentration divided by the threshold.

e) Odour Intensity
Odour intensity is the strength of the perceived odour sensation. Perceived odour intensity is
the relative strength of the odour above the recognition threshold. It is related to the odorant
concentration. Generally odour intensity increases with the odorant concentration. The
relationship between intensity and concentration can be expressed as:
𝐼 = 10 log10 𝐶
Where,
I= Intensity;
C= Concentration of odorant (Odour units or D/T)

1-butanol is taken as a reference odorant to standardize odour measurement practices

Odour Intensity is expressed in parts per million (ppm) of butanol.

The odour intensity is usually stated according to a predetermined rating system. Widely used
scale for odour intensity is the following:
 Barely perceptible
 Slight
 Moderate
 Strong
 Very strong

(Half score is used when the observer is undecided)

 Odour Persistence: It is term used to describe the rate at which an odour’s perceived
intensity decreases as the odour is diluted. It can be represented as a ‘Dose-Response’
function, a relationship of odour concentration and odour intensity.

 Hedonic Tone: Hedonic tone is a measure of the pleasantness or unpleasantness of an

Odour.

 Odour Character: Odour character or quality is the property to identify an odour and
differentiates it from another odour of equal intensity.

 Annoyance: It is defined as interference with comfortable enjoyment of life and

property.

6.2 Odour Measurement

An odour emission often consists of a complex mixture of many odorous compounds.

Analytical monitoring of individual chemical compounds present in such odour is usually not
practical. As a result, odour sensory methods, instead of instrumental methods, are normally
used to measure such odour. Odour sensory methods are available to monitor odour both
from source emissions and in the ambient air. These two diverse circumstances require
different approaches for measuring odour. The collection of odour samples is more easily
accomplished for a source emission than for an odour in the ambient air. Also, due to
atmospheric dilution, the odour in the ambient air is usually much lower in intensity than it is
at source. Thus the sensitivity of the odour sensory method must be significantly greater for
measuring ambient odour than for source odour emissions.

For known compounds, the Odour strength can be reliably estimated by measuring the
concentration of the chemical, while, for mixtures of unknown substances, sensory method is
preferred.

Measurement of odour is standardized for source emission air samples and for ambient air at
the property line and in the community. Therefore, three basic odour limits may be
incorporated for compliance determining criteria:

 Ambient odour concentration limits

 Ambient odour intensity limits
 Source emission odour concentration limits

Measuring odour can be accomplished in several ways: instrumental methods / chemical

analysis, electronic methods and sensory test methods / olfactometry.

6.2.1 Instrumental methods

Instrumental methods have relied mainly on the application of gas chromatography (GC),
including gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), since this mature separation
technology is capable of the efficient separation required for analysis of complex mixtures of
odour. In gas chromatography a mixture of volatile substances is injected into a column,
which separates the compounds based on their relative vapour pressures and polarities. The
compounds are then detected as peaks, which have specific retention times and peak areas,
which can be used for qualitative and quantitative determinations, respectively.

6.2.2 Sensory methods (Olfactometry)

Accurate measurement of odorous compounds and their impact have been challenging
because these compounds possess widely varying physical and chemical properties and are
present at concentrations ranging from high parts-per-million (ppm) to low parts-per-billion
(ppb). Furthermore, each odorant has a unique odour and odour detection threshold which
means that compounds, even if present at the same concentration, may have markedly
different odour impacts.

The sensory methods used for measuring odour level include:

 Static dilution olfactometry

 Dynamic dilution olfactometry
- free choice
- forced choice

Static Dilution Olfactometry

In Static dilution a sample of odorous gas is diluted in 100 ml glass syringe at various
dilution levels. The diluted samples are expelled into the nostrils of the panelists. The odour
detection threshold is determined graphically from the dilution levels and panelist response
data. A panel of eight panelists is preferred

The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM D-1391) static dilution / syringe
method was developed in 1978 and was withdrawn by the ASTM E-18 Committee on March
29, 1986; however, the procedure is still in use, principally in the USA.

Dynamic Dilution Olfactometry

A dynamic olfactometer provides a continuous and constant diluted odour stimulus by
mixing controlled flows of sample and odorless air. With dynamic methods, larger samples
are used and dilutions are presented at more reproducible flow rates and for longer duration
for panelists to evaluate. The presentation of odorous sample dilutions to panelists and their
responses depend on three sensory effects: judgment criterion, anticipation and
adaptation. The judgment criterion determines how the panelist is to response when asked
whether or not an odour is sensed. This is the case particularly when a single stimulus is
presented and a yes or no answer is requested as to the sensation of odour. The anticipation
effect is a tendency to expect an odour to occur when odorless or weak samples are
consecutively presented. The adaptation effect is a temporary loss of sensitivity after smelling
an odour. When a weak odour is detected initially, the same odour may not be detected again
after smelling a stronger odour unless the panelist has had sufficient time to recover his or her
olfactory sense activated carbon when the volume of odorous gas to be treated is greater than
5000 cubic meters per hour.
7
ODOUR CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES

Odour control depends on type of sources and is discussed below:

7.1 Odour Control from Area Sources

For large area sources following methods can be used to reduce odour complaints excluding
development close to the site

Development close to the site is to be excluded. A reasonable “buffer zone” around the area
sources has to be determined. The actual size of the zone depends upon a number of factors,
including the size of the area from which odour emanates, the intensity of the odour being
emitted, the duration and frequency of the odour emissions, the actual process being
undertaken, the topography of the site, the weather conditions that prevails at the site. Green
belt development in the buffer zone may help at least partially to mitigate / obfuscate the
odour ensuring that the operation is carried out under the best management practices

Best management practices (BMP) vary depending upon the industry producing the odour.
For all new developments, BMPs starts with the site selection and the building of the
facilities.

Nozzles, sprayers and atomizers that spray ultra-fine particles of water or chemicals can be
used along the boundary lines of area sources to suppress odours.

Rotary atomizer is one such technique widely recommended for effective control of odour in
case of area sources. The Atomizer uses centrifugal action by a spinning inner mesh to force
droplets on to an outer mesh which "cuts" the water into atoms (Figure 7-1). The rotary
atomizer produces millions of microscopic droplets of water -- up to 238 billion from single
little droplets that are thinner than a human hair and a fine spray which covers up to 30m.
This creates a fine mist, which is more effective with minimal use of water and electricity. A
typical installation of rotary atomizer is shown in Figure 7-2.
There are a large number of chemicals and proprietary products that claim to reduce odour
when they are applied to area sources. Atmospheric odour that is contained in a restricted
area can be oxidized by atomization of the chlorine dioxide. Odour from sources such as
holding ponds, lagoons, and sewage pre or post treatment effluent can be controlled by
atomized spray of chlorine dioxide.

To reduce odour, chemicals have to be applied over very large area, the cost of materials and
labour would be very high. The large quantity of these compounds required could cause
pollution. The spray / atomizer techniques are used to conceal / mask odour also from
building and fugitive sources.
Figure:7-1Working of a rotary atomizer

Figure:7-2Working of a rotary atomizer

 7.2 Odour Control from Point Sources

In case of point sources such as that of industries, the odour-causing gas stream can be
collected through piping and ventilation system and made available for treatment. Dispersion
method is the simplest of the methods that can be adopted for odour abatement. This is
nothing but to release odorous gases from tall stack. It results in normal dispersion in the
atmosphere and consequent decrease in ground-level concentration below the threshold
value. Dispersal by stacks requires careful consideration of the location & meteorological
parameters, etc. In general, dispersion of odour emissions via chimneys is not a
recommended method.

An array of treatment technologies is available for control of odour from gas streams
collected through process ventilation systems. These include:

a) Mist filtration
b) Thermal oxidation/ Incineration
c) Catalytic oxidation
d) Bio filtration
e) Adsorption
f) Wet scrubbing/Absorption
g) Chemical treatment
h) Irradiation
i) Masking
j) Condensation
k) Green belt development

The choice of the technology is often influenced by the following factors:

a) The volume of gas (or vapor) being produced and its flow rate
b) The chemical composition of the mixture causing the odour
c) The temperature
d) The water content of the stream

a) Mist Filtration
While gases cause most odour, problem may also result from aerosols in the fumes. Odorous
air streams frequently contain high concentration of moisture. If the vapour discharge can be
cooled below 40C, a substantial quantity of the water vapour will condense thereby reducing
the volume of gases to be incinerated. Mist filters can be used for this purpose. Mist filters
can also remove solids and liquids from gas stream. If the odour is caused by these particles,
then it will result in odour reduction also.

b) Incineration
Incineration is the oxidation of the odour into carbon dioxide and water by the combustion of
the odour with fuel and air. The reaction takes place at temperatures ranging from 750 oC to
850oC. This is generally above the auto-ignition temperature of most solvents and other
VOCs and is a reflection of the heat required to maintain the reaction at dilute concentrations
with additional process heat losses. In this regime, the destruction efficiency is almost 100%,
assuming adequate oxygen supply. In some cases, other compounds may be formed
depending on the mixture of fuel and air used the flame temperature and the composition of
the odour. These compounds may include carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and sulfur
oxides.

c) Catalytic oxidation
Catalytic oxidation reaction can be forced to proceed at much lower temperatures (e.g.
200oC) in the presence of a catalyst (Figure 7-3). Thus, the advantage of this process over
thermal oxidation is the reduction in required energy input. Catalytic systems are therefore
more favorable where auto-thermal operation is not practical and heat cannot be
economically used elsewhere.
A number of transition and precious metal catalysts can be used in catalytic oxidizer to
destroy various VOCs over a wide range of process conditions.

Figure: 7-3 A catalytic oxidizer system

d) Bio-filtration
This method is becoming an acceptable and successful way of reducing odours from
biological process. Bio-filtration is a natural process that occurs in the soil that has been
adopted for commercial use. Bio-filters contain micro–organisms that break down VOC’s
and oxidize inorganic gases and vapours into non–malodorous compounds such as water and
CO2. The bacteria grow on inert supports, allowing intimate contact between the odorous
gases and the bacteria. The process is self- sustaining. Bio-filters can be constructed using
various materials such as compost, straw, wood chips, peat, soil, and other inexpensive
biologically active materials. Two typical arrangements of bio-filters for odour control are
shown in Figure 7-4.

Figure: 7-4 Bio-filters for odour control

Another type of bio-filter is the soil-bed filter. Here the odorous gas stream is allowed to flow
through a porous soil with a typical depth of 60 cm. The bacteria in the soil are responsible
for the destruction of the odorous compounds.

e) Adsorption
A method that is suitable for controlling odorous substances, even at low concentrations is
adsorption on to activated carbon. However, the contaminated air stream must be free from
dusts and particulates that might clog the carbon particles. Regeneration of carbon for re-use
will produce either waste water, which will require further treatment before disposal, or a
concentrated vapour stream, which can be incinerated more cheaply than the original air
stream.
There are also systems that use activated alumina impregnated with potassium permanganate
for adsorption. The alumina absorbs the odorous substances so that the permanganate can
oxidize them, usually to carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen and sulfur dioxide, depending on
their composition. The alumina bed is replaced progressively as the permanganate is
exhausted. This has an advantage over carbon because no further treatment is needed; and
may offset the cost of alumina.

f) Wet scrubbing/ Absorption

Wet scrubbing of gases to remove odour involve either absorption in a suitable solvent or
chemical treatment with a suitable reagent. It is important that hot, moist streams are cooled
before they contact scrubbing solutions. If this is not done the scrubbing solution will be
heated and become less efficient and the scrubbing medium will become diluted from
condensation of water vapour.
Wet scrubbing or absorption systems can be either venturi system or packed tower system.
 o Venturi systems
They are co-current scrubbers that accelerate the gas stream into a high
density liquor spray. The aqueous droplets then impinge or impact at high
relative velocity with solids in the gas stream. The resulting conglomerated
particle is then separated from the gas stream in a disengagement tower by
virtue of inertial forces. The high density spray also provides reasonable mass
transfer to the absorption of gaseous contaminants.

o Packed Towers are typically counter current scrubbers that utilize high
surface area media as a contact zone for the gas stream with suitable scrubbing
liquor. The media facilitates high efficiency mass transfer to provide >99.9%
removal of gaseous contaminants.

When odour is caused by the presence of unsaturated organic compounds, it may be

necessary to use an oxidizing agent such as chlorine, diluted sulfuric acid and sodium
hydroxide to treat odour.

Absorption is applicable when the odorous gases are soluble or emulsifiable in a liquid or
react chemically in solution. Wet scrubbing is a useful process to handle acid gas streams,
ammonia or streams with solids that might foul other equipment. It has been suggested that
liquid scrubbing becomes economically attractive compared to incineration and adsorption of
connected to a blower. The inlet of the pipe is covered with anticorrosion mesh to avoid flies
and solid particle entry into the pipe leading to bio filter. A bio filter is developed using
wooden chips as media. Water is sprinkled occasionally to keep the media under wet
condition.

g) Chemical treatment
Injecting controlled quantities of chemicals such as chlorine or hydrogen peroxide into
process-gas stream can control odour. Similarly, unlike various other “odour control”
treatments, chlorine dioxide will destroy the odour at source. Chlorine dioxide is several
times more effective than chlorine and other commonly used treatments, and will not form
any hazardous by products, such as chlorinated organic, which can cause more problems than
the original odour itself.
Odours arising from water bodies can generally be eliminated by adding chlorine dioxide
solution directly to the odoriferous fluid. The first action of chlorine dioxide is to rapidly
oxidize the vapour gases dissolved in the fluid to their oxide form. As the dissolved gases are
oxidized the amount of chlorine dioxide will increase. The next action of chlorine dioxide is
the oxidation of small molecular material, and, as the amount of chlorine dioxide increases
further, the larger molecules and compounds are oxidized.
Due to this versatility, chlorine dioxide can be used in all aspects of odour control process,
from air scrubbers and wastewater treatment. However, Hydrogen Peroxide may be preferred
over Chlorine Dioxide due to toxicity of organo-chlorides.

 Odour control with chlorine dioxide

Chemistry of Odour Reduction

Can react to go to chlorite or chloride as follows:

ClO2 + 1e- → ClO2- (Predominates in neutral / alkaline conditions)

ClO2 + 5e- + 2H2 O → Cl- + 4OH- (Predominates in acidic conditions)
Odour Removal Reaction

- Inorganic
Hydrogen Sulphide
5H2S + 8 ClO2 → 5H2SO4 + 8 Cl- + 4H2O
pH 5-9, min 2.7 ppm of ClO2 oxidises 1.0 ppm of sulfide.
No colloidal sulfur formed.

- Organic
Reactions are slower and proceed in stepwise fashion.

o Mercaptans + ClO2 → Disulfides

o Disulfides + ClO2 → Sulfoxides
o Sulfoxides + ClO2 → Sulfonic acid
Overall reaction pH 5-9, 4.5 ppm of ClO2 oxidises 1 ppm of Mercaptan.

Chlorine Dioxide – Generation Aspects

Chlorine Dioxide is produced by chemical reaction in a reaction vessel commonly called a

‘generator’

Two common methods used in 95% of cases throughout the world:

Acid - Chlorite Method

4HCl + 5NaClO2 → 4ClO2 + 5NaCl + 2H2 O

Chlorine – Chlorite Method

2NaClO2 + HOCl + HCl → 2ClO2 + 2NaCl + H2 O

Bellozen acid – chlorite method is simplest, safest and most accurate.

 Odour control with Hydrogen peroxide

- Chemistry of Odour Reduction

o It is supplied as a liquid solution of 50% w/w concentration.

o It is very strong oxidant with high E° potential.
o Easily dosed and controlled into effluent or into air scrubbers.
o Environmentally friendly by-products i.e. water and oxygen.
o Hydrogen Peroxide has no chemical odour of its own. Thus, overdosing
will not cause a chemical odour breakthrough but will only increase the
cost.

- Inorganic

Hydrogen Sulphide 5H2S + H2O2 acidic pH→ Sº + 2H2O

HS- + H2O2 neutral pH
→ Sº + H2O + OH- HS- + 4H2O2 neutral pH→ SO2- + 4H2O + H+
S2- + 4H2O2 neutral pH→ SO2- + 4H2O
Acidic conditions consume less peroxide but require larger scrubbing area due to lower
solubility of sulfides. It may be advantageous if the gas contains large amount of CO2.

Alkaline pH = 10-11 conditions give fast reaction with removal efficiencies 97.0- 99.9%

- Organic
Reactions proceed in stepwise fashion.
Mercaptans RSH

First, dissolving
RSH + NaOH → RSNa + H2O

Next, oxidation
2RSNa + H2 O2 → RSSR + 2NaOH (Dialkyldisulfide)
Reaction is very fast and can occur in the scrubber.
RSSR is odorous and must be oxidized further.

RSSR + 5 H2O2 + 2NaOH → 2RSO3Na + 6H2O

(The disulfide has very low solubility in water and thus the reaction is slow)

h) Irradiation / Neutrapol
Basically ultra-violet radiation forms ozone. Ozone, is a very re-active form of oxygen, it
exchanges electrons with target molecules. Ultra-violet applications for waste purification
require generally high capital expenditure to form chambers to hold gases requiring treatment
for about 3-4 minutes. If the rate of gas flow is variable, the treatment may be ineffective.
Now days, neutrapol is used instead of ozone which is harmless and non-toxic. Neutrapol is a
monomer. It forms long chain molecules which carry a positive charge. Generally, the
molecules of target gases and surfaces are negatively charged. Since unlike charges attract,
the Neutrapol molecules are attached to the target molecules. Thus, unlike the traditional
method of using a perfume to overpower an unpleasant odour with a pleasant smell, a true
chemical change takes place.

Deodorization mechanism for various Gases

 Ammonia type: The volatile, odorous elements are combined with an organic acid
radical to form a non- odorous compound which is non-volatile.
-NH + R - COOH → R + COONH

 Hydrogen Sulfide: The hydrogen sulfide is converted into a complex organic sodium
salt incorporating sodium metabysulfide, resulting in a non- volatile, non-odourous
and non-poisonous compound.
HS + R-COONa → NaS + NaHS

 Methyl Mercaptans: The mercapatns are very unpleasant and are commonly produced
by rotted proteins (e.g. smells of rotten fish, public urinals)
CHSH + R – COONa → CH S Na
The gases are converted to a complex organic salt.
Neutrapol is distinguished from other neutralizers by its ability to deodorize not just one type
of gas but a wide range of gases, acidic, neutral and alkaline, automatically and
simultaneously. It can be used in a number of ways: add Neutrapol to recyclable water in
scrubber systems; dilute and surface spray; use during the transportation and/or loading
sludge; use during cleaning; continually drip Neutrapol into waste water by using an
automatic dripping system or periodically pour into waste water daily.

i) Condensation
Condensation is the process of converting a gas or vapour to liquid. Any gas can be reduced
to a liquid by sufficiently lowering its temperature and / or increasing pressure. The most
common approach is to reduce the temperature of the gas stream, since increasing the
pressure of a gas can be expensive.
Condensers are simple, relatively inexpensive devices that normally use water or air to cool
and condense a vapour stream. Since these devices are usually not required or capable of
reaching low temperatures (below 38ºC), high removal efficiencies of most gaseous
pollutants are not obtained unless the vapours will condense at high temperatures.
Condensers are typically used as pretreatment devices in order to reduce the cost of the
control system. They can be used ahead of adsorbers, absorbers and incinerators to reduce the
total gas volume to be treated.

j) Green Belt Development

Green belts are used to form a surface capable of adsorbing and forming sinks for odorous
gases. Leaves with their vast area in a tree crown, sorbs pollutants on their surface, thus
effectively reduce their concentrations in the ambient air and source emissions.
While making choice of plant species for green belts, weightage has to be given to the natural
factor of bio-climate. Odour can be reduced by developing green belt.

Plants which counteract odour are

 Bushes with mild but active fragrance.

- Acacia farnesiana (Mexican plant): It is a type of bush with yellow colored fragrant
flowers. It does not have rich canopy but very effective for counteracting smell. Its
limitation is seasonality and thorny nature.
- Melaleuca species: It has sweet fragrance and thin canopy in India.
- Pine, Cedar, Junipers: They have excellent canopy and protection. Its limitation is
site specificity.
- Eucalyptus: It can be used as very good belt and can also be used as per odour source.
Its limitation is site specificity and height in the urban neighborhood.
- Hedges, Herbs (Tulsi, Turmeric etc.) can also be used for counteracting odour.
- Vetiver: This plant is a king of perfumes for inactivating other odours. It affects the
nervous system and relieves fatigue. It is used as key species in aromatherapy.

 Plants which tolerate pollution

- Nerium (Kaner): This plant may or may not have a thick canopy but has excellent
results with vehicular pollution and experimented at National Botanical Research
Institute, Lucknow.
- Acacia auriculiformis, Bamboo, Pongamia, Pininata, Neem and Casuarina etc
8
STUDIES CARRIED OUT IN INDIA

8.1 Study Carried Out in Andhra Pradesh Paper Mills Limited

The present production capacity of Andhra Pradesh Paper Mills Limited is 1,00,000 TPA.
The Andhra Pradesh Paper Mills Limited has installed a Non Condensable Gases Handling
and Incineration system including collection, transportation and incineration to minimize
odour.
Non Condensable Gases (NCG)
Constituents of NCG are Hydrogen Sulphide, Methyl Mercaptans Dimethyl Sulphide and
Dimethyl Disulphide.
Non Condensable Gases are normally released in Pulp and Paper industry from pulping and
chemical recovery sections.

These gases are classified into strong NCG and Weak NCG.

Handling of NCG includes identifying the sources, making measurements and installing
suitable system for collection and burning.

Sources of Strong NCG

The main source of strong NCG is cooking. NCG are released from blow tanks during
blowing and also along with de-gassing vapours.

Strong NCG are released continuously from evaporator plant.

Sources of Weak NCG

 Brown Stock Washing section
 Tank vents (black liquor, smelt dissolving, condensate)
 Other tanks (white liquor, foam tanks, etc.)

Measurement of NCG
Detailed analysis was carried out for Hydrogen Sulphide, Methyl Mercapatan, Dimethyl
Sulphide & Dimethyl disulphide and is presented below:

Component Total strong NCG (dry) (%)

Hydrogen Sulphide 1.08
Methyl Mercapatan 2.29
Dimethyl Sulphide 2.09
Dimethyl Disulphide 0.92
Air 92.84
Table: 8-1
 NCG Flow was 14.6 Nm3/T of Pulp (Avg); and 39.2 Nm3/T of Pulp (Max)

Details of the NCG Handling System Installed

Evaporators
A shell and tube condenser is installed for removal of water vapour before incineration.

Digesters

 Open type condenser is closed in waste heat recovery system.

 NCG from digester degassing is collected.
 Ejectors are installed for transportation of NCG from evaporators and digesters.
 Droplet separators are installed for removal of water particles prior to incineration.

Study carried out by Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

Odour Problem and Sources of Emissions in Pulp & Paper Industry

 Paper industry uses various chemicals which contribute to odorous emissions.

 The release of sulfurous compounds i.e. Non Condensable Gases (NCG’s) are the
major sources of odour & their presence in atmosphere causes odour.

The main NCG released during pulping process are given below:
Digester CH3SH, CH3OH
Evaporator H2S,CH3’2S2, CH3’2S, CH3OH
Black Liquor Storage Tank H2S, CH3SH, CH3’2S
Recovery Boiler H2S CH3SH, CH3’2S
Smelt Dissolving Tank H2S, CH3SH
Lime Kiln H2S, CH3SH
Table: 8-2

Generation of NCG in Fibrous Raw Materials used by Pulp & Paper Industry
NCG Digester Relief Digester Blow
Methyl Mercaptans (CH3SH) 0.2-15 ppm 15-1,500 ppm
Dimethyl Sulphide (CH3)2S 10-2,000 ppm 50-12,000 ppm
Methanol (CH3OH) 15-1,000 ppm 50-10,000 ppm
Table: 8-3

Generation of NCG in Pulp & Paper Industry

Sources Methyl Mercaptan (CH3SH) in ppm Dimethyl Sulphide(CH3)2S in ppm Methanol (CH3OH) in ppm
Digester Relief 500-3,000 100-8,000 ~ 1,000
Digester Blow 1,000-10,000 2,000-20,000 2,000-8,000
Evaporator Vent 2,000-45,000 1,000-50,000 2,000-25,000
Table: 8-4
 8.2 Study Carried Out in Daurala Sugar & Distillery Factory Odour Problem and
Sources of Emissions

Typical compounds generating odour in sugar industry are acetic acid, ethyl alcohol / butyl
alcohol, bacterial decomposition of organic matter (stale cane smell) & bacterial
decomposition of sulphur compounds (H2S).
Causes of odour are stale cane, bad mill sanitation, bacterial growth in the interconnecting
pipes & unattended drains etc.

Remedial Measures
 Better cane management to avoid staling of sugar
 Use of mill sanitation bio-cides to minimize the growth of aerobic / anaerobic micro–
organisms
 Steaming of major pipe lines
 Proper cleaning of drains
 Regular use of bleaching powder in the drains to avoid growth of sulphur
decomposing micro-organisms to control H2S generation.

Advantages:
 Odour reduction
 Better recovery
 Lower overall losses
 Preservation of juice purity from primary to mixed juices ultimately resulting in lower
losses
Result showing operational data of Daurala Sugar Factory
Crushing Season Pol(% Cane) Recovery Reduction Purity Drop (Primary Juice to Mixed Juice)
96-97 12.64 10.46 1.86
97-98 12.77 10.69 1.81
98-99 12.18 10.12 1.63
99-00 12.342 10.47 1.59
00-01 13.12 11.17 1.52
01-02 12.83 10.83 1.47
02-03 12.67 10.60 1.34
Table: 8-5

Distillery factories:

Odour Problem and Sources of Emissions

Typical odour compounds in distillery are alcohol, iso amyl & iso butyl alcohol (fossil oils),
acetic acid & H2S.
Causes of odour are bad management of fermentation house, long retention of fermented
wash, unattended drains & ETP (H2S from primary treatment of spent wash
ammonia from secondary biological treatment of spent wash & smell from bio-composting
plant).

Remedial Measures:
 Better housekeeping by regular steaming of all fermentation equipment
 Regular steaming of all fermentation equipment.
 Use of efficient biocides to control bacterial contamination.
  Control of temperature during fermentation to avoid in-activation / killing of yeast.
 Avoiding staling of fermented wash.
 Regular use of bleaching powder in the drains to avoid generation of putrefying
micro-organisms.

Advantages:
 Comparative reduction in odour
 Better fermentation efficiency
 Better recovery

Control of smell emitting from effluent treatment plant

Primary treatment (bio methanation)

 Selection of technology-monophasic / di-phasic

 Efficient operation of ETP.
 Preventive maintenance of gas lines & utilization systems

Secondary treatment (activated sludge process)

 Ammoniacal smell emitting from the process cannot be controlled since it is

associated with the process.

Separation & disposal of sludge

 To be done in most appropriate manner to avoid putrefied smell arising from

decomposed spent Yeast.

Comparison of different control methods:

Odour Control Method Suitable for inlet concentration Equipment cost Operating Cost
Absorption % Level Low Low
Adsorption ppm Medium Medium
Incineration ppm High High
Biological methods ppm Low Low
Table: 8-6

8.3 Case Study – Odour Control in Domestic Solid Waste Treatment Plant,
Chennai

A decentralized integrated bio-mechanization plant has been implemented near Koyambedu

Market in Chennai to utilize vegetable, fruit, flower wastes. The plant generates about 2000
m3 of biogas and 4 tons of bio-fertilizer from 30t of degradable wastes. The biogas is being
converted into electricity using biogas engine and connected to Tamil Nadu Electricity Board
power grid. For the first time odour control system with bio-filter is implemented with
contributions by Ministry of Non-Convention Energy Sources, Govt. of India and Chennai
Metropolitan Development Authority.
The main sources of odour are from waste storage yard, collection sump, sorting area and
incineration unit. The air from these areas is collected through pre-suction pipes and
connected to a blower. The inlet of the pipe is covered with anticorrosion mesh to avoid flies
and solid particle entry into the pipe leading to bio filter. A bio filter is developed using
wooden chips as media. Water is sprinkled occasionally to keep the media under wet
condition.
1.1 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1) Human perception or sense of smell is known as

a) Olfaction
b) Gustation
c) Somatosensation
d) None of the above

2) Odour nuisance is comparable to

a) Air pollution
b) Water pollution
c) Noise pollution
d) Soil pollution

3) Most odorous compounds are under normal atmospheric condition.

a) Solid
b) Liquid
c) Semi-solid
d) Gaseous

4) Rate of diffusion of a gas or vapour varies inversely to the square root of

a) Specific heat capacity

b) Kinetic energy
c) Density
d) Vapour pressure

5) Most offensive odour is produced by decomposition of wet organic

matter.

a) Aerobic
b) Anaerobic
c) Secondary
d) Catalytic

6) Stacks are classified as source.

a) Point
b) Area
c) Building
d) Fugitive

7) Water + Warm temperature + = Potentially bad odours.

a) Inorganic Salts
b) Inorganic acids
c) Organic matter
d) None of the above

8) Odour concentration is expressed in dilution to values.

a) Maximum
b) Minimum
c) Threshold
d) Standard

9) Psedo-unit of odour concentration is given as

a) mg/m3
b) ppm
c) ppb
d) o.u/m3

10) Odour index is related to Odour concentration as

a) Odour Index = 10*Odour Concentration

b) Odour Index = 10*Log (Odour Concentration)
c) Odour Index = 10/ Odour Concentration
d) Odour Index= 10(Odour Concentration/10)

11) Ambient air having no noticeable odour has odour index of

a) 1
b) 0
c) 10
d) 100

12) Chemical used as standard reference odorant is

a) 1-propanol
b) 1-butanol
c) Ethyl- mercaptan
d) Hydrogen Sulphide

13) Measure of pleasantness and unpleasantness of odour

a) Odour persistence
b) Hedonic tone
c) Odour character
d) Annoyance
14) Commonly used instrumental method for odour measurement is

a) GCMS
b) Chemical titration
c) NDIR
d) Chemiluminescence
15) Odour control equipment used for area sources

a) Incinerator
b) Scrubber
c) Rotary atomizer
d) Chemical treatment

16) It is an effect odour control technology in which odorous compounds are combusted
with/without fuel and air.

a) Catalytic oxidation
b) Waste burning
c) Incineration
d) Mist filtration

17) It is used as an adsorbing medium for odour control

a) Hydrogen peroxide
b) Activated carbon
c) Zeolite
d) Resin

18) Typical by product gas cleaning plants uses to clean and cool gases

a) Chemical
b) Baghouse
c) Wet scrubber
d) Bio-filter

19) Chemical used for odour control in gas streams is

a) Potassium chlorate
b) Sodium chloride
c) Phenol
d) Chlorine dioxide

20) is used as a substitute for ozone in ultraviolet application of

deodouration.

a) Calcium hypochlorite
b) Sodium hypochlorite
c) Calcium hydroxide
d) Neutrapol

1.2 SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1) Name two strong odour producing compounds.

2) Name two types of area odour sources.

3) Give mathematical expression of odour concentration.

4) List down the odour intensity scales.

5) Name the odour measurement methods.

6) Explain briefly the working of rotary atomizer.

7) Name any four odour control technology for point source.

8) State the reaction for odour control by chlorine dioxide for inorganic compound.